From Cosmos to the Paintbrushes and Hammers of Chinese Literati and Craftsmen ----- Reconsider the Rockery Art in Chinese Classical Gardens
Ya Liu 130148748 April 2016
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畫見其大象而不爲斬刻之形， 則雲気之態度活矣。
CONTENT Abstract
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Introduction
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Limitation
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Methodology
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Literature Review Chapter One: On Presupposition of Chinese Cosmological, Philosophical and Spatial Imagery
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1.1 Reflecting on Philosophy Background and Cosmological Setting of Chinese Garden --Sacred landscape, Shan-Shui 1.2 Cavern-heaven in the mountains, the earliest utopia and the spirit stone (Guai Shi)
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Chapter Two: Rock and Rockery Work in Chinese Gardens —- in the Vision of Chinese Literati and rock craftsmen
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2.1 From the spectacle of Chinese scholars 2.2 From the skilful hands of craftsmen 2.3 Division and Connection between the Two Groups
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28 36 42
Conclusion
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Appendix and Notes
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Bibliography
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List of Illustrations
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Abstract The research of Chinese classical garden is an abundant topic with its profound significance in architecture, space and landscape probes; it is also the reflection of the spiritual world and social status of China and its people at a certain historical time. The petrophilia (fetishism and addiction of special stones) since Tang Dynasty has set an aesthetic foundation of rockery work(piling up natural stone into ‘fake mountains’) in Chinese gardens. This dissertation will focus on the topic of the stone affection and rockery art in Chinese Classical garden placing under a background of Chinese cosmology and philosophy. The importance of the two different groups of creators in this discourse, namely the literati and the artisan will be highlighted by using the examples of written and built work. The writing will provide an insight into the interactive relationship between two groups as well as the traditional Chinese concept of organic naturalism which is threatened by values of the rationality of modernisation and urbanism in status quo.
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Fig. 1
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Fig. 2
7 Fig.3. Dissertation Structure Mapping
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Introduction: The traditional Chinese architectural language is of distinguished features and rich connotations in cultures and ethos. However, the recent urbanisation as well as the strong impact of Western culture and modernization have threatened to swamp this traditional system and set of architectural languages in contemporary Chinese built environment (see figure 4). When talking about the language of Chinese architecture, it is important to understand the way in which Chinese people deal with the epistemological relationship between human and nature as well as languages of describing their existing world. Because such settings have decided the way Chinese people perceive the world and express the unique understanding. In Chinese traditional culture, with the profound importance of Taoism, it is crucial to regard human and nature to be a harmonious unity. 1 This philosophical premise has bred different cultural products and artefacts such as Shan-Shui painting as well as classical gardens. Shan-Shui, meaning mountains and water, is a traditional Chinese painting style (see figure 5), which reflects Chinese rooted philosophical interest in nature. In addition, its motifs are essentially related to Taoism. This way of epistemology can be observed in Wang Shu’s works. He is the Chinese Architect and Pritzker prize winner, regarding Shan-Shui as a dynamic and poetic system in which Chinese people built their cosmology, social ethics, ethos as well as humanity, which directly reflects a particular naturalism in traditional China. It is not difficult at all to trace a constant willingness of going back to nature and having an acadian life throughout the history, 2yet the unavoidable urbanisation and growth of population made this wish seemed rather ideal. Hence, people have started to build the garden to imagine a life within nature. Being the miniature form of the Shan-Shui(mountain and water, nature), the Chinese classical garden (see figure 6) is regarded as a reflection of its owners’ and builders’ inner minds of interpreting a relationship with nature. According to Tong Jun, who wrote the ‘Gazetteer of Jiangnan Garden’, the fundamental elements of making a garden are: planting and water, Architecture and stone or rockery piling. While planting and water can be regard as part of the nature, architecture is purely manmade. Therefore, the role of stone piling is of huge significance since it is mediating between natural and manmade.3 1 Yi Wang, Yuan Lin Yu Zhongguo Wen Hua (Shanghai: Shanghai ren min chu ban she, 1990). p259 2 The peach colony, Written by Tao Yuanming 3 Jun Tong, Jiang Nan Yuan Lin Zhi (Beijing: Zhongguo jian zhu gong ye chu ban she, 1984).
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Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 7
Fig. 6 Chinese Garden
10 In this dissertation I have chosen to mainly focus on the topic of stone, rockery and the petrophilia (the fetishism and addiction of special stones,see figure 7). 4Being a geological object, the stone does not have any meaning other than its original essence of objectivity. However, in different cultures, it manifests different significance and connotations. The spirit stone in China can therefore be considered as a sign, in which social convention played a significant role in its meaning (the signified).5 By placing the meaning and perception of the spirit stone into the context, one may provide a scope into the ancient Chinese society. 6 This dissertation is aiming to first look at the cosmological presupposition as well as philosophical background of Chinese culture, and then discuss the space imagery derived from them which impacts Chinese garden design and rockery. The second part of the writing will be focusing on how literati and scholars played their roles in setting up the whole system of appreciating spirit stones. Literature works and painting skills will be used as evidences. In addition, it will talk about how craftsmen practically apply the knowledge and complete the built work combing with examples from two gardens: namely the Lingering Garden and the Garden of Cultivation. The relationship of these two creative groups and the gap and interactions in and between their understandings of this topic will be discussed in the end
4 Xiaoshan Yang, Metamorphosis Of The Private Sphere (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2003). P91 5 Semiotics notions discussed by Ferdinand de Saussure 6 Stephen Little, Spirit Stones Of China = (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, in association with University of California Press, 1999).
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Limitations Although multiple reseaching approaches were conducted with the aim to have thorough understanding of the topic, there are limitations which the author realised in the process of researching: 1.The discussion about the craftsmen might be lack of evidence due to the fact that only minority of them were recorded in historical archives. 2. It was mentioned several times that the classical gardens can be interpreted as the expression of understanding Shan-Shui, while the relationship between Shan(mountain) and Shui(water) is like the binary opposition of Ying Yang—— absolutely inseparable. Same applies to mountains and water in the garden. This piece of writing only touched on the topic of mountains and rocks but did not have space to talk about the significant water culture.
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Research Methodology: This section aims to explain the methodology used in order to justify the arguments. Archive research and hermeneutic approach are applied in the first chapter with the goal of understanding the historical background and cosmological connotations, before concluding that the Chinese gardens are largely influenced by Taosim motifs and ideas through visual outputs and literature researches. Additionally, Comparative method is also helped to demonstrate differences of understanding and epistemology between a western and eastern notion of ‘landscape’ with the aim to place the research in an appropriate context. In the second chapter, firstly, a hypothesis is brought up which assumes that the craftsmen’s work was influenced by literati. Through literature research, hermeneutic approach unearthing historical artefacts as well as fieldwork that was conducted in two gardens of Suzhou prefecture, namely the Lingering Garden and the Garden of Cultivation (offering more up-to-date examples), the hypothetical argument was critically proved and meanwhile posting an organic relationship between the two.
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Fig. 8 Fan Kuna, Travel In Xi Mountain
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Literature Review Western writing and research Western scholars had interests in Chinese Classical Gardens long before, which enabled the author to find sufficient amount of written material in English. While some of them critically put forward different perspectives or comparable analyses of Eastern and Western researchers on this topic, others may be biased due to a limitation of Chinese cultural background to understand certain things that will restrict their understandings or even misunderstand merely from an apparent phenomenon. First published in 1978, ‘The Chinese Garden’ written by the Shanghai and Hong Kong raised Maggie Keswick bring this topic of Chinese garden into a western academic world in the very early time. The French philosopher François Jullien has written a chapter ‘the spirit of a landscape’ in his book ‘Du Non-objet Par la Peinture’ (The great image has no form), in which he discussed the different in a Chinese viewpoint of landscape comparing to western landscape.Craig Clunas is an expertise in Ming Dynasty Gardens; he discussed the ‘nature and ideology in Western descriptions of the Chinese garden’. Taoism In order to understand the Chinese cosmological and philosophical background, we must examine the significance of Taoism influence. The volume two of ‘Science and Civilization in China’ by Joseph Needham provided a thorough introduction to Chinese ancient cosmology and Taoism. The American scholar Stephen Little published the book ‘Taoism and the arts of China’ which place many of the Chinese art (including rocks) in the context of Taoism. Ancient chiwritings and manuscript The theme of Chinese garden appears in many Chinese ancient writings, while some placed the topic in a
Fig. 9. Yunlin Catalogue
Fig. 10. Yunlin Catalogue
15 context of leisure life, others investigated into it on a research basis. Written by Ji Cheng in 1631 (Ming Dynasty), ‘The Craft of Garden’ was a systematic manual on gardens. It not only talked about the site choosing and overall planning, but also provided details about approaches of rock piling and paving. It was written by a craft master with a high literal standard, while offering technical guide throughout. A limitation of this written work might be neglecting the importance of water in Chinese gardens. ‘Pleasant Diversions’ written by Qing Dynasty literari Li Yu has included all aspects of leisure living in ancient China, in which plenty of writings about gardens and rockery and be found. Tong Jun’s book ‘Gazetteer of Jiangnan Garden’ offers information relating to the gardens lo cates in Jiangnan (Meaning the south of Yangze River). Recent work A more recent reflection and context of this topic can be found in Chinese academic world. Some articles published in an academic magazine such as ‘ARCADIA’ edited by Wang Xin.‘The scene of Shan-Shui’ (Shan Shui Zhi Jing) included new writings on Chinese gardens from both eastern and western scholars. Yang Xiaoshan offers an insight into scholars interests in stone which reflected in ancient poems in ‘Metamorphosis of the Private Sphere, Gardens and Objects in Tang-Song Poetry’. Stones/ Guai Shi/Spirit stones/Tai Hu Rock In this stone fetishism culture, most of the stones are regarded as wired, odd or uncanny. Stephen Little had a published work named ‘Spirit stones of China, the Ian and Susan Wilson collection of Chinese stones, paintings, and related scholars’ objects,’ in which he defined this kind of strangely shaped stone as ‘spirit stone’, with considering its spiritual meaning. It can be argued that The Tang Dynasty poet and literati Bai Juyi had first brought up this trend of spirit stone appreciating.There are historical documents that had a detailed record of various kinds of stone you may source and make into fake mountains. Catalogues such as Yunlin Stone Spectrum(Du Wan’s Stone Compendium of Cloudy Forest 1127-1132), Suyuan Stone Catalogue and Xuanhe Stone Catalogue not only record the different kinds of stone you could find in ancient China but rather provide a standard aesthetic system of appreciating a rock. However, it is suggested that most of the researches (especially western) on the stones in Chinese garden have the tendency to overlook the importance of practical crafting; they may be more focusing on arty and spiritual aspects of the gardens as well as the rockeries instead of how to actually build them. In the contemporary research, ‘Stone Piling Technique in Chinese Imperial Garden’(Huang Jia Yuan Lin Die Shan Yu Ji Fa, 2011) by Jin Tao Wang offers sufficient amounts of details in the sourcing, construction process as well as techniques.
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Chapter One On Presupposition of Chinese Cosmological, Philosophical and Spatial Imagery To see a World in a Grain of Sand And a Heaven in a Wild Flower Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand And Eternity in an hour. ----- Auguries of Innocence By William Blake7 Written by the English poet William Blake, this excerpt of a poem probes into the theme of the alteration of one’s scope: to see something great from small matters. Based on different cosmological and philosophical understandings, people may see different subject matters as their reflection of the world. A typical example of the way Chinese people concentrate on their rich thinking of the world is the Chinese gardens. In this light, writings about themes in Chinese garden involves an understanding of the Chinese cosmological background.
7 William Blake and Geoffrey Keynes, Songs Of Innocence And Of Experience (New York: Orion Press, 1967).
18 1.1 Reflecting on Philosophy Background and Cosmological Setting of Chinese Garden --- Sacred landscape, Shan-Shui Dating back to the agriculture civilization in ancient China, with the pressure of a large population, people’s living condition largely relies on the natural and climate condition for agricultural productivity. This leads to the worship of nature and unknown universe. During that time, people would revere corn and food as gifts from heaven. With the respect of natural forces, the tradition of seeing the relationship between human and nature as a harmonious unity can be found in the most principal thinking in Taoism, which is of primary importance in Chinese social and political history.8 Taoism suggests the way that human and nature live together is aiming to pursue a harmonious balance. This idealistic vision of human-nature relationship is also suggesting an ideology of viewing the universe not as a unipolar subject that centralizes the position of human of nature only. In the Taoist vision of cosmogenesis, there was first the Tao, empty and still. Taoism views cosmology began with Tao, static and vacant, and then comes the generation of Qi (primal energy). Comlemetry forces, namely Ying and Yang then come into being. ‘The creative interaction of these forces directed the primal energy into patterns of movement and transformation, which in turn generated the machinations of the universe.’9 In Tao Te Jing, Chapter Forty-two, Lao Tsu suggested: ‘Tao gives birth to one. One gives birth to two. Two gives birth to three. Three gives birth to all things and all beings. All beings bear the negative physical form which is represented by Ying, and embrace the positive true nature which is represented by Yang. With the union of these two, they arrive at a state of harmony. Men dislike to be “the solitude,” “the unworthy,” and “the virtueless,” Yet the Lords and nobles call themselves these names. Hence, things are benefited by being humble, and damaged by profiting. What the ancients had taught , I shall also teach as such: A man of violence who is in disharmony between Ying and Yang that is the physical body and true self, shall die of an unnatural death. This is the essential of my teaching.’10 8 David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames, “The Cosmological Setting Of Chinese Gardens”, Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes, 18 (1998), 175-186 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14601176.1998.10435545>. 9 Stephen Little and Shawn Eichman, Taoism And The Arts Of China. p14 10 Laozi. and D. C Lau, Tao Te Ching ([Baltimore]: Penguin Books, 1963).
19 In this quote, one would be ‘Tao’, two represents the ‘heaven and earth’ or ‘Ying and Yang’ and three would be representing the combination of ‘Heaven, Earth and People’, and then appears everything. With the idea of everything sharing the same origin ‘Qi’ and the harmonious balance between human and nature, Taoism’s most influential philosopher Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu bring up the concept of ‘Tian Ren He Yi’, which means the unity of man and universe.11 This concept of unity regards the natural landscape as sacred and may reflect an inherently divine structure of both the cosmos and the inner human body (i.e. macrocosm and microcosm). The divine correspondence between the outer terrestrial and inner landscape of the human body is a fundamental aspect of Taoist technique of visualization and inner Alchemy.’12 A difference in ideology of nature occurred in Eastern and Western culture as the technology and civilization developed. While oriental culture shows the tendency of respecting and obeying nature, the western trend is to conquer the nature and to view it separately from the civilized world. In Architecture and the city, Rossi argued that the difference between Western and Eastern cities is mainly the way in which cities separates itself from the ‘other’.13Here, the ‘other’ may refer to nature, peripheral area around the city or other territories. It was suggested that the Greek city was formed according to the development from inner part and expand outward with temples and housing. Not until the city needs a defensive system that the walls were built and becoming one of the elements of the polis. 14In Rossi’s view, contrastingly, the Orient cities were defined by the city walls from the very beginning and therefore enclose the city from nature. In the light, he suggests that with this comparison, the Greek city was more of a place originated from the relationship with nature rather than sovereign power. 15 Regardless of this western point of view towards Orient inner-facing city, the argument about the relationship between city and nature brings up an interesting point, although the notion of ‘nature’ here is relatively different with the notion of ‘nature’ in ancient China. It is the profound affection of nature embodied in the Chinese culture that makes the augment about the wall separating city and nature self-contrasting.
11 Yi Wang, Yuan Lin Yu Zhongguo Wen Hua. p260-271 12 Stephen Little and Shawn Eichman, Taoism And The Arts Of China (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2000). 13 Aldo Rossi and Peter Eisenman, The Architecture Of The City (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982). p134 14 Ibid. 15 Rossi and Eiseman, The Architecture Of The City, p62
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1.1 Reflecting on Philosophy Background and Cosmological Setting of Chinese Garden --- Sacred landscape, Shan-shui The different ideas toward nature may therefore lead to a different aesthetic interest of representing nature. In Western culture, since the time of Renaissance, the notion of landscape was formed and hardly changed afterwards. Landscape is emphasised to be a part of the land, and is always related to people’s view point and sight.16 The concept of landscape being a partial land and framed view apparently contrasts with the ‘landscape’ in Chinese culture, where ‘landscape’ is represented by the word ‘Shan-Shui’, meaning mountains and water. 17 While Western landscape painting depicts the nature in a figurative way, the Shan-Shui painting is representing the landscape based on an abstract discipline. It can be argued that western landscape painting is trying to separate the object from one’s subjectivity, contrastingly Chinese Shan-shui painting in trying to highlight the unity of human and nature, a combination of subjectivity and objectivity(see figure 12.). The word ‘Shan-Shui’ (mountain and water) also suggested a way of viewing the universe in a binary way, in which it can be represented by many bipolar combinations, such as tall and short, vertical and horizontal, solid and transparent and still and moving (see figure X). The concept of Ying and Yang is rather important; their relationships are co-existence and relying on as well as contrasting with each other. More significantly, Ying and Yang originally obtained their meaning from the shady side and the sunny side of the mountain. 18 Applying this concept to gardens, in Shen Fu’s Six Records of Floating life, he applied some comparison for the laying out and appreciating of a garden: In laying out gardens, pavilions, wandering paths, small mountains of stone, and flower plantings, try to give the feeling of the small in the large, of the real in the illusion, and of the illusion in the reality. Some should be hidden and some should be obvious, some prominent and some vague. Arranging a proper garden is not just a matter of setting out winding paths in a broad area with many rocks; thinking that it only a waste of time and energy.19 16 François Jullien, Das Grosse Bild Hat Keine Form (Paderborn: Fink, 2005). 17 Yutang Lin, The Chinese Theory Of Art (New York: Putnam Sons, 1967). On Mountain and Water 18 Stephen Little and Shawn Eichman, Taoism And The Arts Of China. 19 Fu Shen, Leonard Pratt and Suhui Jiang, Six Records Of A Floating Life . p6o
21 In the quote, Shen Fu talked about the small in the large and the real in illusion, which concludes the Chinese garden in a simple way: to replicate the ‘nature’ or ‘Shan-Shui’ and scale down into a garden. This scaling down of the true nature is matching with the idea that to experience a classical garden perfectly one might easily lose the sense of scale. By playing with the scale, the owner and builder of the garden want to create the illusion that one may be living in nature, or in a more poetic way, living within the mountains and water. From the unity of ‘Heaven, Earth and Human’ and the theory of Ying Yang, we see some background philosophy of the Gardens being somewhere that people communicate with the ‘Heaven and Earth’ in their inner world and somewhere people may travel far beyond the imagination without much physical movement. Gardens are after all the reflection of people’s imagined universe, the expression of one’s or a group’s cosmology.
Fig. 12. Fu Chun Shan Ju (Partial)
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1.2 Cavern-heaven in the mountains, the earliest utopia and the spirit stone (Guai Shi) Among all the worships of natural elements, the worship of mountains might be one of the most influential ones. The overwhelming form of mountains always creates an irresistible majesty. Because of a height of the mountain, people regard them as the only way to have communication with the ‘heaven’ in Chinese myths and legends. Fundamental to religious Taoism is the concept of the sacred peak as a numinous pivot connecting heaven and earth. The mountains are therefore regarded to have divine power. One of the earliest texts of religious Taoism, the Scripture of Great Peace (Taiping jing), teaches a profound respect for the Earth as a living body. This concept of the Earth as a sacred body is often given visual expression in Chinese painting. The earliest Chinese texts have discussed the theory and practice of landscape painting, for example, emphasize the importance of the artist capturing and conveying the dynamic movement of vital energy (qi) that defines and animates the dynamic forms of the earth. The concept of the Earth as a sacred body is explored here on several levels. First is the concept of the sacred mountain. Mountains are revered throughout Taoist history as places where to adapt, meditate, pursue alchemy, and encounter immortals and gods. In mountains, they can be found numerous carven-heavens (dong tian ) and mysterious grottoes that are actually gateways to the spiritual world. The xian (adepts or immortals) were conceived of as perfected beings that had transcended yin and yang and achieved union with the Tao through self-cultivation.One mediated and purified oneself on mountains and found caverns that were gates to paradise. This motif of cavern and cave can be also found in Chinese earliest utopian text ‘The Peach Colony’ by Tao Yuanming: …. ‘He went further to explore, and when he came to the end of the grove, he saw a spring which came from a cave in the hill. Having noticed that there seemed to be a weak light in the cave, he tied up hisboat and decided to go in and explore. At first, the opening was very narrow, barely wide enough for one person to go in. After a dozen steps, it opened into a flood of light. He saw before his eyes a wide, level valley, with houses and fields and farms. There were bamboos and mulberries; farmers were working and dogs and chickens were running about. The dresses of the men and women were like those of the outside world, and the old men and children appeared very happy and contented…..’20 Based on this one may argue that the traditional ideal imagined living space in ancient China is large20 Qian Tao and Shilin Tan, Complete Works Of Tao Yuanming ([Taipei]: Shu lin, 1993). [translated by Lin Yutang]
23 ly related to the cavern-paradises (Dongtian). In addition, it can be argued that this fantasy of having cavern paradise on the mountain is to some extent evident in the form the most of the spirit stone in the Chinese garden. In fact, there is always clear evidence of the emphasis on the inseparable relationship between stones and mountains. Especially seeing the rock as a component came from the mountain. In fact, it can be dated back to the origin and transformation of the Chinese character of the mountain (山) and stone (石). The historical development of the two Chinese characters: mountain (山) and rock (石):
Mountain: Oracle: Over the horizon there are three peaks raised, the silhouette of the moun tains, and the simplified version of the former one, from the Clerical script (隶书), the pictographic character is nearly lost, but the trace of three peaks is self-evident. Fig. 13
Rocks: Oracle: A rock lying under the cliff, representing the rock is from the mountain.
Fig. 14
24 The most appreciated and widely known rock which being used in the Chinese gardens is called ‘Tai Hu’ rock, also named ‘Dong Ting ’rock. 21It is suggested that the Dongting rock, rather than having its name representing its sourcing location is, in fact, depicting the perforated form of this kind of rock. This might partly answer the question of the standard of a piece of priceless rock. Ancient scholar’s standardized criterion for a piece of priceless rockery was condensed in a least four characteristics: perforation, pervasion, lank and rugosity.22 (see figure 15.) Four Standards of Appreciating Stones
Perforation
Lank
Mi Fu
Pervasion
Rugosity
Fig. 15
Owing to this worship of mountains and nature, people naturally start to use all kinds of form and method to mimic and replicate the form of mountains, to represent some power that people on the earth cannot reach. In China, along with the fond of rocks, people started to make gardens with piled rocks to represent ‘genuine’ nature. 21 Wang Xin, ACARDIA, Tongji University Press. P19 22 Jun Tong, Dong Nan Yuan Shu, 1927-1997 = (Beijing: Zhongguo jian zhu gong ye chu ban she, 1997).
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Li Yu regards this technique of crafting the artificial mountain as a highly skilled craft in Pleasant Diversions: on mountain and stone :
‘To make an artificial mountain by piling the rocks in a quiet dwelling is the solution of last resort. When tnot being able to stay in landscape, people can only represent them by the ‘fake’ mountain and water, ‘Reel as hill, Spoon as water’. However, the ability to transform the city in to a mountain forest and put the mountains right on the plain is apparently incredible. It should not be look down upon.’1
Yu Li, Jurong Jiang and Shourong Lu, Xian Qing Ou Ji .[Pleasant Division, translated by author]
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Fig. 16.
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Chapter Two Rock and Rockery Work in Chinese Gardens —- in the Vision of Chinese Literati and rock craftsmen
The ingenious thoughts and overall planning of stone piling show a unique understanding of sectional relationship and space imagery in Chinese tradition. In addition, there is a complete set of values and standards of a good stone (arguably since Tang Dynasty). Different groups of people played various kinds of roles in the history of appreciating the strangely shaped stone as well as to build them into the ‘fake mountains’. In ancient China, creators are generally divided into two groups, namely literati and artisan. 23The social status of literati is always higher than the artisan due to the talent selecting system in which people become officials and working in government by succeeding in the writing exam. Therefore, people who write and paint are always having the better fame and prestige than people who do other works including builders and gardeners. Nevertheless, the art of stone piling will never be developed in such a complete way without either group of people. This section is aiming to look into the topic of rockery in Chinese garden by incorporating the position and contribution of the two groups, namely the literati (scholars) and the artisan (rock craftsmen). Literature and built work will be introduced as examples before the interesting relationship between these two groups of people will be examined in the end.
23 Qiqian Zhu and others, Zhe Jiang Lu (Beijing: Zhongguo jian zhu gong ye chu ban she, 2005). (a Catalogue of thoughtful builders)
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2.1 From the spectacle of Chinese scholars The aforementioned motif of cavern-heaven as well as a stone being the solid form of the primal energy (Qi) can be found in one of the earliest poem about Tai Hu rock: ‘Double Stone’. Dark sallow, two slates of rocks, Shaped in an odd and ugly way. Of a vulgar use they are incapable; Detested and abandoned by people. In the beginning of universe it was formed, From the entrance of caverns it was sourced. For tens and thousands of year they were left here alone, Now they finally end up in my hand. 24 It can be argued that from then on, the spirit rocks, with their parameters of beauty set by many of the poets and scholars, have become extremely popular in Chinese history. Stone, being one of the natural objects among nature is without any particular meaning other than its objectivity. In the former session it was discussed that the fond of stone and rock is derived from Chinese cosmological and philosophical background. However, before Bai Juyi, the majority of the poems which appreciate rocks as a general topic talks about its spirits of strong and endurance, its good virtue of hermit. It was only after Bai, people has started to connect themselves’ subjectivity with the rocks, with the ability to appreciate this special kind of rocks.25 In the poem of ‘The Double Stone’, there can be seen a rather subjective understanding of the stones and a close connection built between the poet and the stones. In fact, since then most of the stones that were regarded as priceless or extremely beautiful can be conceived as having abnormal shapes. They normally formed in an unusual way that the appearance may challenge the universal imagery of a stone. 24 The Complete Poetry of Tang Dynasty, Vol. 444 Sun tong hai, Wang hai yan and Quan tang shi 1., Quan Tang Shi (Bei jing: zhong hua shu ju, 2005). 25 Xiaoshan Yang, Metamorphosis Of The Private Sphere. P102
29 In Du Wan’s stone catalogue, he described the Lake Tai rock as ‘hard and glossy’, of ‘hollow concaves’, ‘pierced holes’ as well as ‘intertwining twist’. 26He also suggested ‘The proper use of these rocks is to set them up in front of a verandah or deck, to build artificial mountains with them, or to line them up among the tall trees in the garden. …. Occasionally, there are some that are small and delicate enough to be put on stands.’ In his catalogue, the hard process(a dangerous, even life-risking work) of hauling the Lake Tai Rock was described as well.27 In Xiaoshan Yang’s article ‘Petrophilia and Its Anxiety: The Lake Tai Rock In Tang-Song Poetry’, He talked about the fetishism of the special stone (Tai Hu Rock was the most typical example) marking the transformation of the stone from something to appreciate privately to a heated fashion which gradually influenced the realm of public resource.28 To judge whether something is beautiful or not is never simply based on its aesthetic value, in fact, social conventionally and politically ideological influences sometimes manipulate the judgement. In the first play of Macbeth, Shakespeare wrote: ‘To the Weird Sisters what is ugly is beautiful, and what is beautiful is ugly: “Fair is foul and foul is fair.”29 A similar theory of aesthetic standard was also brought up by Hegel that the boundary between beautiful and ugly is never a clear one.30 Therefore, the stones here are symbolized as a sign, in which people will obtain their special identity and intelligibility by agreeing and appreciating this standard of aesthetic of rocks. Inclusion and exclusion are formed in relation to the ability to appreciate the spirit stones. But what kind of inclusion and exclusion are the literati trying to promote? It can be arguably supposed that the literati would express their wish of acadian life which described in the utopian piece ‘The Peach Colony’. 31 Because social inequality, political disappointment and the fierce competition have made the life of some literati struggled. Also by appreciating vulgarly useless object, they impose a lifestyle of leisure and calm. In this light, they imagined themselves being in Shan-Shui, away from the pressure of society. 26 Wan Du, Jiuding Zhu and Zhao Gao, Yun Lin Shi Pu (Beijing: Zhonghua shu ju, 1985). 27 Ibid 28 Xin Wu and others, Shan Shui Zhi Jing. p131 29 William Shakespeare, The Tragedy Of Macbeth (Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg). 1st play 30 William Maker, Hegel And Aesthetics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000). 31 Work Of Tao Yuanming
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Fig. 17.
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Fig. 18.
32 Back to the poem of ‘The Double Rock’, the interesting point made by Bai Yuyi was the displacement of the stone, i.e., moving it from the natural environment to a manmade garden within the town. The idea of the ‘urban mountain forest’ or ‘urban forest’ brought up by Mi Fu celebrates the wish to live within nature but not leaving urban context.32 One of the worth-mentioning historical contexts is the concept of ‘Middle Hermit’ brought up by the Tang Dynasty Poet Bai Juyi. The guidance ideology for such a life was the notion of ‘hermitage in officialdom’ (liyin), a term that seems to have originated in the late seventh or early eighth century to refer to the achievement of a detached state of mind while filling an official post and enjoying all the benefits that came with it. There is a well-known saying that suggests two circumstances of living: 小隐隐于野， 大隐隐于市.
The petty hermits hide in the hill and marshes; The great hermits hide in the court and mark etplace.33
However, instead of contrasting the petty hermits and the great hermits, Bai Juyi chose to pick the middle point and he made the statement by this poem: 32 Richard M Barnhart, Three Thousand Years Of Chinese Painting (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). P373 33 Xiaoshan Yang, Metamorphosis Of The Private Sphere. p37
33 The Middling Hermit Great hermits reside in the capital; Petty hermits go into the mountains. In the mountains it is too desolate; In the capital it is too boisterous. It would be better to be a middling hermit: Hiding in the Regency in the Eastern Capital. As if in office, as if in seclusion, Neither busy nor idle. You donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t exert your mind or body; Yet you are spared hunger and cold. There is no official business all year round, Yet there is salary every single month. If you are fond of climbing, There is Autumn Mountain south of the city; If you like wandering around. There is Spring Park east of the city; If you want to get drunk, You can frequent banquets; In Luoyang there are many gentlemen, With whom you can chat freely; If you want to sleep on thick pillows, Just shut yourself deep inside your adobe; Then there will be no guests in the carriages Showing up at your front gate unexpectedly. In this world there is only one life to live, And it is difficult to have it both ways. Humble, and you suffer from cold and hunger; Noble, and you are full of worry and fear. It is only this middling hermit Who can live in both prosperity and peace. Frustration and success, abundance and scarcity: He lives right in between those four.34 34 Metamorphosis Of The Private Sphere. p39 [translated by Xiaoshan Yang, ]
34 In this light we may regard the garden as something resembles ‘Middle Hermit City’, an intermediation between the nature and city. It has also become a significant concept and focal point of the forming of Chinese cities. This ideology has made the trend of having the mountain scaled down as rocks and put into garden logical. (see figure X) Insightful understanding of mountains and rocks can also be found in the skills of Chinese Shan-shui paintings. For example, the drawing technique called ‘cun’(皴).35 This technique incorporates a variety of special brushstrokes to make texture and surface to represent mountains. 36Since mountains are indeed complicated to represent due to its ever-changing look according to light, different seasons as well as location. This set of skills, with the aim to mimic the different appearances of mountains by controlling both the humidity and size of the brushstroke, can also be applied to stones and rocks. For example:
Linear Cun
Fu Pi Cun: Make the shape looks like it was just hacked by an axe.
Fu Pi Cun: Make the shape looks like it was just hacked by an axe.
Fig. 19.
35 Yutang Lin,trans, The Chinese Theory Of Art, Lin Quan Gao Zhi Ji, Guo Xi 36 Zongqian Shen and Hui Zhang, Shan Shui Hua Lun (Xi’an: Shanxi ren min mei shu chu ban she, 1983). (on theory of Shanshui paintings)
35 Fig. 20
Furry Cun
Rain drop Cun
Rice Cun
Cloud-like Cun
Pi Ma Cun: Make the texture layer by layer, just as layering thread on top.
36
2.2 From the skilful hands of craftsmen Although Shan-Shui painting and rock piling can both be regarded as ways to represent and reflect the natural landscape, there are significant differences between them in terms of the crafting technique and practical difficulties. The two different arts may have the same origin in terms of their aesthetic systems and philosophical backgrounds. However, it is after all very complicated to apply a 2D technique onto a 3D scenario. People like Li Yu had already made a clear point in Pleasant Diversions: on Mountains and Stones: ‘Many knowledgeable and skillful scholars have rich imagination and may produce a landscape painting within minutes. However, if you want them to do some real rockery near their house, they will probably end up having no idea at all, just like asking the direction to a blind person. Therefore, those craftsmen who are good at rockery and stone pilling are not necessarily the ones who can write poems and make paintings. But it seems like even if they randomly picked a rock and simply place them on the ground, a picturesque landscape is suddenly formed. This is the mysteriousness of the universe as well.’ Doing rockery and stone piling may not be something that the intellectuals’ and academics’ speciality, but it is those craftsmen’s mastery that makes it happen. This uncanny workmanship can also be divided into skilful and clumsy, or elegant and vulgar. This difference is based on the client’s tastes and choices. If the client has good taste and is aiming to pursue a high standard, the rockery produced will be intricate and elegant. However, the work will be rather clumsy and funny if the client’s taste is vulgar and awkward. Some people spend huge amounts of money to build a fake mountain, but the work turns out to be not like a mountain nor rock either. This is also controlled by god, by representing the clients’ true image through these rockeries. If placed at the right position, even a pot of flower or a piece of stone can express the spirit of its owner. In this light, who would need to meet the actual person to judge his or her personality?37 Just as the short article suggested, this should be a valued technique that cannot be look down upon. It is indeed very difficult to stack the stones together, even if it has a complicated natural form, the quality of rockery is largely depended on the crafting ability to put the stones together. Therefore, in the garden, the 37 Yu Li, Jurong Jiang and Shourong Lu, Xian Qing Ou Ji. [Pleasant Division, translated by author]
37 rockery works as well as the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;fake mountainsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; can be seen as a half-natural and half-artificial thing. Before the Ming and Qing Dynasty, most of the rock craftsmen that were historically archived were either scholars or builders with rockery skills. 38Scholars tend to investigate spirit of Shan-shui and nature and apply the literal knowledge to garden design. It is suggested the majority of the craftsmen who actually pile the stones were absent from the historical records. 39 In Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, the art of Chinese garden and rockery was at its peak. People such as Ji Cheng and Zhang Nanyuan became prestigious. It is also quite difficult to put them either in the group of literati of artisan, since they both have the background of arty and painting. However, it might be more sensible to regard them as craft masters of the rockery. 38 Qiqian Zhu and others, Zhe Jiang Lu (a Catalogue of thoughtful builders) 39 Ibid.
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
38 ‘The Craft of Garden’ written by Ji Cheng might be the first written manual on Chinese gardening. It offers insight into the Chinese Garden from basic plantings to complicated rockery works.The section drawing below shows a basic understanding of setting up the foundation of a ‘fake mountain’. More significantly, A sufficient amount of evidence of referring to Shan-shui painting can be found in Ji Cheng’s writing. for example: Start by piling up large, solid rocks, and then gradually build up with smaller, jagged stones to create the texture just like the painting skill: Cun. So-called ‘thin’ and ‘riddled’ rocks are naturally impressive, while ‘filigree’ rocks depend on being artistically positioned.40 Here, the traditional Shan-Shui painting technique (Cun) is regarded as guidance to make the texture. It might also be argued that the craftsmen accept the value and standard of scholars (poets and painters), and with the awareness of a whole set of values, they apply them to the practical stone piling. In the section ‘Selection of Stones’, there can be traced an even clearer tendency to value the Lake Tai Rock, which was apparently affected by the standard the scholars. The aforementioned four principle standards of a priceless stone, especially the one about perforated are also regard as aesthetic criterion: Of the rocks from the edge of the water beside Dongting Hill in Suzhou Prefecture, the best are those from Xiaoxia Bay. They are naturally firm and glossy, and contain in them such shapes as ‘deep hollows,’41 He has even written in a rather straightforward way indicating the demand to follow painting masters: The designer should follow the natural cracks in the stone, imitating the brushwork of the old masters’.42 In fact, the drawing technique did influence the way of rock piling significantly. When walking into most of the gardens in Suzhou and looking at one of the ‘fake mountain’, it is not at all difficult to find the trace of Shan-Shui painting reference. 40 Cheng Ji and others, The Craft Of Gardens (translared). p104-117 41 Ibid. p112 42 Ibid. p106
39 Built by 1541, the Garden of Cultivation is regarded as one of the best examples of a Ming Dynasty Garden located in Suzhou. Following examples are trying to relate the built work of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;fake mountainsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in the Garden of Cultivation to the traditional Shan-Shui painting and its techniques.
Fig. 23
40 Notwithstanding his reference to Shan-Shui painting and literati’s writing, Ji Cheng brought up many insightful viewpoints on the topic. For example, rather than having the obsession to look for certain pieces of the special stones which were celebrated most by the scholars, he proposed to source locally and aim for a natural massing: ‘Before building up the mountains, foothills should be there in order to let the structure grow naturally and organically. Soil may be thrown up crosswise to form a ridge so that the online does entirely depend on the intriguing shaping of individual rocks.’43 In addition, he thinks that the best rockery was not just pursuing the trendy strange form, but focusing on the overall planning and special details. He is also a supporter of respecting site and context, having different strategies according to various situations.44 Since Ji Cheng, artisan works as stone crafters were more and more recorded in the history. The identity of this group of people has arguably changed from arty scholars to artisan crafters. This transformation may have marked the art of rockery has experienced a professionalisation. The historical social division of literati and artisan has finally faded due to the increasingly complicated work which completed by those talented craftsmen.
Fig. 23-2 Section drawn by author based on Jintao Wang, Zhongguo Huang Jia Yuan Lin Die Shan Li Lun Yu Ji Fa (Beijing: Zhongguo jian zhu gong ye chu ban she, 2011).
43 Cheng Ji and others, The Craft Of Gardens (translared). p104 44 Cheng Ji and others, The Craft Of Gardens (translared). p46
41 On top of that, there are also writers who were into the art of rockery, Shen Fu, the writer of ‘Six Record of The Floating Life’, as well as aforementioned Li Yu, the writer of the ‘Pleasant Diversions’. For example, Shen Fu once has done a small piece of work with his wife Yun: We did as she suggested, and built up a miniature mountain in a rectangular pot from the kilns at Yihsing. The mountain was on the left, with another small mound on the right. Along the mountain, we made horizontal patterns, similar to those on the mountains in paintings by Yun-lin. The cliffs were irregular, like those along a river bank. We filled an empty corner of the pot with river mud and planted duckweed, white with many petals. On top of the stones, we planted morning glories, which are usually called cloud pines. It all took us several days to complete. By the deep autumn, the morning glories had grown all over the mountain, covering it like wisteria hanging from a rock face, and when their flowers bloomed they were a deep red. The white duckweed also bloomed, and letting one’s spirit wander among the red and the white was like a visit to Peng Island.45
Fig. 24
45 Fu Shen, Leonard Pratt and Suhui Jiang, Six Records Of A Floating Life. p62
42
2. 3 Division and Connection between the Two Groups The rockery work in Chinese gardens is an art combining poetic understanding of Shan-Shui and practical knowledge of construction. The development and improvement of this technical work is inseparable from both the scholars and the rock craftsmen. For their willingness to improve what they may have a lack of the literati start to apply their literal knowledge to practical scenario while the craftsmen enhance their knowledge of related writings and paintings. Crafters such as Ji Cheng work on the ‘fake mountain’ based on the aesthetic and philosophical understating of Shan-Shui and meanwhile provide their own insight into the topic. In fact, he insisted in the book that ‘Three-tenths of the work were done by the workmen while seven-tenths was the maters’, which categorised himself outside of pure workmen. 46This notion of craft master, from my point of view, have many similarities with an architect. For a ‘craft master’ like Ji Cheng, he may be regarded being recognised as workmen who is unacceptable by a government, and therefore, bring up a hypothetical position similar to literati. In this light, the traditional social division of literati and craftsmen seemed to be rather arbitrary under this topic. Because the ideal rockery designer would be the one having an in-depth understanding of traditional philosophy and Shan-Shui culture as well as practical constructional knowledge and overall planning ability——similar to a current role of an architect.
46 Cheng Ji and others, The Craft Of Gardens (translared). p41
43
Fig. 25
44
Conclusion By examining the traditional values and investigating into elements of gardens and to craft gardensare heated trends in contemporary Chinese architecture discourse. From my perspective, it is indeed a good sign of the awakening of ethnic culture. Nevertheless, to completely defend the traditional architectural language against the unavoidable urbanisation modernisation seemed rather unrealistic. Hence, it might be of great significance to look back into the ideology and cosmology that lie behind the artefacts. The concept of a naturalism within an urban context as well as the organic relationship between literati and builders have rich implications. The fondness of nature has catalysed the art of Chinese garden and among all the essential elements rock piling is of great importance and connotations. Begin with inspecting the traditional philosophy, this dissertation attempted to look into the theme of Chinese garden and stone fetishism. With its virtuous imagery and profound connection with Taoism, the rocks are respected and appreciated since very early (the Warring States Period) in historical China. In order to explore this theme in depth, the author chose to examine the rocks from the scope of Chinese literati and craftsmen, before a organic relationship between the two came into light. The scholars and literati set up the basic parameters of appreciating the spririt stones by producing literatures and paintings and, in turn, changed rocks from a generic object to a metaphorical artefact. Meanwhile, the rock craftsmen were hugely influenced by the standards and applied them into practice, and the insightful ones among them such as Ji Cheng brought up new ideas that are even seemed to be relevant today. The royal gardens or scholarsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; gardens that were grand and rich in meanings in a way, yet the private gardens in everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home accommodates the most vulgar but precious lives. They are spiritual space in which people connect their inner mind to the actual nature and earth. This may explain the Chineseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s deeply rooted emotion with the land and home at the same time, although such a simple courtyard would be luxurious in contemporary Chinese cities. Maybe the essence and extended meaning of gardens and stones would account for the most genuine and thorough spatial and spiritual expectation in China.
45
Fig. 26
46 Appendix 1: A Journey to The Garden of Cultivation ---- Space, Time and Craftsmanship The aforementioned ‘urban mountain forest’ may still be found in contemporary Chinese city where most of the images were composites of high-rise buildings and modernized faceless façade. Unlike the other gardens in Suzhou where you can always find a long queue and crowds of visitors, the Garden of Cultivation seemed rather anonymous both because of the journey of looking for this small garden and the small amount of visitors inside (4 people on the day I visited ). Leaving the main street and turning into some anonymous streets where small shops and groceries located on either side. The noise from retail as well as the neighbourhood’s little community accompanied the journey as we turning back and forth before reaching a small gate of the garden, which was really faded and had the trace of the time. One may never imagine this kind of small threshold opens up a world heritage site with abundant historical jewels. In the garden, I also met an old man with his granddaughter feeding the fish in the pond using her leftover snacks. From our conversation I got to know that living within walking distance, this is their everyday routine. And all the residents in Suzhou has the benefit to pay 200 RMB and get a free pass to all of the gardens all around the year.
Fig. 27
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47
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50
List of Illustrations: 1. 2. 3. 4.
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51 24. http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic. cn/mmbiz/SlNVlAfNlibkhwv20C6qvY3ia2t0ntgKTRoX5BD1DLXibF5fDfA94GfyR60TtXCicNg37Rhasb7e3EkJCsDl97x0Aw/640?wx_fmt=jpeg 25. http://read.html5.qq.com/image?src=forum&q=5&r=0&imgflag=7&imageUrl=http://mmbiz.qpic. cn/mmbiz/SlNVlAfNlibkhwv20C6qvY3ia2t0ntgKTRoX5BD1DLXibF5fDfA94GfyR60TtXCicNg37Rhasb7e3EkJCsDl97x0Aw/640?wx_fmt=jpeg 26. http://auction.artxun.com/pic-471472044-0.html 27. Phtot taken by author