S I E R R A D E Z O N G O L I C A • V E R AC R U Z
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E r i c Z e n t m y e r y A n Í b a l Ra m Í r ez S oto E D I T O R S
Copryright Š 2012.
Pronatura Veracruz, A.C. Privada Maria Esther Zuno de Echeverria #1 Colonia Emiliano Zapata Xalapa, Ver. 91090 www.pronaturaveracruz.org
First Edition
Printed in the United States of Mexico.
CREDITS A U T H O R S
Anibal Ramirez Soto
Bernardino Villa Bonilla
Laura Landa Libreros
Omar Trujillo Santos
Rafael Rodriguez Mesa
T E X T
E D I T O R S
Eric Zentmyer
Anibal Ramirez Soto
Fadi Najib Farhat Abdo
D I R E C T O R
O F
Eric Zentmyer
E D I T O R I A L
D E S I G N
Ixchel Shese単a Hernandez
G R A P H I C
D E S I G N
Gabriela Estupi単an Servin
M A P
P R O D U C T I O N / D E S I G N
D E S I G N
Diego Barrera Ruiz
C O V E R
P H O T O :
Mesophilic cloud forest, Sierra de Zongolica
Eric Zentmyer
TABLE OF CONTENTS 8
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I N TRO D U C TI O N
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B I R D M I G R ATI O N OV E R TH E S I E R R A
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B I R D S A N D TH E L A N D SC A P E
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G EO LOGY A N D C L I M ATE
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H A B ITAT TH R E AT S
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ECO LOG I C A L S U CC E S S I O N I N C U LTI VA D E D L A N D S
22 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
T E M P E R AT E R E G I O N • Pines • Oaks • B l ac k C h e r r y • Avo c ad o • Cy p re s s • White Sapote • M ad ro n e • Alder
32 34 35
M O N TA N E R EG I O N
• Ash • Elm
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
44 46 47 48 49 50 51
TRO P I C A L R EG I O N
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CO M M U N I T Y N U R S E R I E S
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A B O U T P RO N AT U R A
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P H OTO C R E D I T S
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Wa l n u t Syc a m o re J a m a i c a n N e t t l e t re e Jonote Swe e t G u m W i l d Avo c ad o Wild Magnolia Hornbeam M a m ey S a p o t e I ce Cre a m B e a n Tro p i c a l O a k s Strangler Fig P r a i r i e Ac ac i a F e at h e r Ac ac i a
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Dendroica crysopharia
INTRODUCtioN
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The Sierra Zongolica is a rugged, mountainous indigenous territory located in the Central-Southern region of Veracruz, Mexico. The Sierra’s complex orography and abrupt altitudinal shift (from 80 to 3200 meters in a distance of only 30 miles) generates a wide array of micro-climates and vegetation types that contribute to Zongolica having some of the highest indices of biodiversity in Mexico. The National Institute for Statistics and Geography (INEGI) reports that 42% of the territory has been converted into agricultural uses, while 58% remains as native forest, divided into three ecoregions, according to the World Wildlife Federation: Oaxacan montane forests (NT0146), PetÊn-Veracruz moist forests (NT0154) and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine-oak forests (NT0308).
I M P O R TA N C e
the outstanding migratory species are: golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia),
In 1997, the Sierra Zongolica was designated as an Im-
wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), bell’s vireo (Vireo bellii), Canada warbler (Wilsonia
portant Bird Area (IBA) by the National Commision for
canadensis), painted bunting (Passerina ciris), indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea), worm-
the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO). In
eating warbler (Helmitheros vermivorus) Wilson’s warbler (Wilsonia pusilla), ruby-crowned
addition, CONABIO has identified the Sierra Zongolica
kinglet (Regulus calendula), MacGillivray’s warbler (Oporornis tolmiei), Townsend’s warbler
as a Priority Terrestrial Region (RTP) and Priority
(Dendroica townsendi), blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus) and black-throated gray
Hydrological Region (RHP). The National GAP Analysis
warbler (Dendroica nigrescens). In terms of important resident populations we have the
program, carried out by the National Autonomous Uni-
dusky-capped flycatcher (Myiarchus tuberculifer), northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgi-
versity of Mexico (UNAM), The Nature Conservancy,
dopteryx serripennis), blue-throated mountaingem (Lampornis clemenciae), Audubon’s oriole
Pronatura and the Higher Technological Institute of
(Icterus graduacauda) and the violet-crowned hummingbird (Amazilia violiceps). We have
Zongolica, among others, identified the Sierra Zongolica
also registered a number of species of tri-national importance such as the elegant trogon
as a priority region for biological conservation due to its
(Trogon elegans), bearded wood-partridge (Dendrortyx barbatus), slate-colored solitaire
high indices of biodiversity and lack of areas under legal
(Myadestes unicolor), among others.
protection.
OBJECTIVE
Before 2009, the richness of migratory and resident
The following guide provides information on the some of the Sierra’s most important tree species and their role in maintaining bird populations; however, these species have a wide distribution along the Eastern Sierra Madre and can be utilized in reforestation or restoration projects that wish attract and provide habitat for bird populations. The species selected also offer multiple benefits for the property owners who plant them. We hope that this information will give local tree nurseries further incentive to reproduce native trees that provide both human and ecological benefits.
bird populations in the Sierra Zongolica had been little explored. The monitoring work conducted by Pronatura Veracruz over a two-year period forms the basis for the information presented in the present guide. In summary, our studies have shown that there are 316 species of birds utilizing the Sierra Zongolica, 96 of which are migratory and 220 of which are residents. Some of Tyrannus melancolicus
Passerina cyanea
Archilocus alexandri
Vireo belli
Passerina ciris
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Bird Migration over The Sierra Zongolica The annual migration of birds from North America is a survival strategy employed when temperatures begin to fall in preparation for winter in Northern latitudes. As the first cold snap of fall arrives and life on which to feed becomes scarce, entire flocks are forced to journey southward toward more inviting tropical hemispheres. Here in the belly of the planet, the sun never abandons its creatures; there is always an abundance of resources, as well as intense competition and predators. The migrating bird must be resourceful and move along quickly to reach its winter home. 12
Traveling to tropical regions is no small feat considering
route one may find birds originating from all 50 states
the distances and the small size and fragile nature of many
of the U.S. and 10 provinces of Canada, although the
migratory birds. The ability to accumulate the energy
highest concentration of populations come from the
necessary to travel thousands of miles without losing their
Central and Eastern portion of the continent. The
way is one of the great miracles of evolutionary biology.
gulf route offers two distinct scenarios for movement,
Among the many marvelous adaptations migratory birds
each with its particular requirements: the coastal
have developed is the capacity to accumulate and me-
plains and slopes of the Eastern Sierra Madre.
tabolize bodyfat before and during flight. Bodyfat has the highest energetic density of any substance in the animal
The Eastern Sierra Madre is part of a continuous
kingdom, providing nearly doble the energy of carbohy-
mountain chain that connects with the Rocky
drates or proteins; it is the only fuel capable of generating
Mountains extending all the way to Alaska, with large
the energy necessary to travel thousands of kilometers,
altitudinal variations that have permitted the estab-
as migratory birds can efficiently refuel whenever and
lishment of a diversity of vegetative communities
wherever needed.
relatively close to another, especially in the tropical regions of Mexico. The flowering and fruiting of
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Geography plays a predominant role in the routes that
many of these species admirably coincide with the
migratory birds select for their journey. Many species are
presence of migratory birds, in spring as well as in au-
accustomed to travel exclusively through forested areas
tumn; certainly the diversity and distribution of flora
where they can find fruits, seeds or insects that will give
we find today in forests along the Gulf of Mexico has
them the necessary energy to arrive at their destination,
been determined at some level by its relationship
as well as provide shelter to rest in after prolonged hours
with our visiting migrants.
of flight. One of the most important migratory routes in the Americas in terms of numbers of individuals and species is the Gulf of Mexico route that traverses Veracruz. Along this
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Birds AND the lanDscape Evolutionary processes have created a marvelous
Secondary vegetation can also provide important resources
relationship between the phenomenon of bird migration
for migratory birds. Inside these regenerating ecosystems we
and our vegetative phenological cycles reflected in forest
can find pioneer tree species flowering or fruiting precisely
structure along migratory routes. The autumn flowering
during important “migratory pulses”. These pioneer species
of herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees coincide with the
display rapid growth habits and produce small seeds with
arrival of the migratory birds from the temperate forests
hard seed coats to pass through the intestinal tract of birds
of Canada and the United States; in turn, the flowering of
and other animals and disperse themselves over far away
spring--principally of trees--offer resources for migrants
lands. Some of these trees are ixpepe (Trema micrantha),
during their return to their breeding grounds in the North.
jonote (Heliocarpus donnell-smithii) and cucharilla (Clethra
Wintertime in the Sierra provides resources in the form of
mexicana). As the forest structure begins to recover,
fruits and seeds, above all in tropical and mesophilic cloud
bromelias and other epiphytes begin to colonize the newly
forests and to a lesser extent in oak and pine forests.
forming forest overstory, creating niches for insects and other animales consumed by birds.
Fruits and seeds are not always used directly as a food source; rather, these resources are consumed by insects and other arthropods which the birds feed upon, or by spiders, also considered a migratory delicacy.
15 Photos (from top to bottom): (a) Caterpillars known as “cuetla” offer a nutrient-rich food for both birds and humans in the tropical portions of the Sierra, such that they are cultivated on trees by local Nahuas; (b) bromelidads gather rainwater and form the habitat for “micro-ecosystems” of insects that are a feeding ground for resident and migratory birds; (c) maturing Mexican sycamore seeds attract entire colonies of insects.
16 As the Central American walnut (Juglans pyriformis) fruits mature, the trees fill with spider webs, attracted by insects that feed upon the nutrient-rich walnut flesh. This micro-ecosystem becomes an excellent source of food for migratory birds.
The beak of the hummingbird is adapted to reach into some of the most difficult forms of flowers and extract the nectar which the flower provides; in return, the hummingbirds helping to pollinate the flowers, ensure reproductive sucess of the species.
The fruits of the Ixpepe tree (Trema Micrantha) carry within them a tiny seed with an incredibly hard seed coat that only germinates after having been bathed in the acids of the birds stomach and passed through its intestinal tract.
Geology and climate The Sierra Zongolica mountain range was formed by the relatively serene deposition of ancient cretaceous limestone at the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, then later forced violently upward during collisions between the Northamerican and Pacific plates; it is for this reason that one can commonly find a marvelous array of marine fossils--trilobytes, snails and rudists, among others-in farmers’ fields at 3000 meters above sea level. Water also tends to erode the limestone very easily, creating caves, caverns and subterranean rivers, where some birds and bats take refuge. The Sierra’s altitudinal gradient spans from tropical to temperate, exhibiting 3 thermal belts corresponding with the 3 ecoregions classified by WWF (see introduction). The temperate region of the Sierra exhibits many characteristics of the dryer Central Mexican plateau, with soft, undulating hills and fertile soils. The original vegetation of these areas was pine-oak forest, which has gradually been replaced by maize fields and pasture grasses for sheep. Remaining fragments of forest are managed for firewood, oak charcoal production, mushroom hunting and medicinal plants. Other forested plots are managed as pine or cypress plantations on ten-year rotations for the production of wood furniture. The tropical montane portion of the Sierra is very humid, with a steep and abrupt relief of limestone cliffs, clinging
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forests and maize fields under the most difficult conditions for cultivation. Masses of warm water from the Gulf of Mexico condense over this zone, favoring the establishing of mesophilic cloud forests, considered a critical ecosystem for biodiversity conservation. Water capture in this region is of utmost importance as it provides drinking water both for low-lying communities of the Sierra and the nearby city of Orizaba and its industrial centre. The capture of freshwater is regulated somewhat by the existence of shade-grown coffee plantations, dominated by an overstory of secondary mesophilic forest enriched with leguminous species (Inga spp.) and fruit trees (avocado, orange, annona, loquat).
The distribution of limestone in the tropical portion of the Sierra has a profound influence on the development of vegetation, which is dominated by species tolerant of thin soils, such as tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata), gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba) and Terminalia
amazonica. Only one other commodity species, Coffea robusta, has been able to adapt to these areas; therefore, large extensions of the tropical portion of the Sierra where limestone is present have been left with a tropical forest overstory and an understory of coffee. These “agro-forests� present some of the highest indices of floral diversity in the country; it is of no coinciedence that monitoring studies have also display the highest diversity of avifauna in the region.
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Fossils of ancient rudists--tube-shaped seafloor organisms (above)--are commonly found in bedrock in the upper region of the Sierra. This specimen measured 3.5 feet in diameter.
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Habitat Threats F or e s t F ir e s provo k e d b y s l a s h - an d - b u rn A g ric u lt u r e : It is estimated that more than 60% of forest fires are caused by lack of care taken during land burning, shaping and impovershing remanent vegetation, as the practice promotes the proliferation of fire-resistant invasive species sucha as Pteridium aquilinium, the braken fern.
E x pan s ion of A g ric u lt u ra l Lan d s The low productivity of lands on the steep mountain slopes of the Sierra requires that farmers utilize long fallow periods. However, the arrival of agrochemicals in the 1980s cut the fallow period in these areas to 2 or 3 years. This practice has drastically diminished the surface area of ecosystems in advanced processes of regeneration (8-15 years), and increased the incidence of invasive species blocking natural regeneration in early stages.
“ mono - c u lt u rin g � t e mp e rat e for e s t s : The development of the forestry sector in Zongolica has created a positive economic stimulus for the region, especially in the temperate areas but also in tropical montane areas. Locally there are 11 nurseries producing over 3 million trees per year, enough to reforest 10% of the Sierra annually; however the forestry sector has traditionall focused on the production of only two species of conifers on 10-year cycle for making rustic furniture: Pinus patula y Cupresus benthamii. The simplication of the structure of native forests to monocultures has undoubtedly caused negative impacts on the ecological integrity of forest ecosystems in the region; however, it is important to recognize that, although plantations have become accepted socially for economic reasons, culturally indigenous communities in Zongolica tend to diversify their crops as well as their land holdings as a strategy of resilience against extreme climatic events or pest and disease outbreaks.
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Ecological Succession in cultivated lands
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Since their arrival around 1600, the Nahuas have cultivated using a rotational maize system that has created a mosaic of fields among vegetation in different stages of regeneration from recently abandoned fieds to secondary forests with structures similar to those of primary reference ecosystems. taci贸n que van desde tierras recientemente abandonadas. The slope and orientation of hillsides distributes different degrees of solar radiation, which condition the land use in the Sierra: on sunny slopes maize is generally cultivated, while farmers with land on shaded slopes produce coffee. The combination between low-impact land uses, migrant agriculture, and remaining forests demonstrates a highly heterogeneous landscape apropriate for bird populations. Fallow lands pass through at least 3 successional stages before they are burned and cultivated once more.
P h a s e I : r e c e nt ly fa l lo w Lan d . Locally called “acahuales�, these are areas where secondary regeneration is in full swing. Vegetative growth is dominated by climbing vines and broadleaf shrubs, which on many occasions are spiny or stinging. These species normally flower during fall and spring, offering importants food resources for during the period of scarcity in more conserved forests and coffee plantations.
P h a s e I I : L A n d s fa l lo w b e t w e e n 1 an d 3 y e ar s . In this phase it is possible to find different varieties of shrubs of short life spans (3-5 years) whose flowerings and seedings offer important resources for migratory birds during the fall and winter period. There are species in this assemblage such as Conostegia xalapensis and Miconia that offer fruits, seeds and insects year-round. Normally they are frecuente by hummingbirds and other species such as the clay-colored thrush (Turdus grayi), white-collared seedeater (Sporophila torqueola) and the brown jay (Cyanocorax morio).
Fa s e I I I : Fa l lo w l an d s b e t w e e n 3 an d 6 y e ar s . The process of regeneration during this period already exhibits trees that can live up to 20 years; thanks to their elevated contribution of leaf litter they permit a rapid recovery of organic matter and soil nutrients that farmers will utilize for maize cultivation. These trees of rapid growth, such as the Jamaican nettle tree (Trema micrantha) and Jonote (Heliocarpus donnell-smithii) produce excellent flowerings produce population explosions thousands of pollinating insects, which become an abundant food source for migrants.
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ECOREGION: ALTITUDE: GEOLOGY AND SOILS: VEGETATION: LAND USE:
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca Pine-Oak Forests. 2000-3000m (6500-9800ft) above sea level. Limestone-Lutite, Mesozoic, superior Cretaceous, Limestone (with karst), inferior Cretaceous, Deposits, Aluvial, Cenozoic, Quaternary, Lutite, Marble, Tertiary. Pine, fir, oak, alder. Cultivation of annuals (maize, beans, squash), sheep herding.
Temperate region The landscapes of of this cold region differ from the rest of the territory because of its less steep, hilly and undulating terrain and above all, of the richness of its soil. These farmlands enjoy a deep topsoil rich in minerals with a clay-loam texture, capable of producing abundant harvests year after year (with a rotation of corn and leguminous crops). The majority of pine-oak forests have been converted into fields or pastures or thinned and planted with pine or cypress trees, as government subsidies provide money for creating monoculture plantations. Pasturing sheep and goats has had a marked impact upon the understory vegetation of many remaining forests. However, mixed forests still exist as they are utilized for a multitud of forest products, from wild mushrooms to herbaceous plants and mosses for dying wool and making poultices and other medicines. Pine-oak forests are priority ecosystems for the conservation of migratory birds of the passerine family. Among these are threatened species of international importance, such as the golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysopharia), yellow rumped warbler (Dendroica coronata) and townsend’s warbler (Dendroica towsendii). There is evidence that the replacement of mixed forest with monoculture plantations can have a negative effect on bird populations that utilize these forests as their winter habitat. It is vital that we promote mixed forest management and reproduce in these areas other native species such as Arbutus xalapensis, Alnus jorullensis and the variety of native oaks represented in forests of this type.
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PineS
(Pinus spp.)
Pines species of the Sierra Zongolica are present in three kinds of vegetation: pine forests, pine-oak forests and Ocote (Pinus patula) forestry plantations. In 2009, 36 migratory birds species have been registered in pine forests of SZ; however, there are around 7 pine species in the Sierra that deserve a larger reproduction in forestry nurseries for the timber value and the secundary products they provide.
Resources for birds: Conifers are trees where live a wide range of insects such as spiders, crickets, butterflies, moths, etc.; moreover, certain species such as Pinus montezumae provides seeds in their branches, which means food for birds. The most common birds found here are the yellowrumped warbler (Dendroica coronata), townsend warbler Dendroica occidentalis
(Dendroica townsendii), hermit warbler (Dendroica
occidentalis), black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia), red warbler (Ergaticus ruber), among others. Resources for people: Despite the development of the
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forestry sector in the Sierra, timber products are limited to planks for construction and rustic chairs. The wood of the most commonly reproduced ocote pine (Pinus patula) is harvested between 8 and 15 years after planting; being a young wood it is considered as lower quality wood than
Pinus moctezumae or Pinus ayacahuite.
oaks
(Quercus spp.)
Resources for birds: Oak trees are full of bromeliads, mosses and lichens that provide niches with a high diversity of spiders, beetles, crickets and others insects. Many warblers such as the ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula) and the slate-throated whitestart (Myioborus minuatus) and vireos as the Hutton’s vireo (Vireo huttoni) feed here. Flocks of more than 40 indi-
Vireo huttoni
viduals can be observed feeding in a single oak. Resources for people: Oak is a hard wood resistant to humidity, fungi and moths, which can be used for construction and high quality furnitures; however, there is a lack of culture toward the use oak for furniture in the Sierra. Most of the people of the communities use oak to produce charcoal or leave oaks alone for mushrooms. Edible fungi, which have a symbiotic relationship with oak trees, represent a significant food source for local peoples.
Mexico has the largest diversity of oaks in the world, with more than 100 species. En the Sierra of Zongolica, there are at least 15 species of oaks, several of which (Quercus insignis, Q. germana and Q. xalapensis) are threatened or endangered. Growing in the oak trees, there is a wide range of epyphites that form the basis of micro-ecosystems for insects and arachnids which feed passerine birds.
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Black cherry
(Prunus serotina)
Resources for birds: Resources for birds: The black cherry is a thick fleshy fruit (drupe), which makes it very attractive and nutritional for many birds. Among them are the audubon’s oriole (Icterus graduacauda), the rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus), the black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) and some woodpeckers. Pheuticus ludovicianus Resources for people: In the Sierra de Zongolica, the black cherry is mainly used for its fruits, eaten fresh or prepared in drinks and atole (Mexican traditional corn-based milkshake). In others regions and countries, black cherry wood is considered as one of the finest woods for furniture. In eastern United States it is also used to smoke meats for the special flavor that the wood gives to the meat.
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The black cherry tree is distributed from Northern Canada to Guatemala. It is a pioneer species and heliotrope with abundant seeds whose dispersion over large distances is dependent upon birds; however, in the Sierra Zongolica, the tree is found most often in villages, where it is used as a living hedgerow and in orchards as its fruit is also edible for humans.
Avocado
(Persea americana)
The Sierra Zongolica is a centre of agricultural origin of the avocado tree. In fields and gardens, wild avocado varieties are still present, representing important invididuals making up the diversity of the avocado gene pool. The reproduction of these varieties in community nurseries and their planting in productive landscapes in the region is essential for the conservation of avocado germplasm and its subsequent resistance to pests and diseases.
Resources for birds: The epiphytes and mosses that grow in create niches and increase the number of animals living in, such as crickets, ants, spiders, butterflies’ larvae and many caterpillars, all of which provide food for birds. The Clay-colored Thrush (Turdus grayi) uses to nest in avocado trees. Other birds that make use of the avocado are the Myiozetetes similis
White-winged Tanager (Piranga leucoptera), the Yellowgreen Vireo (Vireo flavoviridis), the Vermilion-Crowned or Social Flycatcher (Myiozetetes similis) and the Black-andwhite Warbler. Resources for people: It is locally used for home consumption and sales. Its wood is used for boards and firewood; its leaves are used as a flavoring in tamales and other traditional regional plates; its flowers are an important nectar source for honey production. In other parts of Mexico, avocado wood is appreciated for making musical instruments.
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Cypress
(Cupressus spp.)
This 20m height tree is aromatic and resinous. Its distribution range goes from Mexico to Guatemala, Honduras and Salvador. Generally it can be found in temperate mountainous regions, as a part of pine, oak and pine-oak forests and deciduous forests. In the Sierra Zongolica it has been widely used in reforestation programs.
Resources for birds: Cipres trees require little sunlight radiation and high humidity. The abundant insect fauna of these niches feeds birds such as hairy woodpecker (Picoides
villosus), warblers (Dendroica towsendi, D. virens, D. occidentalis) and many more. Others species such as the brown-backed solitaire (Myadestes occidentalis) and the Picoides villosus
russet nightingale-thrush (Catharus occidentalis) often nest in those trees. Resources for people: the main product of the cypress tree is timber wood which is used in manufacturing fine furniture, house building and as firewood. It is also planted as an orna-
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mental tree, to create living fences and windbreaks; however, the wood tends not to grow as rapidly as ocote pine and is considered a secondary plantation tree.
White sapote
(Casimiroa edulis)
Resources for birds: In the fruiting season, between June and July, many birds such as the blue-gray tanager (Thraupis episcopus), the yellow-winged tanager (Thraupis Habbas), the scrub euphonia (Euphonia affinis), the Blue-hooded Euphonia (Euphonia elegantissima) and many more eat sweet-tasting flesh of this sapote. Euphonia affinis Resources for people: white sapote is used as firewood, fence posts and different kind of construction in rural areas. The species has a medecinal use since prehispanic era for its narcotic and analgesic effects. The cortex, leaves and more particularly the seeds are used to lower blood pressure and it has recently been found that the plant shows anticancer and anticonvulsant properties.
The white sapote tree can grow to 10 or 11 meters height. It is widely spread in family orchards in Zongolica, Mixtla, Altamirano, Atlahuilco and Tlaquilpa and can also be found in shadow-grown coffee plantations. Its fruit is full of phosphorus and proteins besides being tasty and juicy. 30 30
Madrone
(Arbutus Xalapensis)
The madrone tree ranges from New Mexico and Texas to Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador. It is one component of pine forests and oak forests, commonly found on hillsides and gullies from 2,400 to 3,400 meters of altitude. Usually, it grows up to 15 meters high and 40 centimeters in diameter.
Resource for birds: The madrone tree produces red fruits, attractive for birds such as the american robin (Turdus migratorius), the black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) or the gray silky-flycatcher (Ptilogonys cinereus). These birds tend to disperse the seeds in other places defecating while moving in the Sierra. Pheucticus melanocephalus Resources for people: The wood is hard and dense. In rural areas, it is used as firewood, charcoal, house construction and agricultural tool handles. The fruits are edible and have narcotic properties. You can find the fruits in some street
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markets sold as food for pet birds. It is also appreciated as an ornamental tree because of the reddish tint of its bark and the attractiveness of its very showy flowers and fruits.
ALDER
(Alnus jorullensis) Resources for birds: alders provides shelter for thousands of arthropods in their branches and seed cones, where birds like the ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula), the MacGillivray’s warbler (Oporornis tolmiei) and the Mexican chickadee (Poecile sclateri) usually come to feed on. The alder tree is especially favored by the pine siskin (Spinus
Poecile esclateri
pinus), sometimes in flocks of 30 individuals, who come to the cones to feed on the seeds. Resources for people: The wood is used as firewood in rural areas, as well as for construction planks, fence posts, furniture, agricultural tool handles, boxes for the transport of fresh fruits, shoe lasts, etc. Locally, it is planted around the fields as live fence and fodder for livestock. In some places it is employed to establish windbreaks, to provide shade for coffee, or as an ornamental tree.
The alder geographical distribution extends from Mexico and Central America to the highlands of Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Argentina. This tree is part of pine and oak forests, as well as mesophilic cloud forest, riparian and secondary vegetation. It tends to regenerate easily and therefore is valuable to be used in ecological restoration, soils recovery and watershed protection programs.
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ECOREGION: ALTITUDE: GEOLOGY AND SOILS: VEGETATION: LAND USE:
Oaxacan Montane Forests 800-2100 meters (2600-6900 feet) above sea level. Limestone-lutite, Mesozoic, inferior and superior Cretaceous, Limestone (with karst), Aluvial depositsl, Cenzoic, Quarternary, Lutite-Sandstone, superior Jurรกssic, Lutite, Marble, Tertiary. Mesophilic cloud forest, oak forest, high tropical subperennial forest. Coffee, maize and pastures.
Montane Region The tropical montane region has some of the most spectacular landscapes in the Sierra. The area is hidden most mornings and afternoons under A thick layer of clouds, leaving only the mountain peaks as testaments to the region’s rugged terrain. High levels of precipitation combined with an average temperature that fluctuates less than 10 degrees annually, favors an exuberant growth of vegetation. Cliffs of limestone, lutite and marble attract climbers from all over Mexico, but offer little topsoil for cultivation. Where land is cultivated farmers sow mostly maize, on slopes ranging from 20° to 45° degrees, with heavy, acidic clay soils; in spite of difficulties conditions, however, indigenous farmers have adapted resistance maize land races and maintained a crop rotation system that allows land to recover after several years of cultivation. Indigenous farmers in this region use controlled burns to fertilize their fields; however, with slopes often surpassing 30 degrees in inclination, the organic material built up over years of fallowing the land is quickly washed offsite and into rivers during the first rainy season. Planting pioneer tree species on contour lines in these areas can help reduce soil erosion while helping fertilize maize fields. Particular species such as Trema micrantha and Alnus jorullensis can be selected to additionally provide food sources for resident and migratory birds. These systems can add to a heterogenous landscape of forests, shade-grown coffee plantations and fallow fields that provide year-round food resources for bird populations.
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ASH
(Fraxinus uhdei)
This tree reaches heights of 40 meters and up to 1 meter in diameter. Its geographic distribution is from Mexico to Guatemala and Honduras. It makes part of the deciduous forests, oak and pine forests and grows on hillsides, gullies and ravines.
Resources for birds: This tree provides a food source for many resident and migratory birds like the blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea), the blue-gray tanager (Thraupis episcopus), the yellow-winged tanager (Thraupis
habbas), the Townsend’s warbler (Dendroica townsendii), the hermit warbler (Dendroica occidentalis), the Wilson’s Wilsonia pusilla
warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) and many more. These birds feed on the arthropods that live in the epiphytes and mosses that grow over the ash tree’s branches. Resources for people: The wood is precious and used to make sporting goods and in furniture manufacturing. The flowers are melliferous and the tree is very effective
35
in recovering degraded lands.
Elm
(Ulmus mexicana)
Resources for birds: Being associated with riparian areas and growing in wetlands, the elm hosts a large range of epiphytes and bromeliads, which are shelters and food source for birds as insects live in those plants. Its seeds are also edible for birds. Some of the species that utilize the elm are the ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calen-
dula), the orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata)
Regulus calendula
and the crescent-chested warbler (Parula superciliosa). Resources for people: The wood is hard and heavy, and it is used locally to make tables, furniture, boxes for packing and rural house building. It is also planted as a shade tree, a living fence and an ornamental for its beauty and size.
Also know as Zempoalehuatl or “twenty husks�, this tree reaches heights up to 50 meters and 2.5 meters in diameter. Originally from the humid tropical regions of Northern America, its geographical distribution extends from Southern Mexico through Central America until Panama. This tree is very slow-growing and forms part of the high evergreen, oak, medium and lower deciduous primary forests.
36
Walnut
(Juglans pyriformis) Resources for birds: During the months of july and august, when the fruits begin to mature, they acquire a dark brown to black color a sign that the fruit pulp will begin to ferment, attracting all kinds of small insects, also attracting many spiders that tend their webs to catch them. Those countless insects represent an important food source to birds such
Contopus cooperi
as the Greater Pewee (Contopus pertinax), the Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus cooperi), the Hepatic Tanager (Piranga flava), among others. Resources for people : Central American walnut is considered a precious hardwood, used for the manufacture of fine furniture and musical instruments. The pulp is also taken as medicine locally for the purification of blood.
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Also called Mixpa or cedar walnut, this species is categorized as threatened under Mexican law as it has been overexploited for fine furniture. It is rather common, however, in the Sierra of Zongolica, along the roads from Mixtla de Altamirano to the town of Zongolica, getting even more abundant toward Totolca and Tepetitlanapa. You can also see it more scarcely around Tequila and Zongolica city. This species grows from 1,000 to 2,000 meters of altitude, primarily in mesophilic cloud forests.
Sycamore
(Platanus mexicana)
This tree reaches heights up to 40 meters and diameters up to 3 meters. It is native of the tropical humid and temperate regions of Northern America and extends from Mexico to Guatemala. As a part the riparian vegetation and deciduous, oak, evergreen and medium deciduous forests, it prospers from 160 to 2,400 meters of altitude.
Resources for birds: As a tall tree, it is very important for birds which need to nest far away from predators. The species that most utilize it are the montezuma oropendola, locally called San Juanera or Zacua (Psarocolius montezuma), the chestnut-headed oropendola (Psarocolius wagleri) and other oropendola species (Icterus spp.). Icterus bullockii Resources for people: the sycamore wood, although not widely appreciated as one of the finer woods, is used as firewood and in manufacture of boards, household utensils and rural house building. It is also used communly in parks and recreation areas for because of its showy bark and regal stature.
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Jamaican nettletree
(Trema micrantha)
Nettletree is a fast-growing pioneer species growing up to 3 meters per year and reaching heights of up to 20 meters. Its range extends from southern Florida, Mexico, the Antilles and Central to South America It is common in streams, along roads and in farmland. Because of its ability to thrive in disturbed sites, it is very suitable for soil recovery, reforestation and ecological restoration.
Resources for birds: Neetletree is the second tree of highest importance after ficus in number of bird species that feed on its fruit. Its dispersal depends on birds who, through their digestive tract, allow the seed to germinate once it has been defecated. The bird that spread the neetletree are the gray silky-flycatcher (Ptilogonys cinereus), the western Wilsonia pusilla
tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) and the common bush tanager (Chlorospingus ophthalmicus). Resources for people: The Jamaican neetletree bark is
39
used for the manufacture of bark paper which commercial production began in the late sixties from the merger of the Ñahùús of San Pablito in the Northern Sierra of Puebla (amate paper producers) and the Nahua of the Balsas River basin (painters of statements on this paper). In some places it is used as shade tree in coffee plantations.
Jonote
(Heliocarpus appendiculatus)
Resources for birds: The jonote is a shelter for insects and birds, as well as a food source and a resting place, a protection from predators and in some cases a nesting place. Some of the birds that utilize it are the whitewinged tanager (Piranga leucoptera) and red legged honeycreeper (Cyanerpes cyaneus). Cyanerpes cyaneus Resources for people: In some places, the jonote is used as living-hedge or shade tree in coffee plantations. Its wood is used as firewood in rural areas, its leaves serve as fodder for cattle and its bark for the manufacture of bark paper. The bark of young individuals, cutted into thin strips, is used to make rope. Its flowers are very melliferous and its nectar contributes to the production of an excellent honey.
Heliocarpus appendiculatus is a fast-growing and short-live pioneer species. Its range extends from Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. It makes up part of the secondary vegetation derived from high evergreen and medium deciduous tropical forests. It is common along roadways, in pastures and abandoned fields. It thrives from sea level up to 1.700 meters of altitude.
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SWEET GUM
(Liquidambar styraciflua)
Resources for birds: The trees being without leaves from December to February, you can see a myriad of epiphytes hosting many spiders, beetles, moths and other insects that represent a food source for birds such as the white-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus). Some “strong peak�species, like the rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus) or the Passerina cyanea
indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea), can break the fruit of the American sweetgum and eat the seeds. Resources for people: The sweetgum produces a balm known as American storax in the market. It is a yellowishbrown resin and flows from cuts in the trunk and leaves. Once this substance has hardened, it is sold in local markets to be used as incense in temples and homes during religious festivals, especially during the Day of the Dead (2nd of November). It is also used to prepare of ointments and disinfectants and in perfumery (to flavor soaps, cosmetic essence, creams, etc.).
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The American sweetgum also called alligator-wood, satin-walnut or starleaved gum is an extended fast-growing tree. It can become the dominant species in mountaineous cloud forest, reaching height up to 60 meters and diameter of 1.5 meter. It geographical distribution goes from Canada and United States to Mexico and Guatemala.
wild avocado
(Persea schiedeana)
This tree reaches heights of 20 meters and diameters up to 45 cm. It grows in Mexico and Central America to Colombia and makes part of the high and medium evergreen and deciduous forests. Wild avocado prospers from 1.400 to 1.900 meters of altitude, but is frequently found outside of these limits, sometimes even in tropical areas.
Resources for birds: this native avocado is relevant for wildlife conservation as it provides fleshy fruits very attractive for frugivorous birds such as the yellow-winged tanager (Thraupis abbas), the white-throated thrush (Turdus
assimilis), the audubon’s oriole (Icterus graduacauda) and many more. Icterus graduacauda Resources for People: People use the trees for living hedges and in shade-grown coffee plantations. The fruits are highly appreciated as a food supplement. They are sold in the streets and markets, constituting an additional source of income for rural people. The flowers are melliferous and its nectar produces excellent honey.
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WILD MAGNOLIA
(Talauma mexicana)
This tree reaches heights of up to 30 meters and diameters up to 1.30 meters. It thrives from Mexico to Guatemala and Honduras and makes part of the deciduous and evergreen high forests, from 450 to 1.500 meters in altitude. This species is highly threatened and protected by Mexican law.
Resources for birds: After opening the armored fruit, the seeds show their striking red color and attract birds as unexpected as the insectivorous social flycatcher (Myiozetetes
similis). His majestic bearing provides shelter for any bird that wants to hide as the olive-sided flycatcher (Contopus
cooperi) or to nest away from predators like the montezuma Contopus cooperi
oropendola (Montezuma Psarocolius).
Resources for People: The Yoloxochitl has long-time medicinal uses, dating back to prehispanic times. Some parts of the plant such as flowers and leaves are used in traditional medicine to make remedies for heart diseases. The
43
tree has also an important ornamental value. It is locally used for living hedges and occasionally in shade-grown coffee plantations.
hornbeam
(Ostrya virginiana)
Resources for the birds: Birds such as the blue grosbeack (Passerinia caerulea) and the scaly-throated foliagegleaner (Anabacerthia variegaticeps) use this tree which branches and cluster get plenty of insects and arthropods when fruits grow. Regulus calendula Resources for People: The extremely hard wood has traditionally been used in rural areas as firewood and charcoal as well as to make agricultural tool handles and to build houses. It has also been utilized with success in the cultivation of commercial mushrooms such as oyster and shiitake.
This tree reaches heights of 15 meters and a diameter of 30 cm. Its geographical distribution extends from eastern Canada and United States to Mexico, Guatemala, Salvador and Honduras. The American Hornbeam makes up part of mesophilic cloud forests, pine and oak forests and prospers from 1.000 to 2.500 meters of altitude. This species is threatened and protected by Mexican law.
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ECOREGION: ALTITUDE: GEOLOGY AND SOILS: VEGETATION: LAND USE:
Peten-Veracruz moist forests. 80-800meters (260-2600feet) above sea level. Limeston (with karst) Mesozoic, inferior Cretaceous, superior Cretaceous, Caliza, Aluvial Deposits, Cenozoic, Quaternary, Lutite-Arsenic, superior Jurassic. Subperennial tropical forest, secondary vegetation. Shade-grown coffee, pastures, maize fields.
Tropical Region Practically the entire landscape of this region is formed by limestone rock, with some alluvial deposits in the lower valleys. Soils are poor with a very thin layer of organic material, unable to support annual cultivation. For this reason a large part of the land is dedicated to the cultivation of coffee and cattle ranching. In these areas are dominated by Coffea robusta, a species adapted to high temperatures and humidity. Cattle ranching on the other hands is practiced on lands with difficult access and where the grazing potential is relatively low. This area belongs to the ecoregion of evergreen tropical forest, which has a floristic and faunal affinity to Central America, particulary the forests of Guatemala and Honduras. The vegetation is exhuberant and dominated by 36 species typical of medium subperennial forest such as Zapote (Pouteria
sapota), mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) xochicuahuitl (Cordia alliodora) as well as understory palms such as the palma camedor (Chamaedora elegans,
Chamaedora tepejilote) and other shrubs which form a complex structure utilized by migratory birds of trinational importance such as the Zorzal maculado (Hylocicla mustelina),Chipe charquero (Seiurus noveboracensis) y Chipe corona cafĂŠ (Limnotlypis swainsonii). There are cases where resident birds act as indicators of ecosystem health such as Chivirin de sumichrast (Hylorchilus sumichrasti), Arasari de collar (Pteroglossus torquatus), y Buho blanquinegro (Ciccaba nigrolineata).
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mamey Sapote
(Fraxinus uhdei)
This tree reaches heights of up to 40 meters and diameters and thrives from sea level to 800 meters of altitude. It is assumed that the mamey sapote comes from wet tropical regions of America. Its original range is uncertain and difficult to determine because it has been cultivated since pre-hispanic era, it may be native from southeastern Mexico to the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua and Panama. It is planted around homes, farms and backyard gardens.
Resources for birds: the succulent fruit of this tree is irresistible to birds of almost any diet, not only frugivores. Almost all oropendolas (Icterus spp) and tanagers (belonging to the Thraupidae family) eat it. When the rotten fruit falls to the ground, it attracts lots of insects, providing food to birds like vireos, warblers and flycatchers. Icterus galbula Resources for people: The flagship product of this tree is its delicious fruit, appreciated for making ice cream and soft drinks. The seeds, which contain between 45 and 60%
47
oil, are used as a remedy against dandruff in soaps, creams, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The mamey sapote wood is heavy, strong and durable. It is locally used to make posts, poles, beams, bridges, houses, housing pitchforks and handles for agricultural tools. The flowers are melliferous and contribute to the production of good quality honey.
ice cream bean
(Inga spp.)
Resources for birds: The ice cream bean hosts a large diversity of arthropods, which are attracted by the generous nectar secretion of its flowers and permanent extrafloral nectars of its leaves. This tree is visited by birds such as the black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varies) and bluegray gnatcatcher (Polioptila cerulean). Polioptila cerulea Resources for People: Inga is commonly used in pastures for shade and living hedges. It is one of the most appreciated overstory trees in shade-grown coffee plantations. When fruiting, the ice cream bean provides a vitaminrich food source for local communities.
Inga trees usually reach about 12 meters heights and diameters of 30 cm. The ice cream bean is an evergreen tree, with white or greenish white flowers. This hermaphrodite species has straight, twisted or bent trunk with a brown and fissured bark. Sometimes it branches from the base. It blooms between March and May and fruits 30 centimeters sheaths from July to September.
48
Tropical oaks
(Quercus spp.)
Resources for birds: the acorns of these oaks are not really an important resource for birds; but acorns are not the only thing that oaks provide to birds, as they shelter infinite number of arthropods attracted by its flowers, polen, foliage and the epiphytes living there. Those insects are food for species as the Warbling Vireo (Vireo gilvus) and the MagnoDendroica magnolia
lia Warbler (Dendroica magnolia) for example. Resources for People: In some regions, this tree is used as charcoal, construction, handles for different farming tools, instruments and implements. It is also employed to make local handcrafts and fine furniture. The acorns serve as cattle food. Some people roast and ground them to produce a coffee lookalike drink, and the leaves are used as seasoning. These leafs release a sugary substance that bees collect to make honey. Finally the bark is used for making fur.
49
These slow-growing trees are some of the longest lived species in the tropical region. Its geographical distribution goes from Europe, Asia and Northern America. In Mexico there are three variants of this genre. They thrive from sea level to 1.000 meter of altitude.
strangler Fig
(Ficus spp.)
The ficus tree is fast-growing, medium-lived, and makes part of the secondary vegetation derived from evergreen and deciduous forests. Its range goes from southwestern Asia to Mexico. The weeping fig is common in urban areas and parks or in roadsides. It prospers from 1.000 to 2.000 meters of altitude.
Resources for birds: The blue-winged warbler (Vermivora
pinus), the worm-eating warbler (Helmitheros vermivorus), the american redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) and the Canada warbler (Wilsonia canadensis) frequently visit this tree. The trees provide fruits with tiny seeds which are easily swallowed and dispersed, spreading the strangler fig near other Vermivora pinus
trees, which it then parasitizes until the fig is fully grown and its host dead. Resources for people: Some coffee growers use it for shade in their plantations. The wood is used as firewood in the rural areas. The sap serves to make lubricants, the leaves can be used as condiments and provides nutritious fodder for livestock. The fruit can be consumed dried, the oil contains edible and full of vitamins A, B and C oil. The tree has also some medicinal uses.
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Prairie acacia
(Acacia angustissima)
This pioneer tree has very deep nitrogen-fixing roots. The prairie or whiteball acacia helps to control erosion and condition the soil. It ranges from the south of the United States to Colombia. It grows under precipitation levels from 500 to 3.500 milimeters per year, although it prefers levels above 1.000 milimeters and can survive long periods of drought.
Resources for birds: The acacia trees, like all others legumes, secrete large amounts of nectar and their seeds grow in pods easily reachable by birds. The prairie acacia pod, when it dries, opens by itself displaying small seeds that any bird can swallow. Some birds that feed on the prairie acacia are the grey silky-flycatcher (Ptilogonys cinereus), the Ptilogonys cinereus
western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) and the white-winged tanager (Piranga leucoptera). Resources for People: In Honduras and the state of Yucatan in Mexico, the wood is appreciated as firewood and fence posts. Its bark can be used in traditionnal medicine and the
51
roots as a treatment of diarrhea and to cure some injuries. It is a very important species for local beekeepers as it provides large amounts of pollen.
feather acacia
(Acacia Pennatula)
Resources for birds: this acacia of wide distribution, like other legumes, provides food for both insectivores such as the dusky-capped flycatcher (Myiarchus tuberculifer) and seed eaters such as the summer tanager (Piranga
rubra) and even for omnivores like the blue-grey tanager (Thraupis episcopus). As it is used as fodder for livestock, it is a very common tree in pastures.
Cyanerpes cyaneus
Resources for People: the feather acacia wood is very hard and is mainly used as charcoal, firewood, fence posts and building material. The sheath are very nutritive and represent a great food for livestocks.
This tree has a short, small and spiny stem, grows from 8 to 10 meters in height and its crown spreads widely. It grows in dry and humid climates from 100 to 900 meters in altitude. The feather acacia is part of the secondary vegetation and prefers disturbed and relatively dry areas. Its geographical distribution goes from Mexico, Central and South America. 52
Community nurseries Community nurseries developed by the state govern-
restoration� that benefit diverse species of wildlife
ment, NGOs like Pronatura Veracruz, A.C. and educa-
at the landscape level. In this manner we address the
tional institutions such as the Higher Technological
need to protect the forests that remain and engender
Institute of Zongolica play an important role in the
processes of ecological restoration in adjacent areas to
conservation of biodiversity in the region. The 11
increase biological connectivity at the landscape level.
nurseries that exist in Zongolica have the potential to produce 3 million or more trees per year. It is impor-
Although the frame of reference for conservation of
tant that nursery diversify the number of species they
bird habitat is at the landscape level, we should not
are managing in order to more adecuately represent
forget that much of conservation action begins at the
the diversity of native flora; for example, species that
level of the private property, farmer’s parcel or ejido
are rare or threatened or that have significant cultural
land. For this reason, it is necessary in community
value.
nurseries to reproduce mulit-use, multifunctional trees for farm habitats tend toward diversifying .
53
In the ecotone between the montane and tropical
Fortunately, indigenous land management in the Sierra
regions of the Sierra, Pronatura and the state gov-
tends toward crop diversification, relying also upon
ernment developed a pilot nursery diversification
forests and secondary vegetatation for sustenance.
program that reproduced 37 distinct species of
Reproduction of native multi-use species of im-
native tropical and montane species and introduced
portance for migratory birds is a first step toward
them into . The enrichment of coffee plantations and
ensuring critical habitat conservation in the coming
secondary vegetation are strategies of “productive
decades; there is still for the establishment of best-
54
55
About Pronatura Veracruz Pronatura is a Mexican non-profit organization whose mission is the conservation of the flora, fauna and priority ecosystems of Mexico, promoting the development of society in harmony with nature. Pronatura has 6 regional representations: Northwest, Northeast, Pronatura HeadquartersMexico City, Chiapas, Yucatan Peninsula and Veracruz. Pronatura Veracruz has been working for the conservation of priority ecosystems in the state since 1991; over the course its 19 years of operation we have developed strategic programs for conservation in the following areas: GIS and ecological planning, migratory bird research and monitoring, environmental education, community tourism, sustainable economic alternatives (beekeeping, aquaculture, artisanry) and eco-forestry. Pronatura-Veracruz works in the Sierra de Zongolica promoting the conservation and sustainable management of local forests. Pronatura has worked with local communities in the restoration of micro-watersheds around local sources of freshwater, With information derived from migratory bird habitat monitoring we have identified trees and shrubs utilized by key species of migratory birds, reproduced them in local nurseries in collaboration with the Higher Technological Ins titute of Zongoclica and introduced them into critical restoration areas.
56
P H OTO C R ED I T S A N I B A L
R A M I R E Z - S O T O
Page 18: Difference between natural forest and pine plantation (bottom right).
F E R N A N D O
C E R R A
Page 26: Pheuticus ludovicianus (top). Page 41: Icterus graduacauda (right middle). Page 46: Icterus galbula (right middle). Page 49: Vermivora pinus (right middle).
B E R N A R D I N O
V I L L A
B O N I L L A
Page 9: Tyrannus melancolicus (bottom). Page 20-21: Corn field and landscape (bottom).
F O R T U N A T O
Page 24: Pine tree (left), Pine cone (insert). Page 25: Vireo huttoni (top). Oak seeds (insert).
Page 41: Wild avocado fruit (right bottom). Page 42: Drink made from magnolia seeds (right
R U I Z
D E
L A
M E R C E D
Page 26: Cherry seed (insert). Page 27: Avocado flower (insert). Myiozetetes similis (right
bottom). Page 46: Mamey sapote tree (left). Page 47: Ice cream bean tree (right). Page 49:
middle). Avocado fruits (right bottom). Avocado tree (left). Page 28: Cypress seed (insert).
strangler fig fruit (insert), Strangler fig seed (insert).
Page 29: Euphonia affinis (top left). White sapote seed (insert). Page 30: Madrone tree (right). Page 31: Alder seed (insert). Page 32: Cloud cover in the montane region. Page 34:
G I L
E C K R I C H
Fresno seed (insert). Fresno tree (left). Page 35: Elm flower (insert). Page 36: Walnut flower
Page 8: Dendroica cryspharia (left top). Page 9: Vireo belli (right bottom), Passerina ciris (right
(insert). Page 39: Jonote tree (right). Jonote seed (insert). Page 40: Sweet gum seed (insert).
bottom). Page 35: Regulus calendula (top left).
Page 41: Wild avocado flower (insert). Page 42: Wild magnolia fruit (insert). Page 43: Hornbeam tree (right). Hornbeam seed (insert). Page 46: Mamey sapote fruit (insert).
I G N A C I O
G R A N A D O S
Page 47: Ice cream bean flower (insert). Page 48: Tropical oak seeds (insert). Page 49: Stran-
Page 28: Picoides villosus (right middle). Page 30: Pheucticus melanocephalus (left middle).
gler fig tree (left). Page 50: Prairie acacia tree (left). Prairie acacia seed (insert). Ptilogonys
Page 37: Icterus bullockii (right middle). Page 47: Polioptila cerulean (top left).
cinereus (right middle). Page 51: Feather acacia tree (right). Feather acacia seed (insert). Cyanerpes cyaneus (top left). Page 53: Laurel (Cordia alliodora) seedlings.
I X C H E L
H E R N A N D E Z
Page 12: Coast of Veracruz (left top). Page 15: Spiderweb on walnut tree (left). Page 42: Wild D O U G
B A C K L U N D
magnolia tree (left). Page 52: Community nursery (lower left).
Page 24: Dendroica occidentalis (middle). O M A R E R I C
Z E N T M Y E R
Title page: Mesophilic cloud forest, Sierra de Zongolica. Table of contents. Tropical montane
T R U J I L L O
S A N T O S
Page 28: Cypress tree (left). Page 29: White sapote tree (right). Page 38: Jamaican nettletree (left). Page 49: Strangler fig fruit (insert).
region. Page 8: Mesophilic cloud forest (right). Page 14: Cuetla caterpillars (top). Bromeliads (middle). Sycamore seeds (bottom). Page 15: Trema seeds (far right). Page 17: Tonto River
R A F A E L
R O D R I G U E Z
(left); Rudist fossil (right). Page 19: Pine-oak forest (far left). Pine plantation (near left).
Page 13: Bird Migration over Veracruz.
M E S A
Page 19: Forest fire (right top); Burning sugar cane (right middle). Page 20: Corn field (top).
57
Page 22: View of the Orizaba peak (5760 meters). Page 23: Sheep (insert). Page 24: Chairs
R E N E
(bottom). Page 25: Oak tree (right). Page 26: Cherry tree (right). Page 31: Alder tree (left).
Page 9: Passerina cyanea (right bottom). Archilocus alexandri (right bottom).
V A L D E S
Table made from alder wood (right middle). Page 33: Corn stalk (insert). Page 35: Elm tree
Page 31: Poecile esclateri (right top). Page 36: Contopus cooperi (top left). Page 39:
(right). Page 36: Walnut tree (right). Page 37: Sycamore tree (left). Sycamore seed (insert).
Cyanerpes cyaneus (top left). Page 40: Passerina cyanea (top left). Page 42: Contopus
Page 41: Sweet gum tree (right). Page 41: Wild avocado tree (left). Page 45: Tropical region
cooperi (right middle).
landscape. Page 47: Eating an ice cream bean (left middle). Page 48: Tropical oak (right). Page 53: Climbing mahogany tree (upper left).
R O B E R T
S H A N T Z
Page 38: Wilsonia pusilla (right middle). Page 38: Piranga ludoviciana (right middle). Page 43: Passerina caerulea (top left). Page 48: Dendroica magnolia (top left).