STUDIO
AIR JOURNAL
2017, Semester 2 - Christopher Ferris ERIKA TANTOWIBOWO - 755390 1
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Contents A. Conceptualisation 4 - Introduction 7 - A.1. Design Futuring 8 - A.2. Design Computation 14 - A.3. Composition / Generation 20 - A.4. Conclusion 26 - A.5. Learning Outcomes 28 List of Figures 30 References 32
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Figure 1. Parametric Design Vector
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A CONCEPTUALISATION
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“I think of architecture as a piece of clothing to wrap around human beings.� - Toyo Ito
Architecture Design Studio Water (Semester 2, 2016) - Boat House Inspired by Toyo Ito
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Introduction
My name is Erika Tantowibowo and I am a
third year Architecture student in the University of Melbourne. I have developed strong interest in art and design since I was younger. However, not wanting to waste all the technical knowledge I gained during High School, I decided to focus my further studies into learning more about architecture which is a discipline that requires both the aspects I am passionate in. In my opinion, architecture means much more than merely the appearance of a building. It is a language which has the power to help us make the world a better place to live in through the design and engagement it encourages. Thus, it is my ultimate aspiration to be able to use my knowledge as an archi-
tect to actually reconnect people with nature through their experience with and within the structure. Up to this point of my studies, I consider myself to have become relatively capable in thinking about architecture theoretically, but much less in the explorative aspect of designing. Hence, I am definitely eager to learn more about how I could use various technical software and their limitless potential to help me learn about more complex and evocative architectural forms which are more called for in the future of architecture. I believe that this subject could advance my current skills and help me to specifically understand the process of translating my theoretical knowledge into tangible outcomes.
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Figure 2. Shark Skin Parametric Design
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A.1. Design Futuring
In the world where urbo-industrialism has
devoured and transformed the environments into a place where balance between human and nature barely exists, technology has always been nominated as one of the main catalyst to the destruction1. Although in reality, the main cause of this calamity stems from our human centeredness that drives us to treat the planet as if its resources have no limitation. Consequently, humans are now forced to confront the accelerating degradation of unsustainability and find a way to redirect our lifestyle to a more sustainable mode of habitation2. However, since the invention and development of the computational designing algorithm, the idea of creating a better future had become more attainable than ever before.
For instance, designers can now use these new methods of designing as a tool to better understand the present and actualize the desired future3. Therefore, design computation not only transformed the field of ideas and the lifestyle of our society but also our way of thinking. Ultimately, along with the growing awareness of the need for design futuring, architecture is also challenged to contribute in answering these problems by becoming a mean of communication which stimulates a new way of thinking while promoting a more sustainable lifestyle to the users4. How computational design in architecture expands future possibilities for humanity has been evident in these following projects.
Freya Matthews, Reinhabiting Reality (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2005), 135. Tony Fry, Design Futuring: Sustainability, ethics and new practice (Oxford: Berg, 2009), 1-6. 3 Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby, Speculative Everything: Design, fiction and social dreaming (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2013), 2. 4 Patrik Schumacher, The Autopoiesis of Architecture: A new framework for architecture (Hoboken: Wiley, 2011), 2-4. 1 2
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CASE STUDY 1
- Project Name : Beijing Olympic Stadium - Architect : Herzog and de Meuron - Year : 2004-2008 - Location : Beijing, China
With its interwoven structural components
encapsulating the whole building resembling the shape of a bird’s nest, this building has been regarded as one of the most radical building in the world ever since its completion completed in 20085. Herzog and de Meuron designed this Olympic Stadium with the core purpose of developing a functional building while reflecting the identity of the site in order to create a new urban typology which has the ability to attract and generate public life in that specific area of Beijing6. This aspiration arose from the concern over Beijing which had turned into an over-urbanized city where the connection to nature was no longer significant. Thus, through the advanced design computation which allows the realization of detailed geometric configura-
tions of its façade systems, Herzog and de Meuron successfully created what seems like an artificial forest which evokes the feeling of being close to nature while experiencing the site. Furthermore, this notion was even more enhanced by the detailed composition of each components making up the whole structure which connects the outside city and the interior of the stadium while maintaining its autonomous urban site quality7. Therefore, this project clearly demonstrated the power of analytical design in creating a new architectural typology which responds to the cultural context of the site while establishing the long lost connection between human and nature through its profound compositional techniques.
Xuefei Ren, “Architecture and Nation Building in the Age of Globalization: Construction of the National Stadium of Beijing for the 2008 Olympics,” Journal of Urban Affairs 30, 2 (2008): 182. 6 Jean-Francois Chevrier, Herzog & De Meuron: 2005/2010 (Madrid: El Croquis Editorial, 2010), 130. 7 Chevrier, Herzog & De Meuron: 2005/2010, 131. 5
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Figure 3. Night View of Beijing Olympic Stadium
Figure 4. Aerial View of Beijing Olympic Stadium
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CASE STUDY 2
- Project Name : Guangzhou Opera House - Architect : Zaha Hadid - Year : 2003-2010 - Location : Guangzhou, China
Shaped to appear like two pebbles on the river bank, Guangzhou Opera House is one of the most aesthetically advanced buildings which not only is fully functional but also critiques the current lifestyle of people which tends to neglect the importance of nature. Therefore, this building which overlooks the Pearl River did not only validate the city as one of Asia’s most prominent cultural centers, but also promote the idea of using conceptual digitation methods to bring people closer to the idea of nature through its unorthodox forms8. This Opera House challenged the way people perceive analytical architecture through the expressiveness of the whole complex which was designed to capture the unpredictability
and dynamic of nature9. Furthermore, Hadid used the juxtaposing geometries and integration of forms in this monumental structure as a criticism upon the chaotic modernized city. Therefore, this building is one example of how the use of parametricism in architecture offers a significant advantage of structural malleability which could be utilized towards internal and external adaptation to trigger emotional response of the users10. Subsequently, this project serves as one example of how architects of this digital era have the power to use their design to challenge people’s mindset and lifestyle in creating a better future11. In conclusion, it can be seen form the projects discussed how computational design has the power to help us understand what is it to be done to create a better future.
Aaron Betsky, The Complete Zaha Hadid (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), 161. Ji-seong Jeong, Zaha Hadid (Seoul, Korea: CA Press, 2009), 41. 10 Michele Porcu, Zaha Hadid (Milano: Electa, 2009), 21. 11 Dunne and Raby, Speculative Everything: Design, fiction and social dreaming, 6. 8 9
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Figure 5. The Twin Boulders of Guangzhou Opera House
Figure 6. Main Concert Hall inside the Opera House
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Figure 7. Parametric Design Rendering
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A.2. Design Computation
The usage of computers in architectural de-
tions in a form which is comprehensible by human14. Therefore, the integration of digital modeling software in architectural design has provided an opportunity for designers to make possible the use of continuous curves and surfaces which is prominently featured in contemporary architecture15.
Before the invention and development of computational design, people rely on the designer’s familiarity with formal reasoning and experience-based reasoning to reveal and frame the problem in order to make amenable solutions12. Consequently, most of the time, the design products generated were generally restrained to Euclidean thought and platonic solids due to technical and conceptual thinking limitation before the invention of digital designing methods13.
Eventually, this technological advancement in design led to the ability to create algorithmic procedures and the visualization of parametric design thinking which highlights the dependency relationships between objects and their components and opens up the possibility of the construction of broad range of geometric forms16.
sign process has created a number of benefits including the opportunity of creating a range of conceivable and achievable geometries which had never been possible in the past due to various technical limitations.
On the other hand, computers are superb analytical engines which could follow a line of reasoning to its logical conclusion faultlessly and present the results of these manipula-
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The following projects will demonstrate how computation in architectural design process has opened up the possibilities for creating a range of complex geometries which better facilitate designers in finding solutions through their designs.
Yehuda E. Kalay, Architecture’s new media: principles, theories, and methods of computer-aided design (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2004),
Kogan Page, CAD and robotics in architecture and construction: proceedings of the joint international conference at Marseilles, 25-27 June (New York: Nichols Pub. Co., 1986), 42. 14 Kalay, Architecture’s new media: principles, theories, and methods of computer-aided design, 4. 15 Branko Kolarevic, Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing (New York: Spon Press, 2003), 15. 16 Rivka Oxman and Robert Oxman, Theories of the digital in architecture (London: Routledge, 2014), 3. 13
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CASE STUDY 1
- Project Name : The Metropol Parasol - Architect : J. Mayer H. Architects - Year : 2011 - Location : Seville, Spain
With its free flowing form, this project has
demonstrated the role of computer-aided design process in creating a new language of architecture while maintaining the site’s formal identity. For instance, this structure was constructed based on the qualities found on site. Because this building was built above a historical site, J. Mayer H. Architects used this as an opportunity to create a ‘creative code’ which allows them to set up a constant dialogue between the existing site and the parasols. This coding was made by adopting a pixel pattern into the shape of the plaza’s current landscape and taking clues from the excavations beneath the surface. This pixel would then expand and shrink in response to the different weather conditions, creating an elastic deformation of the urban
site with continuous transition between its elements17. The grid ceiling of this structure was designed in such fluid manner using parametric design softwares that it offers a strong contrast to the Gothic and Moorish city fabric surrounding the location. In addition, the timber used to make this structure was carefully connected to each other with a special glue developed to resist the high temperatures in Seville and hoisted strategically to preserve the archaeological ruins18. Which further elaborate the power of computational methods in facilitating architecture design creation in the modern era. In conclusion, this parasol structure has become a tangible proof of how digital computation and advanced fabrication method could help designers to realize what seems like an unbuildable form.
J. Mayer H., “Metropol Parasol, Seville,” Architectural Design 82, 5 (2012): 71-72. C.C. Sullivan, “Made in the shade: J. Mayer H.’s Metropol Parasol brings futuristic flair to the medieval heart of Seville, Spain,” Interior Design 82, 8 (2011): 137. 17 18
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Figure 8. The Metropol Parasol
Figure 9. Aerial View of the Metropol Parasol
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CASE STUDY 2
- Project Name : BMW Welt - Architect : Coop Himmelblau - Year : 2001-2007 - Location : Munich, Germany
The use of computation in the design pro-
cess has not only helped the production of more complicated building designs, but also allowed designers to implement a more sustainable practice in the structure. For instance due to its liquid parametric design quality, this building has been considered as one tangible example of how co-evolution between structural and computational intel¬ligences has to opened up new properties and possibilities in architectural design especially in terms of the range of conceivable and achievable geometries19. From the overall design of this building, it is apparent how the architect pri¬oritized the idea of free sight lines and visual interaction between the different areas in the BMW Welt as well as its surroundings20. Subsequently, this shows how computational design and advanced material fabrication has facilitated architects in realizing differ-ent com-
plex shapes and integrates them to building forms. Furthermore, this building was not only designed to create an aesthetically pleasing structure, but it was mainly made with the aim of saving energy. This goal is then achieved by using the enormous glass hall as a tool for gathering heat inside the building as well as natural ventilation system which eventually reduces the need for heating and cooling21. Moreover, the glass panels encapsulating the façade of the main hall help to obscure the relations between daylight and artificial light in order to enhance people’s experience inside the hall. Therefore, this building is one example of how computation in architecture has helped designers to realize complicated structures as well as features that are not available in the past.
Dieter Georg Adlmaier-Herbst and Bettina Maisch, “The potential of corporate architecture in corporate communication,” Architecture and stages of the experience city 3-4 (2009): 6-7. 20 Coop Himmelblau, Beyond the blue (Munchen: Prestel Publishing, 2007), 141. 21 Aleksander Serafin, “Expressionistic form in the cosmopolitan works by Coop Himmelblau,” Architektura Zeszyt 10, 16 (2015): 38-39. 19
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Figure 10. Facade of the BMW Welt, Munich
Figure 11. Ceiling details from inside the building
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Figure 12.Reimagined columns by Michael Hansmeyer
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A.3. Composition / Generation
To begin with, digital technologies have
become a large part of the modern life and it has significantly changed the course and workflow of architectural practice. It should be noted how computation allows designers to expand their abilities in dealing with complex situations by processing information and interaction between elements in a specific environment and provides a framework to negotiate and influence the datasets of information22. Subsequently, computer generative modeling processes become integral to the practice of modern architects as it possess the potential to provide inspiration and generate complex and unexpected outcomes which surpasses the intellect of the designer23. The increasing dependency on computerization and design computation has caused
architects to move away from compositional techniques, traditional geometry and experiential approach24. Nonetheless, although this methodology started to be seen as limiting the personal creativity of the designer, the benefits and opportunities that are yet to be achieved through this technique overweighs the mentioned shortcomings. Furthermore, computation in architecture has the ability to produce a new design typology by generating and exploring architecture spaces and concepts through the modifications of algorithms which relate directly to the element placement, configuration as well as relationships between each element25. Subsequently, the impact of the application of computation design practices and research can be seen in various projects in the world, as discussed in the following case studies.
Brady Peters, “Computation works: the building algorithmic tought,” Architectural Design 83, 3 (2013): 10. Robert A. Wilson and Frank C. Keil, The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences (London: MIT Press, 1999), 11. 24 Z. Katai, “The challenge of promoting algorithmic thinking of both - sciences and humanities – oriented learners,” Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 31 (2015): 287. 25 Peters, “Computation works: the building algorithmic tought,” 11. 22 23
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CASE STUDY 1
- Project Name : Project Distortion - Architect : CITA, Department 8 - Year : 2010 - Location : Pompehu
The use of generation in design process has
created significant impacts in architecture, both which are seen as beneficial and some that are regarded differently. However, it can be seen from this project how algorithmbased architecture could create an adaptable form by generating various parameters to control the desired outcomes. Firstly, this structure was generated within a folding and crumbling matrix using hinged equilateral triangles as the basis of the shape. Hence, it is designed based on textile behavior which was driven by a number of parameters such as space, acoustic and social interaction. Subsequently, this mobile parametric installation has the ability to mix light, sound, space and infinitely altered reflections, creating a binary state of material and experiential
expression which contradicts one’s existing perception of space and social interaction26. It is apparent how the collaboration of digital visualization and fabrication process has facilitated the realization of this reconfigurable pavilion. Furthermore, this project demonstrated how computer algorithms have the ability to incorporate several invisible factors and abstractions in order to help designers to address several problems at once by simply developing specific formulas to be evaluated by computers27. Therefore, the use of design generation in the design of this pavilion has opened up a new realm of possibilities for architects to actually orchestrate not only space, but also the experience and emotion of the users.
Figure 13. Algorithm-based design approach for Project Distortion
“Project Distortion – Reality altering parametric installation,” Lidija Grozdanic, last modified July 24, 2012, http://www.evolo.us/architecture/ project-distortion-reality-altering-parametric-installation/. 27 Katai, “The challenge of promoting algorithmic thinking of both - sciences and humanities – oriented learners,” 289. 26
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Figure 14. View of the Project Distortion
Figure 15. Interior view of the Project Distortion Pavilion
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CASE STUDY 1
- Project Name : Cliff House - Architect : Kokkugia - Year : 2012 - Location : Unbuilt
This
contemporary parametric project is one example of how design generation has transformed the critical design decision and operation from macro to micro scale, in which detail is redefined as generative procedure instead of merely a finer articulation of a larger form28. The Cliff House is a project made to analyse how composite fibre architecture operates in extreme conditions such as wind and static loads by exploring agent-based behavioural design methods across the scales of form, structure and materials. Therefore, each element interacting within the parameter was encoded individually at local scale which in turn will create a complex order at the macro scale.
By applying this method, the geometry produced was not discrete or reducible, but it negotiates the complex behaviour of structure and ornament, creating distinct characteristics which constantly shift throughout the project. Furthermore, the transparency of the composite material is used to highlight the embedded network and hierarchies within the structure, while registering the ripples and converging strands that blur the connections between structure and ornaments29. Hence, not only did algorithm have changed the way designers approach in finding solutions to a problem it also transformed the general understanding of how details can posit as a local procedure to create a complex formation system30.
Roland Snooks, “Detail as procedural information” Architecture Australia 101, 1 (2012): 106. “Cliff House,” Kokkugia, last modified 2012, http://www.kokkugia.com/cliff-house. 30 Snooks, “Detail as procedural information”, 106. 28 29
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Figure 16. Visualization of the Cliff House attached in rocks
Figure 17. Details of the composite fabric of the Cliff House
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Figure 18. Wire configuration by Biothing
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A.4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this first part of the journal ex-
plained why the advancement in technology has transformed the way architects think and work as a designer. To begin with, as shown from the several precedents in the previous parts, the development of algorithmic and computational processes have evidently increased the accuracy and efficiency of design process and reduced limitations in the conception of the designs31. Moreover, the use of this methodology also transforms the way designers think and approach emerging problems in this anthropocentric era. Therefore, my intended design approach for this studio is to learn from the present site conditions in order to create a more sustain-
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able solution by designing based on the information provided by the natural system. By implementing this design methodology, I would be able to accurately identify the main problems within the site and create a better habitat for the organisms in the site which had been substantially decreasing in the past decades due to the impact of industrialization and pollution around the area. Furthermore, the existing algorithmic design software has made it possible for me as an architect to take in to considerations various complex external and internal factors through scripting and parameters to understand how the system works in the site in order to generate a better solution to the brief.
Tony Fry, Design Futuring: Sustainability, ethics and new practice, 3-6.
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Figure 19. L-system by Michael Hansmeyerg
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A.5. Learning Outcomes
Compared to the beginning of the semes-
ter, I feel that my understanding of design and architecture has been transformed. Before, I have never really appreciated the existence of all the design software I usually use for doing my assignments. However, I realized now that they are made to open up new possibilities for better designing and help us discover new ways of thinking. Moreover, by reflecting on how algorithmic computation works I also learned that in order to design a structure which could impact the users, it is important for the architects to understand its relation to other disciplines. Because architects should not only create forms merely for aesthetic pleasure, but it
is part of their responsibilities to use their knowledge to contribute in making the world a better place to live in. If I had known how to use parametric design software in my first semester of university, I think I would have been able to create more complex design products which could have helped me expressing my ideas better. Moreover, I did not even know how to use Rhino in my first year, so my projects were made solely using physical models. Subsequently, I was only able to plan a design which stemmed from a basic string of knowledge. Therefore, learning about various powerful design tools has equipped me with the opportunity to explore and even realize my thoughts and ideas in making better design outcomes.
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List of Figures Figure 1. “Top View”, taken from https://annazezula.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/top-view.jpg, ac- cessed on March 6, 2017. Figure 2. “Shark Skin Smart Skin”, taken from http://www.tedngai.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/ sharkA01.jpg, accessed on March 6, 2017. Figure 3. “Beijing National Stadium”, taken from http://static.thousandwonders.net/Beijing.National. Stadium.original.2182.jpg, accessed on March 6, 2017. Figure 4. “Beijing National Stadium”, taken from https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/ f6/54/5d/f6545db4b90864b4af14cccafe2782de.jpg, accessed on March 6, 2017. Figure 5. “Guangzhou Opera House”, taken from http://iwan.com/wp-content/uploads- iwan/2013/07/3Guangzhou-Opera-ZHA-7418-690x460.jpg, accessed on March 4, 2017. Figure 6. “Guangzhou Opera House”, taken from http://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/guangzhou- opera-house/, accessed on March 4, 2017. Figure 7. “Parametric Design Rendering”, taken from http://dahmo01group01sem03.weebly.com/up- loads/5/3/7/2/53726251/7978360_orig.jpg, accessed on March 12, 2017. Figure 8. “The Metropol Parasol”, taken from https://www.yatzer.com/sites/default/files/article_im ages/2577/Jurgen-Mayer-H-Seville-Spain-photo-Fernando-Alda-yatzer-11.jpg, accessed on March 15, 2017. Figure 9. “Aerial view of the Metropol Parasol”,taken from http://www.arcspace.com/CropUp/-/me dia/756913/Metropol-Parasol-J-Maher-H-13-franck6090.jpg, accessed on March 15, 2017. Figure 10. “Facade of the BMW Welt, Munich”, taken from http://cdn.bmwblog.com/wp-content/up-
loads/bmw-welt-16.JPG, accessed on March 12, 2017.
FIgure 11. “Ceiling details from inside the building”, taken from https://www.mimoa.eu/images/6261_l.
jpg, accessed on March 12, 2017.
Figure 12. “Reimagined columns by Michael Hansmeyer”, taken from http://www.michael-hansmeyer.
com/images/columns/columns1.jpg, accessed on March 13, 2017.
Figure 13. “Algorithm-based design approach for Project Distortion”, taken from https://kadk.dk/sites/ default/files/styles/section_image/public/section-images/a4_0.jpg?itok=r2-00cER, accessed on March 14, 2017. Figure 14. “View of the Project Distortion”, taken from https://kadk.dk/sites/default/files/styles/section_ image/public/section-images/a_1.jpg?itok=UsaqInef, accessed on March 14, 2017. Figure 15. “Interior view of the Project Distortion Pavilion”, taken from https://kadk.dk/sites/default/ files/styles/section_image/public/section-images/a3_1.jpg?itok=2UnQW3Xu, accessed on March 14, 2017.
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Figure 16. “Visualization of the Cliff House attached in rocks”, taken from http://payload197.cargocol lective.com/1/2/68467/6249780/01_kokkugia_cliff%20house%20-%20render_01_640.jpg, ac- cessed on March 14, 2017. Figure 17. “Details of the composite fabric of the Cliff House”, taken from http://payload197.cargocol lective.com/1/2/68467/6249780/_crop_Final%20copy_640.jpg, accessed on March 14, 2017. Figure 18. “Wire configuration by Biothing”, taken from http://www.biothing.org/wp-content/up loads/2011/09/wire.jpg, accessed on March 16, 2017. Figure 19. “L-System by Michael Hansmeyer”, taken from http://www.michael-hansmeyer.com/images/l- systems/l-systems1.jpg, accessed on March 16, 2017.
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References Adlmaier-Herbst, Dieter Georg and Bettina Maisch, “The potential of corporate architecture in corpo
rate communication”. Architecture and stages of the experience city 3-4 (2009): 1-10.
Betsky, Aaron. The Complete Zaha Hadid. London: Thames & Hudson, 2009. Chevrier, Jean-Francois. Herzog & De Meuron: 2015/2010. Madrid: El Croquis Editorial, 2010. Dunne, Anthony, and Fiona Raby. Speculative Everything: Design, fiction and social dreaming. Cam
bridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2013.
Fry, Tony. Design Futuring: Sustainability, ethics and new practice. Oxford: Berg, 2009. Himmelblau, Coop. Beyond the blue. Munchen: Prestel Publishing, 2007. Jeong, Ji-Seong. Zaha Hadid. Seoul, Korea: CA Press, 2009. Kalay, Yehuda E. Architecture’s new media: principles, theories, and methods of computer-aided design.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2004.
Katai, Z. “The challenge of promoting algorithmic thinking of both - sciences and humanities – oriented learners”. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 31 (2015): 287-299. Kolarevic, Branko. Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing. New York: Spon Press, 2003. Matthews, Freya. Reinhabiting Reality. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2005. Mayer H., J. “Metropol Parasol, Seville”. Architectural Design 82, 5 (2012): 70-73. Oxman, Rivka and Robert Oxman. Theories of the digital in architecture. London: Routledge, 2014. Page, Kogan. CAD and robotics in architecture and construction: proceedings of the joint international
conference at Marseilles, 25-27 June. New York: Nichols Pub. Co., 1986.
Peters, Brady. “Computation works: the building algorithmic tought”. Architectural Design 83, 3 (2013): 8-15. Porcu, Michele. Zaha Hadid. Milano: Electa, 2009. Ren, Xuefei. “Architecture and Nation Building in the Age of Globalization: Construction of the National
Stadium of Beijing for the 2008 Olympics.” Journal of Urban Affairs 30, 2 (2008): 175-190.
Schumacher, Patrik. The Autopoiesis of Architecture: A new framework for architecture. Hoboken: Wiley, 2011. Serafin, Aleksander. “Expressionistic form in the cosmopolitan works by Coop Himmelblau”. Architek-
tura Zeszyt 10, 16 (2015): 33-40.
Snooks, Roland. “Detail as procedural information”. Architecture Australia 101, 1 (2012): 106-107. Sullivan, C.C., “Made in the shade: J. Mayer H.’s Metropol Parasol brings futuristic flair to the medieval
heart of Seville, Spain,” Interior Design 82, 8 (2011): 137-139.
Wilson, Robert A. and Frank C. Keil. The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. London: MIT
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Press, 1999.
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