hemisphere A BOOK OF ARCHITECTURAL DOME
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Dedicated to architectural historians, designers, my family and friends.
hagia sophia, istanbul
04
537 AD
02
pa n t h e o n , r o m e
introduction
126 AD
1 AD
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content
colophon
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bibliography 48
maj mahal, ut tar pradesh
1983 AD
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i l d u o m o, f l o r e n c e
1463 AD
36
content
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introduction
introduction
a dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory.
corbel domes and true domes have been found in the ancient Middle East in modest buildings and tombs. The construction of the first technically advanced true domes began in the Roman Architectural Revolution, when they were frequently used by the Romans to shape large interior spaces of temples and public buildings, such as the Pantheon. This tradition continued unabated after the adoption of Christianity in the Byzantine (East Roman) religious and secular architecture, culminating in the revolutionary pendentive dome of the 6th-century church Hagia Sophia. Squinches, the technique of making a transition from a square shaped room to a circular dome, was most likely invented by the ancient Persians. The Sassanid Empire initiated the construction of the first large-scale domes in Persia, with such royal buildings as the Palace of Ardashir, Sarvestan and Ghal’eh Dokhtar. With the Muslim conquest of Greek-Roman Syria, the Byzantine architectural style became a major influence on Muslim societies. Indeed the use of domes as a feature of Islamic architecture has gotten its roots from Roman Greater-Syria (see Dome of the Rock).
an original tradition of using multiple domes was developed in the church architecture in Russia, which had adopted Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium. Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted, and typically have a carcass and an outer shell made of wood or metal. The onion dome became another distinctive feature in the Russian architecture, often in combination with the tented roof.
domes in western europe became popular again during the Renaissance period, reaching a zenith in popularity during the early 18th century Baroque period. Reminiscent of the Roman senate, during the 19th century they became a feature of grand civic architecture. As a domestic feature the dome is less common, tending only to be a feature of the grandest houses and palaces during the Baroque period.
construction of domes in the muslim world reached its peak during the 16th – 18th centuries, when the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires, ruling an area of the World compromising North Africa, the Middle East and South- and Central Asia, applied lofty domes to their religious buildings to create a sense of heavenly transcendence. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Shah Mosque and the Badshahi Mosque are primary examples of this style of architecture.
many domes, particularly those from the renaissance and baroque periods of architecture, are crowned by a lantern or cupola, a Medieval innovation which not only serves to admit light and vent air, but gives an extra dimension to the decorated interior of the dome.
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04
Pantheon, Rome
Among the most interesting domes structurally and architecturally are those shown in the accompanying table. The size of a dome can be measured by the span of its base, and this measurement has been rounded off in the table. What is remarkable is that the oldest of these domes is also the largest. The 2nd-century Pantheon that stands in Rome today was a brick-faced concrete replacement for a temple that was destroyed by fire.
location Regione IX Circus Flaminius
year 126 AD
patron Publius Aelius Hadrianus
type of dome Oval Dome
type of structure Roman temple
related Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Hadrian, Apollodorus of Damascus
05
chapter one | patheon, rome The dome itself is supported by a series of arches that run horizontally round. Romans had perfected the use of arches which helped sustain the weight of their magnanimous buildings.
pantheon history
1.1
for many historians, the pantheon represents a kind of culmination of the “Roman architectural revolution� brought to fruition during the course of the first century through the adoption of high-quality concrete that could be more readily used for the construction of curvilinear architectural forms. Unlike simple lime mortar, which is produced by adding water to a mixture of quicklime and sand, and sets when all the water has been evaporated into the atmosphere or absorbed into the sur06
rounding masonry. Roman pozzolana (after Pozzuoli, where it was first diseovered) sets by eombining ehemieally with water in the same way as modern Portland eement. These eements do not need to dry out as does lime mortar; in faet they are "hydraulie" in that they will set even when immersed. In addition to the obvious advantage for underwater eonstruetion, large batehes of pozzolana eement will eure relatively rapidly, even in damp eonditions. It eould thus be used for the massive, primary struetural elements of large buildings. Furthermore, the early eompressive strength of pozzolana eement is far superior to that of lime mortar. Nonetheless, one must be eautious in eharaeterizing the resistance of eonerete to eraeking eaused by tension forĂŠes tending to pull it apart. Although modem concrete based on eontrolled-eured, high-quality Portland eement exhibits measurable tensile strength (the level of stress causing a material to fail in tension), its tensile strength is taken to be nil in reinforeed eonerete design. Experience has dietated that reinforeing steel is always required in regions of a strueture where ealeulations indieate that tension will be present. Even more important, in view of our later diseussion of the state of the Pantheon fabrie, it is also required where temperature changes are likely to be encountered.
1.1 The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini.
a r c h i t e c t u r e | o va l d o m e
no other single building has captured the attention of architects, particularly since the Renaissance, as has the Pantheon. Constructed between ca. 118 and 128, it has an interior space of awesome scale, and it is the most completely preserved building of the Imperial Roman capital. The 43.4-meter clear span of the dome was un-matched for well over a millennum, and not substantially surpassed until the adoption of steel and reinforced concrete in the modern era.
the enormous influence of the pantheon is easily traced through numerous buildings from the later Roman period, and again from the beginning of the Renaissance well into the twentieth century. Earlier prototypes, though, are not so readily identified. Domed buildings were not uncommon before the time of the Pantheon, but we know of none that even approached its scale. The largest of the earlier, extant domes seems to have been part of a bath complex at Baiae. Dating from the first half of the prceding century, the socalled “Temple of Mercury“ has a clear span of 21.5 meters.
since the time of its construction, the bold, brilliantly simple schema of Hadrian's Pantheon has inspired much emulation, commendation, and even fear. Modern commentators tend to view the building as a high point in an “architectural revolution” brought about mainly through the Roman development of a superior pozzolana concrete that lent itself to the forming of unitary, three-dimensional structures. Other factors cited for the technical success of the Pantheon include the use of a series of massive, concentric stepped rings and the lightening of the dome by coffering and gradated, light-weight aggregates. To investigate these theories, and thereby to understand late Roman design rationale better, a numerical computer modeling study of the dome structure was undertaken. It yielded several surprises.
analysis revealed that the stepped rings induced higher, rather than lower, critical stresses in an uncracked dome model. But by allowing the model to crack freely, a salutary effect was caused by the rings.
configuration of the dome seems to indicate that the builders understood this — which points to the conclusion that late Roman architectural development was not so closely tied to structural innovation as has
on the floor level
that house statues.
arches correspond
to the eight bays
itsouter face. The
through the drum
from its innerto
eight round headed
been generally believed. arches which run
arches. The arches rest on eight piers
which was discerned to act structurally as an array of arches. In fact, the
which support
tecture. The structure of the Pantheon
is comprised of a series of intesecting
features of the Pantheon is the Archi-
Probably one of the most fascinating
The cracked model closely simulated the behavior of the actual dome,
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chapter one | patheon, rome
pa n t h e o n pat t e r n s
soon after hadrian became emperor, work began on the pantheon, the temple of all the gods, one of the best-preserved buildings of antiquity and most influential designs in architectural history. The Pantheon reveals the full potential of concrete, both as a building material and as a means for shaping architectural space. Originally, visitors approached the Pathon from a columnar courtyard, and the temple itself, like temples in Roman forums, stood at one narrow end of the enclosure. Its facade of eight Corinthian columns—almost all that could be seen from ground level in antiquity—was a bow to tradition. Everything else about the Pantheon was revolutionary. Behind the columnar porch is an immense concrete cylinder covered by a huge hemispherical dome 142 feet in diameter.
if the pantheon’s design is simplicity itself, executing that design required all the ingenuity of Hadrian’s engineers. They built up the cylindrical drum level by level using concrete of varied composition. Extremely hard and durable basalt went into the mix for the foundations, 08
and the builders gradually modified the “recipe” until, at the top, feather weight pumice replaced stones to lighten the load.
below the dome, much of the original marble veneer of the walls, niches, and floor has survived. In the Pantheon, visitors can get a sense, as almost nowhere else, of how magnificent the interiors of Roman concrete buildings could be. But despite the luxurious skin of the Pantheon's interior, the sense experienced on first entering the structure is not the weight of the enclosing walls but the space they enclose. In pre-Roman architecture, the form of the enclosed space was determined by the placement of the solids, which did not so much shape space as interrupt it. Roman architects were the first to conceive of architecture in terms of units of space that could be shaped by the enclosures. The Pantheon's interior is a single unified, self-sufficient whole, uninterrupted by supporting solids. It encloses visitors without imprisoning them. opening through the oculus to the drifting clouds, the blue sky, the sun, and the gods. In this space, the architect used light not merely to illuminate the darkness but to create drama and underscore the interior shape's symbolism. On a sunny day as the sun moves across the sky itself. Escaping from the noise and torrid heat of a Roman summer day into the Pantheon's cool, calm, and mystical immensity is an experience alsmost impossible to describe and one that should not be missed.
a r c h i t e c t u r e | o va l d o m e
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chapter one | patheon, rome
a r c h i t e c t u r e | o va l d o m e
modeling t h e pa n t h e o n analysis of the pantheon structure was carried out using a three dimensional, numerical-computer (finite-element) modeling code developed by Jean-Hervé Prévost at Princeton University.« In this approach, the configuration of a building structure is described by a series of coordinates taken at finite intervals. These coordinates define a mesh that becomes the geometric model for the computer. A series of equations related to loading conditions and the properties of the building materials are then used to calculate the displacements of all the mesh points in order to obtain an overall deflection pattern for the model. Through equations of elasticity, the deflection pattern then gives information about the distribution of structural forces throughout the building.
to simplify the analysis, a typical meridional section for the
The actual structure of the wall, which incorporates as well a large number of great relieving arches, is complex and has received much attention in the literature (see, e.g., MacDonald, 1982, 106ff.). But this construction is not carried into the dome. M.E. Blake
three-dimensional finite-element model of the Pantheon structure was
and D. Taylor- Bishop draw attention
specified. Because of the extensive openings in the cylindrical wall—fully
to the fact that "it cannot be empha-
one-quarter of its volume is taken out by statue bays, passageways, and
sized too strongly that the framework
other voidsno typical section actually exists. But since our interest is cen-
of the arches . . . was part of [the]
tered on the functioning of the dome and the conceptual design of the basic structural configuration, we need not here deal in detail with the walL’ In fact, it is possible to design a solid wall that provides support to the dome which is similar to that provided by the actual, voided wall. It was determined that a 5.5-meterthick, solid cylindrical wall provides the
wall construction and did not follow the curve of the dome. It was these relieving arches that led to so many fantastic but utterly erroneous theories of [internalribbed] dome construction" (Roman Construction in Italy
same overall structural stiffness as the six-meter-thick actual wall; and
from Nerva through the Antonines,
this equivalent wall was used throughout the analysis.
Philadelphia, 1973, 46).
a second simplification made for the modeled, typical building section concerns the structural effect of the dome coffering. The coffering, which forms a waffle pattern beginning just above the springing and ending several meters from the oculus, is actually relatively shallow compared to the full dome thickness, which is taken to be uniform at 1.5 meters above the stepped rings. A volumetric analysis indicated that less than five percent of the total dome weight is taken out by the coffering. And since it decreases the stiffness of the dome to only a small degree, the coffering effect could be neglected in the finite-element model. Another consideration, evident from the building plan, is that the porch plays no role in the supporting structure of the dome. The porch is in fact hardly connected to the rotunda. The base of the rotunda is assumed to be fixed to perfectly rigid foundations, that is, held rigidly against all displacements. The dome itself is assumed to have been erected on timber centering so that, in effect, dome forces were "turned on" all at once with the removal of the centering. Most important, for the first series of model tests, tensile stresses throughout are assumed to be of low enough magnitude so that the structural fabric of the building remains integral; that is, cracking is nowhere permitted.i° Finally, dimensions and data on the gradation of materials used in the construction were those reported by K. de Fine Licht." The density of the brick-faced concrete used in the cylindrical wall is taken to be 1750 kg/m. This value is reduced to 1600 kg/m in the lower region of the dome, and to 1350 kg/ m^ for the upper region of the dome (compared with the 2200 kg/m^ density of the concrete used in the Pantheon foundations, which is also the density of standard modern concrete).
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chapter one | patheon, rome
1.2
12
a r c h i t e c t u r e | o va l d o m e 1.2 The interior of the Pantheon in 2011. 1.3 Beam in the dome of the
Behind the columnar porch is an immense concrete cylinder covered by a huge hemispherical dome 142 feet in diameter. The dome’s top is also 142 feet from the floor. The design is thus based on the intersection of two circles (one horizontal, the other vertical).
Pantheon.
another reason given for the success of the pantheon dome was the use of a new structural device, the series of concentric stepped rings arrayed about the outer surface of the dome." According to W.L. MacDonald, "the rings add to the load over the critical or haunch portion of the great vault and function as buttresses, helping to bring the structure into stability through compression."' Indeed, the reproduction of the rings on many of the Pantheon derivatives would seem to imply that later designers shared in this view. A final, usual observation is that the designer aimed for lightness by coffering the underside of the dome and using a lightweight aggregate in the upper reaches of the building, whose density is significantly less than that of the lower, supporting structure. Our investigation of the dome, based on modern structural analysis techniques, was aimed at evaluating these theories, and thereby gaining some new insight into ancient techniques of large-scale building.
0 50 75 100 feet 0 15 30 meters
1.3
Lateral section of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118-125CE
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14
15
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
The Church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity,its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the commemoration of the Birth of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ. Although sometimes referred to as Sancta Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek word for wisdom, its full name in Greek means “Shrine of the Holy Wisdom of God”.] Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architectureand is said to have “changed the history of architecture.” 16
location Istanbul (historically Constantinople) Turkey
year 537 AD
designer Isidore of Miletus Anthemius of Tralles
dome Polygonal Dome
type Eastern Orthodox Cathedral (537–1204) Roman Catholic Cathedral (1204–1261) Eastern Orthodox Cathedral (1261–1453) Imperial Mosque (1453–1931) Museum (1935–present)
material Ashlar, brick
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chapter two | hagia sophia, istanbul
h i s t o ry o f hagia sophia
the most important monument of early byzantine art is hagia sophia, the Church of Holy Wisdom, in Constantinople. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus Of Miletus, a mathematician and a physicist— neither man an architect in the modern sense of the word—designed and built the church for Justinian between 532 and 537. They began work immediately after fire destroyed an earlier church on the site during the Nika riot in January 532. Justinian intended the new church to rival all other churches ever built and even to surpass in scale and magnificence the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. The result was Byzantium’s grandest building and one of the supreme accomplishments of world architecture.
hagia sophia’s dimensions are formidable for any structure not built of steel. In plan, it is about 279 feet long and 240 feet wide. The dome is 108 feet in diameter, and its crown rises some 180 feet above the pavement. (The first dome collapsed in 559. It replacement required repair in the 9th and 14th centuries. The present dome is greater in height 18
and more stable than the original.) In scale, Hagia Sophia revals the architectural wonders of Rome: the Pantheon, the Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Constantine. In exterior view, the great dome dominated the structure, but the building’s present external aspects are much changed from their original appearance. Huge buttresses were added to the Justinianic design, and after the Ottoman conquest of 1453m when Hagia Sophia became a mosque, the Turks constructed four towering minarets. The building, secularized in the 20th century is now a museum.
2.1
architecture | polygonal dome
2.1 A view of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul 2.2 19th-century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sack of Constantinople
Who…
in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia
shall sing the marble meadows gathered upon the mighty walls and spreading pavement… speckled Phrygian stone, sometimes rosy mixed with white, sometimes gleaming with purple and silver flowers. There is a wealth of porphyry stone, too, besprinkled with of Hagia Sophia’s interior:
idly described the original magni icence
maintaining silence in the palace), viv-
Silentiary (an usher responsible for
member of Justinian’s court, Paul the
for the building’s interior. A poet and
massive scale) scarcely prepare visitors
(which in this case also disguise the
and unpretentiousness of the exterior
The characteristic Byzantine plainness
[There is stone] from the green flanks of Carystus [and] the
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little bright stars… You may see the bright green stone of Laconia and the glittering marble with sawy veins found in the deep gullies of the Iasian peaks, exhibiting slanting streaks of bloodred and livid white; the pale yellow with swirling red from the Lydian headland; the glittering crocus-like golden stone [of Libya]; … glittering [Celtic] black [with] here and there an abundance of milk; the pale onyx with glint of precious metal; and [Thessalian marble] in parts vivid green not unlike emerald… It has spots resembling snow next to flashes of black so that in one stone various beauties mingle.
2.2
chapter two | hagia sophia, istanbul
the polygonal dome
the feature that distinguishes hagia sophia from equally lavishly revetted Roman buildings such as the Pantheon is the special mystical quality of the light flooding the interior. The soaring canopy-like dome that dominates the inside as well as the outside of the church rides on a halo of light from windows in the dome’s base. Visitors to Hagia Sophia from Justinian’s time to today have been struck by the light within the church and its effect on the human spirit. The 40 windows at the base of the dome create the illusion the dome rests on the light pouring through them.
procopius observed that the dome looked as if it were suspended by “a golden chain from Heaven” and that “the space is not illuminated by the sun from the outside, but that the radiance is generated within, so great an abundance of light bathes this shrine all around.”2 Paul the Silentiary compared the dome to “the firmament which rests on air” and described the vaulting as covered with “gilded tesserae from which a glittering stream of golden rays pours abundantly and strikes men’s 20
eyes with irresistible force. It is as if one were gazing at the midday sun in spring.” Thus, Hagia Sophia has a vastness of space shot through with light, and a central dome that appears to be supported by the light it admits. Light is the mystic element—light that glitters in the mosaics, shines forth from the marbles, and pervades and defines spaces that escape definition. Light seems to dissolve material substance and transform it into an abstract spiritual vision. Pseudo-Dionysius, perhaps the most influential mystic philosopher of the age, wrote in The Divine Names: “Light comes from the Good and . . . light is the visual image of God.”
2.3
2.4
2.4
architecture | polygonal dome
“Light comes from the Good and . . . light is the visual image of God.�
Emperor Alexander mosaic: Not easy to find for the first-time visitor, located in the second floor in a dark corner of the ceiling. Empress Zoe mosaics: On the eastern wall of the southern gallery date from the 11th century. Comnenus mosaics: equally located on the eastern wall of the southern gallery, date from 1122. DeĂŤsis mosaic: It was commissioned to mark the end of 57 years of Roman Catholic use and the return to the Orthodox faith.
2.3 Apse mosaic of the Theotokos
Imperial Gate mosaic:
(Virgin Mother
Located in the tympanum above the
and Child).
gate, used only by the emperors when
2.4 The face of
entering the church.
the Hexapterygon (six-winged angel) on the north east pendentive (upper
Southwestern entrance mosaic: Situated in the tympanum of the southwestern entrance, date from 944.
left), discovered
Apse mosaics:
but covered
this was the first of the post-iconoclas-
again by Gaspare
tic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29
Fossati during
March 867 by Patriarch Photius and the
its restoration, is
emperors Michael III and Basil I.
visible again.
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chapter two | hagia sophia, istanbul
pendentives
to achieve this illusion of a floating “dome of heaven,” anthemius and Isidorus used pendentives (see “Pendentives and Squinches,” above) to transfer the weight from the great dome to the piers beneath rather than to the walls. With pendentives, not only could the space beneath the dome be unobstructed but scores of windows also could puncture the walls. The pendentives created the impression of a dome suspended above, not held up by, walls. Experts today can explain the technical virtuosity of Justinian’s builders, but it remained a mystery to their contemporaries. Procopius communicated the sense of wonderment experienced by those who entered Justinian’s great church: “No matter how much they concentrate their attention on this and that, and examine everything with contracted eyebrows, they are unable to understand the craftsmanship and always depart fromthere amazed by the perplexing spectacle.”
by placing a hemispherical dome on a square base instead of on a circular base, as in the Pantheon, Anthemius and Isidorus succeeded in fusing two previously independent and seemingly mutually exclusive architectural traditions: the vertically oriented central-plan building and the longitudinally oriented basilica. Hagia Sophia is, in essence, a domed basilica— a uniquely successful conclusion to several centuries of experimentation in Christian church architecture. However, the thrusts of the pendentive construction at Hagia Sophia made external buttresses necessary, as well as huge internal northern and southern wall piers and eastern and western half-domes. The semidomes’ thrusts descend, in turn, into still smaller half-domes surmounting columned exedrae that give a curving flow to the design.
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architecture | polygonal dome
the diverse vistas and screenlike ornamented surfaces mask the structural lines. The columnar arcades of the nave and secondstory galleries have no real structural function. Like the walls they pierce, they are only part of a fragile “fill” between the huge piers. Structurally, although Hagia Sophia may seem Roman in its great scale and majesty, the organization of its masses is not Roman. The very fact the “walls” in Hagia Sophia are concealed (and barely adequate) piers indicates the architects sought Roman monumentality as an effect and did not design the building according to Roman principles. Using brick in place of concrete was a further departure from Roman practice and marks Byzantine architecture as a distinctive structural style. Hagia Sophia’s eight great supporting piers are ashlar masonry, but the screen walls are brick, as are the vaults of the aisles and galleries and the dome and semicircular half-domes.
the ingenious design of hagia sophia provided the illumination and the setting for the solemn liturgy of the Orthodox faith. The large windows along the rim of the great dome poured light down upon the interior’s jeweled splendor, where priests staged the sacred spectacle. Sung by clerical choirs, the Orthodox equivalent of the Latin Mass celebrated the sacrament of the Eucharist at the altar in the apsidal sanctuary, in spiritual reenactment of Jesus’ crucifixion. Processions of chanting priests, accompanying the patriarch (archbishop) of Constantinople, moved slowly to and from the sanctuary and the vast nave. The gorgeous array of their vestments rivaled the interior’s polychrome marbles, complementing the interior’s finely wrought, gleaming candlesticks and candelabra; the illuminated books bound in gold or ivory and inlaid with jewels and enamels; and the crosses, sacred vessels, and processional banners. Each, with its great richness of texture and color, glowing in shafts of light from the dome, contributed to the majestic ambience of Justinian’s great church.
the nave of hagia sophia was reserved for the clergy, not the congregation. The laity, segregated by sex, had only partial views of the brilliant ceremony from the shadows of the aisles and galleries, restrained in most places by marble parapets. The emperor was the only layperson privileged to enter the sanctuary. When he participated with the patriarch in the liturgical drama, standing at the pulpit beneath the great dome, his rule was again sanctified and his person exalted. Church and state were symbolically made one. The church building was then the earthly image of the court of Heaven, its light the image of God and God’s holy wisdom.
at hagia sophia, the intricate logic of greek theology, the ambitious scale of Rome, the vaulting tradition of Mesopotamia, and the mysticism of Eastern Christianity combined to create a monument that is at once a sum-mation of antiquity and a positive assertion of the triumph of Christian faith.
2.5 Groundplan of the Hagia Sophia.
2.5
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24
25
Il Duomo, Florence
The Middle Ages were bracketed, roughly, by the construction of the domed Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and that of the great dome for the basilica in Florence, Italy. This latter was such a great achievement that the Italian word for dome, duomo, came to mean also cathedral. Indeed, Florence’s Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore is often referred to simply as I1 Duomo. 26
location Florence, Italy
year 1463 AD
designer Arnolfo di Cambio Filippo Brunelleschi
dome Octagonal Dome
type Church
material Marbles, brick
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chapter three | il duomo, florence
history of f l o r e n c e C at h e d r a l
santa maria del fiore was built on the site of an earlier cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata. According to Bartlett, the cojonied by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294. Arnolfo di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, 1296 by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 140 years, the collective efforts of several generations; Arnolfo’s plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size. The Duomo, as if completed, in a fresco by Andrea di Bonaiuto, painted in the 1360s, before the commencement of the dome.
after arnolfo died in 1302, work on the cathedral slowed for the following thirty years. When the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project obtained new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of wool merchants, took over exclusive patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio’s design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died in 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was again halted due to the Black Death in 1348.
28
3.1 Procession outside the cathedral during the 18th century.
architecture | octagonal dome
in 1349 work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, commencing with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359 Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the center nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d’Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375 the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418 only the dome remained incomplete.
on 18 august 1418, the arte della lana announced a structural design competition for erecting Neri’s dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, who was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained acute. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.
ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, was drawing a salary equal to Brunelleschi’s and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, would potentially earn equal credit, while spending most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423 Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.
work started on the dome in 1420 and was completed in 1436. the cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436 (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first ‘octagonal’ dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame: the Roman Pantheon, a circular dome, was built in 117–128 AD with support structures. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration service in 1436, Guillaume Dufay’s similarly unique motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed. The structure of this motet was strongly influenced by the structure of the dome.
the decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed to the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
the exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto’s Bell Tower. There are two lateral doors, the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six lateral windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
during its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de’ Medici on Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death) in the Pazzi conspiracy.
3.1
29
chapter three | il duomo, florence
30
3.2
structure & plan
the cathedral of florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
the dimensions of the building are enormous: length 153 metres (502 ft), width 38 metres (124 ft), width at the crossing 90 metres (295 ft). The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres (75 ft). The height of the dome is 114.5 m.
architecture | octagonal dome
by the beginning of the 15th century, after a hundred years of construction, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic fea-
the dome
tures of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, 4.6 metres (15 ft) high 9.2 metres (30 ft) long, was standing in a side aisle of the unfinished building, and had long ago become sacrosanct.[5] It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
the commitment to reject traditional gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravante’s model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini.That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts and since the use of buttresses was forbidden in Florence, in addition to being a style favored by central Italy’s traditional enemies to the north. [8] Neri’s model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome’s Pantheon, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, partly supported by the inner dome, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri’s dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
the building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. A wooden form had held the Pantheon dome aloft while its concrete set, but for the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 metres (171 ft) above the floor and spanning 44 metres (144 ft), there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms.[9] Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of bricks, due to its light weight compared to stone and easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco which is still displayed in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi’s control over the construction.
brunelleschi’s solutions were ingenious. the spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one each at the Length
Width
Crossing Width
153m 38m
Arch Height
90m
Dome Height
23m 114.5m
top and bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.
3.2 Plan of the church with various extension phases
31
chapter three | il duomo, florence
32
3.3
architecture | octagonal dome
the dome
each of brunelleschi’s stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 centimetres (17 in) in diameter and no more than 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) long. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. He was also able to accomplish this by setting vertical “ribs” on the corners of the octagon curving towards the center point. The Ribs, 13 feet (4 meters) deep, are supported by 16 concealed ribs radiating from center.[10] The ribs had slits to take beams that supported platforms, thus allowing the work to progress upward without the need for scaffolding.
a circular masonry dome, such as that of hagia sophia in istanbul can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the noncircular dome.
the outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 centimetres (2 ft) thick at the base and 30 centimetres (1 ft) thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the
33
outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome at its base; it has no embedded chains.
a modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses was centuries into the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi’s chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri’s, that is commonly associated with the dome.
brunelleschi’s ability to crown the dome with a lantern was ques-
ished and would remain so until the 19th century.
placing of Verrochio’s copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfin-
ed in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the
still the largest masonry dome in the world.The building of the cathedral had start-
achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is
leonardo might have also participated
Florence, Italy.)
often given credit for their invention.
Piazza del Duomo in
of sketches of them and, as a result, is
up Florence Cathedral on the
hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series
ings that make
machines, which Verrocchio used to
is part of the complex of build-
Fascinated by Filippo’s [Brunelleschi’s]
campanile that
down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later. apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci.
is a free-standing
(375 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell shop there was at this time a young
to’s Campanile
Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose work-
Campanile (Giot-
[atop the lantern] went to the sculptor
from the Giotto’s
with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114.5 metres
the commission for this bronze ball
3.3 Dome seen
dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest
alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi’s friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned
less than Michelangelo. A huge statue of brunelleschi now sits outside the palazzo
his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to
gallery by baccio d’agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one
octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before
the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore”. The decorations of the drum
His design (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo) was for an
in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris “Remember
tioned and he had to undergo another competition. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri.
chapter three | il duomo, florence
34
architecture | octagonal dome
t h e fa c a d e
the
original façade, designed by arnolfo di cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto’s death.[citation needed] A mid-15th-century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto’s façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was only completed in its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dis-
35
mantled in 1587-1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de’ Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de’ Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century. In 1864, a competition was held to design a new façade and was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808–1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto’s bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated. The whole façade is 3.4
dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
3.5
3.4 Facade of the Cathedral 3.5 Facade
36
Taj Mahal, Uttar Pradesh
Taj Mahal is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the world, and some Western historians have noted that its architectural beauty has never been surpassed. The Taj is the most beautiful monument built by the Mughals, the Muslim rulers of India. Taj Mahal is built entirely of white marble. Its stunning architectural beauty is beyond adequate description, particularly at dawn and sunset. The Taj seems to glow in the light of the full moon. On a foggy morning, the visitors experience the Taj as if suspended when viewed from across the Jamuna river. - See more at: http://www.islamicity.com/culture/taj/?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1#sthash.jUkV5R9w.dpuf
location Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
year 1983 AD
designer Ustad Ahmad Lahauri
dome Onion Dome
type Cultural
material Marbles, brick
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chapter four | taj mahal,uttar pradesh
o r i g i n & i n s p i r at i o n
in 1631, shah jahan, emperor during the mughal empire’s period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, a Pesian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhra Begum.Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632.The court chronicles of Shah Jahan’s grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.
the taj mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian architecture and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),Humayun’s Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah’s Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan’s own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new 38
levels of refinement.
4.1
architecture | onion dome
4.1 Western viewed, late in the day. 4.2 Taj Mahal mosque.
39
Should guilty seek asylum here, Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, All his past sins are to be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice has been made; To display thereby the creator’s glory. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these words:
4.2
Pa v i l i o n
Pa v i l i o n
Me e t i n g Ho u s e
Mo s q u e
chapter four | taj mahal,uttar pradesh
40
Entrance
architecture | onion dome
tomb & dome
the tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the taj mahal. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
the base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
the marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the
_Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan)
length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical “drum”
of the Ottoman Empire—Turkish ar-
which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is
chitect, designer of the main dome.
often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorat-
_Ustad Isa, born either in Shiraz,
ed with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The
Ottoman Empire or Agra—credited
shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The
with a key role in the architectural design and main dome. _‘Puru’ from Benarus, Persia— has been mentioned as a supervising architect. _Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore—
lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and
cast the solid gold finial.
chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and
_Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi—
Hindustani decorative elements.
the chief sculptor and mosaicist.
the main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of Shiva.
_Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran— the chief calligrapher. _Muhammad Hanif—a supervisor of masons. _Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shirazhandled finances and management of daily production.
the minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer’s penchant for symmetry. They were designed as
Taj Mahal site plan was divided
working minarets—a traditional element of mosques, used by the muez-
to the following:
zin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divid-
_The Moonlight Garden to the
ed into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At
north of the Yamuna.
the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mir-
_Terrace area: Tomb, Mosque
rors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same dec-
and Jawab.
orative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.
_ Charbagh (gardens). _Gateway, attendant accommodations, and other tombs. _Taj Ganji (bazaar)
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chapter four | taj mahal,uttar pradesh
e x t e r i o r d e c o r at i o n
the exterior decorations of the taj mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.
the calligraphy on the great Gate reads “o soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you.”
the calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named abd ul-haq, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of “Amanat Khan” upon him as a reward for his “dazzling virtuosity”. Near the lines from the Qur’an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, “Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi.” Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble, inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly 42
detailed and delicate.
abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.
on the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.
architecture | onion dome
4.3
4.4
43 Surah 36 – Ya Sin Surah 39 – Az-Zumar The Crowds Surah 48 – Al-Fath Victory Surah 67 – Al-Mulk Dominion Surah 77 – Al-Mursalat Those Sent Forth Surah 81 – At-Takwir The Folding Up Surah 82 – Al-Infitar The Cleaving Asunder
Surah 89 – Al-Fajr Daybreak Surah 91 – Ash-Shams The Sun Surah 93 – Ad-Dhuha Morning Light Surah 94 – Al-Inshirah The Solace Surah 95 – At-Teen The Fig Surah 98 – Al-Bayyinah The Evidence Surah 112 – Al-Ikhlas The Purity of Faith The texts refer to themes of judgment and include:
ments. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur’an are used as decorative ele-
4.4 Plant motifs.
4.3 Incised painting.
Surah 84 – Al-Inshiqaq The Rending Asunder
chapter four | taj mahal,uttar pradesh
i n t e r i o r d e c o r at i o n
the interior chamber of the taj mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used.
the interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a “false� interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony’s exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in
44
miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
the octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels which have been carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. 4.5
4.5 Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs. 4.6 Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal at underground level.
architecture | onion dome
muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal’s cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres (4 ft 10 in × 8 ft 2 in).
both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan’s cenotaph is beside Mumtaz’s to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife’s, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
the pen box and writing tablet were traditional mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including “O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious...” The tomb
45
of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; “He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twen-
Mahal at underground level.
Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz
Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs
ty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri.”
4.6
48
bibliography
bibliography
Kleiner, Fred S. Gardener’s Art through the Ages. Theirttenth ed. Boston: Clark Baxter, 2008. Print. Petroski, Henry. “Arches And Domes.” American Scientist 99.2 (2011): 111-115. OmniFile Full Text Select (H.W. Wilson). “Pantheon, Rome.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Dec. 2013. Mark, Robert, and Paul Hutchinson. “On The Structure Of The Roman Pantheon.” Art Bulletin 68.1 (1986): 24-34. Academic Search Premier. “Hagia Sophia.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 Aug. 2013. Kalin, Arzu1, arzukal@hotmail.com, and Demet2, yilmazdemett@ktu. edu.tr Yilmaz. “A Study On Visibility Analysis Of Urban Landmarks: The Case Of Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya) In Trabzon.” METU Journal Of The Faculty Of Architecture 29.1 (2012): 241-271. Art Source. “Florence Cathedral.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 12 Nov. 2013. “Discovered: Scale Model Of Florence Cathedral Dome.” Peregrinations 4.1 (2013): 1-2. Art Source. “Taj Mahal.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Dec. 2013. Balasubramaniam, R. “New Insights On The Modular Planning Of The Taj Mahal.” Current Science (00113891) 97.1 (2009): 42-49. Academic Search Premier.
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colophon
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