Issue 1 Spring 2009
ARIZONA EDUCATION POLICY FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM POLICY BRIEF SERIES
Recommendations for Long Term Solutions to the Lack of Critical Thinking in Education Joan Conrad, English Instructor, Maricopa Community Colleges The current level of human development and rapid changes in the world require stronger critical thinking in schools and businesses. Managers expect employees to think critically and society needs critical thinkers more than ever. Unfortunately, the high-stakes tests have forced schools to ignore critical thinking to concentrate on core courses such as math and science. Critical thinking requires continual practice, something that schools have little time to do when facing federal guidelines for student evaluation. Consequently, colleges and universities now have students entering who not only grapple with the demands of the coursework, but simple decisions as well.
As the economy fluctuates,
many of the remaining students do
students are registering for college
not think critically, not only on
more than ever, but few are
complex classroom problems, but
actually ready for the experience
also on issues such as submitting
and when faced with the
papers on time or simply choosing
expectations of higher education,
their subjects wisely (Whitbourne,
they often quit. Frequently, nearly
2006, para. 5). Without policy that
one-fourth of the first year class
would demand critical thinking in
has dropped out by mid semester.
the schools and changes in the
Educators complain that even
curriculum of education programs,
student will continue to be ill
student learning, then
prepared for college and,
that policy is not
ultimately, for the workforce, with
working” (Amrein &
far reaching consequences. This
Berliner, 202, p.3). If
paper presents evidence from
students reach college
educational experts and offers
and cannot think
some solutions for colleges to this
critically, then the system
dilemma facing American
has failed them.
education today. In 1983, the National
“Educators complain that even many of the remaining students do not think critically, not only on complex classroom problems but also on issues such as submitting papers on time or simply choosing their subjects wisely.”
Although A Nation at Risk lacked scholarly
Commission on Education
credibility, the National
released A Nation at Risk, which
Commission on Education
recommended a change from
demanded more rigorous
minimum competency testing to a
standards and accountability
high-stakes testing movement that
mechanisms to deliver American
is supposed to raise student’s
schools out of its supposed
academic achievement standards.
educational slump. The
Although this report has not been
Commission’s recommendations
found to be completely accurate, it
included homogenized curricula,
did cite losses in performance and
aggressive assessments, and an
diluted curriculum and spurned
increased amount of student
panic of a weakening American
learning (Amrein & Berliner, 202,
education system (Amrein &
p.4). Almost overnight, the fabric
Berliner, 2002, p. 3). In a
of the schools changed and higher
comprehensive study of the high
level learning skills began to take
stakes testing in eighteen states,
a back seat to educators
analyses revealed, “that if the
scrambling to develop tests to
intended goal of high-stakes
assure continued federal funding
testing policy is to increase
for educational programs at their
schools. Test scores now determine school programs and allocation of educational
the classroom or the job market.
resources. States know that Federal school aid hinges on the performance of students on these tests, so they forego other skill building courses to raise the scores on the tests (Amrein & Berliner, 2002, p.4). This has occurred despite employers indicating that they wanted employees who could make decisions in the best interest of their business. Education is incomplete if it only trains the individual technically without a critical thinking component. One of the most important skills to develop for success in school, and ultimately
“Curriculum that will improve critical thinking skills needs to start by offering personal empowerment to the students for decision making instead of automatic thinking.”
in the
workforce, is critical thinking. According to Jeanne Higbee (2003), admissions requirements have not adequately prepared the students for what is actually expected of them. Schools are not preparing students on the importance of critical thinking in
Students need to practice problem solving in each class and learn to fail from time to time. Once they enroll in college, they need to have good habits that allow for an inquisitive nature and a willingness to take criticism and above all, learn from that feedback (3). High-stakes tests, intended to change the behavior of teachers and students, generally receive legislative support in many states. One of the negative side effects of this new way of thinking is generations of test takers but not good thinkers. Writing samples from high school students assessed by the National Assessment of Educational Progress in 2002, which required skills of analysis, inference, synthesis and evaluation, indicated 69% of seniors performed less than skillful, 22% were considered skillful and only 9% were
considered excellent (Peirce,
students have little patience for
2005). According to Andrea
classes with no credit toward
Conklin Bueschel (2007) in her
graduation. Additionally, the
article, “Learning About
current objective of these courses
Teaching,” in California alone,
has been to prepare the students
many community colleges report
for the “real” courses and so little
that more than 75 percent of
critical thinking occurs. It would
entering students require some
be much better to introduce
sort of developmental course in
critical thinking across the
Math and English and not many
curriculum so students have time
ever complete classes required for
to absorb
a bachelor’s degree (para. 3). If
The most important aspects
they are not prepared for even the
of critical thinking is knowing
basics, critical thinking is even
how to identify a problem instead
further down the list of skills.
of simply answering the question
There seems to be a
with the accepted “book” answer.
disparity between knowledge and
Critical thinking requires open-
action based on the dismal records
mindedness. Schools will not
facing colleges and universities of
encourage an attitude of open-
unprepared students. Until the
mindedness by telling students
government provides more overt
what to think and how to do
support of high order skills in
something without question. One
elementary and high school,
of the hardest elements of critical
higher education needs to create
thinking to accept is that one’s
more classes that will teach
worldview may interfere with
critical thinking for success
fairness. One must be willing to
throughout the college experience.
acknowledge opposing
However, building critical
viewpoints. To teach students to
thinking skills takes time and most
think critically, they must learn
they have prejudices, biases, and
Charitable Trusts, Jeanne Higbee
false notions learned from all
(2003) stated, “Students who
areas of their lives. Therefore,
perform well and derive the
critical thinking means a
greatest benefit from entry-level
willingness to concede that long-
university English courses are
held beliefs might be wrong and
students who are prepared for
possibly changing those beliefs at
thoughtful study, students who are
some point.
engaged in the material and the
Curriculum that will
process of learning, students who
improve critical thinking skills
are curious, persistent and
needs to start by offering personal
realistic. . . .Successful students
empowerment to the students for
connect reading to writing and
decision making instead of
thinking skills. . . ” (1).
automatic thinking. Educators
So how does education
need to teach students how to
begin to prepare students to think
define the problem, think about it,
critically? Collaborative learning
create alternative actions and then
promotes better interactions
select from those alternative
between not only students but
solutions instead of an established
student and teacher as well.
explanation. Yet, schools continue
Instead of asking students
to prepare automatic thinkers who
questions with just one right Not
make decisions based on
all experts agree that critical
previously learned responses.
thinking can transfer across
Many poor choices made by
academic domains. Many believe
adults happen because they do not
that critical thinking in the
know that alternatives can exist. In
classroom is a misguided effort.
an article on a project by the
However, when students receive
Association of American
experiences that simulate real-life
Universities (AAU) and the Pew
situations, they can improve their
thinking (Halpern 69-70). Most
solve problems in math or science
people would agree that educating
and is equivalent to technical
students to recognize
rationality. Others feel it should
misinformation is essential. No
help students adjust socially,
doubt little objection would occur
develop workforce skills and
if critical thinking were restricted
become more civically aware.
to a study of standards and skills.
Neither belief is likely to elicit
However, many object to students
opposition. However, to
learning critical thinking because
encourage critical thinking,
they fear it will teach them to
teachers often ask students to
disagree with authority. Critical
question many of their most
thinking does not mean
deeply held beliefs.
irreverence to authority. It means
When students get to the
thoughtful consideration of all
college campus, they should
aspects of an issue to make
already think critically and take
competent decisions affecting the
part in the open discussion of a
individual, society, and the global
variety of topics. Diversity should
community. A critical thinker
not stifle these discussions but
"has confidence that, in the long
provide avenues for disagreement
run, one's own higher interests and
on all sides of an argument.
those of humankind at large will
Schools, however, fearing reprisal
be best served by giving the freest
for some views, have begun to
play to reason" (Facione, 2001).
enact codes that restrict free
Different groups often have
speech. Thor Halvorssen of the
different conceptions of what critical thinking really means. Many believe it helps
Foundation for Individual “…even the best critical thinking training will fail to change faculty behavior if the school's leadership does not dedicate itself to improving
Rights in Education (FIRE) said, "Universities should welcome all perspectives, no matter where on the
political spectrum"(Marklein
reason inductively and
2003). Campuses do not
deductively, and to reach strong
encourage critical thinking by
conclusions. At the very least
limiting free speech. Students
students should be able to
should be able to voice an opinion
distinguish fact from fiction,
regardless of which side of the
belief from knowledge and
argument it falls. The last thing a
fallacies of language and thought
campus wants to do is force
by the time they reach higher
students to stop raising their hands
education. This happens best in an
for fear of reprisal. Some
environment that encourages
professors feel that their job is to
opinions from all sides of an
help students question long-held
argument, not just those in favor
beliefs. "We're in the business of
at the particular time.
helping people become critical
Teachers should impart the
thinkers," says Shippensburg
concepts of critical thinking and
sociology professor Debra
help students use them so they can
Cornelius. (Marklein 2003).
respond to problems and questions
Therefore, campuses should
in their lives, both academically
encourage open discourse in all
and personally. They should also
areas, rather conservative or
pass on a love of learning and
liberal, for it is through this
knowledge and prompt students to
mechanism that understanding
ask questions. The best teachers
develops.
The best teachers also provide
Discussion of projects
tools that will help students
relation to ethics, diversity, and
continue exploring long after they
educational leadership: Ethically,
leave the classroom. A research
schools should teach students
project conducted in several
across all curricula to analyze,
public schools by Dr. Clifton
criticize, support new ideas,
Chadwick and Roeia Thabet
(2008), found that in many cases,
service teacher training are
teachers who believed they were
addressing this situation, assuring
teaching critical thinking to their
American educational
students were not. Teachers
Goals are not met in the
seldom asked questions that would
current or future generations,
encourage students to think nor
especially for those from diverse
did they ever ask students to
cultures. American society is
justify answers. Most did not even
becoming more diverse. Many
give students time to discuss
people come from cultures in
different points of view and often
which critical thinking was either
did not expect students to share
discouraged or punished.
their own beliefs. They reviewed
Consequently, those students have
teachers in thirty different
not had the opportunity for this
categories and teachers failed
type of discourse. They will
100% of the time in seventeen of
eventually become adults and
these categories. Those teachers
voters who will have a say in the
failed to stimulate any critical
operation of this country. Leaders
thinking or encourage the transfer
in education have an ethical
of these skills to their personal
responsibility to assure these
lives. The standard method of
students have the same
teaching was rote memory or
opportunities as others. In
repetition (2). "The most
addition, education should teach
surprising and worrisome finding
students to reason through issues
of this research is the failure of
so they develop the tools to deal
teachers to realize the discrepancy
with the dynamic issues of
between what they say they do
diversity. Diversity strengthens a
and what they actually do” (2).
society, rather it be the campus, a
Clearly, neither schools of
neighborhood or the world. A
education nor pre-service and in-
campus that encourages open,
critical discussions in a diverse
formal training or attended
atmosphere contributes to that
conferences and were unable to
strength, now and in the future.
name any theories in critical
It is the quality of critical
thinking (Paul, Elder & Bartell,
thinking that will determine the
2008). (See Attachment 4)These
outcome on issues of diversity.
findings are not isolated in
However, a study conducted by
California. When most schools of
the California Commission on
education have little or no courses
Teacher Credentialing of 38
in critical thinking, it is no wonder
public universities and 28 private
that students are not getting it in
colleges in California found that
the classroom.
prospective teachers were not trained to teach critical thinking. Most professors could not explain their concept of critical thinking or even felt reasoning was significant enough to teach. Many did not understand the connection between critical thinking and learning nor could they discuss how to foster it in the classroom. For those who did believe they were teaching critical thinking, most did not know the skills necessary for students to learn and often confused simple involvement of students in the classroom as critical thinking. Finally, most had not received any
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY Joan Conrad has a B.A. in English and Creative Writing from Arizona State University West and Masters in Adult Education and Distance Learning from the University of Phoenix. She currently is teaching English classes at Phoenix College and has taught Composition, Ethics, Research Methods and Success in College courses at ITT Technical Institute. She worked over 27 years at the City of Phoenix, where she worked for different departments such as the Police, Law and Public Works. She also managed facilities and oversaw construction projects with a budget of over $7 million, developed contracts and served on committees to develop new facilities, employee development and budget issues before retiring in 2004. She has traveled throughout the United States, Mexico, Europe and Syria, including a summer studying at the University of Regensburg, Germany. She is
writing a book about life in rural Ohio in the early 1900's based on the stories from her mother as well as developing a book of poetry.
About EPFP: Arizona Education Policy Fellowship Program The Arizona Education Policy Fellowship Program is cosponsored by the Lincoln Center for Applied Ethics, the Mary Lou Fulton College of Education and the Division of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS) Policy Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. Along with the national EPFP program strands of leadership, public policy, and professional networking— the Arizona EPFP has a unique focus addressing the nexus of ethics, diversity, educational leadership, and public policy Selection of Arizona Fellows will be determined by program coordinators and the Arizona EPFP Advisory Committee, which includes representatives from the Lincoln Center for Applied Ethics and the Mary Lou Fulton College of Education. The Arizona EPFP provides a dynamic arena in which to develop policy leadership talent in Arizona for the sake of child, youth, and adult education.
Division of Education Policy, Leadership & Curriculum Studies Program Coordinator: Caroline Sotello Viernes Turner Dr. Caroline Turner is a Professor in the Division of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Lincoln Professor of Ethics and Education, and Doctoral Program Director for Higher and Postsecondary Education at Arizona State University. Recognizing her exemplary scholarship, Turner is the 2009 Recipient of the American Educational Research Association
(AERA) Scholars of Color in Education Distinguished Career Contribution Award and the 2009 AERA Dr. Carlos J. Vallejo Memorial Award for Lifetime Scholarship, the 2008 Recipient of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) Council on Ethnic Participation Mildred Garcia Award for Exemplary Scholarship, and
the recipient of the 2008 & 2009 Mary Lou Fulton College of Education Dean’s Faculty Excellence Award. She currently serves as the State Site Coordinator for the Arizona Education Policy Fellowship Program, as President of the College of Education Faculty Council, and as Past President of the Arizona State University Chicano/Latino Faculty and Staff Association. Her research and teaching interests include access, equity and leadership in higher education, faculty gender and racial/ethnic diversity, organizational change, and the use of qualitative methods for policy research. Her publications include a book entitled Diversifying the Faculty: A Guidebook for Search Committees, which is widely adopted selling over 15,000 copies nationally and internationally, a coauthored book entitled Faculty of Color in Academe: Bittersweet Success, and a co-edited book, Understanding Minority-Serving Institutions.