Biology Notes by Eugene Lee

Ch.

Introduction to Biology

[生物學的介紹]

What is Biology? [什麼是生物學?] - the study of living things [研究活的東西] - Bio = life [生命] logy = knowledge (the study of ) [知識 (研究)] - Bi = TWO (i.e. the study of animals and plants) [貳 (即是: 研究動物和植物)] How to memorize biological terms? [如何記憶生物學名詞] - know some common prefix and suffix. [認得一些共通的字頭和字尾] - eg. photosynthesis [例如: 光合作用] Some prefix: [部分字頭] Some suffix: [部分字尾] - photo = light [光] anti [反對] epi [外面] ase [ ] - synthesis = to combine together [合成] auto [自動] exo [外面] derm [皮] - eg. photograph [例如: 照相底片] bio [有生命] extra [額外] logy [知識] - photo = chloro [綠色的] intra [裏面] meter [儀錶] - graph = [圖片] cyto [細胞的] inter [之間] phyte [植物] de [去除] photo [光] lysis [分解] Basic characteristics of living things: [生物的基本特徵] 1. respiration [呼吸作用] - to release energy for daily usage. [釋放每日需用的能量] - two parts : 1. gaseous exchange (breathing) [兩部分: 1. 氣體交換] 2. oxidation of food to produce energy [2. 把食物氧化, 以產生能量] 2. reproduction [生殖作用] - produce offspring of the same type [生產同一品種的後代] - to ensure continuity of species. [保證物種的連續性] 3. nutrition [營養作用] - take in food that produces energy and body tissues.[吃下可製造能量和身體組織的食物] 4. excretion [排泄作用] - give out metabolic wastes (eg. sweat, carbon dioxide, urine) which are toxic to our body. [放出代謝廢物(例如: 出汗、二氧化碳、尿), 它對身體是有毒的] - NOT faeces (it is egestion, defaecation)(undigested food) [不是糞便(它是排糞)(不能消化的食物)] 5. movement [運動] - move from place to place, or move part of the body. food [食物] [由一地移至他地, 或移動身體的某部分] 6. irritability [感應] - able to response to stimulus. [能夠對刺激作出反應] excretion 7. growth [生長] - increase in size & complexity [增加體積和複雜性]

[排泄作用] Scientific Processes: to investigate science. 1. observation [觀察] 2. hypothesis [假設] 3. 4.

experiment [實驗] conclusion [結論]

[科學化過程: 以研究科學]

egestion [排糞]

(if “invalid” shift to “hypothesis” again) [如果 “無效的”, 再轉移至 “假設”]

P.6 (book): State why this diagram is poorly drawn. [陳述為什麼這圖片畫得很差]

Common Apparatus: [普通儀器] beaker [燒杯] slide [玻片] cover slip [蓋玻片] iron stand [鐵架] clamp [夾] syringe [針筒] thermometer [溫度計] dropper [滴管] forceps [鑷子] wire gauze [鐵絲網] scissors [剪刀] test-tube [試管] white tile [白瓦磚] stopper [塞子] glass rod [玻璃棒] data logger & sensors [數據機及感應器]

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rubber tubing [橡膠管] cylinder [量筒] Petri dish [培養皿] tripod [三腳架] boiling tube [大試管]

mortar & pestle (研缽和碾槌) test-tube rack [試管架] cork borer [木塞鑽孔器] vacuum flask [保溫瓶] bell jar [鐘形罩]

Ch. 1

Ch.

Diversity of Organisms & Classification

[生物多樣性和分類學]

Classification of Organisms: divide the organisms into different category according to different structures or characters present. [生物分類: 把生物依據不同的結構或特徵, 而劃分成為不同的類別]

Kingdom [界] Æ phylum [門] Æ class [綱] Æ order [目]Æ family [科]Æ genus [屬] Æ species [種] A species - they show the same structural characteristics. [物種: 他們顯現相同結構性特徵] - they can interbreed with each other. [他們能夠互相雜交繁殖(成功交配而子裔又能夠繁殖)] Scientific name of organisms: Binomial system = genus name + species name. [生物的學名: 雙名法 = 屬名 + 種名] Scientific name of human = Homo sapiens [人類的學名 = (智慧人種)] Classification of living things: [生物分類學] - virus: non-cellular (with protein coat + DNA/RNA) - must be parasitic inside a living cell. [病毒: 非細胞的(只有蛋白質外殼 + (DNA/RNA) 去氧核糖核酸/核糖核酸): 一定要在活細胞內寄生] (DNA and RNA are genetic materials) [DNA 及 RNA 是一些遺傳物質, 是決定生物特徵的物質] - it is living (i.e. can carry out metabolism such as growth, reproduction, ….etc.) only when it is inside a cell. [它只在活的細胞內(寄生時)才算是有生命的 (即能夠進行代謝作用, 例如: 生長、繁殖等等)] - Five kingdoms: Prokaryotes (bacteria) + Protoctists + Fungi + Plants + Animals [五界: 原核生物界(細菌) + 原生生物 + 真菌類 + 植物 + 動物] Prokaryotes Kingdom (kingdom Prokaryotae) (including bacteria & blue-green algae): [原核生物界 (包括細菌和藍綠藻類)] - unicellular, microscopic [單細胞的、微觀的] - no nucleus (i.e. prokaryotic cells)(actually no nuclear membrane) [沒有細胞核(即是: 原核生物細胞)(事實是沒有細胞核)] - mode of nutrition: saprophytic or parasitic. [營養方式: 腐生營養或寄生現象] - bacteria has bacterial cell wall (made by bacterial cellulose) [細菌有細菌細胞壁 (由細菌纖維素造成)] (It is not made by cellulose. Therefore it is different from the cellulose cell wall of common plant cells) [它不是由纖維素造成的; 因此它是與普通植物的纖維素細胞壁不同的] Protoctists kingdom (Kingdom Protoctista): [原生生物界] - mainly unicellular, microscopic animal-like organisms (protozoa), and plant-like organisms (algae) that has no true roots, stems, and leaves. [主要是單細胞的, 很微細的動物似的生物(原生動物)和植物似的生物 (藻類), 他們沒有真正的根部、莖部、和葉子] - has nucleus : eukaryotic cells.(has nuclear membrane) [有細胞核: 有細胞核的細胞] - mode of nutrition : autotrophic (auto =自動的) -for the plant-like organisms.[營養方式: 自養營養: 植物似的生物] or heterotrophic – usually the animal-like organisms. [或, 異養營養: 通常是動物似的生物] (Notice that the term “protista”, which includes only the microscopic algae and protozoa, has been changed to “protoctista” that includes protozoa and ALL algae.) [“原生動物”只包括載微細的藻類和原生動物; 現在改用 “原生生物”, 它包括原生動物和全部藻類] Fungi kingdom: (singular: Fungus) [真菌界] - body is called hypha, hyphae [pl], [身體叫菌絲] - no root / stem / leaf. [沒有根部、莖部、葉子] - no chlorophyll. [沒有葉綠素] - has nucleus : eukaryotic cells. (may be multinucleated) (multi = 多) [有細胞核: 有細胞核的 (可以是多細胞的)] - reproduction (繁殖) by using spores in sporangium [在孢子囊內, 用孢子繁殖] - contain fungal cell wall (NOT cellulose) [用真菌的細胞壁(不是纖維素造成的)]

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Ch. 2

(There are three types of cell wall: [那裡有三種細胞壁: 包括:] 1. cellulose cell wall in plant cells, [植物細胞中的纖維素細胞壁] 2. bacterial cell wall in bacteria only, (made of bacterial cellulose) [細菌細胞壁: 只在菌中] 3. fungal cell wall in fungi only, (made of fungal cellulose)[真菌的細胞壁: 只在真菌類(用真菌纖維素製造)] Animals kingdom (kingdom Animalia): two groups: invertebrates & vertebrates (in = NOT) [動物界: 兩組: 無脊椎動物和脊椎動物] invertebrates: animals without backbones. [無脊椎動物: 是沒有脊柱骨的動物] vertebrates: animals with backbones/vertebrae [pl], vertebra)(vertebral column). [脊椎動物: 有脊柱骨的動物] - fishes/fish: [魚類] - skin covered with wet scales. [有濕而黏滑的鱗覆蓋着皮膚] - fins for movement. [用鰭移動] - gills for breathing ( respiration). [用鰓呼吸] - aquatic [水生的] - cold-blooded [泠血動物] - streamline body for easy movement in water. [身體成流線形, 以利水中活動] - external fertilization [體外授精]. - amphibians [兩棲類] - have moist skin without scale [有濕的皮膚, 卻沒有鱗] - tadpoles use gills for respiration (in water); adult use skin and lungs (on land). [蝌蚪用鰓呼吸; 成年青蛙用皮膚和肺] - cold-blooded [泠血動物] - limbs present (tetrapods) [有肢體 (四足動物)] -external fertilization. [體外授精] - reptiles: [爬行類] - skin covered by dry scales. [有乾的鱗覆蓋着皮膚] - cold-blooded. [泠血動物] - usually live on land. [通常生活在陸地上] - breath with lungs. [用肺呼吸] - internal fertilization [體內授精] - lay eggs with leathery shell (with little calcium only).

[生蛋, 蛋殼由皮革製成, 只有很少量的鈣質]

- birds: (eg. penguin) [鳥類: (例如: 企鵝)] - skin covered by feathers. [有羽毛覆蓋着皮膚] - have beak for feeding; have wings for flying. [有喙狀嘴, 以利進食; 有翼, 以利飛行] - have scales on part of the body only. (eg. on leg) [只在身體的某些部分有鱗 (例如: 腳)] - warm-blooded [溫血動物] - lungs for breathing (with many air sacs). [用肺呼吸 (有很多氣囊)] {所以第一次禽流感時殺雞不太成功(有雞復活)} - internal fertilization. [體內受精] - lay eggs with shell made by calcium [生蛋, 蛋殼由鈣質製成] - mammals: (eg. whale) [哺乳類: (例如: 鯨魚)] - skin covered by hairs. [有毛髮覆蓋着皮膚] - have mammary glands (for producing milk. (young feed on milk )) (a modified sweat gland) [有乳腺 (生產乳汁 (年幼的由乳汁喂養)) (它是一個特殊化的汗腺)] - sweat gland and diaphragm present. [有汗腺和橫膈膜] - warm-blooded. [溫血動物] - lungs for breathing. [用肺呼吸] - internal fertilization. [體內受精]

P. 2 of 3

Ch. 2

Plants kingdom (kingdom Plantae): [植物界] - usually contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis. [通常有葉綠素, 以利光合作用] (mode of nutrition = autotrophic nutrition) [營養方式 = 自養營養] - two groups : non-flowering and flowering plants. [兩組: 無花植物和有花植物] Non-flowering plants: (3 groups) [無花植物 (三組)] - bryophytes (苔蘚類): including mosses and liverworts: [苔蘚類: 包括蘚類和苔類] - have simple leaves and stems. [有簡單的葉和莖] - no true root, with only rhizoid (for anchorage and absorbing water) [沒有真根, 只有假根 (使它直立和吸收水份)] - very small plant size. [體積很細] - reproduction by spores. [用孢子以作繁殖] - no vascular bundle [沒有維管束] - live on land , in damp place (because no cuticle). [生活在陸地上, 在潮濕的地方 (因為完全沒有角質層)] - ferns [蕨類] - reproduction by spores formed on lower surface of leaves. [以孢子繁殖, 孢子在葉底形成] - young leaves coiled up/curled (circinated) (circination) [嫩葉捲起] - have true roots, stems and leaves. [有真根、莖、葉] - have vascular bundle. [有維管束] - live on land, in relatively damp place (because less cuticle)[生活在陸地上,比較潮濕的地方(只有較小角質層)] - size larger than mosses. [體積比蘚類大一些] - gymnosperms: [裸子植物] - reproduction by seeds. [用種子繁殖] - seeds in cones (Cone is not a fruit since it is not formed by ovary of a flower.) [種子在毬果中(毬果不是果實, 因為它不是由花的子房製造)] (not covered by fruits = naked seeds) [不是由果實覆蓋 = 赤裸的種子] - have pollen grains [有花粉粒] - needle leaves, woody plants [有針葉, 木質的植物]

- Flowering Plants (Angiosperms): [有花植物 (被子植物)] - with flowers and seeds. [有花及種子] - seeds are protected inside fruits. [種子被果實所保護] - two groups of angiosperms: [兩組被子植物]

Cotyledon Number [子葉的數目] Leaf Venation [葉脈形態] Root System [根系]

dicotyledons [雙子葉植物] two [兩個] netted veins [網狀葉脈] tap root system [主根系]

monocotyledons [單子葉植物] one [一個] parallel (平行) veins fibrous root system [鬚根系]

dichotomous Key [二叉式檢索表]: a rapid way of identifying unfamiliar organisms. [一個快速識別不熟悉生物的方法]

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Ch. 2

Ch.

The Basic Structure of a Cell

[細胞的基本結構]

Introduction - Cells are basic units of organisms [引言: 細胞是生物的基本單位] - Cells are very small in size and can only be observed under microscope. [細胞很細, 只能用顯微鏡觀察] - Two basic types of cells: plant cells & animal cells [兩種基本細胞, 植物和動物細胞] Plant cell: includes Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.[植物細胞:包括:細胞壁、細胞膜、細胞質、細胞核] - Cell wall (in plant cells only) – a dead layer [細胞壁(只在植物細胞): 焦生命的一層] functions - It protects and supports the enclosed substances (cytoplasm) in a cell. [它保護並支撐細胞內的物質(細胞質)] - It resists the entry of excess water into the cell. [它抗拒水份過度地進入細胞] - It gives the shape to the cell. [它保持細胞形狀] characters - It is made of cellulose [特徵: 它由纖維素製成] - It is strong and rigid [它是強壯而又堅硬的] - It is freely (fully) permeable [它有完全透過性的] - Cell membrane - made of lipids and proteins. [細胞膜: 由脂肪和蛋白質製成] functions - It controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell. [功能: 它控制物質流出和流入細胞] characters - It lies immediately beside the cell wall. [特徵: 它的位置在細胞壁旁] - It is selectively permeable. [它是有選擇性地透過] - Cytoplasm - It is the jelly-like substance (mainly water and proteins) enclosed by cell membrane. [細胞質: 它是凍膠狀物質(主要包含水份和蛋白質), 由細胞膜包圍 ] functions - It provides a medium for chemical reactions to take place. [功能: 它提供化學反應的介質] - It contains organelles (eg. chloroplasts & mitochondria) [它載有細胞器 (例如: 葉綠體、粒線體)] - Chloroplast - It contains chlorophyll (a green pigment) [葉綠體: 它載有葉綠素 (它是一種綠色色素)] functions - It (traps/absorbs light energy) produces food (starch & sugar) by photosynthesis. [功能: 它吸收光能, 以光合作用, 來製造食物(澱粉和糖)] - Mitochondrion (Mitochondria [pl]) [粒線體] functions - It carries out cellular respiration (oxidation) to produce energy [功能: 它進行細胞呼吸(氧化作用), 以製造能量] - active cells (eg. sperms, liver cells): have more mitochondria.[活躍的細胞(例如: 精子,肝細胞):有更多粒線體] - Non-living granules: eg.- starch grains (the product of photosynthesis)[非活的小粒:例如: 澱粉粒(光合作用的產品)] - oil droplets [油小滴] - crystal of insoluble wastes. [不溶的廢物結晶] - Vacuole - It is surrounded by tonoplast (membrane around vacuole) [它是被液泡膜(圍繞液泡的膜)所包圍] - It contains cell sap (a solution of chemicals), so it is called sap vacuole [它含有細胞液, 所以叫液泡] (chemicals include: sugars, proteins, mineral salts, wastes, pigments, etc.) [所含的化學品包括: 糖、蛋白質、礦物鹽、廢物、色素、等等] (Sap vacuole supports the plant cell by turgidity.) [液泡用硬脹, 以支撐植物細胞] - Nucleus (nuclei [pl]): function - It controls cellular activities. [細胞核: 功能: 它控制細胞活動] - It is bounded by nuclear membrane [它被核膜所包圍] - It contains thread-like chromosomes (made by DNA coiled around proteins). [它含有線狀的染色體(去氧核糖核酸圍繞蛋白質粒而成)] Chromosomes carry genes: genes control the characteristics of a cell ( 1 gene 1 character). [染色體攜帶基因: 基因控制細胞的特徵 (一個基因控制一個特徵)] (Gene is a segment of DNA that can control the production of a special kind of protein in the cell.) [基因是一段去氧核糖核酸, 它可以控制細胞中, 一種特殊蛋白質的製造, 有了這蛋白質就能形成一個特徵]

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Ch. 3

eg. of plant cells: (1) Onion epidermal cells; (2) root hair cells; (3) guard cells in leaf epidermis; (4) palisade cells in leaf [植物細胞舉例: (1) 洋蔥表皮細胞; (2) 根毛細胞; (3) 葉表皮上的保衛細胞; (4) 葉子內的柵狀葉肉細胞] (In drawing of a cell, we use double lines to denote (代表) the cell wall, but a single line to denote the cell membrane.) [在畫細胞時, 我們用雙線代表細胞壁, 而用單線代表細胞膜] Animal cell - It has no cell wall & chloroplast. [動物細胞: 它沒有細胞壁和葉綠體] - It stores glycogen granules and oil droplets in the cytoplasm. [它在細胞質內貯藏糖原小粒和油小滴] - eg. white blood cells, cheek cells, etc. [例如: 白血球、面頰細胞、等等] Comparison between plant cells & animal cells: [植物細胞和動物細胞的比較] - similarities: [相似] - both have a cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm [兩者都有細胞膜包圍着細胞質] - both have a nucleus [兩者都有細胞核] - both contain mitochondria [兩者都有粒線體] - differences : [分別] Animal cells [動物細胞] Plant cells [植物細胞] no cell wall & chloroplast [沒有細胞壁和葉綠體] cell wall & chloroplast present [沒有細胞壁和葉綠體] glycogen granules as food store [以糖原作為糧食貯藏] starch granules as food store [以澱粉作為糧食貯藏] vacuoles small or absent [液泡細小,或是沒有液泡] large central vacuole [大的, 在中央的液泡] irregular shape [不規則的形狀] regular shape [有規則的形狀] nucleus in the center [細胞核在細胞中間] nucleus at the side. [細胞核在一邊] relatively small size [體積比較上細小] relatively large size [比較上大的體積] Microscope - It is an instrument for observing small objects. [顯微鏡: 它是一個觀察微少物體的儀器] - Different parts - eyepiece & objective(s) : for magnification [不同部分: 接目鏡和接物鏡] - coarse & fine adjustment(s) - for focusing the microscope [粗調節器和微調節器: 使顯微鏡對焦] - diaphragm - controls the amount of light entering the microscope. [光欄: 控制進入顯微鏡的光強度] - condenser and condenser adjustment - focus light to microscope [聚光器和聚光器調整: 把光聚焦到顯微鏡] - mirror - plane mirror: using sunlight (natural light). [鏡子: 平面鏡: 使用陽光(天然光)] - concave mirror: using lamp [凹面鏡: 使用燈光] - clip - hold the slide with specimens. [夾子: 維持標本的位置] - magnification - eyepiece x objective [放大: 接目鏡 x 接物鏡] - higher magnification- smaller view (see smaller area of the tissue) [較高放大率: 較小景觀(可見的面積細一些)] - fewer cells [可見的細胞少一些] - more detail. [可以看得更加詳細] Use of microscope: Use high power after observing under low power: Adjust the position of the slide until the tissue to be observed is placed at the centre of the field of vision. Turn the nosepiece to select the high power objective. Turn the fine adjustment knob until the cell is in focus. Adjust the diaphragm and condenser to increase the illumination of the slide (if necessary). [使用顯微鏡: 用低倍觀察之後, 怎樣轉用高倍顯微鏡觀察: 調整玻片的位置, 使它在景觀的中間位置, 轉動換鏡轉盤, 以選擇高倍接物鏡; 轉動微調節器直至清楚對焦為止, 如有需要可調整光欄和聚光器, 以增加玻片的照明] Cells - They are the smallest unit of living organisms. [細胞: 他們是生物的最細小單位] - unicellular organisms: animals and plants with one cell only. [單細胞生物: 只有一個細胞的動物和植物] - Cells of multicellular organisms are specialized to perform different functions. [多細胞生物的細胞, 是專門化的, 以執行不同的功能] eg. mesophyll cells for photosynthesis; root hair cells for water absorption. [例如: 葉肉細胞用作光合作用; 根毛細胞用作吸收水份] [The discovery of cells / development of microscope – the importance of this on the development of science.][Small project] [討論以下題目在科學發展中的重要性: 發現細胞/發展了顯微鏡] P. 2 of 3

Ch. 3

Levels of organisation : (Cells, tissues, organs, systems, organism) [生物的結構層次] - Cells are group together and work as a whole to perform specialized functions. [細胞聚起來, 整體地運作, 以執行特別的功能] - Tissue: a group of similar cells to perform a particular function. [組織: 一組相似的細胞, 以執行一個特殊功能] - animals : eg. epithelial tissue, muscular tissue. [動物: 例如: 上皮組織、肌肉組織] - plants : eg. vascular tissue, mesophyll. [植物: 例如: 維管組織、葉肉組織] - Organ: different tissues group together to carry out specialized functions. [器官: 不同的組織組合在一起, 以進行特別功能] - eg heart : consists of muscles, nervous tissue and blood vessels. [例如: 心臟: 包括肌肉、神經組織、血管] - eg. leaf : consists of epidermis mesophyll and vascular tissue. [系統: 幾個器官和組織聚在一起, 把一系列的特殊工作, 十分協調地進行] - System: several organs and tissues work together to carry out a particular set of functions in a coordinated way. [系統: 幾個器官和組織一起運作, 使一系列的工作, 十分協調地進行] - human : eg. digestive, respiratory, excretory, circulatory & reproductive systems. [人體: 例如: 消化系統、呼吸系統、排泄系統、循環系統、生殖系統] - plant : eg. root and shoot systems. [植物: 例如: 根部、幼枝] - Organism : eg. human, dog. [生物: 例如: 人類、狗] Notes for using microscope:

[使用顯微鏡時要注意的事項]

- 看顯微鏡時, 所見之東西都是 “上下左右” 倒轉, (eg. 看 p 字, 就成為 d 字); 即是把紙張倒轉來寫那個 p 字,就可以成為 d 字。 - (a) slide [玻片]: 是那片長方形的玻璃片; 功能 (function)是 - holding the specimen(那件你要看的東西). (b) cover slip [蓋玻片]: 是那片正方形而薄薄的的玻璃片; 功能是 - prevent drying of the specimen. [防止標本乾燥] - prevent the objective from touching the specimen (esp. when the specimen is wet.) [避免接物鏡碰觸標本 (尤其當標本是濕的)] (c) dye/stain [染料]: 使標本有顏色而更容易觀察。 - 放置蓋玻片 (cover slip) 在玻片 (slide) 和標本(specimen) 之上時, 小心不要造成氣泡 (bubbles), 否則便會看不到標本, 而只見到一個個黑色粗邊的圓圈 ! - Steps of using microscope:

[使用顯微鏡的步驟]

1. 先選光源: 如選天然光 Æ 用 plane mirror (即平面鏡向上), 如選燈光 Æ 用 concave mirror (即凹面鏡向上) (如果顯微鏡是附加了燈光源的, 就沒想有鏡子(mirror)了, 你只要開燈就可以了); 2. 先選最細的接物鏡 (objective) (即最小放大倍數的)(使它向下); 3. 眼放在接目鏡 (eyepiece) 之上 (要雙眼開著, 不要閉上一隻眼睛), 調節鏡子直至看到光亮為止; 4. 把標本(specimen)(已裝好在(slide)之上, 另已加蓋玻片(cover slip)) 放在載物台(stage)孔的中央部份; 5. 把接物鏡(objective)和載物台(stage)之間的距離調節至最大; 眼再放在接目鏡(eyepiece)之上, 用粗調節器(coarse adjustment)把接物鏡(objective)和載物台(stage)之間的距離調節(縮短)至可以看見標本 (specimen)的影像, 再用微調節器(fine adjustment)調節(縮短)至清楚看見為止; (如要移動標本, 就用載物台上面的調節鈕(control)). 6. 如要改用更大的接物鏡(objective)(更大的倍數): 可直接轉動換鏡轉盤一下(注意, 只可轉一下而選用大一級的, 不能一次過轉去最大的接物鏡), 然後用微調節器(fine adjustment) (注意: 如果這次是用最大的接物鏡(objective), 只可以用微調節器, 不能用粗調節器), 把接物鏡(objective)和載物台(stage)之間的距離調節(縮短)至再次清楚看見。 P. 3 of 3

Ch. 3

Ch.

Metabolism & Enzymes

[代謝作用和酶]

Metabolism [代謝作用]: all the chemical reactions taken place inside the living organisms. [在生物體內的全部化學反應] Metabolic processes: eg. photosynthesis, respiration, etc. [代謝過程: 例如光合作用, 呼吸作用] Types [種類] - catabolism [分解代謝] - breaking down of complex organic molecules into simple molecules. (eg. respiration ) [分解複雜有機分子成為簡單分子 (例如: 呼吸作用)] - anabolism [組成代謝] - building up of complex organic molecules from simple molecules. (eg. photosynthesis ) [由簡單分子建造複雜有機分子] Control of metabolism (metabolic rate): [控制代謝過程 (代謝速率)] - it can be controlled / speed up by enzymes [酶能夠控制/加快它的速度] - the rate would be too slow to occur if no enzymes are present. Æ die. [如果沒有酶, 代謝速率便會太慢] Enzymes [酶]: - working mechanism [運作機制] - each enzyme has an active site [每個酶最小有一個活性部位] - each active site can only allow specific substrate to fit on [每個活性部位只容許裝入特別的基質] - the enzyme and substrate molecules combine to form enzyme-substrate complex [酶和基質分子結合形成酶底物複合物] - the product form and then enzyme is free to attach the other substrate molecules (therefore it can be reused) [形成產品, 然後便可自由地黏附其他基質分子 (所以它能夠再用)] - this mechanism is called lock and key hypothesis (NOT: key and lock hypothesis). [這個機制叫鎖鑰假設 (不要寫成: 鑰鎖假設)] -

Properties of enzymes [酶的特性]: - biological catalyst ( it can speed up/regulate chemical reactions) [生物催化劑(它可以加快/調節化學反應)] - it is protein in nature [它的本質是蛋白質] - it is specific in action. ( 1 enzyme will catalyse only 1 reaction) [它有非常專一性(一種酶只催化一種反應)] (the special active site of a particular enzyme can only allow substrates with a particular shape to fit on) [每個酶的特殊活性部位, 只可以裝入有特殊形狀的基質] - it can catalyse reversible reaction in both directions. [它能夠向兩個方向催化可逆過程] - it is reusable, only a small amount is required. [它是可再用的, 因此只需要用小量 ]

- factors affecting enzymatic activities: temperature & pH [影響酶活性的因素: 溫度和酸鹼度] - factors affecting the rate of enzymatic reaction: temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration [影響酶反應速率的因素: 溫度, 酸鹼度, 基質濃度, 酶濃度] - temperature [溫度]: - low temperature: the enzyme molecules have less energy to work. the enzyme is inactive. (NOT: denatured) [低溫: 酶分子有較小能量去工作, 酶是不活躍 (不要寫成: 變性)] - higher temperature: the enzyme is active. [較高溫度: 酶是活躍的] - optimum temperature: the enzyme becomes most active. [最適溫度: 酶變成最活躍] different enzymes have different optimum temperature. [不同酶有不同的最適溫度] (37oC is only our body temperature. It is not necessarily the optimum temperature of a particular enzyme. They usually lie between 45-50oC) [37oC 只是我們的體溫, 它不一定是某一隻酶的最適溫度] - high temperature (higher than optimum) Æ enzyme is denatured. [高溫(高過最適溫度) Æ酶已變性] (NOT: dead/killed) (use “denatured” instead of “destroyed”.) [不要寫成: 死亡/被殺死] [用 “變性”, 而不用 “破壞”] - pH: (NOT: PH) [酸鹼度] - optimum pH (the most suitable pH for the enzyme). [最適酸鹼度] - different enzymes active in different optimum pH. [不同酶有不同最適酸鹼度] - pH other than optimum pH can inactivate the enzymes. (i.e. enzymes are inactive) [其他酸鹼度可以使酶不活躍] - too extreme pH can denature the enzymes. (Usually not consider in HKCEE) [太極端的酸鹼度可以使酶變性 (中學會考通常不會考慮: 酸鹼度使酶變性)] P. 1 of 4

Ch. 4

True or false ? - Liver does not contain any enzyme. (Liver secretes bile that does not contain any enzyme.) [真或假? 肝臟不含有任何酶 (因肝臟分泌膽汁, 而膽汁沒有任何酶)] Where can we find enzymes [我們可以在何處找到酶]: 1. in our body? Æ in every living cell. [在我們體內? Æ 在每個活的細胞內] 2. in daily life? Æ eg. washing powder, as meat tenderizer [在日常生活中? Æ 例如: 洗衣粉, 鬆肉粉] (Relate the application of enzymes in industrial processes and commercial products.)[Small project] [敘述在工業過程和商業產品的應用] [小型探究活動] Example of enzyme: catalase - in every cell. [酶的例子: 過氧化氫酶 – 在每種細胞] (hydrogen peroxide produced is a toxic byproduct of metabolism. It should be decomposed by calalase to H2O & O2) [過氧化氫是一種有毒的代謝副產品。它一定要被過氧化氫酶分解成水及氧氣]

Ch.

Transport of Materials across the Cell Membrane

Why does a cell need transport - obtains useful materials, and [為什麼細胞要有運輸系統 - 獲得有用物質] - eliminates metabolic wastes. [除去代謝廢物] Permeability [滲透性] - living cell membrane: selectively permeable [活細胞膜: 選擇性透過] (eg. urinary bladder [膀胱]) - visking tubing / dialysis tubing: selectively permeable (with many small pores) [透折膜: 選擇性透過 (因有很多小孔)] - dead cell membrane - freely (fully) permeable [死細胞膜: 完全透過] - cell wall (non-living) - freely permeable. [細胞壁(非生物的): 完全透過] Diffusion [擴散] - molecules (fluid / dissolved solid molecules) move, from high concentration to low concentration area. [分子(流體/溶解了的固體分子)由高濃度的地方流動到低濃度的地方] Osmosis (ψ) [滲透作用] - water / solvent molecules move [水/溶劑的分子移動] - from high water potential to low water potential area [由高水勢流到低水勢的地方] - through a selectively permeable membrane. [通過一個選透性膜] (Water potential of pure water = 0, this is the highest water potential. Others are negative, i.e. lower potential.) [純水的水勢 = 0, 這是最高的水勢。其他的是負數, 即是較低水勢] (more water per unit volume of solution (less solute) Æ higher water potential, i.e. nearer to pure water.) [每個單位體積的溶液內的水越多(或溶質較小) Æ 越高水勢 (即越接近純水)] - Osmosis is actually a special “diffusion of water molecules” due to the difference in solute concentration between two areas separated by a selectively permeable membrane, which blocks the movement of the solute molecules only. [滲透作用其實是一種特殊的 “水分子擴散”, 只因溶質濃度在由選透性膜分隔的二地方之間有差異, 它(這選透性膜) 只是阻礙了溶質分子移動(即不阻礙水分子的移動), 所以以水分子的立場來說, 它只是水的擴散。]

P. 2 of 4

Ch. 4

Active Transport [主動運輸] - molecules move (any molecules) [(任何) 分子的移動] - from low concentration to high concentration area [由低濃度到高濃度的地方] - requiring energy & carrier [需要能量和載體] (actually it can move to any direction, but usually it transports from low to high concentration area, since from high to low concentration, it can use diffusion instead of active transport that requires energy.) [事實上它能夠向任何方向移動, 但是它通常是由低向高的地方輸送; 因為由高至低濃度輸送時, 它可以使用擴散, 而不會用需求能量的主動運輸] (it can also be used to transport from high to low concentration in very high rate) [它亦能夠以高速由高濃度輸送至低濃度的地方] - The carriers in a living cell membrane explain the selectively permeability of the membrane by selecting special substances to be absorbed into or released out of the cell. [活細胞膜上的載體是解釋細胞膜的選透性, 它挑選特別的物質以便吸入或釋放離開細胞。]

Differences between diffusion, osmosis & active transport: [擴散、滲透和主動運輸之間差異]

type of molecules move [移動的分子種類]

diffusion [擴散] any fluid molecules [任何流體分子]

direction of movement [移動的方向]

high to low concentration [高至低濃度]

other requirement [其他需要]

NIL [沒有]

osmosis [滲透作用] water molecules [水分子] high water potential to low water potential [高至低水勢] selectively permeable membrane [選透性膜]

active transport [主動運輸] any molecules [任何分子] any direction (usually from low to high concentration) [任何方向, 但通常是由低至高濃度] carriers, energy [載體、能量]

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion : [影響擴散速率的因素] - concentration gradient [濃度梯度]: (concentration different between the two area) [二地之間的濃度差異] - the steeper the gradient, the faster is the rate of diffusion [梯度越陡峻, 擴散速度越快] - temperature [溫度]: (higher temperature, the rate is faster) [越高溫度, 速率越快] - surface area [表面積]: (the larger surface area, the rate is faster, because diffusion must take place through the surface of organs or tissues) [表面積越大, 速率越快; 因擴散一定要在器官或組織的表面進行] - medium [介質]: (gas medium diffuses faster than liquid, then solid) [氣體擴散較快, 液體次之, 固體不能擴散] [在氣體介質中擴散較快, 液體次之, 之後是固體。] (solid is nearly undiffusable (un = 不能)) [固體是幾乎不能擴散梯度的] - size of molecules (擴散中的)分子大小: (larger size, the rate of diffusion is slower, because easily blocked by others). [體積越大, 擴散速率越慢, 因為容易被其他分子阻塞] - diffusion distance [擴散的距離]: cannot transmit for long distance [不能作遠距離傳送]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 4

Ch. 4b

Transport of materials across the cell membrane (Osmosis, diffusion, active transport)

本課重點: 細胞用什麼方法從環境中取得物質(例如:食物)及排走物質(例如:代謝廢物)。這其中包括: 取得(或除去)流體分子的擴散(diffusion), 水分子的滲透作用(osmosis), 選取特定分子(或取得微存量物質)的主動運輸(active transport)。同學們要清楚區別: 要取得什麼東西, 就要用何方法(力); 例如吸收水份就要用 osmosis, 吸收氧氣(即:流體)是 diffusion, 吸收礦物鹽(即肥料, 又因泥土內是不會有太多肥料的)便用 active transport。要分清楚它們, 首先便問是否牽涉水份, 如是, 則用 osmosis; 如果不是, 就問是否由多去少的地方, 如是, 則用 diffusion; 如果是由小去多的地方, (又或是由多去少的地方, 而又要求很高的速率; 又或是要求吸收得很完全), 就用 active transport。在看 osmosis 實驗的結果時 (eg. potato cup experiment): 記得 “water molecule” 是我們的肉眼所看不見的, 因此要寫 results 時, 不要寫成 “water molecules move into the potato cup”, 而要寫 “water level inside the potato cup increases” (或 decreases)。 [水位上升] 要解釋以上 potato cup experiment 的結果時: 有幾句是要記着的 (例如, 1966 HKCEE 實驗題): 解釋 set-up A (with raw potato, without skin; potato cup 內有 sucrose solution, 而 potato cup 外有 distilled water): Water potential in the distilled water is higher than that of the sucrose solution. [蒸餾水內的水勢比蔗糖溶液高] Water molecules will move from high to low water potential area. [水分子會由高水勢流去低水勢的地方] Therefore water moves from the distilled water into the sucrose solution, by osmosis. [因此水以滲透作用移入蔗糖溶液內] 解釋 set-up B (same as set-up A, but with boiled potato cup): The cells in boiled potato are dead. [在煮沸的薯仔內的細胞已死] They become freely permeable, so that osmosis does not occur. [它們變成完全透過, 所以滲透作用不能發生] Set-up B 的結果: The liquid level inside the potato cup remains constant. (注意: 不是所有 freely permeable 的 membrane, 即是已死的 membrane, 都會使 liquid level “remains constant” 的; 我們要比較 inside and outside potato cup 的 water level, 水永遠由 “high water level position moves to low water level position”, due to gravity, 即 [水由高水位的地方流去低水位的地方, 這是由於地心吸力的關係]) (注意: 在 freely permeable 時是 water level “水位”, 而不是 water potential “水勢”, 在 selectively permeable 時, 即有 osmosis 時, 是 water potential “水勢”, 而不是 water level “水位”。) Set-up B 是一個 “control experiment”, 即對照實驗, 是用作比較 set-up A 的, 它沒有了一個在 osmosis 來說, 非常重要的因素 “selectively permeable membrane”, 它使這因素 “become freely permeable”, 從而使 osmosis 不能進行。如果 set-up A 或 set-up B 是未去皮的薯仔: liquid level 就不會改變, 因 water cannot pass through the impermeable skin [水份不能通過不可滲透的薯仔皮]

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 4

Ch.

Food and Energy

mode of nutrition - Heterotrophic nutrition - taking in organic substances.

(Heterotrophs - the organism)

Functions of food : - maintain (維持) life. - supply energy (by carbohydrates(碳水化合物), fats, proteins) (energy value (能量值) ratio of carbohydrates : fats : proteins = 1 : 2 : 1)

(energy content determined by burning the food to heat up fix amount of water) - provide materials for growth and repair (修補) ( by proteins) Types of food:

carbohydrates, fats (for energy), proteins (body building), vitamins, minerals (maintain health), dietary fibre (roughage) (gut peristalsis), water (maintain life).

Carbohydrates- elements (元素): C, H, O ( in ratio (比例) of H : O = 2 : 1 ) - 3 types: - monosaccharides (單糖類): - molecular formula (公式) : C6H12O6 - eg. glucose (葡萄糖), fructose (果糖), galactose (半乳糖). - disaccharides (雙糖類): (2 monosaccharides combine together with one water molecule lost) (2 C6H12O6 - H2O Æ C12H22O11 )(condensation) - molecular formula : C12H22O11 (C12H22O11 + H2O Æ 2 C6H12O6 )(hydrolysis)(a digestion process in our body) - eg. maltose (麥芽糖) ( 2 glucose molecules ) eg. sucrose (蔗糖) ( non-reducing sugar ) eg. lactose (乳糖) - all monosaccharides and disaccharides are reducing sugars (還原糖) except sucrose. - polysaccharides (多糖): (NOT sugar) - store energy. - eg. starch (store energy in plants) eg. glycogen (糖原)(肝糖) (store energy in animals) eg. cellulose (纖維素) (component (成分) of cell wall) - excess (多餘的) carbohydrates - stored as glycogen in liver & muscles - stored as fats under skin (subcutaneous fats) Lipids ( fats & oils ) -

elements : C, H, O - basic components (成分)( building blocks): glycerol (甘油) & fatty acids (脂肪酸) - functions - give energy - form fatty tissues under skin - to keep warm - to store energy - transport fat-soluble (油溶性) vitamins (A, D, E, K)

Proteins - elements: C, H, O, N some with S, P - basic components: amino acids (氨基酸). - Amino acids combine (結合) together to form dipeptides (雙氨基酸組) & polypeptides (poly=多) - cannot be stored - excess amino acids (from proteins) are deaminated (deamination [n])(de=去除) by liver - a part of the product is changed to urea (尿素) which will be excreted (排泄) away by kidney - another part (the carbon skeleton) is changed to carbohydrates (glycogen) which will be stored in liver and muscle cells. (so, excess amino acids are not “no use”, the carbon skeleton can further provides energy as it is transformed (轉化) into carbohydrates and fats.) - essential amino acids: must be intake from food. non-essential amino acids: can be produced by our body (by transforming from other amino acids). - functions - provides materials for growth and repair of the body. (acts as structural (結構的)components of cells ) - produce hormones (荷爾蒙) and enzymes (酵素) - give energy (only by protein in food, NOT by structural (結構) protein in tissue cells) P. 1 of 3

ch. 5

Vitamins -

water soluble (水溶性) vitamins (B, C) fat soluble (油溶性) vitamins (A, D, E, K) - take in excess (過多) amount will cause harm to our body.

Dietary fibres (纖維) (roughage)(cellulose) - stimulate peristalsis (蠕動) of gut (alimentary canal) Deficiency Diseases (vitamins, minerals & dietary fibre): Vitamins

Deficiency Diseases

night blindness

scurvy (壞血病) (bleeding gum)

rickets (軟骨病) (weaken bones)

calcium iron dietary fibre Notes: - rickets

rickets anaemia (貧血) (low haemoglobin level ) constipation (便秘) (NOT: ricket)

Food Tests Substance reducing sugar (eg.glucose)

Tests

Original Colour

Benedict’s

test

blue

starch

iodine

test

brown

protein

biuret

test

blue

fats/oils

spot

test

fats/oils

emulsion

test

vitamin C

DCPIP

test

Positive Results orange precipitate (沈澱物) blue-black violet solution translucent spot (半透明小滴)

clear

milky emulsion (乳劑) (oil droplets)

blue

colourless solution (decolorize)

Notes: - Benedict’s test requires heating (There is a Benedict’s solution). - glucose can also be tested by Clinistix paper: colour changes: ( red Æ purple ) protein can also be tested by Albustix paper: colour changes: ( yellow Æ green ) - Biuret’s test: addition of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, then add little copper sulphate solution. (There isn’t a Biuret’s solution.) - emulsion test: addition of absolute alcohol first, shake well to get a clear solution, add little water and shake well to get a milky emulsion. - Vitamin C should be dropped onto DCPIP solution (dichlorophenol indophenol) drop by drop.(NOT reverse) - iodine is not for testing starch, but iodine solution. (iodine solution is iodine dissolved in potassium iodide) - a positive Benedict’s test does not imply the present of glucose, it only indicates reducing sugar. - spot test should be futher proved by dissolving the oily spot in organic solvents (eg. alcohol). - absolute alcohol (ethanol) is highly flammable (易燃的). DCPIP is toxic and corrosive. (Design an experiment to compare the amount of vitamin C in different fruits and vegetables.) The balanced diet - have enough food to supply enough: 1. energy (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) 2. body building material (protein) 3. substances to maintain (維持) health (vitamins, minerals) - not balanced diets for long time : malnutrition (營養不良) (mal = 不正常) eg. anorexia nervosa & anorexia bulimia (神經性厭食症與貪食症) Food pyramid: sugar, oil, salts (smallest amount) dairy products (1-3 cups of milk), meat (200-280g), eggs vegetables & fruits (about 300-500g per day) cereals (穀類), bread, rice (suitable/larger amount)

(less amount)

(Discuss the way in which eating disorder, eg. anorexia nervosa, can affect health)[Small project] Factors affecting energy requirement

- sex - age - occupation (職業) - activities (活力) - stage of individual

( eg. pregnancy (懷孕), breast-feeding (授乳)

(Discuss the importance of water in our body.) P. 2 of 3

ch. 5

Concepts for Food & Diets 1. Mother’s milk is an ideal food for baby: (1) it contains most nutrients (NOT all, lacking vitamin C, D and iron) required for the growth of the baby; (2) it is easy taken (NOT: easy digested); (3) contains antibody, to help body defence of the baby. [母乳是一種理想的嬰兒食物: (1) 含有大部分(不是全部)必需的營養(缺乏維生素C、D和鐵質); (2) 容易進食(不是容易消化); (3) 含有抗體, 以幫助嬰兒身體防衛。 2. (a) Vitamin C is easily destroyed by heating (therefore not to cook vegetables for too long). However we discovered that boiled orange juice contains more vitamin C than that of unboiled one. This is because the test we applied is only to test for the present of some characters of vitamin C and the amount of substance causing this character will be increased after destruction. [維生素 C 很容易被加熱所破壞(因此烹調蔬菜時, 不要把蔬菜煮得太久); 但我們發現煮沸了的橙內含有的維生素 C 比鮮橙還多; 這是由於我們用的方法實際上只是測試維生素 C 內的某些成分, 而它被破壞後這些成分反而增加了]。 (b) Vitamin C will also loss by prolong storage. [維生素 C 亦會在長時間貯藏時失去]。 3. Our daily energy required is mainly supplied by carbohydrates. (The main diet in Chinese is rice). (Fats and protein can also supply energy). Protein can no longer being oxidized to supply energy after being converted to structural protein of tissue cells. (In starvation, these structural proteins (i.e. tissue cells) can also be oxidized to release energy, but this is very dangerous). [我們每天需要的能量, 大部分是由碳水化合物(中國人的主糧是米或麥)所提供, (脂肪和蛋白質也會提供能量)。蛋白質能夠供應能量(食物中的蛋白質), 但當轉化成正常的人體組織後, 就不再被氧化而釋放能量。 (在挨餓時, 這些身體組織仍然能夠被氧化而放出能量, 但這是十分危險的) (不要以為: “只有碳水化合物和脂肪提供能量”) 4. (a) NOT to say, “to avoid obesity, we should take in less fat but more carbohydrate”, since excess carbohydrate will be converted to fat to be stored under skin. This will cause obese. [不要以為: “要避免變得太肥胖, 我們要進食較少脂肪, 但更多碳水化合物”; 因為體內過剩的碳水化合物也會被轉化成脂肪, 而被貯藏成為皮下脂肪組織, 這樣也會變肥]。 A person gains weight (becomes fat) as he takes in more energy from food than his body needs. (The reverse, for lose weight, is also true.) (NOT because he takes in too much fatty food.) [當人獲得的能量比他所需的更多, 他就會增加重量(變得肥胖); (相反, 在變輕時, 也是相同道理)。(不接受: 由於吃下太多脂肪)] (b) 市面上太多所謂纖體方法, 有些還強調不用做運動, 而其實有些可能只是減去你體內的水分, 因而導致體重下降; 如果真是這樣, 就會對你的身體造成不良的影響。 5. Our body will not store sugar, since it is soluble and will lowers the water potential of the body fluid. This will alter the osmosis of the cells. Only starch (in plant) and glycogen (in animal) are suitable for storage due to their insolubility. [身體不能貯藏糖, 由於它們是水溶性的; 這樣(糖溶於水)會降低細胞的水勢而改變細胞的滲透能力; 只有澱粉 (在植物)及糖原 (在動物), 由於它們是不溶的, 是最適合用作貯藏的]。 6. Vegetarian diet is not suitable for children and teenagers. They are actively growing and some essential amino acids may not be provided in sufficient amount. [一個素食者的膳食是不適合給小孩和青少年的, 因為他們正活躍地生長, 而某些必需的氨基酸不能夠全由植物中充分地供應他們生長所需]。 7. Diet in cool area contains lots of fats, because: (a) fats can release much more energy (double) than that of carbohydrates and proteins. This can compensate for the great heat loss. (b) excess fats is stored under skin for insulation/ to reduce heat loss.

居住在寒冷環境的人民, 其膳食中含有大量的脂肪, 由於: (a) 脂肪比碳水化合物及蛋白質能夠釋放更多量(雙倍), 這樣可補償他們的巨大散熱量; (b) 過剩的脂肪能夠被貯藏在皮膚下, 用作隔熱, 使身體散熱量減低。 8. Besides the skin to produce vitamin D under sunlight/UV ray, the bacteria in the large intestine can also produce vitamin K. Therefore not to say that human cannot produce vitamin. [除了我們的皮膚能夠製造維生素 D 之外, 大腸的細菌(大腸桿菌)也會為我們製造維生素 K。因此不要以為人體不能夠製造維生素]。 9. Patient with night-blindness cannot see things clearly in dim light (NOT at night/without light/dark condition). If there is really no light, nobody can “see” things. [患了夜盲症的人不能夠在暗光之下看清楚東西; (不是: 在夜間或沒有光時); 沒有光就任何人也看不見東西的了]。 (而夜間也不一定是暗光的) 10. Balanced diet includes correct amount and type of food in correct ratio (i.e. not too much/little)(NOT accept: take in all type of food in a diet). [均衡膳食是包含正確份量及各種食物成分的正確比例 (不要太多或太少) (不接受: 在一餐吃下各種食物)] (即是說: 膳食中要包含所有必需的食物種類[type of food], 而每種要有適當的份量[suitable amount of food substances]; 亦要有適當的能量數量[amount of energy])。 11. Eat more sugar will probably cause tooth decay, NOT diabetes. [吃得太多糖會引致蛀牙, 卻不是 “形成糖尿病”]。 P. 3 of 3

ch. 5

Ch. 6

Modes of Nutrition (營養方式)

[ Not required: Chemosynthesis: certain sulphur bacteria - H2S + O2 Æ 2 H2O + 2S + energy ] autotrophic nutrition (自營營養) - make their own food (complex (複雜) organic (有機) substance) from simple inorganic substances. -

the organism is called autotrophs. eg. green plants. the method is called photosynthesis. the organelle (細胞器) involved is chloroplast. (the pigment involved is chlorophyll)

heterotrophic (異養的) nutrition -

obtain their food in organic form

the organism is called heterotrophs. food needs to be digested before being absorbed and used. -

holozoic (動物性的) nutrition : -

takes in other living organisms. three types : - herbivorous (食草的) nutrition (organism = herbivores ) : feed on plants. - carnivorous (食肉的) nutrition ( organism = carnivores ) : feed on animals. - omnivorous (雜食) nutrition ( organism = omnivores ) : feed on plant & animal.

saprophytic nutrition (腐生): -

feed on dead organic matter

organism = saprophytes. (bacteria & fungi) (there are only two types of saprophytes) extracellular (體外的) digestion – eg. bread mould (Mucor & Rhizopus) - hypha (hyphae [pl]) (菌絲) and rhizoids secrete digestive enzymes into the bread. enzymes digest complex organic molecules into simple soluble form. - digested products are absorbed by hyphae and rhizoids. [ Notes: Amoeba carries out intracellular digestion ]

hyphae (mass of hyphae = mycelium) - support the plant - secrete digestive enzymes - absorb digested food - stolons: horizontal hyphae for spreading the colony. sporangiophores: vertical hyphae for asexual reproduction. with sporangium (孢子囊) (sporangia [pl]) at tip - produce spores for reproduction. importance: acts as decomposers that allow recycling (再循環)of material in ecosystem (生態系統).

P. 1 of 2

Ch. 6

- parasitism (parasitic nutrition) (寄生): -

organisms = parasites . eg. tapeworm it obtains organic food from other organisms ( the host (寄主)) Parasite obtains benefit (好處). Host is harmed.

tapeworm (usually 6 - 10 M long: with a long chain of segments. - 2 hosts ( man = primary host , pig = secondary host ) - live in small intestine (ileum (迴腸)) of human. (there is lot of digested food) -

already digested food can be absorbed directly by diffusion.

- adaptations (適應) of the tapeworm : structures / features head with hooks (鉤) & suckers (吸盤) long & flattened body

benefits / functions It helps to attach itself firmly onto the wall of intestine It can increase surface area for absorbing more food by diffusion. thin body wall It decreases the diffusion distance for food absorption. It prevents being digested by the enzyme of the host. body covered by cuticle (外表皮) bisexual (hermaphrodite (兩性體)) (bi = 2) It can reproduce without the presence of a mate (配偶). no mouth & digestive system not needed (food has already been digested by the host) anaerobic respiration It can carry out respiration to release energy without oxygen Note: sucker is NOT for sucking/absorbing food. - State the ways to prevent the entry of tapeworm :

P. 2 of 2

Cook the meat (pork) thoroughly. Inspect the pork by the government before sale.

Ch. 6

Ch. 7

Nutrition in Mammals

[哺乳類的營養作用]

Processes of nutrition : ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion (e = out / not) (Note the difference between “egestion” and “excretion”) [營養作用的過程: 攝食、消化、吸收、同化、排糞 (注意 “排糞” 和 “排泄” 的分別)] Ingestion - a reflex action which is involuntary (in = not /入) [攝食: 是一個無意識的反射作用] - it occurs when the food is put at the posterior position of the tongue [當食物被放在舌頭的後部, 便被吞下] Digestion - to break down large pieces of food into small size and soluble form, so that they can be absorbed easily. [消化作用: 分解大塊食物成為細小和可溶的狀態, 使它們容易被吸收] - in alimentary canal (gut) (from mouth cavity to ileum in human) [在消化管(腸道)(從口腔至迴腸)] Digestive system: mouth cavity (digests starch), oesophagus, [消化系統: 口腔(消化澱粉質), 食道(沒有消化功能)] stomach (digests protein), [胃 (消化蛋白質)] duodenum (liver & pancreas), ileum (completed digestion)(absorbs digested food), [十二指腸(肝和胰臟), 迴腸(完成消化作用)(吸收已消化了的食物)] caecum & appendix (no use), colon (absorbs water & mineral salts), [盲腸和闌尾(沒有功能), 結腸(吸收水份和礦物鹽)] rectum (store faeces to be egested) (NOT excretion). [直腸(貯藏糞便, 以排遺出外) (不是排泄作用)] Mouth - Physical (mechanical) digestion - chew food into small pieces by teeth. [口腔: 物理的(機械的)消化: 把食物咀嚼成為小塊] - teeth - external structure – crown, neck, root [牙齒: 外部結構: 齒冠、齒頸、齒根] - internal structure - enamel - hardest outer layer [內部結構: 琺瑯質: 最堅硬的外層] - dentine - have living cells inside [牙本質: 裏面有活的細胞] - pulp cavity (with pulp tissues) : [髓腔(有髓組織)] - blood capillaries - for nourishing the teeth [微血管: 滋養牙齒] nerve - for sensation [神經線: 用作感覺] - cement & periodontal membrane (fibres) [接合劑和牙周膜(纖維)] - attach tooth to the jaw bone [使牙齒黏附顎骨] - types of teeth - incisor - bite and cut food into smaller pieces. [牙齒種類: 門齒: 咬和切食物成為細塊] - canine - kills prey [犬齒: 殺死獵物] only 1 root. [他們只有一隻齒根] tear flesh from the prey. [從獵物中撕出肌肉] - premolar (pre = 前)(2 roots) & molar (3 roots) [前臼齒(兩隻齒根) 和臼齒 (三隻齒根)] - crush & grind food into small pieces. [把食物壓碎或磨碎] - dentition - dental formula - eg. human = 2123 [齒系: 齒式 - 例如: 2123 ] 2123 2123 - two sets of teeth [兩套牙齒]: - milk teeth - in young child before approximately six years old [乳齒: 在約六歲前的兒童] - without molar (only 20 teeth) [沒有臼齒 (只有 20 隻牙齒)] - permanent teeth - no replacement for lost [恆齒: 失去後不能替換] - 32 teeth (including wisdom teeth) [32 隻牙齒 (包括智慧齒)] - tooth decay - bacteria act on food remains to form plaque on the surface of teeth. [蛀牙: 細菌作用於殘留的食物, 於是在牙齒表面形成牙菌膜] Æ plaque further provides rough surface for growth of bacteria. [Æ牙菌膜更加提供粗糙的表面, 給細菌生長] Æ bacteria produce acid (during metabolism) to dissolve the enamel of tooth [Æ細菌製造酸(在代謝過程中), 可溶解牙齒的琺瑯質] [ Note: Bacteria do not convert remain food into acids. ] [注意: 細菌不是把殘留的食物變成酸] (plaque can be removed by brushing, but tartar (plaque with calcium from saliva) cannot.) [牙菌膜可以被刷牙所清理, 但牙石 (牙菌膜連同唾液中的鈣質) 卻不可以] (erosion of teeth reaches the pulp cavity Æ substances stimulate the nerves Æ toothache occurs.) [牙齒侵蝕到達髓腔Æ物質刺激神經線Æ牙痛] - correction: replace the eroded area with a filling [矯正: 補牙: 把侵蝕的地方補回] - periodontal disease - plaque gets between gum and teeth Æ tooth loss out finally. [牙周病: 牙菌膜生到牙肉和牙齒之間Æ牙齒鬆脫] P. 1 of 5

Ch. 07

- care of teeth [照顧牙齒] - have a balanced diet [有均衡飲食] - adding fluoride in water to strength the enamel of our teeth (by the government) [政府在食水加氟化物, 以增強牙齒] (NOT chlorine which kills bacteria in water) [不是氯氣, 它只負責殺菌] - use alkaline toothpaste to neutralise acids produced by bacteria [用鹼性牙膏, 以中和細菌所製造的酸] - brush our teeth properly twice daily [正確地刷牙, 每日兩次] - others : eg. use dental floss (牙線) (to remove food remains between teeth) [其他: 例如: 用牙線 (以移除牙齒之間的殘留食物) eg. use dental disclosing agent - to indicate bacteria between tooth [例如: 用牙菌膜顯示劑: 以顯示牙齒之間的細菌] (Investigate the change in pH in the mouth before and after eating candies.) [研究吃糖前後的口腔酸鹼度變化] chemical digestion in mouth [口腔內的化學消化作用] - break down of starch molecules into maltose by amylase (from salivary glands) in saliva. [唾液內的澱粉酶把澱粉分子分解成為麥芽糖] (NOT: breaks down starch into glucose) [不要寫成: 澱粉分解成為葡萄糖] Pharynx - epiglottis - covers the trachea/larynx , so that food enters the oesophagus. [咽: 會厭: 遮蓋氣管/喉, 因此食物進入食道] - oesophagus - transport food by peristalsis to the stomach. [食道: 用蠕動, 以輸送食物到胃] (peristalsis occurs in all parts of the alimentary canal) [整條消化管都會有蠕動] Stomach - physical digestion - by squeezing & churning actions [胃: 物理消化: 用壓搾和攪拌方式] - chemical digestion [化學消化] - digestive juice : gastric juice (by gastric glands in the stomach wall) [消化液: 胃液 (從胃壁的胃腺)] - enzymes: protease [酶: 蛋白酶] - action: break down of protein molecule into dipeptides / short peptides. [作用: 分解蛋白質分子成為二肽或短肽] - acid: hydrochloric acid [酸: 胃酸] - provided acidic medium for maximum activity of enzyme [提供酸性介質, 以利酶的最大活躍度] - kill bacteria [殺死細菌] - dissolve food. [溶解食物] Small intestine - consists of two parts: duodenum and ileum. [小腸: 包括兩部分: 十二指腸、迴腸] Duodenum [十二指腸]: digestion of various food substances by 3 digestive juices: [由三種消化液, 以消化各種食物] - bile - with bile salts (not an enzyme) [膽汁: 有膽鹽(不是 )] - emulsify lipids (fats & oils) into small oil droplets. (just a physical change, without chemical change) (NOT digest fats) [把脂類(脂肪和油)乳化成油小滴(只是物理變化,沒有化學變化) (不要寫成:消化脂肪)] - produced in liver [在肝臟製造] stored in gall bladder [在膽囊內貯藏] taking action in duodenum [在十二指腸產生作用] - with bile pigment (green in colour) - no function. [有膽色素(綠色): 沒有功能] (an excretory waste from breaking down haemoglobin from old red blood cells) [由老化紅血球的血紅素分解而成的排泄廢物] - provide alkaline medium for enzymes to work (enzymes in pancreatic juice) [提供鹼性介質給作用 (在胰液中的 )] - pancreatic juice - produced by pancreas, take action in duodenum [胰液: 由胰臟製造, 在十二指腸中產生作用] - enzymes: 1. pancreatic amylase: starch Æ maltose [ : 1. 胰澱粉 : 澱粉質Æ麥芽糖] 2. proteases: protein Æ dipeptides / short peptides [2. 蛋白 : 蛋白質Æ二 /短 ] 3. lipases: oils Æ glycerol + fatty acids [3. 脂肪 : 油Æ甘油 + 脂肪酸] - provides alkaline medium for enzymes to work [提供鹼性介質, 以利工作] P. 2 of 5

Ch. 07

- intestinal juice [腸液] - produced and take action in small intestine (both duodenum & ileum) [在小腸(十二指腸和迴腸)製造和作用] - to complete the digestion of food [完成食物的消化] - 2 enzymes : 1. maltase: disaccharides (maltose) Æ monosaccharides (glucose) [兩種 : 1. 麥芽糖 : 雙糖類(麥芽糖)Æ單糖類(葡萄糖)] 2. protease: dipeptides / short peptides Æ amino acids [2. 蛋白 : 二 /短 Æ氨基酸] {Explain why a patient cannot digest fatty food properly after removing his gall bladder: There is no gall bladder to store the bile produced in the liver. When the food enters the duodenum, insufficient amount of bile is released for emulsifying fats in the food. The surface area of food for the action of lipase decreases so that fat digestion slows down.} [為什麼移除了膽囊的病人不能消化脂肪類食物? 他沒有膽囊以貯藏由肝臟製造的膽汁; 當脂類食物進入十二指腸, 沒有足夠的膽汁把脂肪乳化; 可供脂肪作用的食物表面積因而減少, 因此脂肪消化能力減慢] (Investigate the action of digestive enzymes: amylase on starch-agar plate, protease on milk-agar plate or egg white.) [探討消化的作用: 澱粉在澱粉瓊脂板上; 蛋白在牛奶瓊脂板上或蛋白上] Absorption - stomach: absorb alcohol & drugs, (also absorb water) [吸收: 胃: 吸收酒精和藥品 (也吸收水份)] - ileum: absorb digested food (together with large amount of water) [迴腸:吸收消化了的食物(連同大量水份)] (because it absorbs the largest amount of water – more than that of colon) [因為它吸收最大量水份:多過結腸] - colon: absorb remaining water & mineral salts. [結腸: 吸收剩餘的水份和礦物鹽] (diarrhoea (腹瀉): no water and mineral absorption in colon Æ dehydration and loss of ions) [腹瀉: 結腸不吸收水份和礦物鹽Æ脫水並損失離子] Adaptation of ileum as the organ for absorbing food [迴腸成為吸收器官的適應]: - it is long, with villi Æ to provide large surface area for absorption of digested food [它是長, 又有絨毛Æ提供大的吸收表面積, 以利吸收更多已消化了的食物] - The villi has thin wall (NOT thin cell wall) Æ to decrease the diffusion distance for easy diffusion of food [絨毛有薄壁(不要寫成: 薄的細胞壁) Æ降低擴散距離, 以利食物擴散] - it has blood capillaries & lacteal [它有微血管和乳糜管] Æ to maintain high concentration gradient across the wall of ileum for more complete diffusion of food. [Æ維持迴腸管壁之間的高濃度梯度, 以利食物更完全地擴散] (simulate digestion and absorption in the alimentary canal using dialysis tubing.)[用透析管以模仿消化管消化和吸收食物] Adaptation of villi [絨毛的適應]: It has folding surface to provide large surface area for absorption of more digestion food. [它有摺疊的表面, 提供大的表面積, 以利吸收更多消化了的食物] The villi has thin wall (of only one cell thick) to decrease the diffusion distance for easy absorption of food. [絨毛有薄壁(只有一層細胞的厚度), 以降低擴散距離, 以利吸收更多食物] It has blood capillaries and lacteal inside each villus to maintain high concentration gradient for more complete diffusion of food. [每條絨毛中都有微血管和乳糜管, 維持高濃度梯度, 以利吸收更多食物] Absorb and transport the absorbed food in villi [在絨毛中吸收和輸送食物] - blood capillaries: absorb glucose & amino acids (which are smaller molecules) [微血管: 吸收葡萄糖和氨基酸 (因它們是細分子)] - by diffusion and active transport (follows a concentration gradient, in a fast rate) [以擴散作用和主動運輸 (依照濃度梯度, 以高的速率)] - lacteal: absorb and transport fat droplets (which are larger molecules) [乳糜管:吸收並運輸脂肪小滴(它是大分子)] (The villi absorb glycerol and fatty acid, but the lacteal absorb fat since glycerol & fatty acids recombine together to form fat, after being absorbed, in the epithelium (epithelial cells) of villi) [絨毛吸收甘油和脂肪酸, 而乳糜管吸收脂肪小滴, 因為當甘油和脂肪酸被絨毛吸收了之後, 在上皮組織內再結合成脂肪小滴]

P. 3 of 5

Ch. 07

Transport & assimilation - digested glucose & amino acids transport to liver by hepatic portal vein [運輸和同化作用: 消化了的葡萄糖和氨基酸被肝門靜脈輸送到肝臟] - in liver - excess glucose changed to glycogen (stimulated by increase insulin (胰島素) secreted by pancreas) [在肝臟: 過剩的葡萄糖迅速變成糖原 (由胰臟增加胰島素的刺激所引致) - (to maintain the blood glucose level) [以維持血糖量] - glycogen is stored in liver and muscle cells. [糖原在肝臟和肌肉內貯藏] - (malfunction (mal = 失常) of pancreas causes diabetes) [胰臟失常引致糖尿病] - fat droplets are transported by the lacteal Æ lymph vein Æ vena cava (then in blood circulatory system). [脂肪小滴在乳糜管內輸送Æ淋巴管Æ大靜脈 (之後就在血液循環系統內)] Large intestine - including: caecum, appendix, colon & rectum. [大腸: 包括: 盲腸、闌尾、結腸、直腸] - caecum & appendix - no function in human (because small in size, food remains too short time) [盲腸和闌尾: 在人類內沒有功能 (由於體積細小, 食物逗留時間太短)] - It is very large in size in rabbit, to store plant tissues for long time, so that bacteria have enough time to secrete cellulase, to digest cellulose (in cell wall of plant) to glucose. [在兔子內, 它的體積很大, 以貯藏植物很久, 以消化(植物細胞壁中的)纖維素成為葡萄糖] - The rabbit should re-ingest (re = 再次) faeces for absorption of glucose [兔子需要再次吞下糞便, 以利葡萄糖的吸收] (because absorption of food only occurs in ileum) [因為食物的吸收只在迴腸內進行] (Cow and sheep are ruminant, they digest cellulose in their large four-chambered stomach. The partly digested food in the stomach can be brought back to the mouth for second cheming) [牛和羊是反芻動物, 他們在大的四個室的胃內消化纖維素; 在胃內消化了部分的食物, 會被吐至口腔作第二次咀嚼] [ Appendicitis is a sickness in appendix (NOT caecum). It is caused by inflammation produced by bacteria. NOT due to food entering the caecum or appendix since appendix, being a portion of the intestine, has peristalsis to push food inward or outward. ] [闌尾炎(盲腸炎)是在闌尾發炎(不在盲腸); 它是細菌引致發炎, 不是由於食物進入盲腸或闌尾, 因為闌尾是腸的一部分, 也有蠕動, 可把食物推入或推出] Liver functions - break down / deaminates excess amino acids [肝臟功能: 把過剩的氨基酸分解(脫氨作用)] - a part of the product is changed to ammonium compound that can further be converted into urea which is excreted by kidney [一部分產物會變成氨化物,後再變成尿素,被腎臟排泄出體外] - the remaining carbon skeleton is changed to glycogen (carbohydrate) for energy storage in liver. [剩下的碳支架會變成糖原(碳水化合物), 在肝臟內作貯藏能量之用] - secretes bile for fat emulsification. [分泌膽汁, 以利脂肪的乳化] - changes excess blood glucose to glycogen to regulate blood glucose level. [過剩的血糖會變成糖原, 以調節血糖水平] - produces: bile, blood proteins, heat. [製造: 膽汁、血漿蛋白、熱量] - stores vitamins A, D, E, K (which are fat soluble), iron, blood & glycogen. [貯藏維生素 A, D, E, K(它們是油溶的)、鐵質、血液、糖原] - detoxification/detoxication (eg. for drugs & alcohol) [解毒作用: (例如: 中和藥品和酒精的毒性)] - destruction of old red blood cells. [破壞老化的紅血球] (Discus the occurrence of gastro-intestinal disorders, such as peptic ulcer, duodenal ulcer, constipation, haemorrhoid (pile), and colon cancer.) [Small project]. [討論腸胃病的發生, 例如消化性胃潰瘍、十二指腸潰瘍、便秘、痔瘡、結腸癌] [小型探究活動] 為何一個人食完一個 5kg 既餅之後不會立刻重 5 kg? 人食完一個 5kg 既 cake 真的是 “會立刻” 重了 5 kg 的! 但之後: 因消化不是完全的, 吸收亦不是完全的, 所以未消化及未吸收的東西就會變成糞便排出, 於是體重便減輕了; 其後: 身體用了部分(甚至全部)吸收了的食物用作呼吸作用, 以製造身體所需的能量, 於是我們又再輕多一些。

P. 4 of 5

Ch. 07

Concepts on Nutrition: 1. Amylase or other carbohydrase cannot convert starch into glucose directly. [澱粉或其他碳水化合物不能一次過把澱粉變成葡萄糖]. 2. Distinguish the terms: “digestive juice” and “digestive enzyme”. If the question ask “digestive juice”, don’t answer “amylase”. [分別清楚 “消化液” 和 “ ”, 如果題目問 “消化液” 時, 就不要寫成 “澱粉 ”。] 3. Overweight is due to absorption of food containing too much energy (including carbohydrates, fats, and proteins). Excess food is converted into fats for storage. (NOT written as: excess carbohydrate is converted into glycogen to be stored in liver and muscles. This is only temporary storage and not affects the weight of the body. In fact, the weight is affected by the amount of fats.) [過重是因為從食物中吸收了太多高能量的食物, (這包括了碳水化合物、脂肪, 甚至蛋白質), 這些過剩的東西轉化成脂肪用作貯藏。(不要寫成: “因為過剩的碳水化合物轉化成糖原, 而貯藏在肝臟和肌肉中”; 因為這些貯藏只是暫時性的, 不會長期影響他們的體重。體重的增加或減少主要由脂肪的多少來決定。)] (Of course, decreasing weight can also be made by reducing the amount of water, but this is unhealthy. [當然, 減體重也可由減少身體的水分而致, 但這是不健康的!]) 4. Bacteria “change /break down” food (sugar) between teeth into acid and the acid dissolves the enamel of the teeth. (NOT written as: the bacteria “react with/feed on” the food to form acid / bacteria secrete acid / saliva is acidic / bacteria as reactant). [細菌分解牙齒旁邊的食物(糖), 而成酸, 而酸會溶解牙齒的琺瑯質。(不要寫成: 細菌與食物反應, 形成酸 / 細菌分泌酸 / 唾液是酸的 / 細菌作為反應物)] 5. Digestive juice usually (but not necessary) contains enzymes, eg. bile does not contain enzyme. [消化液通常都含有酶 (但不一定要含有酶); 例如: 膽汁就沒有酶]。 6. The alkaline nature of bile and pancreatic juice, can neutralize the acidic food from the stomach, provides suitable pH environment for the action of pancreatic enzyme in duodenum and ileum. [鹼性的膽汁和胰液, 能夠中和由胃部來的酸性食物, 使它變成有適合的環境, 使胰液的酶能夠在十二指腸和迴腸工作]。

P. 5 of 5

Ch. 07

Ch.

Nutrition in Plants

[植物的營養作用]

Mode of nutrition of green plant: autotrophic nutrition. [綠色植物的營養方式: 自養營養] the green plant: autotrophs [那綠色植物: 自養生物] The process/method of nutrition: photosynthesis. [營養作用的過程/方法: 光合作用] organelle: chloroplast [細胞器: 葉綠體]; pigment: chlorophyll [色素: 葉綠素] energy source: sunlight (not solar energy which also contains heat) [能量源頭: 陽光 (不是太陽能, 因它包含熱能)] Equation [方程式]: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 Æ C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Mechanisms for photosynthesis [光合作用的機制]: two parts [兩部分]: light reaction [光反應]- splitting water by light [用光分裂水分子] & dark reaction [暗反應]- form carbohydrate [形成碳水化合物] Chlorophyll [葉綠素] - trap light energy [捕捉光能]

H20 light energy (light reaction) H

[光能 (光反應)]

CO2 Æ O2 (gas) (release out (as byproduct) [放出(作為副產品)] dark reaction [暗反應] C6H12O6 (glucose)[葡萄糖] respiration (release energy) 2[呼吸作用(放出能量)給細胞之用] mineral salts (NO3 , SO4 , etc) [礦物鹽(硝酸鹽、硫酸鹽)

amino acids ,

fatty acids , glycerol ,

[氨基酸]

proteins [蛋白質]

[脂肪酸]

[甘油]

starch (for storage) [澱粉 (以作貯藏)]

fats & oils (for storage & forming cell membranes) [脂肪和油 (以作貯藏和形成細胞膜)]

================================================================ light [光]

water [水]

light reaction (require light)

carbon dioxide [二氧化碳] H

dark reaction (with/without light) [暗反應 (有/沒有光)

[光反應 (需要光)]

glucose Æ starch (both contain chemical energy) [葡萄糖] Æ [澱粉] [兩者都含有化學能]

oxygen (a by-product) [氧氣 (副產品)]

Destarching a leaf [把葉片脫澱粉]: - reason: to avoid any existing starch in the leaves interfering the results, so that any starch found after the experiment was produced during the period of investigation. [理由: 避免任何現存葉內的澱粉影響實驗結果, 於是實驗之後所發現的任何澱粉, 都是在期間所造成的] - method: put the plant in dark condition for 2 days. [方法: 把植物放置在黑暗條件中兩天] (NOT for too long time) [不要太長時間] - success because [成功原因] - no photosynthesis Æ no starch produced [沒有光合作用Æ沒有製造澱粉] - starch used up by respiration. (starch Æ glucose Æ respiration [oxidation]) [澱粉被呼吸作用用光了 (澱粉 Æ 葡萄糖 Æ 呼吸作用 [氧化作用])] - starch transported away from leaves. (to stem/ root/ flowers/ fruit/ bud) [澱粉被輸送離開葉片 (去莖、根、花、芽)] P. 1 of 5

Ch. 8

Test for the present of starch (indine test) [測試澱粉的存在 (碘液試驗)]: 4 steps [四個步驟]: - boil the leaf in water [把葉片在水中煮沸] (NOT just state: boil the leaf) [不要只寫: 把葉片煮沸] - to soften the leaf [使葉子柔軟] - to kill the leaf cells to make them to become fully permeable. [殺死葉細胞, 使它變成完全透過] - boil the leaf in alcohol [把葉片在酒精中煮沸] - to decolourize the leaf (make the leaf colourless by removing chlorophyll) [除去葉內的顏色 (移除(溶解)葉內的葉綠素)] - alcohol is flammable: therefore, use hot water bath to boil it. [酒精是易燃的: 所以用熱的水浴器來煮它] - put the leaf in hot water [[把葉片在熱水中] - to soften the leaf so that it is not easily damaged [使葉片軟化, 因此它不容易損壞] - add iodine solution to the leaf Æ if the leaf change to blue-black colour, it contains starch [加入碘液 Æ 如果葉片變成藍黑色, 它含有澱粉質] (NOT to say “no change” in negative results , should be “remain brown”.) [在看不到轉變時, 不要寫成: 沒有變化, 要寫成: 保留褐色] Experiments for photosynthesis [光合作用實驗]: Two types of set-up [兩種裝置]: - experimental set-up: has the factor(s) [實驗裝置: 它有我們要研究的因素存在] - control set-up [控制裝置/控制實驗]: identical to experimental set-up except missing the factor being investigated. [與實驗裝置相等, 但移除了那個被研究的因素] (the set-up receiving a certain treatment or influenced by a certain factor [i.e. the non-covered part for the experiment of “light is necessary” below] is the experimental set-up while the one without the treatment or factor, [i.e. the covered part] is the control set-up.) [那受到某些待遇或因素的部分 (例如在 “光是必須的” 實驗中, 葉子的非遮蓋部分), 就是實驗裝置, 而那沒有接受某些待遇的部分 (即是, 被遮蓋的部分), 就是對照實驗] (Design experiments to investigate the requirements for photosynthesis.) [設計一些實驗, 以研究光合作用的需要] For any experiment: notice the aim, results, and conclusions, explain the controls. [對於任何實驗, 注意: 目的、結果、結論、解釋對照實驗] Steps taken before most photosynthesis experiment: destarching

[做大部分光合作用實驗之前所必須的步驟: 脫澱粉]

1. Aim [目的]: To show that Light is necessary for photosynthesis. [證明光在光合作用中的必要性] Set-up [裝置]: part of leave is covered by aluminum foil (black paper). [葉子的某部分被錫紙(或黑紙)遮蓋 ] Results [結果]: The covered part of the leaf remains brown whereas the non-covered part turns blue-black. [葉子的被遮蓋部分維持褐色, 但暴露部分變成藍黑色] - which is the control? [那一部分是對照實驗] (the covered part / non-covered part?) [遮蓋部分/ 非遮蓋部分 ?] - importance of covered part [被遮蓋部分的重要性]: It acts as a control, to show that photosynthesis cannot take place in the absence of light. [它扮演對照實驗, 以證明光合作用在缺少光時, 是不能進行的] 2. Aim [目的]: To investigate the colour of light suitable for photosynthesis by absorption spectrum. [利用吸收光譜, 以研究那些光的顏色適合光合作用] Results [結果]: usable light for photosynthesis - red & blue light [可用光譜:紅、藍色光] (NOT green light) [不是綠色] (The leaf looks green because it doesn’t use up the green light. Instead it reflect [not use] the green light to our eye so that it appears green). [葉子看來是綠色, 由於它沒有用光了綠色的光, 它反射了綠色光到我們的眼睛, 所以它顯出綠色] 3. Aim [目的]: To show that Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis. [證明葉綠素在光合作用中是必須的] Set-up [裝置]: use variegated leaves (eg. Coleus) [使用斑葉植物, 例如: 洋紫蘇] Results [結果]: Green (and deep purple) portion of the leaf turns blue. [綠色(和深紫色)部分變成藍黑色] White (and pink) portion remains brown. [白色(粉紅)部分維持褐色] (The “type of leaves” is variegated leaves. The example is coleus. ) [葉的種類是:斑葉; 例子是:洋紫穌]

P. 2 of 5

Ch. 8

4. Aim [目的]: To show that Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis. [證明二氧化碳在光合作用是必須的] Set-up [裝置]: use sodium hydroxide to absorb carbon dioxide in the air. [使用氫氧化鈉以吸收空氣中的二氧化碳] Results [結果]: The leaf with carbon dioxide turns blue whereas the leaf without carbon dioxide remains brown. [有二氧化碳的葉子變成藍黑色, 但沒有二氧化碳的葉子維持褐色]

5. Aim [目的]: To show that Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis. [證明光合作用產生氧氣] Set-up [裝置]: To collect the gas bubble from Hydrilla (water plant) then test that the gas is oxygen by: [收集黑藻(一種水草)生產的氣泡, 接著測試它是氧氣] a) using alkaline pyrogallol solution to absorb oxygen so that water level rises up. [用鹼性焦棓酚溶液, 以吸氧氣, 因而水位上升] b) relighting a glowing splint. [它使帶有餘燼的木條再次燃燒]

[ Questions asking: using “what” / “how”? to test for oxygen” are different! [如果題目問: 使用 “什麼” / “如何”] What? Æ use a glowing splint. [“什麼” Æ 用帶有餘燼的木條] How? Æ relight a glowing splint. ] [“如何” Æ 使帶有餘燼的木條再次燃燒]

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis [影響光合作用速率的因素]

- light intensity [光強度] - carbon dioxide concentration [二氧化碳濃度] - temperature [溫度] - water supply in soil [泥土中的水份供應量]

(How a greenhouse works in enhancing plant growth.)[Small project] [溫室如何運作, 以加快植物的生長] 6. Aim [目的]: To show the relationship between light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis. [證明光度和光合作用速率的關係] Set-up [裝置]: To count the number of gas bubbles released in a fixed period of time when light intensity varies. [當光度變更時, 計算植物在固定時間內所產生氣泡的數量] OR : To measure the volume of gas collected in a fixed period of time when light intensity varies. [或: 當光度變更時, 量度植物在固定時間內所產生氣泡的體積] Light intensity can be changed by changing the distance of the lamp from the beaker. [我們可以改變燈和燒杯的距離, 以改變光度] Explain why we should wait for 5 minutes before taking any reading after the distance of the lamp has been changed? Ans: To ensure the factor being investigated becomes steady. [每次移動燈之後, 為什麼進行記錄前要先等候五分鐘? 答案: 保證受測試的因素變得穩定] Utilization of the products of photosynthesis [光合作用產品的利用]: in daytime: photosynthesis Æ glucose: some utilized by oxidation (produce energy); most changed to starch (good for storage, since not soluble) [在日間: 光合作用Æ葡萄糖: 部分被氧化作用所用(產生能量); 大部分變成澱粉(因不溶,固適合貯藏)] at night: starch Æ sugar (sucrose) Æ transport to other parts [在夜間: 澱粉Æ糖(蔗糖) Æ輸送到其他地方] eg. growing organs (for oxidation)/ storage organs (stored as starch) [例如: 生長的器官(用作氧化)/ 貯藏器官(澱粉作為貯藏)] Other products formed from glucose: cell wall (cellulose), lipids (oil), cell membrane, protein (add nitrate) [其他由葡萄糖生成的產品: 細胞壁(纖維素), 脂肪(油), 細胞膜, 蛋白質(加硝酸鹽)] Experiment: To investigate the presence of reducing sugar (by extracting with water, then use Benedict’s test) [實驗: 測試還原糖的存在(用水搾出, 然後用本立德試驗)]

Parts of the plant where photosynthesis takes place [植物進行光合作用的部分]: - where chloroplast (chlorophyll) found [葉綠體(葉綠素)存在] - mainly in the leaf because [主要在葉片部分, 因為] - it contains a lot of chloroplasts [它含有大量葉綠體] - it is well adapted for performing photosynthesis [它是非常適應作為進行光合作用] P. 3 of 5

Ch. 8

Leaf (cross-section) [葉片(橫切面)] - cuticle [角質層]: a waxy layer to prevent excessive water loss from the leaf. [一個蠟質層, 以防止葉片過度失水] thicker on the upper surface to prevent excessive water lost by evaporation. [在葉片的上表面厚一些, 以防止過度因蒸發而失水] (This layer is absent [not needed] in aquatic plant since there is no danger of desiccation.) [這層在水生的植物表面是沒有的, 因為那裡沒有乾燥的危險] - upper epidermis [上表皮]: protect internal tissues from mechanical damage & bacterial invasion [保護體內組織, 避免機械性損壞和細菌入侵] - palisade mesophyll [柵狀葉肉]: - adaptation [適應] - cells closely packed together to pack more cells for photosynthesis [細胞緊密地排列, 以排列多些細胞以作光合作用] - much chloroplast in each cell to absorb more light for photosynthesis [在每個細胞內, 有很多葉綠體, 以作光合作用] - spongy mesophyll [海綿葉肉]: cells loosely packed to provide more air space for gaseous exchange [細胞鬆弛地排列, 以提供更多氣室, 以作氣體交換] some chloroplast for photosynthesis. [也有一些葉綠體, 以作光合作用] - lower epidermis [下表皮]: (as upper epidermis but with thinner cuticle and more stomata). [好像上表皮一樣, 但有較薄角質層和更多氣孔] - stoma (stomata) [氣孔(stomata=眾數)]: allow gases to pass into and out of the leaf for gaseous exchange. ［容許氣體進入或離開葉片, 以作氣體交換］ (also not present in aquatic plant, since gaseous diffusion occurs all over the plant surface because there is no cuticle on the epidermis.) [在水生植物是沒有氣孔的, 因水生植物沒有角質層, 所以氣體交換可在植物的整個表面進行,] (NOT true: Aquatic plant has no stomata since the presence of stomata will cause the plant die of suffocation.) [不要寫成: 水生植物沒有氣孔, 因為氣孔的存在會引致植物窒息而死] - guard cells [保衛細胞]: control the size of stomata. [控制氣孔的大小] - characteristics [特徵] - it is kidney-shaped (sausage-shaped) [它是腎臟形的(香腸形)] - it has many chloroplast (much more than surrounding epidermal cells) [它有很多葉綠體(多過周圍的表皮細胞)] - its inner wall is thicker than outer wall [它的內細胞壁比外細胞壁更厚] - stomata aperture [孔徑] - stomata open in the daytime with the presence of light [氣孔在日間有光時開著] - it requires much carbon dioxide for the high rate of photosynthesis (much higher than respiration) [它需要很多二氧化碳, 因為它有很高的光合作用速率(比呼吸作用快很多)] - carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is low (just 0.03%) [大氣中的二氧化碳濃度很低 (只有 003%)] - stomata close at night [氣孔在夜間關閉] - without light, no photosynthesis occur [沒有光, 光合作用不能進行] - the rate of respiration of plant is low [植物的呼吸作用速率很慢] (therefore the amount of oxygen required is low) [所以需求的氧氣量很低] - under excessive strong sunlight [在過分強列的陽光之下] - stomata close to decrease transpiration rate to prevent excessive water lost [氣孔關閉, 使蒸騰速率減慢, 以防止過度地失水] (guard cells lost turgidity and become flaccid) [保衛細胞失去脹滿度, 因而變得軟弱的] - vascular bundle (midrib & vein) [維管束 (中脈和葉脈)]: - xylem [木質部] - transport water and mineral salts towards the leaf (upward) [朝著葉子方向輸送水份和礦物鹽 (向上)] - mechanical support of the leaf (plant) [給葉片(植物)機械性支撐] - phloem [韌皮部]: transport food (sugar) away from the leaf (to storage organs / actively growing organs) [輸送食物(糖)離開葉子(到貯藏器官/ 活躍地生長的器官) P. 4 of 5

Ch. 8

Adaptation of a leaf for photosynthesis: [葉片對於光合作用的適應] - The leaf is thin: to decrease distance for penetration of light and diffusion of gases. [葉片很薄: 以減少光要穿透的距離和氣體的擴散距離] - The leaf is broad and flattened: to increase surface area to absorb more sunlight. [葉片是廣闊而扁平的: 以增加吸收陽光的表面積] (NOT true: the leaf is thin that can provide a large surface area for photosynthesis.) [不要寫成: 葉片很薄, 因而能夠提供寬闊的表面積, 以作光合作用] - The leaf is “green”, because mesophyll cells contain chlorophyll to absorb sunlight. [葉片是綠色的, 由於葉肉細胞含有葉綠素, 以吸收陽光] - palisade mesophyll: cells closely packed and contain many chloroplast to absorb most light energy for photosynthesis. [柵狀葉肉: 細胞是緊密地排列的, 並包含很多葉綠體, 以吸收最多光, 以作光合作用之用] - spongy mesophyll: with numerous air spaces to allow rapid gaseous diffusion. [海綿葉肉: 有許多氣室, 容許氣體迅速交換] - numerous stomata on lower epidermis: allow rapid gaseous exchange. [在下表皮有許多氣孔: 容許氣體迅速交換] (not much on upper epidermis, to avoid direct sunlight, to minimize transpiration) [上表皮沒有很多氣孔, 以防止陽光直接照射, 以使蒸騰作用減到最少] (More on the upper surface on floating plants. Not present in submerged plants) [在浮水植物的上表皮較多; 在浸沒的植物是沒有氣孔的] - upper epidermis: transparent to allow light to pass to mesophyll. [上表皮: 是透明的, 以容許光進入葉肉] - extensive vein system: to transport water to leaf and transport food away. [廣闊的葉脈系統: 以輸送水份到葉子, 並把食物送走] Importance of photosynthesis [光合作用的重要性]: - the only method to convert energy in sunlight into chemical energy. [唯一的方法以轉變陽光的能量成化學能量] - provide food source for animals. [提供食物源頭給動物] (plant = producers ; animals = consumers) [植物 = 生產者 ; 動物 = 消費者] - supply oxygen to animal for respiration. (Maintain oxygen and carbon dioxide balance in nature). [供應氧氣給動物以作呼吸作用 (維持氧氣和二氧化碳在自然界的平衡) (Construct a concept map to show the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in an industrializing rural area with plants, animals, factories, & vehicles.) [建造一個概念圖, 以顯示出在一個工業化了的鄉村中的氧氣和二氧化碳的平衡, 它應包含: 植物、動物、工廠、車輛] Concepts on Plant nutrition & gaseous exchange

[植物營養和氣體交換的概念]

- Green plant only carry out photosynthesis in daytime (i.e. with light); respiration occurs both in daytime and at night (i.e. at any time) [綠色植物只在白天做光合作用, 而呼吸作用卻在白天和夜間(即任何時間)都有進行]。

- Oxygen enters/diffuses into intercellular space through stomata (NOT from the guard cells) [氧氣由氣孔而不是由保衛細胞擴散入葉片(胞間隙)內]。 - (a) In very low light intensity, both respiration and photosynthesis occurs. However the photosynthetic rate is much lower than the respiratory rate. There is net release of carbon dioxide from stomata. [在低光強度/十分暗淡的光之下, 呼吸作用和光合作用兩者都有發生, 但是光合作用的速率比呼吸作用的速率更慢; 因此二氧化碳有淨流出]。 (Should compare the rate of photosynthesis and rate of respiration [記得比較光合作用的速率和呼吸作用的速率])。 (b) Under a special unit of light intensity, the reading obtained (eg. carbon dioxide absorbed is 5 units). In fact, the photosynthetic rate is much larger than 5 units. (All carbon dioxide produced by respiration is also used for photosynthesis). (eg. respiration produced 2 units Æ the 5 units obtained previously + 2 units obtained by respiration = 7 unit photosynthesis) [在一個特殊的光強度單位之下, 所錄得的二氧化碳量(例如: 5 個單位), 而實際的光合作用速率卻是大於 5 個單位 (因為呼吸作用所放出的二氧化碳份量也要被計算) (例如: 呼吸作用釋放了 2 單位

Æ 由前面讀出的 5 個單位 + 呼吸釋出的 2 個單位 = 7 個單位的實際光合作用) P. 5 of 5

Ch. 8

Ch. 9

Respiration

[呼吸作用]

Respiration [呼吸作用]: an oxidative process involving enzymatic breaking down of food and controlled release of energy. [它是一個氧化過程, 利用酵素把食物分解並有控制地釋放能量, 放出能量才是最終目的] Respiration consists of 2 parts [呼吸作用包括二部分] - gaseous exchange (breathing) (external respiration) [氣體交換 (呼吸)(外呼吸)] - oxidation (energy release) (internal respiration) [氧化作用 (釋放能量)(內呼吸)] It usually means oxidation of food to release energy (as heat & ATP) - oxidation occurs in mitochondrion. [把食物氧化而釋放能量(熱能和腺三磷酸) – 氧化作用在粒線體內發生] During respiration: ADP + P + energy Æ ATP (energy stored in ATP) [在呼吸作用之中: 腺二磷酸 + 磷 + 能量 Æ 腺三磷酸 (能量貯藏在腺三磷酸之中)] When energy is required: ATP Æ ADP + P + energy (energy available for use) [當我們需要能量時: 腺三磷酸 Æ 腺二磷酸 + 磷 + 能量 (獲得可用的能量)] There are 2 types of respiration [兩種呼吸作用] - aerobic respiration [需氧呼吸] - anaerobic respiration [缺氧呼吸] Differential air thermometer [差示空氣溫度計] - to measure the heat produced by a small organism. [量度一隻細小生物所產生的熱量] - the set-up [裝置] - cotton wool outside is for insulation to prevent heat lost from the apparatus. (NOT to keep temperature constant). [外面的棉花是作為隔熱的, 它避免儀器損失熱能 (不要寫成: 維持穩定的溫度)] - the capillary tube should be narrow to have a clear result. [毛細管要非常狹窄, 使結果很清晰] - mechanisms [機械作用] - the rat carries out aerobic respiration. [老鼠進行需氧呼吸] - it produces heat energy, which warm up the air in the test-tube connecting the capillary tube. [它產生熱能, 使試管內的空氣變得溫暖] - the air inside the test-tube expands. [這使試管內的空氣膨脹] - the air pressure near the side of the rat increases and is larger than that without the rat. [接近老鼠的一邊空氣壓力增加, 並大於沒有老鼠的一邊] (The movement of the liquid is NOT due to release of carbon dioxide by the mouse since the rate is separated from the liquid in the capillary tube. The gas formed cannot affect the pressure of the liquid.) [由於老鼠和毛細管中的液體是分隔了,老鼠釋放二氧化碳不能解釋液體移動, 故老鼠放出的氣體不能影響液體的壓力] Experiment to measure respiration rate [量度呼吸速率的實驗]: - the insect carries out aerobic respiration. [那昆蟲進行需氧呼吸] - it absorbs oxygen and gives out carbon dioxide. [它吸入氧氣, 並放出二氧化碳] - the carbon dioxide given out is absorbed by sodium hydroxide (soda lime). [它放出的二氧化碳被氫氧化鈉(鹼石灰)吸收了] - the air volume inside the tube decreases. [管內的空氣體積減少] - the air pressure inside is lower than that of the atmospheric pressure. [管內的氣壓較大氣壓力為低] - the red liquid indicator is pushed downward (inward)(towards the insect). [紅色液體小滴被推向下的(向內)(向昆蟲)] Experiment with the respiration of germinating seeds [萌發中的種子呼吸作用的實驗]: - the seeds should be washed with disinfectant (antiseptic substance) to kill the bacteria on the surface. [種子一定要用消毒劑(抗菌素)清洗, 以殺死表面的細菌] - mechanisms [機械作用] - the germinating seeds carries out aerobic respiration [萌發中的種子進行需氧呼吸] 1. - they release heat, which warms up the air inside the flask [他們釋放熱能, 它使燒瓶中的空氣溫暖] - the reading in the thermometer increases [溫度計的讀數增加] 2. - they release carbon dioxide which changes the hydrogencarbonate indicator yellow. [他們釋放二氧化碳, 使碳酸氫鹽指示劑變成黃色] - if the germinating seeds are replaced by boiled and sterilized seeds [如果萌發中的種子被換成已煮沸並滅菌的種子] - the thermometer reading remains unchanged (OR : the indicator remains red/purple) [溫度計讀數維持穩定 (或: 那指示劑維持紅色/紫色)

P. 1 of 4

Ch. 9

Experiment of a small mammal to release carbon dioxide during respiration: [哺乳動物呼吸時釋放二氧化碳的實驗] functions of the set-ups [這裝置的功能]: potassium hydroxide solution - to absorb carbon dioxide in the incoming air. [氫氧化鉀: 吸收空氣中的二氧化碳] limewater in the front - to ensure the incoming air contains no carbon dioxide. [前面的石灰水: 保證已進入的空氣不含二氧化碳] limewater in the back - to show that carbon dioxide is released during respiration of the rat. [後面的石灰水: 證明老鼠在呼吸時釋放二氧化碳] - if a potted plant replaces an animal for experiments in respiration to release carbon dioxide: modifications in the set-up : [如果做呼吸實驗時, 以盆栽植物代替動物: 裝置上要作的修改] - the bell-jar with the plant should be covered up by black cloth [用黑布遮蓋鐘形罩] - to prevent the plant carries out photosynthesis and absorb the released carbon dioxide that interfere the results. [以防止那植物進行光合作用而吸收回它自己所放出的二氧化碳] - the pot with the soil should be enclosed tightly by a polythene bag [要用膠袋緊密地包圍那個有泥的花盆] - to prevent the micro-organisms in the soil to carries respiration and release carbon dioxide. [防止泥土中的微生物進行呼吸作用而釋放二氧化碳] Summary of the chemicals used in experiments for respiration or photosynthesis [呼吸或光合作用實驗所用的化學品]: - hydrogencarbonate indicator & limewater - to test for carbon dioxide [碳酸氫鹽指示劑和石灰水: 測試二氧化碳] - potassium (sodium) hydroxide & soda lime - to absorb carbon dioxide [氫氧化鉀(氫氧化鈉): 吸收二氧化碳] - potassium (sodium) hydrogencarbonate - to release carbon dioxide (for photosynthesis expt.) [碳酸氫鈉(碳酸氫鉀): 釋放二氧化碳(用作光合作用的實驗)]

Aerobic respiration [需氧呼吸]: equation [方程式]: C6H12O6 + 6O2 Æ 6CO2 + 6H2O ( + energy ) word equation: glucose + oxygen Æ carbon dioxide + water. [文字程式: 葡萄糖 + 氧氣 Æ 二氧化碳 + 水] - The energy release is stored as ATP [所釋放的能量, 貯藏成腺三磷酸] - actual not a single step reaction. (actually it involves about 50 reactions) [它其實不是單一反應(它包括 50 反應)]

Anaerobic respiration in plants (alcoholic fermentation) - eg. yeast

[植物的缺氧呼吸(酒精發酵): 例如酵母菌]

- word equation : glucose Æ alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide ( + energy ) (less energy c.f. aerobic) [文字程式: 葡萄糖 Æ 酒精 (乙醇) + 二氧化碳 (+ 能量) (與需氧呼吸比較, 放出的能量較小)] - experiment to show anaerobic respiration of yeast [酵母菌的缺氧呼吸實驗]: - using a mixture of yeast in pre-boiled glucose solution [使用酵母菌和事前已煮沸的葡萄糖溶液] - use pre-boiled solution - to ensure no oxygen present so that only anaerobic respiration occurs. [用事前已煮沸的溶液: 以保證沒有氧氣, 因而只有缺氧呼吸進行] - the glucose-yeast mixture is covered by an oil layer - to prevent the atmospheric air enters the solution. [用一層油膜遮蓋葡萄糖及酵母菌混合物: 以防止空氣進入溶液內] - with yeast suspension (living) Æ mixture (NOT solution) becomes turbid [有活酵母菌的懸濁液 Æ 混合物變得渾濁的(不要寫成: 溶液, 因酵母菌是不會溶解的)] if yeast die Æ yeast sink to bottle Æ mixture becomes clear. (mixture does NOT become clear if yeast does not sink). [如果酵母菌死亡 Æ 酵母菌沉下 Æ 混合物變得清澈 (如果酵母菌只是死亡而不下沉, 混合物不會變得清澈)] - If the experiment is performed for a long time, the rate decreases because yeast die [如果實驗進行很久, 反應速率會減慢, 因為很多酵母菌會死亡] yeast die because: (1) glucose level decreases, (2) alcohol level increase as alcohol is toxic. [酵母菌死亡, 由於: (1) 葡萄糖量下降, (2) 酒精量增加, 而酒精是有毒的]

Industrial use of yeast fermentation (alcoholic fermentation): [工業上使用酵母菌發酵作用 (酒精發酵)] - carbon dioxide release - for baking bread [放出的二氧化碳: 用作烘烤麵包] - alcohol produce - brewing (釀) beer & making wine [產生的酒精: 釀啤酒和酒] (Discuss the application of fermentation in the food industry.)[Small project] [討論食物工業上應用發酵作用][探究活動] P. 2 of 4

Ch. 9

Lactic acid fermentation (anaerobic respiration in skeletal muscle fibres): [乳酸發酵(骨骼肌纖維的缺氧呼吸)] - in skeletal muscle fibres during heavy exercise (Normal exercise: use aerobic respiration.) [在骨骼肌纖維做沉重的運動時 (正常運動: 用需氧呼吸)] - as supplement for aerobic respiration (i.e. aerobic + anaerobic respiration) [是需氧呼吸的補充(即是: 需氧+缺氧呼吸)] - the reaction: glucose Æ lactic acid ( + energy ) (no carbon dioxide) [化學反應: 葡萄糖 Æ 乳酸 (+能量)] - muscle fatigue: due to lactic acid accumulation. [肌肉疲勞: 因為乳酸的積聚] later: lactic acid will be further oxidised to release energy [後來: 乳酸被氧化以釋放能量] Oxygen debt: the amount of oxygen required to get rid of lactic acid. [氧債: 氧氣的數量以清除體內的乳酸] later: repay the oxygen debt by quick and heavy breathing after the exercise. [後來: 運動後的快速而沉重呼吸, 是用以償還氧債的] (Search for information on the degree of dependence on anaerobic respiration by athletes performing different sports.)[Small project] [尋找運動家做不同種類運動時所依賴缺氧呼吸的資料]

glucose (6-C) [葡萄糖] plant

less energy 3-C compound

more energy

alcohol (2-C) + CO2 anaerobic respiration

[酒精]

lactic acid (3-C) (without CO2) animal (muscle) [乳酸 (沒有二氧化碳)]

[缺氧呼吸]

aerobic respiration

oxygen

[需氧呼吸]

CO2 + H2O

Concepts on Respiration

[呼吸作用的概念]

1. During heavy exercise, storage organs (liver and muscles) convert glycogen to glucose. Hence increases the respiration rate of muscle cells (NOT body cells), to generate more energy for muscle contraction. [當我們做劇烈運動時, 貯藏器官(肝臟和肌肉)會把糖原變成葡萄糖, 因而提高肌肉細胞(不是身體細胞)的呼吸速率, 以產生更多能量, 提供肌肉收縮所需] 2. Before a potted plant is use to perform respiration experiment, there is NO need to perform the destarch, since there is no need to test for starch after the experiment [一棵盆栽植物用來做呼吸作用的實驗之前, 是不需要做脫澱粉過程的, 因實驗之後是沒有需要測試澱粉的]。 3. (a) Anaerobic respiration does not occurs when there is no oxygen supply (in case of no oxygen supply, we die instead of carrying out anaerobic respiration. Only microorganisms can carry out anaerobic respiration as oxygen is lacking). During heavy exercises, although oxygen supply increases, but the energy requirement is too high that the limited supply oxygen. The muscle cells carry out both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, to increase the supply of energy. [缺氧呼吸不是在缺乏氧氣時發生 (因缺乏氧氣時, 我們會死, 而不是進行缺氧呼吸; 只有微生物可以在缺乏氧氣時進行缺氧呼吸)。我們在劇烈運動時, 雖然氧氣供應增加, 我們的肌肉細胞仍然不夠氧氣以提供足夠能量, 因此它同時用缺氧呼吸(即又用需氧呼吸, 又用缺氧呼吸), 以增加能量的供應]。 (b) After the exercise, our breathing rate is still high (we pant), since we should supply excess oxygen to remove the toxic lactic acid accumulated in the muscle cells. [在劇烈運動完結後, 我們的呼吸速率仍然比正常為高 (我們會喘氣), 因為要提供額外的氧氣以移去累積在肌肉內的有毒乳酸]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 9

4. (a) After oxidation of food, the large amount of energy released will be absorbed by a small packing medium (ATP). ATP can be decomposed to release suitable amount of energy when required. [食物在氧化後, 它釋放的大量能量被 ATP 這個小小的包裝中介物質吸收了, 而當我們身體需要用時, ATP 就會分解而再釋出我們需要能量的數量]。 (b) The energy content in glucose cannot be used directly. The immediate source of energy is ATP. [葡萄糖內包含的能量是不能立刻被使用的, 而 ATP 才是能量的立刻來源]。 5. The heat energy released by oxidation of food cannot be used for cellular activities directly. This heat energy is mostly released out of the body and loss to surrounding (of course, also for maintaining body temperature for better action of enzyme. [食物氧化後釋出的熱量是不能被用作細胞活動之用。因此它(熱量)被釋放出體外(當然也用以維持體溫以利的作用)]。 6. Respiration is the oxidation occurs in cells to release energy. (It is not the process of inspiration or expiration (breathing) NOR the gaseous exchange occurs on the respiratory surface. [呼吸作用是指在細胞內把食物進行氧化以釋放能量; 它不是指一呼一吸的呼吸或在呼吸表面發生的氣體交換過程]。 7. (a) Burning is the use of a fire and high temperature, to release energy immediately. This process cannot be controlled and so harmful. [燃燒是用火及高溫把東西的能量一次過地釋放, 這個過程是不受控制的, 故此傷害性非常大]。 (b)(i) Respiration: oxidation controlled by enzymes in a cell, to release the rate of releasing energy in a controlled manner. [呼吸作用是指細胞用以控制能量釋放的過程, 能量能夠被慢慢地而受控制地釋出]。 (ii) Breathing: the inspire and expire process. [呼吸是指吸入和呼出氣體的過程] (iii) Gaseous exchange: the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide carry out on the respiratory surface. [氣體交換是指在呼吸表面發生的氧氣和二氧化碳的過程] 這些過程的順序是: breathing (inspiration) Æ gaseous exchange (in lung) Æ oxidation (in muscle cells) 8. The respiratory system (should be breathing system): for gaseous exchange, but NOT for respiration. (respiration means oxidation to release energy). [呼吸系統只是作為氣體交換之用; 它不是負責進行呼吸作用 (即氧化作用)以釋放能量] 9. Much food is produced by alcoholic fermentation, eg. beer, wine, bread, fermented bean curd (腐乳), cheese and yoghourt (乳酪), etc [很多食物都是用酒精發酵製造的, 例如: 啤酒、酒、麵包、腐乳、芝士、乳酪] 10. Perform the yeast fermentation experiment [做酵母菌的發酵實驗時]: (a) If we increase the glucose concentration, more food will be supply for the yeast to carry out respiration. If the glucose concentration is too high, yeast will die due to water loss by osmosis. [如果提高所用的葡萄糖濃度, 就能夠提供更多食物來源以利酵母菌進行呼吸作用。但如果濃度太高, 酵母菌就會因滲透作用而失水死亡]. (b) This reaction rate will decrease and finally stops due to using up of glucose(food) and accumulation of toxic waste. [這反應會減慢而最終會停止: 因葡萄糖(食物)用光了和有毒的廢物累積]. (c) Yeast can use just aerobic or anaerobic respiration. In presence of oxygen, it carry out aerobic respiration. Without oxygen, it use anaerobic respiration. (Human muscle cells use aerobic respiration normally. When large amount of energy is required (during heavy exercises), they use aerobic + anaerobic respiration.) [酵母菌能夠單獨用需氧呼吸或缺氧呼吸。在有氧氣時, 它用需氧呼吸, 而沒有氧氣時, 它就用缺氧呼吸. (人體肌肉細胞在平時, 用需氧呼吸; 而在需要大量能量 (劇烈運動)時, 就用需氧呼吸 + 缺氧呼吸)] 11. Lactic acid is NOT a metabolic waste, since it can be further oxidized to produce energy. [乳酸不是代謝廢物, 因它仍然可以被氧化而製造能量]。 (即仍然有用, 而廢物[waste]是指沒有用處的東西)

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 9

Ch.

Gaseous Exchange

[氣體交換]

Respiratory system - nasal cavity, trachea, bronchus (bronchi [pl]), bronchioles, alveolus (alveoli [pl]) [呼吸系統: 鼻腔、氣管、支氣管、小支氣管、肺泡] (trachea and bronchi are supported by C-shaped cartilages to prevent collapse). [氣管和支氣管由 C 形的軟骨支撐, 以防止它們倒塌] Process of gaseous exchange - inhalation (inspiration) [氣體交換的過程: 吸氣] - exhalation (expiration) [呼氣] The advantage of respiration through respiratory tract instead of through the mouth : [用呼吸管道來呼吸, 代替經過口腔的優點] the respiratory tract (trachea, bronchus) has: [呼吸管道(氣管、支氣管)有] - ( hairs in nostril (NOT nasal cavity) - to trap the larger particles (NOT dust particles & germs) in air.) [鼻孔中的鼻毛(不是鼻腔): 以吸附空氣中較大的塵粒 (不是塵粒和病菌, 因它們太細)] - mucus secreting cells - secrete mucus - which traps dust particles and germs. [分泌黏液細胞: 分泌黏液: 吸附塵粒和病菌] - which can moist the inhaled air [它能夠潤濕吸入的空氣] - ciliated cells (epithelium) - with cilium (cilia [pl]) - which push the trapped dirt out (so, filter the air) [纖毛上皮: 有纖毛: 它把吸附了的污物推出外 (因此它把空氣過濾)] - lots of capillaries (in nasal cavity) - which can warm the inhaled air before entering the lungs [鼻腔內有大量微血管: 它可以使吸入的空氣, 進入肺部前已變得溫暖] Adaptations of lungs [肺部的適應]: - It has many alveoli (in adaptation of alveoli - with folded shape) [它有很多肺泡(在肺泡的適應: 有摺疊的形狀)] to provide large surface area for diffusion of gases. [提供大的表面積以作氣體擴散] - The alveoli have thin wall of only one cell thick [肺泡有薄壁, 它只有一層細胞的厚度] to shorten the diffusion distance for gases diffusion. [縮短氣體的擴散距離,以利擴散] - The alveoli have moist surface [肺泡有濕潤的表面] to dissolve the gases for diffusion. [溶解氣體, 以利擴散作用] - The lungs are surrounded by many capillaries [肺部是被很多微血管所包圍] to maintain high concentration gradient of gases across the wall of alveoli to promote more rapid diffusion of gases. [維持氣體於肺泡壁兩邊的高濃度梯度, 以促進氣體的擴散] Thoracic basket (rib cage) - sternum, vertebrae (vertebral column), ribs [胸籃: 胸骨、脊椎骨(脊柱)、肋骨] - with pleural cavity & pleural membranes to absorb shock [有胸膜腔和胸膜, 以吸收震盪力] Transport gases - oxygen - in red blood cells [氣體運輸: 氧氣: 在紅血球] - by haemoglobin (forms oxyhaemoglobin) [用血紅素 (形成帶氧血紅素)] - carbon dioxide - in plasma [二氧化碳: 在血漿] - by hydrogencarbonate ion (HCO3) [用碳酸氫鹽離子] [ NOT: combining with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. ONLY carbon monoxide forms carboxyhaemoglobin with haemoglobin. ] [不要寫成: 與血紅素結合, 形成碳氧血紅素, 因只有一氧化碳與血紅素形成碳氧血紅素]

Inspiration: Intercostal muscles contract which pull the ribs and sternum to move upward and outward. [吸氣: 肋間肌收縮, 它牽引肋骨和胸骨, 使它們向上和向外移動] Diaphragm muscle also contract which cause the diaphragm to become flatten. [橫膈膜肌收縮, 它使橫膈膜變得扁平] The two changes expand the thoracic cavity and lower the air pressure inside the lung. [這兩處變化使胸腔脹大, 並使肺部氣壓降低] (amount of air not changed, but the volume of the thoracic cavity expands, so the pressure lowers) [因為肺部氣體量沒有改變, 但胸腔的容積脹大, 因此它的氣壓降低] The air pressure in the lungs is lower than that of the atmospheric pressure. [肺部的氣壓低於大氣壓力] The air is pulled in and the lungs inflate. [空氣被拉入肺部, 使肺部膨脹] P. 1 of 4

Ch. 10

( Only the diaphragm is involved in breathing movement when a man is at rest. ) [當人在休息時, 只有橫膈膜參與呼吸動作] (In answering question aided by diagrams, if the diagram only shows the ribs, DON’T describe the action of diaphragm, otherwise marks will be reduced) [在有圖片的題目中, 如果圖片只顯示出肋骨而沒有橫膈膜, 則不要陳述橫膈膜的作用, 否則會被扣分]

Expiration [呼氣] - intercostal muscle ? [肋間肌會如何?] - ribs and sternum ? [肋骨和胸骨會如何?] - diaphragm muscle ? [橫膈膜肌會如何?] - diaphragm becomes dome-shaped; [橫膈膜變成圓頂形] - the lungs deflate and the air is pushed out. [肺部收縮, 空氣被推出] Gaseous exchange in alveoli - oxygen dissolves in the water film and diffuses to blood capillaries from alveoli; because higher oxygen concentration in alveoli. (i.e. down the diffusion gradient) [氧氣溶解於水膜中, 擴散入肺泡上的微血管內; 因肺泡有較高氧濃度 (即是: 沿擴散梯度而下)] - carbon dioxide diffuse to alveoli from capillaries around them; [二氧化碳由微血管擴散到肺泡內] because carbon dioxide is continuously produced by tissue cells and is continuously transported here. (so, high concentration in capillaries) [因組織細胞不斷製造二氧化碳而又輸送來這裡 (因此, 在微血管中有高濃度)]

Control breathing rate during exercise [在運動時控制呼吸速率] - stretch receptor (proprioceptors) in skeletal muscles (mainly) Æ respiratory center (in brain) [在骨骼肌中的拉力感受器(最主要的方法) Æ 在腦部的呼吸中心] - cerebral cortex Æ respiratory center [大腦皮層(認知) Æ 呼吸中心] - high carbon dioxide & low oxygen concentration in blood (chemoreceptors in respiratory centre and circulatory system) [血液中有高二氧化碳和低氧氣濃度 (在呼吸中心和循環系統的化學感受器)] - the above three stimulate the respiratory centre in medulla oblongata of the brain [以上三種, 刺激延腦的呼吸中心] - the rate and depth (strength) of breathing increases [呼吸的速率及深度(強度)增加] - carbon dioxide remains constant in the blood stream during exercise because:[在運動時,血液中的二氧化碳維持不變] - the muscles release carbon dioxide continuously. (this increases the carbon dioxide amount) [肌肉組織不斷釋放二氧化碳 (這樣增加二氧化碳量)] - the high ventilation rate increases the rate of its removal. (this decreases carbon dioxide amount) [高換氣速率增加它的移除速度 (這樣減低二氧化碳量)]

Gaseous exchange in tissue cells: gases move according to concentration gradient: [組織內的氣體交換: 氣體流動是依隨 (那種氣體的)濃度梯度而行] - oxygen - used up by tissue cells (it becomes low concentration) [氧氣: 組織細胞用光了 (它變成低濃度)] - it diffuses from capillaries to tissue cells [它由微血管擴散到組織細胞中] - carbon dioxide - it is produced by tissue cells (therefore it becomes high concentration) [二氧化碳: 它是由組織細胞產生的 (因此它形成高濃度)] - it diffuses from tissue cells to capillaries [它由組織細胞擴散到微血管中]

Drawback in the bell jar model to demonstrate diaphragm action [顯示橫膈膜作用的鐘形罩模型的缺點]: - the rubber sheet is flattened at rest - the diaphragm is actually dome-shaped at rest. [橡皮膜在休息時是扁平的; 而橫膈膜在休息時是圓拱形的] - the volume of the bell jar cannot change since its wall is rigid - the rib cage can change volume due to muscular movement. [因鐘形罩壁是硬的, 它的容積不能改變; 而胸籃的容積卻可以因肌肉活動而改變] - the cavity between the bell-jar and the balloon is filled with air - the pleural cavity is liquid-filled. [鐘形罩和氣球之間的空腔是充滿空氣的; 而胸腔卻充滿液體] P. 2 of 4

Ch. 10

Tidal volume [潮氣量]

- the volume of gases exhaled in one minute during normal breathing [在正常狀態, 每分鐘呼出的氣量] - it can increase during exercise [在運動時, 它可以增加]

Vital capacity [肺活量] - the maximum amount of air exhaled after the deepest inhalation [在最深地吸氣之後, 所呼出的最大氣體量] - it cannot increase even in exercise (since it is already the maximum amount) [即使在運動時, 它也不可以增加 (因為它已經是最大的數量)] - it increases only after prolonged training by exercise. [它只在長期運動訓練之後才可以增加]

Problem of smoking [吸煙的問題]: - diseases from smoking: lung cancer / bronchitis / coronary heart disease [吸煙的疾病: 肺癌、支氣管炎、冠心病] (smoker has 20 times higher risk of death from lung cancer than a non-smoker) [吸煙者比非吸煙者有 20 倍的危險死於肺癌] (coronary heart disease relates with 2 factors: age and smoking) [冠心病與兩個因素有關: 年齡和抽煙] - cigarette smoke contains: carbon monoxide / nicotine / tar [香煙含有: 二氧化碳、尼古丁、焦油] - diseases - tar - lung cancer [疾病: 焦油: 肺癌] - increases mucus secretion along the respiratory tract, stops the beating of cilia. [增加呼吸管道的黏液分泌, 停止纖毛活動] The accumulated mucus has to be coughed out as sputum. [積聚了的黏液形成痰, 被咳出體外] - it deposits in lungs, will reduce the surface area / increase diffusion distance for gaseous exchange. [它沈積在肺部, 會減少氣體交換的表面積 / 增加擴散距離] - nicotine - increase heart beat and blood pressure [尼古丁: 增加心跳和血壓] - slower action of the nerve (long-term effect) [減慢神經系統的表現(長線影響)] - causes dependence [引致依賴性] - retards growth of foetus [妨礙胎兒的生長] - carbon monoxide: combine irreversibly with haemoglobin [一氧化碳: 不可逆地與血紅素結合] (form carboxyhaemoglobin irreversibly, so it is highly toxic) [不可逆地形成碳氧血紅素, 因此它是很毒的] - smoking causes air contamination (Large scale contamination Æ pollution) [抽煙引致污濁: (大型污濁Æ污染)]

Gaseous exchange in other animals [其他動物的氣體交換]: - fish - by gills [魚: 用鰓] - frog - tadpoles: by gills [青蛙: 蝌蚪: 用鰓] - adult frogs : by skin, lungs, & mouth lining [成年青蛙: 用皮膚、肺、口內膜] - insects - tracheal system (氣管) throughout the body. [昆蟲類: 通過整個身體的氣管系統]

Gaseous exchange in plants [植物的氣體交換]: - the rate of gaseous exchange - depends on the rate of photosynthesis & respiration [氣體交換速率: 在乎光合作用速率和呼吸速率] - in day time (with bright light) : photosynthetic rate is faster than respiratory rate [在日間(有強光): 光合作用速率比呼吸作用速率更快] (so the plant absorbs carbon dioxide, releases oxygen) [因此, 植物吸收二氧化碳, 釋放氧氣] - in dark (at night) : no photosynthesis. Only have respiration. [在黑暗處(在黑夜): 沒有光合作用,只有呼吸作用] (the plant absorbs oxygen, releases carbon dioxide) [植物吸收氧氣, 釋放二氧化碳] (green plant carries out respiration in both day and night, and at about the same rate (a bit slower at night because of lower environmental temperature only) [綠色植物在白天和夜晚兩者進行呼吸作用, 並大約有相同速率 (在夜間因為環境溫度低一些, 它只是慢一點點而已)] (the rate of respiration is NOT affected by light intensity) [呼吸作用速率是不受光強度所影響的]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 10

- structures for gaseous exchange - leaf : stoma (stomata) [氣體交換所用的結構: 葉子: 氣孔] - stem : lenticel [莖部: 莖皮孔] - root : root hair [根部: 根毛] - stomata close at night, because: low metabolic rate of plant, respiration rate is slow, [氣孔在夜間關閉, 因為: 植物有低代謝速率, 所以呼吸作用速率很低] it does not required to absorb large amount of oxygen [因此它不用吸收大量氧氣] - stomata open in daytime, because: high photosynthetic rate, the plant should absorb large amount of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. [氣孔在白天開著, 因為: 高光合作用速率, 植物一定要吸收大量二氧化碳] - compensation point – it is the light intensity, that the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration (amount of carbon dioxide absorb = given out) [補償點: 它是光強度, 在這強度之下, 光合作用速率是等如呼吸作用速率 (二氧化碳吸收量 = 釋放量)] - the plant should be given supplementary light from lamp in winter (short day time). [在冬天, 植物需要用燈以補充光亮 (由於短的白天時間)] - the best amount of light given should accumulate to the compensation point. (more light than that of the compensation point is just a waste of energy) [植物要累積最好的光量, 至補償點 (較補償點為多的光, 只是浪費)]

Concepts on Gaseous Exchange 1. Nasal cavity (NOT trachea/nostril) has hairs, to trap larger particles. [鼻腔 (不是氣管/鼻孔)有毛, 它黏附大的顆粒]。 Trachea/respiratory tract has cilia, to trap dust particles. [氣管/呼吸管道有纖毛, 它黏附塵粒]。 2. (a) Air leaves the lung (i.e. expiration) when lung pressure is larger than atmospheric pressure. (NOT when lung contract / lung pressure increases). [空氣只在[肺氣壓大於大氣壓力]時才離開肺部(呼氣)。(不是當肺部收縮或肺氣壓增加時)]。 (b) At the first stage of expiration, lungs collapse due to their own elasticity. [在呼氣的初期, 肺部因它自己的彈性而萎陷].

3. Identify the graphs: oxygen requirement, lactic acid in blood, energy requirement. (The man performs exercise during 1 - 4 min.) 分析: (要比較每條 curve 的 initial level, final level, 和升跌速度, 因為 y-axis 沒有 "scales", 不要以為它們畫於不同 "level", 就是一個比另一個高一些! [不同 curve 不可能畫在同一個 level], eg. Curve P 的 initial level 不一定比 curve S 高。) Curves P & S 相似, they rise first, then drops. But the rates of drop are different. 我們做運動時, energy requirement 由少至多, 做完後不會立即減少。 Curves Q & S 相似, they rise first, then drops. But the final levels are different. For Q, the final level is higher than the initial. For S, the final level is the same as initial. Lactic acid 增加至運動完結, 立即 repay 部份 oxygen debt, 但不可能立即完全 repay, 所以 final level 會比 initial level 高一些, 所以 curve Q 是 lactic acid. Oxygen requirement 在運動後不立即下跌, 因為要大量 oxygen 去 repay oxygen debt, 之後便可回到 initial level, 所以 curve S 是 oxygen. Energy requirement 和 oxygen requirement 相似, 運動完結後大家都 drop; 但身體要 higher metabolism 來排汗 (去散熱) 和排廢物, 所以 energy requirement 不能很快回復正常, 所以 curve P 是 energy requirement.

Curve R 可能只是用來混淆視線, 並不屬於這裡。 P. 4 of 4

Ch. 10

Ch.

Water and Organisms

[水和生物]

Important of water [水的重要性]: It acts as [它作為]: - solvent / reaction medium [溶劑/化學反應介質] - reactant (eg. photosynthesis) [反應物 (例如: 光合作用)] - medium for transport (eg. blood) [作為運輸的介質] - cooling agent (eg. sweating in hot weather) [冷卻劑 (例如: 天熱時出汗)] - supporting agent (eg. turgidity in young plant) [支持劑 (在幼嫩植物中的脹滿度)] Osmoregulation (water balance): [滲透調節 (水份平衡)] - to obtain water, by - drinking [取得水份: 飲水] - eating food [進食食物] - metabolic water (i.e. from respiration: C6H12O6 + O2 Æ CO2 + H2O) [代謝水份(由呼吸作用)] - osmosis & transpiration pull (in plants) [滲透作用和蒸騰牽引力 (在植物)] - to loss water, by [損失水份, 由]: - evaporation & transpiration (i.e. evaporation from plant surface.) [蒸發和蒸騰作用] - urination (NOT excretion: excretion includes other processes eg. bile pigment) [排尿 (不要寫成 “排泄作用”: 排泄包括其他過程, 例如:膽色素)] - expiration (contains water vapour) [呼氣(包含水蒸氣)] - defecation (not important normally) [排糞(在正常時間不重要)] Cells in different solutions [在不同溶液中的細胞]: Solution Concentration [溶液濃度] dilute solution [稀溶液] concentrated solution [濃溶液] red blood cells [紅血細胞] haemolysis [溶血作用] shrink [收縮] (other animal cells)[其他動物細胞] ( burst [破裂] ) become wrinkled [變得皺] plant cells

[植物細胞]

turgid [硬脹]

plasmolysis (質壁分離) (cell/tissue is flaccid [軟縮的])

Qu. What is the solution in between the cell membrane & the cell wall in a plasmolysed cell? [問題: 在質壁分離時期的細胞之中, 細胞膜和細胞壁之間的溶液是什麼?] Flaccid plant cells give no support to a plant so that the plant wilts [軟縮中的細胞不能支撐植物, 所以植物枯萎] Water relation in mammals: excretory organs [哺乳類中的水份關係: 排泄器官] - lungs: excrete carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide produced by body cells) [肺: 排泄二氧化碳(體細胞製造二氧化碳)] - kidney: excretes urea and excess water (urea produced by liver, water produced by body cells during cellular respiration) [腎臟: 排泄尿素和過剩的水份 (肝臟製造尿素; 體細胞的呼吸作用製造水份)] - liver : excretes bile pigment (formed from break down of haemoglobin in liver) [肝臟: 排泄膽色素(肝臟分解血紅素而成)] - skin: excretes water (in form of sweat) [皮膚: 排泄水份(以出汗方式)] Human Urinary (excretory) system [人類的泌尿(排泄)系統]: - kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra [腎臟、輸尿管、膀胱] The kidney: structure: renal artery, renal vein, [腎臟: 結構: 腎動脈、腎靜脈] cortex, medulla, pelvis [皮質、髓質、腎孟] - functioning of nephron (nephron is the smallest functional unit of the kidney) [腎元的功能 (它是腎臟內最細的功能單位)]: 1. ultrafiltration : glomerulus / Bowman’s capsule [超濾作用: 賢小球/ 鮑氏囊] - produce glomerular filtrate [製造賢小球濾液] - mechanism: afferent arteriole has larger diameter than efferent arteriole so that the blood pressure is extremely high in the glomerulus (which has a very small diameter). The high blood pressure presses the fluid in the blood out to the kidney tubules. [機制: 輸入小動脈的直徑比輸出小動脈更大, 所以在賢小球(它有非常細的直徑)中的血壓非常地高。高血壓壓出血中的液體至腎小管]

P. 1 of 7

Ch. 11

- glomerular filtrate has the same composition as that of blood (because it is a non-selective process) except that it hasn’t blood cells (including red blood cells & blood platelets), blood protein that are too large in size to pass through the glomerular pores. [賢小球濾液和血液有相同成份, 除了沒有血細胞(包含紅血細胞和血小板) 及血漿蛋白, 因它們太大而不能通過] 2. reabsorption: the first and second convolution [再吸收作用: 近曲小管和遠曲小管] (NOT written as: absorption) [不要寫成: 吸收作用] (a) useful substances (such as glucose, amino acids, etc) reabsorbed by active transport. [有用物質(例如: 葡萄糖和氨基酸) 由主動運輸作出再吸收] (The first convolution is the most important part since it reabsorbs majority of the substances) [近曲小管(或叫: 第一次彎曲) 是最重要的部分, 因為它再吸收大部份物質] (b) the loop of Henle and collecting duct are for reabsorption of water by osmosis (especially collecting duct) [亨利氏套和集尿管用滲透作用來再吸收水份, (尤其是集尿管)] - loop of Henle and collecting duct work together (NOT working separately). [亨利氏套和集尿管一塊兒工作 (不是各自地工作)] - Points to notice [要留意的重點]: - the first convolution (& the second convolution) is for reabsorption of useful substances [近曲小管 (和遠曲小管)是用作再吸收有用物質的] (together with water because of high osmosis after much food has been reabsorbed.) [也一起再吸收水份, 因為再吸收了大量食物之後, 就形成了很高的滲透作用] - the loop of Henle and collecting duct are for reabsorption of water [亨利氏套和集尿管是用作再吸收水份的] - but the first convolution actually reabsorbs the largest amount of water. (also glucose & amino acid) (NOT the second convolution or loop of Henle/collecting duct. Why?) [但是近曲小管其實再吸收最大量的水份 (及葡萄糖和氨基酸)] [(不是遠曲小管或亨利氏套再吸收得最多, 為什麼?)]

Osmoregulation in human: [在人類的滲透調節] mechanisms [機制]: when blood water potential is low (after sweating or not drinking water for a long time): [當血液有低水勢 (出了汗或不飲水很久之後)] - [it stimulates the pituitary gland (the endocrine gland under the brain) to secrete ADH] [它刺激腦下垂體(腦部下面的內分泌腺), 使它分泌抗利尿激素] 不 - [ADH (antidiuretic hormone) stimulates] [抗利尿激素刺激, 而至] 用 the kidney tubules reabsorb higher proportion of water from urine to the blood stream. 考 [腎小管從尿液中再吸收更高比例的水份回血液中] - [reabsorption increases by increasing the permeability of the tubules] [腎小管增加了可透性, 使再吸收增加] - blood water potential thus increases [血液的水勢於是增加了] - (small amount of urine with high concentration is formed) [尿液的量小了, 而濃度提高了] - (a negative feedback control - for any changes, the mechanism changes it to the opposite direction.) [負反饋控制: 對於任何變化, 這機制向相反方向改變它] Urine: water + urea + other nitrogenous wastes (eg. ammonia, uric acid in small amount) [尿: 水 + 尿素 + 其他含氮的廢物 (例如: 氨、小量的尿酸)] Kidney functions [腎臟功能] - osmoregulation [滲透調節]: maintain water balance by regulating water and mineral reabsorption. [以調節水份和礦物鹽的再吸收而維持水份平衡] - remove excess salt [除去過剩的鹽] - excretion of metabolic waste (mainly urea) [排泄代謝廢物 (主要是尿素)] Corrections for kidney failure: [腎臟失常的矯正] - using abdominal dialysis - using the peritoneum as the selectively permeable membrane. [用腹膜透析: 用腹膜作為選透性膜]

P. 2 of 7

Ch. 11

- using artificial kidney (kidney machine) [用洗腎機]: - it filters the blood to remove the urea [它過濾血液以除去尿素] - by diffusion (the fluid used contains the same type & concentration of substance as that of blood except blood cells, blood proteins, and urea) [用擴散作用 (使用的液體包含與血液相同物質種類和濃度, 除了血細胞、血漿蛋白和尿素之外)] - use many long tubules for diffusion to increase the total surface area for more complete diffusion (but still the time required is lengthy) [用很多長的小管, 以增加可擴散的表面積, 令擴散更加完全 (但仍然需要冗長的的時間)] - using kidney transplant [用腎臟移植]: - a permanent way of correction. [一個永久的糾正方法] - but (a) only few people are willing to donate their kidneys after death [但,很少人願意在死後捐出他們的腎臟] (b) the donar’s kidney must match with the tissue of the patient but this chance is not high. [捐贈者的腎臟一定要和病人的組織相配, 但這機會不是太高] Diabetes [糖尿病] - this is not a disease due to kidney failure. [這病不是因為腎臟失常] - this is due to the malfunction of the pancreas which cannot secrete enough insulin to stimulate the liver to convert more blood glucose to glycogen. [這是因為胰臟失常, 它不能分泌充足胰島素, 以刺激肝臟, 把更多血糖轉變成糖原] - the glucose in the glomerular filtrate thus exceeds the reabsorbing ability of the kidney tubules Æ blood glucose appears in the urine [在賢小球濾液中的葡萄糖量超出腎小管的再吸收能力 Æ 尿液中出現血糖] - (the harmful effect of the disease is not due to the lost of excess glucose from the body but due to the excess amount of glucose in blood circulation) [這病的影響不是因為失去過量葡萄糖, 而是血液中有過剩的葡萄糖] (In other cases, after excretion of excess glucose, the patient will become faint if blood glucose decreases to a low level due to lacking of food for a long time) [其他情況: 在排泄了過剩的葡萄糖之後, 因為有相當時間缺乏食物, 血糖量會減至很低水平, 病人會頭暈]

Water relation in plants [水與植物的關係]: transpiration [蒸騰作用] - a type of evaporation from the surface of plants [一種在植物表面的蒸發作用] - positions - mainly from stomata of leaves [位置: 主要從葉片低部的氣孔] - lenticels in stem [莖皮孔] - surface of leaves if cuticle is thin [葉子表面, 如果角質層夠薄] - it induces - water absorption in the root (water absorption in root is mainly due to transpiration) [它誘導: 根部吸收水份 (根部吸收水份, 主要靠蒸騰作用)] [ NOT osmosis which pays only a minor role ] [不是靠滲透作用, 因它只給予較小位置] - water transportation in the stem [莖部運輸水份] - cooling effect under strong sunlight. [在強列陽光之下把植物冷卻] - highest transpiration rate: in warm, bright, dry and windy day. [最高蒸騰速率: 在溫暖、光亮、乾燥、多風的日子] Stoma & guard cells [氣孔和保衛細胞]: - functions - stoma (stomata [pl]): for gaseous exchange during photosynthesis (or respiration) [功能: 氣孔: 在光合作用時作氣體交換 (或在呼吸作用時)] (its original function is NOT for transpiration, but transpiration occurs unavoidably as stomata present.) [它的原始功能不是蒸騰作用, 但蒸騰作用因氣孔存在而不可避免地發生] - guard cells: to control the size of stoma [保衛細胞: 調節氣孔的大小] (so that it can control the amount of transpiration/ water lost). [於是它能夠控制蒸騰量/水份流失]

P. 3 of 7

Ch. 11

- characteristics of guard cells [保衛細胞的特徵] - it is kidney-shaped (sausage-shaped [它是腎形 (香腸形)] - it has many chloroplast (much more than surrounding epidermal cells) [它有很多葉綠體 (比周圍的表皮細胞多)] - its inner cell wall is thicker than outer cell wall [近氣孔那邊的細胞壁比其他部分厚很多] - stomata aperture [氣孔孔徑]: - stomata open in the daytime with the presence of light [氣孔在白天因光亮而開著] - it requires much carbon dioxide for the high rate of photosynthesis (much higher than respiration) [它因高的光合作用速率而需要很多二氧化碳 (比呼吸作用需要更多二氧化碳)] - carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is low (just 0.03%) [大氣中的二氧化碳濃度很低 (只有 o.o3%)] - stomata close at night [氣孔在夜間關閉] - without light, no photosynthesis occur [沒有光, 便沒有光合作用] - the rate of respiration of plant is low (therefore the amount of oxygen required is low) [植物的呼吸作用速率很低 (因此植物所需的氧氣量也很低)] - under excessive strong sunlight, stomata close to decrease transpiration rate to prevent excessive water lost (guard cells lost turgidity and become flaccid) [在太強列陽光之下, 氣孔合上, 以減慢蒸騰速率, 以避免過分失水(因保衛細胞失去硬脹而變得軟縮的) Experiments for transpiration [蒸騰作用的實驗]: 1. leaves floating on glucose solution in dark condition [在黑暗中的葉子浮在葡萄糖溶液上]: Results [結果]: Starch appears in the leaf. [澱粉在葉子內出現] Interpretations [解釋]- glucose enters the leaf through stomata [葡萄糖通過氣孔進入葉片] - the absorbed glucose was converted to starch in dark [吸收了的葡萄糖在黑暗中被轉變成澱粉] 2. simple (bubble) potometer / potometer [簡單蒸騰計(氣泡蒸騰計) / 蒸騰計] - It measures the rate of water absorption in plant [它量度植物的水份吸收速率] (Over 95% of the water absorption by a plant will be lost by transpiration. Therefore the rate of water absorption is nearly the same as the rate of transpiration. This apparatus is usually said to measure the rate of transpiration.) [超過 95%吸收了的水份將會經蒸騰作用而流失; 所以水份吸收速率大約是和蒸騰速率相同; 因此這儀器通常被說成量度蒸騰速率] - the reservoir - to push back the bubble indicator to start another experiment [儲水器: 把氣泡推回, 以開始另一個實驗] - Does an oil layer required on the water surface of the reservoir ? Why? [要否在儲水器的水面添加一層油膜? 為什麼?] 3. weigh potometer [重量蒸騰計] - it measures the rate of water transpiration in plant. (really transpiration, NOT absorption rate) [它量度植物的蒸騰速率 (真的是蒸騰作用, 不是水份吸收速率) - oil layer - it prevents water evaporation from the jar (reservoir) to affect the reading [油膜: 它防止水份從儲水器內蒸發, 以影響讀數] (if evaporation occurs, the reading noticed will be a bit higher than the actual transpiration) [如果有蒸發, 那讀數就會比真實蒸騰作用高一點] 4. Dipping a leaf in hot water - observe from which surface the gas bubbles come out. [浸葉子在熱水中: 觀察氣泡由那塊表面出來] - air bubbles release, because: [放出氣泡, 因為] - air in the air space of spongy mesophyll warms up and expand [海綿葉肉中氣室的氣體受熱而膨脹] - the expanded air passes out through the stomata which are mainly distributed on the lower epidermis. [膨脹了的氣體通過氣孔出來, 而氣孔主要分佈在下表皮] - it shows that the lower surface of the leaf contains more stomata than the upper surface. [它證明葉底比葉面含有較多氣孔] P. 4 of 7

Ch. 11

stomata distributions [氣孔分佈]: - normal plants - mainly on the lower surface of leaves [正常植物: 主要在葉底] - floating plants - mainly on the upper surface [浮水植物: 主要在葉面] - submerged aquatic plants - no stomata (they are not required since gases can be obtained by diffusion easy due to the absence of cuticle on plant surfaces) [浸沒的植物: 沒有氣孔 (無需氣孔, 因為整棵植物的表面都沒有角質層, 都可以用擴散作用在水中獲得空氣)] (the primary function of cuticle is to prevent excess water transpiration which is not present in aquatic plants) [角質層的基本功能是避免過度的蒸騰作用, 它在水生植物上是沒有的] 5. Stick cobalt chloride paper on both surface of leaf: (dry: blue, wet: pink) [氯化鈷試紙黏在葉片的兩個表面] Results [結果]: the paper on the lower surface changes from blue to pink much faster than the upper surface. [在葉底的試紙比葉面的較快由藍色變成桃紅] Conclusion [結論]: the lower leaf surface has more stomata than the upper surface. [葉底比葉面有較多氣孔] (water lost is proportional to the number of stomata per unit area.) [失水是和單位氣孔數目成比例] - the adhesive tape on the surface of cobalt chloride paper is to prevent the moisture in the air affects the result. [在氯化鈷試紙表面的膠紙, 是用以避免空氣中的水氣影響實驗結果] Factors affecting the rate of transpiration [影響蒸騰速率的因素] - light intensity (NOT : light, since light consists a lot of factors) [光強度 (不要寫成:光,因光包含很多因素)] - temperature [溫度] - relative humidity (NOT humidity) [相對濕度 (不要寫成: 濕度)] - wind speed [風力] - water supply from soil (NOT JUST: water) [泥土中的水份供應量] Root tip (L.S.) [根尖] - root cap - to protect the growing point [根冠: 保護生長點] - growing point (region of cell division) - cell division to initiate root grow. [生長點(細胞分裂區): 細胞分裂, 以引起根部生長] (the root does not elongate [grow] in this region, since each cell will become smaller in size after division) [在這地區域, 根部沒有加長(生長), 因為每個細胞在分裂之後, 都會變得細一些] - region of elongation - cell elongate to lengthen the root. [伸長區: 細胞伸長, 以加長根部] (actually increase in length for each cell and the whole root.) [這是真正使每個細胞和整個根部加長的區域] - region of differentiation - similar cells convert to different cell types [分化區: 相似細胞轉變成不同種類] (formation of xylem, phloem, cortex, etc.) (Before: the cells are all the same). [形成木質部、韌皮部、皮層等] [在這之前, 所有細胞都是一樣的] - region of root hair - main absorption area due to large surface area [根毛區: 因有大的表面積, 這是主要吸收的地方] (also called the region of maturation, since all the cells are already highly specialized) [也可叫成熟區: 因為所有細胞都已經高度地專門化了(各自有自己的形狀和功能)] Adaptation of the root tip [根尖的適應]: - it has numerous root hairs: to increase the surface area for absorbing more water. [它有許多根毛: 增加表面積, 以吸收更多水份] - it has no cuticle: to make it fully permeable for water absorption by osmosis [它沒有角質層: 使它保持能透過的, 可以用滲透作用來吸收水份] - it has xylem vessels: to transport the absorbed water away to maintain high diffusion gradient of water between the soil and the root. [它有木質導管: 輸送已吸收的水份離開根部, 以維持泥土和根部之間的擴散梯度] Adaptation of the root hair [根毛的適應]: - it has folded shape : to increase the surface area for absorbing more water. [它有摺疊形狀: 增加表面積, 以吸收更多水份] - it has thin wall without cuticle : to decrease the diffusion distance for water absorption [它有薄壁又沒有角質層: 減低擴散的距離, 以利水份的吸收] P. 5 of 7

Ch. 11

Forces for absorption of water in root: transpiration pull (mainly), osmosis. [根部吸收水份的力量: 蒸騰牽引力(主要)、滲透作用] Forces for upward transportation of water in stem: transpiration pull (mainly), root pressure, capillarity. [莖部向上運輸水份的力量: 蒸騰牽引力(主要)、根壓、毛細現象] Water moves across root cells: mainly across the cell wall (from cells to cells by osmosis plays only minor parts) [水份越過根部細胞: 主要越過細胞壁 (由一個細胞至另一細胞, 滲透作用只是較小的力量)] Mineral salts absorption: together with water absorption in transpiration stream or diffusion (first), active transport (later). [吸收礦物鹽: 先在蒸騰流中和水份一塊兒被吸收, 或由擴散作用; 其後用主動運輸] Leaf of xerophyte [旱生植物]: - rolled leaf (roll the lower surface inward) [捲起的葉子 (把葉底捲入裏面)] - hairy groove around stomata (easy maintaining saturated air) [氣孔周圍有多毛的凹槽 (容易維持飽和蒸氣)] - leaf (stem) stored with water (fleshy leaf) [葉子(或莖部)貯藏水份 (肉質葉)] - spine-shaped leaf (to reduce surface area for transpiration) [尖刺狀葉 (減少表面積, 以減慢蒸騰作用)]

Concepts on Water Relation & Transport in Plant 1. (a) The following words: “flaccid, plasmolysis, turgid” are only used to describe the cells, but NOT to describe the plant itself. [軟縮、質壁分離、硬脹等字, 只適合在細胞內用; 不應用於形容植物本身。] To decide whether the cell should be flaccid or turgid, we should compare the water loss and water gain (absorption) of the cells. If water loss is greater than water gain, plasmolysis occurs (i.e. cell membrane separates from the cell wall), and the cells become flaccid. The plant becomes wilt. [要決定細胞是軟縮的或是硬脹的, 要看那細胞是失水多些, 還是吸水多一些。如果失水多於吸收水, 就會產生質壁分離現象 (即細胞的細胞膜就與細胞壁分離), 而細胞就變得軟縮的, 而那植物就會變得枯萎]。 (b) Only plant cell will becomes turgid, since only plant cells have slightly stretchable cell wall. Animal cell will be shrink. [只有植物細胞會變得硬脹的, 因只有植物細胞有細胞壁而可以擴張小小, 動物細胞只有破裂。亦只有植物細胞可以質壁分離, 因只有植物細胞有細胞壁, 才會有 “細胞膜就與細胞壁分離”, 又因此只有植物細胞才會變成軟縮的。而動物細胞就會收縮] 2. The size of stoma affects the photosynthetic rate, rate of water loss and water absorption rate, since the size of stomata affects transpiration rate [氣孔的大小影響光合作用速率、失水速率和水分攝入的速率, 因為氣孔的大小影響蒸騰速率]。 3. Potato strips will shorten by osmosis after immersed in concentrated solution. Later osmosis no longer exists since net rate of water movement equal to zero (equal amount of water moving into and out of the cell) [當薯條放在濃溶液中會因滲透作用而縮短。一段時間之後, 薯條就因再沒有滲透作用而不再縮短; 但沒有滲透作用不等如就沒有水的移動, 而是出入細胞的水分相等]。 4. Root hair provides larger surface area for absorbing more water and minerals. It is NOT for anchorage or for penetrating the soil [根毛只是用以增加表面積以吸收更多水分和礦物質; 而不是用以使它直立, 亦不是用以貫穿泥土]。 5. (a) The water absorbed by transpiration pull, generated due to occurrence of transpiration, is only to replace the lost water. It will not cause changes in the amount of water in the cell so that the cell will not change its turgidity. [因蒸騰作用而形成的蒸騰牽引力所做成的水分吸收, 也只是補償植物所失去的水分而已, 不會使植物細胞增加或減少水分的存量, 不會使細胞的脹滿度改變]。(當然先要泥土中有充足的水分供應)。 P. 6 of 7

Ch. 11

(b) In high temperature or windy condition, increased transpiration causes the transpiration rate to be higher than the water absorption rate. The plant will be dehydrated. [如果因溫度或風力太大, 蒸騰牽引速率太高而使失水速率大於吸水速率, 因而會使植物脫水]。 6. (a) Water evaporates from the surface of spongy mesophyll cells into the air space. The air inside the space is saturated with water vapour so that concentration gradient occurs between the space and the leaf surface. Diffusion of water vapour then occurs through the stoma. [海綿葉肉細胞表面的水分蒸發至氣室之內, 氣室充滿飽和蒸氣而在氣室和葉面之間產生濃度梯度, 於是這些水蒸氣便通過氣孔擴散至葉片外]。 (b) Formation of transpiration pull in xylem vessels: The spongy mesophyll cells loss water by transpiration (evaporation and then transpiration). They will absorb water from their neighbouring cells and lowers the water potential of the them. Water then moves from one cell to another by osmosis. They obtain water finally from xylem vessels and generate a pulling force there. [蒸騰牽引力的形成: 細胞由於蒸騰作用(實則是先蒸發, 後蒸騰)致失水, 它會從鄰近細胞中吸收水分以補充, 因此它鄰近細胞的水勢就會下降, 水分便會因此用滲透作用從一個細胞流至另一個細胞。最後由木質部處得來水分, 因而便在木質導管處形成蒸騰牽引力]。 7. (a) Terrestrial leaves produce cuticle to prevent water loss. Cuticle also prevents gaseous exchange so that leaves form stomata. Stomata also creates the problem of transpiration so there are guard cells around the stoma to control their size. 陸地植物因葉片容易失水, 而在葉面生出角質層, 但角質層又會阻止氣體交換, 因而植物生出了氣孔。有氣孔就回復會失水, 就在氣孔上加保衛細胞以控制氣孔的大小。 (b) Water plants have no cuticle since they will not have water loss. Each cell can have gaseous exchange by diffusion through the cell surface. Therefore stomata are not required in water plant. (不要寫成: the plant will die of suffocation if stomata are present) [在水生植物, 因不會失水而沒有(不需要有)角質層, 因而所有葉表層上的細胞也能夠進行氣體交換。因此氣孔也不需要了。(不是因有氣孔就會使植物窒息而死)]。 8. Most (99%) water absorbed in a plant will be lost by transpiration, the remaining water is used for processes such as: photosynthesis, formation of new cells, ….. [植物所吸收的水分中, 超過 99%會被蒸騰作用所失去。所剩餘的 1%會用來做各種事情, 如: 光合作用、製造新細胞等等]。 9. Transpiration is a method for keeping cool by water evaporation in a plant. However keeping cool is not the major function of transpiration since most stomata close in extreme heating (due to strong light intensity) to avoid excessive water loss. [蒸騰作用亦是植物利用蒸發以保持冷卻的方法。但保持冷卻並不是蒸騰作用最重要的功能, 因過熱(陽光太強)時, 氣孔會關閉而減少失水]。 10. valid conclusion: eg. raw potato cup [有效結論: 例如: 生馬鈴薯杯]: valid conclusion: Osmosis requires living tissue, which has selectively permeable membrane. [有效的結論: 滲透作用需要活的組織, 因它們有選透性膜] (因這才與實驗條件相配) invalid conclusion: The raw potato has selectively permeable membrane and thus allows osmosis to occur. [無效的結論: 生的馬鈴薯有選透性膜, 於是容許滲透作用發生] 11. Water transport through the cortical/mesophyll cells: Besides passing through the cytoplasm (or vacuole) from one cell to another by osmosis, water can also be transported through the pores inside the cell wall or the intercellular space (i.e. from cell wall of one cell to another or one intercellular space to another intercellular space). [除了用滲透作用從一個細胞的細胞質和液泡流到另一個細胞之外, 也有由細胞壁到細胞壁, 以及胞間隙到胞間隙。 (即是水分的傳送有三種方法, 而會考只著重 osmosis [滲透作用])。

P. 7 of 7

Ch. 11

Ch. 12

Transport

[體內運輸]

We need transport system when - two cells are far from each other [我們需要運輸系統, 當: 兩個細胞距離遙遠] - materials needed to be moved from one place to another [需要把物質移動到其他地方] - huge sum of substances to be moved [需要移動的物質數量巨大] blood circulation [血液循環] - blood (as a carrier or medium) [血液(是載體或介質)] - blood vessels (as a transporting network) [血管(是運輸網絡)] - heart (as a pump) [心臟(是泵)] Blood - blood cells (45 % by volume) - red blood cells, white blood cells, blood platelets (cell fragments) [血液: 血細胞(45%以體積計算) ﹣紅血球、白血球、血小板(可能只是細胞碎片)] - formed in red bone marrow [在紅骨髓內產生] - old RBC is destroyed in liver & spleen. [老化的紅血球在肝臟和脾臟內被破壞] - Red blood cells - they have biconcave disc shape (雙凹碟狀): to provide large surface area to diffuse more oxygen. [紅血球: 他們有雙凹面圓盤形: 提供很大的表面積, 以擴散更多氧氣] - they contain haemoglobin - to have high affinity to carry oxygen [他們含有血紅素: 對氧氣有很高親合性(容易黏附氧氣)] - haemoglobin required iron [血紅素需要鐵質] - they have no nuclei - to increase the space for carrying more haemoglobin to carry more oxygen. [他們沒有細胞核: 增加空間, 攜帶更多血紅素, 以攜帶更多氧氣] [ NOT true: the biconcave disc shape of red blood cells enables them to carry more oxygen. ] [不要寫成: 紅血球的雙凹面圓盤形使他能夠攜帶更多氧氣, 因為雙凹面只是增加表面積, 而表面積只增加擴散速率, 而不負責攜帶多一些] - White blood cells - phagocytes - engulf pathogens and dead body cells. [白血球: 吞噬細胞: 吞食病原體和死亡的體細胞] - lymphocytes - produce specific antibodies to kill pathogens. [淋巴細胞: 製造特別的抗體, 以殺死病原體] - Platelets - initiate blood clotting [血小板: 引起凝血作用] - ( they may be cell fragments instead of whole cells ) [他們可能是碎片, 而不是完整細胞] - plasma (55 % by volume of blood) [血漿 (55%以體積計算)] - 90 % water, [90%是水份] - 10 % dissolved substances [10%是溶解了的物質] - nutrients (eg. glucose, amino acids), [養份 (例如: 葡萄糖、氨基酸)] waste (eg. carbon dioxide, urea, excess minerals) [廢物 (例如: 二氧化碳、尿素、過剩的礦物鹽)] plasma protein (blood protein) (eg. fibrinogen for blood clotting) [血漿蛋白 (例如: 纖維蛋白原用作凝血作用)] hormones (internal messenger for regulating body activities) [激素 (體內的信差, 用作調節身體的活力) antibodies (defence mechanism against germs) [抗體 (防禦病菌的機制)] Terms : blood = plasma + blood cells [術語: 血液 = 血漿 + 血細胞] plasma = serum + fibrinogen [血漿 = 血清 + 纖維蛋白原] serum = liquid contain dissolved food, waste, gases, etc. (NOT including blood cells and fibrinogen) [血清 = 這液體包含了溶解的食物、廢物、氣體等 (不包括血細胞和纖維蛋白原)] Functions of blood - it acts as transport medium (for gases, nutrient, waste, heat) [血液的功能: 它用作運輸介質 (給氣體、養份、廢物、熱能)] - red blood cells: carry oxygen (in form of oxyhaemoglobin) [紅血球: 攜帶氧氣(以帶氧血紅素形式)] - plasma: carry carbon dioxide (in form of hydrogencarbonate ion) & other dissolved substances. [血漿: 攜帶二氧化碳 (以碳酸氫鹽離子形式)和其他溶解了的物質] - white blood cells are for body defence against infection. [白血球是用作防禦感染的] - It regulates body heat distribution (by blood plasma) ［它調節體內的熱量分佈 (以血漿)］ - It forms clots over wounds to prevent excess bleeding (initiated by platelets) [它在傷口上形成凝塊, 以避免過度流血 (由血小板引起)] P. 1 of 5

Ch. 12

Experiments on blood - adding sodium oxalate or sodium citrate solution [血液實驗: 加草酸鈉或檸檬酸鈉溶液] it absorbs calcium from blood to slow down (stop) the process of blood clotting. [它從血液中吸收鈣質, 以減慢凝血過程] Blood types : [血型]

blood group [血型] A B AB O

antigen (RBC) antibodies (plasma) [抗原(在紅血球表面)] [抗體(在血漿中) anti-B [抗體 b] antigen A [抗原 A] anti-A [抗體 a] antigen B [抗原 B] antigen A , B [抗原 A&B] NIL [沒有抗體] NIL [沒有抗原] both anti-A & anti-B [兩者]

receipients [受血者] A , AB B , AB AB ALL

donor [捐血者] A, O B, O ALL O

- a man cannot have the same type of antigen and antibody (eg. both antigen A and anti-A) at the same time, otherwise agglutination occur. [人類不能有同類的抗原和抗體 (例如: 抗原 A 和抗體 a 兩者), 否則黏結發生] - in blood transfusion, if not matching Æ agglutination, will cause death. [輸血時,如果不相配Æ血液黏結,引致死亡] - blood type: AB (universal recipient) , O (universal donor) [血型: AB(全適受血者), O(全適輸血者)] Diseases of blood - haemophilia - easily die from bleeding, since blood cannot clot [血液病症: 血友病: 容易因流血而死] - anaemia - (lacking iron), feel tired easily, cannot do exercise for long time [貧血: (缺乏鐵質), 容易感到疲勞、不能做久持續性運動] - blood cancer - cell malfunctioning ( antibodies attack his own body tissues) [血癌: 細胞不正常(抗體攻擊自己的身體組織) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Blood vessels [血管] - names [名稱] - lung : pulmonary [肺] liver : hepatic [肝] gut : intestinal [腸] kidney : renal [腎] heart : coronary (to heart muscles) [心臟: 冠狀動脈 (去心臟肌肉)] - artery - carries blood away from the heart. [動脈: 攜帶血液離開心臟] vein - carries blood towards the heart. [靜脈: 攜帶血液返回心臟] Blood vessels that has [血管有] - the largest (lowest) amount of urea = hepatic vein (renal vein) [最高(最低)尿素量 = 肝靜脈 (腎靜脈)] - the highest (lowest) blood pressure = aorta (vena cava) [最高(最低)血壓 = 大動脈 (大靜脈)] - the largest (lowest) amount of oxygen = pulmonary vein (pulmonary artery) (CO2 reverse) [最高(最低)含氧量 = 肺靜脈 (肺動脈) (二氧化碳剛好相反)] - the largest amount of glucose after a starchy meal = hepatic portal vein [吃了高澱粉餐以後, 最高葡萄糖量 = 肝門靜脈] - the largest amount of glucose during starvation = hepatic vein [在飢餓時, 最高葡萄糖量 = 肝靜脈] - provide nourishment to the heart muscle = coronary artery [為心臟肌肉提供滋養 = 冠狀動脈] Differences between arteries & veins [動脈和靜脈之間的差異]: arteries [動脈] direction of blood flow [血流方向] away from heart [離開心臟] pulse [是否有搏動] YES [有] pressure [壓力] high [高] wall [牆壁] thick [厚] valves [活瓣] NIL [沒有(除了肺動脈之外)] (except pulmonary artery) lumen [管腔] small [細] blood content [血液成分] oxygenated (more oxygen)[充氧的] (except pulmonary artery)[除了肺動脈]

veins [靜脈] return to heart [返回心臟] NIL [沒有] low [低] thin [薄] YES [有 (防止血液回流)] (prevent blood backflow) large [大] deoxygenated (less oxygen)[脫氧的] (except pulmonary vein)[ 除了肺靜脈]

Blood moves in vein [血液如何在靜脈內流動] - by contraction of skeletal muscles, which press onto the vein. [附近的骨骼肌收縮, 它按壓靜脈] The blood is pushed forward, since the valves prevent their backflow. [因有瓣膜防止回流, 血液被推向前] - by sucking forces created by heart & breathing movement. [心臟和呼吸動作產生的吸力] P. 2 of 5

Ch. 12

Heart [心臟] - cardiac muscle [心臟肌] - nourished by coronary arteries

[由冠狀動脈提供滋養]

- parts [不同部分]: upper part [上部]: right auricle (atrium) [右心耳(心房)] lower part [下部]: right ventricle (右心室) - blood vessels [血管]:

vena cava [大靜脈] pulmonary artery [肺動脈]

left auricle [左心耳] left ventricle [左心室]

pulmonary vein [肺靜脈] aorta [大動脈]

- valves inside the heart [心臟中的瓣膜]: left - bicuspid valve [左邊: 二尖瓣] right - tricuspid valve [右邊: 三尖瓣] at aorta & pulmonary artery - semilunar valve [在大動脈和肺動脈: 半月瓣] - heart tendon - prevent valves to turn inside out to the reverse direction. [腱索: 防止瓣膜反轉] - septum - separate the left and right part of the heart so that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood will not mixed. [中隔: 分隔心臟的左邊和右邊, 於是充氧的和脫氧的血液不能夠混合] - thickest wall - left ventricle: highest pressure to pump blood to the whole body. [最厚壁: 左心室: 最高血壓, 以泵血液到全身各部] - thinnest wall - auricle (atrium): lowest pressure because only for return of blood from body. (so, not need high pressure) [最薄壁: 心耳(心房): 最低血壓, 但只是使血液返回心臟 (所以不需高血壓)] Cardiac cycle [心搏週期] - diastole (relaxation of atria & ventricles) - atrial systole (contraction) [心房收縮] ventricular systole [心室收縮]

[心舒張 (心房和心室鬆弛)]

Heart attacks - reduced blood supply to heart muscle [心臟病: 減少供應心臟肌的血液量] - due to cholesterol or fat deposits on the internal wall of coronary artery. [因膽固醇或脂肪積聚在冠狀動脈的內壁] - the decrease in the pumping force of the heart cannot supply enough oxygen and food to the body tissues (especially the brain). [減慢心臟的泵血力量, 不能供應足夠氧氣和食物到組織(尤其是腦部)] Double circulation [雙循環] - as the blood flows through the body once, it flows through the heart twice: [當血液流經身體一次, 它已經流過心臟兩次] - pulmonary circulation Æ to lungs [肺循環Æ至肺部] systemic circulation Æ to whole body [體循環Æ到全身各部] Capillaries - it is the smallest blood vessels [微血管: 它是最細的血管] - it is the site of exchange (by diffusion) of materials. [它是物質交換(以擴散作用)的部位] - adaptations [微血管的適應] - it has small cross-sectional area - to slow down the flow rate [它有細小的截面積: 以減慢血流速率] (the capillary network has large total cross-sectional area Æ this actually slow down the flow rate.) [微血管網有大的總橫切面面積Æ這減慢流動速率] - so that it has more time for complete diffusion of materials [因此它有更多時間, 以利完成物質的擴散] - it has many branches(分枝) - to increase the surface area for diffusion of material [它有很多分枝: 增加表面積, 以利物質交換] - it has thin wall of only one-cell thick - to decrease the diffusion distance for exchange of material. [它只有一層細胞厚度的薄壁: 降低擴散距離, 以利物質交換] (The diameter of its lumen is similar to that of a red blood cell. Its wall is only one-cell thick.) [管腔的直徑和一個紅血球很接近; 它的管壁亦只有一層細胞的厚度] (The blood pressure in the capillary near the arteriole end is higher than the pressure of the surrounding fluid. This forces the plasma except the plasma protein out to form tissue fluid.) [微血管小動脈端的血壓是較其周圍的液體為高, 這樣便逼血漿(除了血漿蛋白之外)出來而成組織液] [ The blood pressure in the capillary near the venule end is lower than that of the osmotic pressure so that some tissue fluid returns to the capillary. The excess fluid is collected by the lymphatic vessel to become lymph and finally will be transported to the vena cava and then back to the heart (i.e. back to the blood vascular system).] [微血管小靜脈端的血壓是較它周圍的滲透壓為低, 因此部分組織液返回微血管; 過剩的液體被淋巴管收集, 以成為淋巴液; 最後會被輸送到大靜脈, 然後返回心臟] P. 3 of 5

Ch. 12

Exchange of materials [物質交換] - it is carried out by diffusion through the whole length of capillaries. [以擴散作用在整個微血管網內進行] - arteriole end [小動脈端] - blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure Æ substances pressed out to the tissue cells [血壓較滲透壓高Æ物質被壓到組織細胞周圍] - venule end [小靜脈端]- osmotic pressure is larger than blood pressure (because much decrease in blood pressure) Æ substances diffuse into the blood capillary [滲透壓大於血壓 (因為血壓降低很多) Æ 物質擴散入微血管內] -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Lymphatic system [淋巴組織] - blood : inside blood vessels [血液: 在血管之內] - tissue fluid: between tissue cells [組織液: 在組織細胞之間] - lymph (淋巴腺液): inside lymphatic system (lymph vessels) [淋巴液: 在淋巴系統(淋巴管)之內] - lymph vessels - no artery, only have capillaries & veins. [淋巴管: 沒有動脈, 只有微細管和靜脈] Functions of lymphatic system [淋巴系統的功能] - return excess tissue fluid to blood system [過剩的組織液回流血管系統] - (tissue fluid: acts as a medium for material exchange & also as a fluid reservoir for blood plasma) [組織液: 作為物質交換的介質, 亦作為血漿的儲存器] - the lymph node filters the bacteria by producing numerous white blood cells. [淋巴結製造很多白血球, 以過濾細菌] - it transport fats in lacteal (NOT transport fatty acids & glycerol) [它用乳糜管以輸送脂肪 (不要寫成: 輸送脂肪酸和甘油) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Transport in dicotyledonous plants [雙子葉植物的運輸]: through vascular bundles [通過維管束] - distribution [分佈] - in stem: close to the epidermis [在莖部: 接近表皮] - to resist the strong bending force produced by wind [抵抗強大的屈曲力量 - in root: close to central position [在根部: 接近中央部分] - to resist the strong pulling force from the wind blowing the shoot [抵抗風吹向莖部的強大拉力] Tissues in vascular bundle [維管束內的組織] - xylem vessels: They are large dead & hollow cell. They loss their end walls so that a complete tubular structure is formed. [木質導管: 它是一個大的、死的, 及中空的細胞; 上下細胞的接壁已失, 因此它們能夠形成完全中空的水管] {右圖: (a) 是兩個細胞上下重疊的樣子; (b) 是細胞的上下接壁已失的狀態, 因而形成一個完全中空的水管} - They transport water & mineral salts upward, (mainly by transpiration pull). (a) (b) [它向上輸送水份和礦物鹽 (主要由蒸騰牽引力)] - They have thick cell walls (with cellulose and lignin), so that they can support the plant. [它們有相當厚的細胞壁 (內含纖維素和堅硬的木質素), 因此它們可以負責支撐那棵植物] (a) (b) - phloem (sieve tubes): They are living cells without nucleus. They depend on the surrounding smaller companion cells to control their activities. [韌皮部(篩管): 它是活的細胞但卻沒有細胞核; 它們的活動要由附近較細的伴胞負責控制] - it transports sugar (food) downward, (by active transport.) [它向下輸送糖(食物), (由主動運輸)] (d) (c) {右圖: (c) 是上下兩個韌皮部的篩管細胞, 它的細胞壁很薄, 上下接壁有很多孔, 能夠讓細胞質 cytoplasm 通過, 因此能夠用主動運輸 active transport 把食物由一個細胞經細胞質輸送到另一個細胞; 它旁邊的 (d) 是伴胞 companion cell, 負責控制篩管細胞的活動。} Absorption in roots [根部的吸收] - water - by transpiration pull (mainly) created from leaves [水份: 主要由蒸騰牽引力, 由葉子產生] by osmosis due to osmotic gradients between the root hair cells and soil water. [由滲透作用, 因根毛和泥土水份之間存在滲透梯度] - mineral salts - by active transport in root hair cells. [礦物鹽: 在根毛細胞, 用主動運輸] Upward transportation of water - by transpiration pull (mainly), root pressure, capillarity [向上輸送水份: 以蒸騰牽引力(主要)、根壓、毛細管作用] Transportation from xylem to leaf mesophyll - by transpiration pull, osmosis. [從木質部至葉肉組織: 用蒸騰牽引力、滲透作用 P. 4 of 5

Ch. 12

Concepts on Transport in Human: (1) The slow blood flow rate in capillaries is due to large total cross-sectional area (due to many branches), NOT due to small lumen/diameter: [血流在微血管內慢下來, 是由於它有大的總橫切面面積(因有很多分枝), 而不是因為它有細小的管腔/直徑]: - Because: The total volume of blood flow through the arteries and capillaries should be the same. [因為: 在動脈和微血管內的血液總量是要相等的]) - 但: 如果題目問有關“一條微血管 [one capillary]”, 則這句(small lumen [細的管腔])仍然可用。 - the flow rate decreases: aortaÆarteryÆarterioleÆcapillary. [速度下跌: 大動脈Æ動脈Æ小動脈Æ微血管] the flow rate increases: capillaryÆvenuleÆveinÆvena cava. [速度上升: 微血管Æ小靜脈端Æ靜脈Æ大靜脈] - The narrow diameter of capillaries results in high resistance to blood flow, and leads a significant drop in blood pressure in the capillary. (blood pressure drops: aortaÆarteryÆarteriolesÆcapillariesÆvenulesÆveinÆvena cava) [微血管那個細的直徑對血液流動產生了很高的抵抗,使其內的血壓下跌 (血壓下跌:大動脈Æ動脈Æ小動脈……)] - diffusion is the most important force for material exchange in capillaries [擴散作用在微血管的物質交換中,至為重要] (2) As materials (eg. oxygen in alveoli, absorbed food in villi) are transported away from the site of their absorption promoted by having a rich capillary network), it maintains a steep concentration gradient (diffusion gradient) across the wall of that organ to facilitate the diffusion. [當物質被吸收後(如肺氣泡吸氧氣, 絨毛吸食物)再被運輸去其他地方, 這樣使它維持陡峭的濃度梯度(擴散梯度)而使擴散作用增加] (3) Blood vessels that has [血管有]: - the largest (lowest) amount of urea = hepatic vein (renal vein) [最高(最低)尿素量 = 肝靜脈 (腎靜脈)] - the highest (lowest) blood pressure = aorta (vena cava) [最高(最低)血壓 = 大動脈 (大靜脈)] - the largest (lowest) amount of oxygen = pulmonary vein (pulmonary artery) (CO2 reverse) [最高(最低)含氧量 = 肺靜脈 (肺動脈) (二氧化碳剛好相反)] - the largest amount of glucose after a starchy meal = hepatic portal vein [吃了高澱粉餐以後, 最高葡萄糖量 = 肝門靜脈] - the largest amount of glucose during starvation = hepatic vein [在飢餓時, 最高葡萄糖量 = 肝靜脈] - provide nourishment to the heart muscle = coronary artery [為心臟肌肉提供滋養 = 冠狀動脈] (4) If there is a small hole in the septum, oxygenated blood will mix with deoxygenated blood. As a result, there will be less oxygen carried to the tissues for respiration, and there will not be enough energy for activities. [如果心臟的中隔有孔, 充氧的血液便會和脫氧的血液混合, 因而使小一些氧氣被帶到組織, 而使組織不夠能量以維持活躍度。]

(5) The thickest chamber of the heart is the left ventricle since it has to generate larger force to pump blood to all parts of the body. [擁有最厚的心臟部份是左心室, 因它要產生很大的力量才能把血液泵到全身各部份。] (6) Valves are absent in the arteries because blood is flowing under high blood pressure, there is no chance for back-flow. [動脈血管是沒有瓣膜的, 因為其中的血液是由高血壓推動的, 它根本不能夠回流。]

P. 5 of 5

Ch. 12

Ch. Types of skeleton

[骨骼種類]

Support

and

Movement

[支持與運動]

- endoskeleton [內骨骼] - vertebrates [脊椎動物] - exoskeleton [外骨骼] - insects [昆蟲](made of chitin [由角質素製成])

Functions - support the body [支撐身體] (skeleton is made by calcium [骨骼是由由鈣質做成] - very hard [故很堅硬]) - produce blood cells [生產血細胞] - attach muscles for movement [黏附著肌肉使它能夠運動] - protect internal organs of our body [保護體內器官] (eg. ribs & sternum protect lungs & heart [肋骨和胸骨保護肺和心臟]) - store minerals (eg. Calcium) [貯藏礦物質, 如鈣質] Bones [硬骨]: - cartilage [軟骨] - spongy bone [鬆質骨]- contain red bone marrow [包含紅骨髓] Æ produces blood cells [生產血細胞] - compact bone [密質骨]: main supporting tissue [是最主要的支撐組織]. - cavity [空腔]- contain yellow bone marrow [內有黃骨髓]- stores fats [貯藏脂肪] Two parts [兩部份] - axial skeleton [中軸骨骼] - skull [頭顱], vertebral column [脊柱], ribs [肋骨], sternum [胸骨] - appendicular skeleton [附肢骨骼] - pectoral girdle [肩帶], forelimbs [前肢](arms [臂]), pelvic girdle [腰帶], hindlimbs [後肢](legs[腿]) Joints [關節](synovial joint [滑膜關節]) - types [種類] - hinge joints [鉸鏈關節] - allow movement in one plane [只容許單一平面運動]. (不要寫成 180o movement) - eg. elbow joint, knee joint [例如: 肘關節、膝關節]. - ball and socket joints [球窩關節] - It moves in three planes [容許三個不同平面運動]. (不要寫成 360o or “all direction”) - eg. shoulder joint, hip joint [例如: 肩關節、股關節] - structures [結構]: - ligaments [韌帶] - they are tough to attach bones together in a joint to prevent dislocation of the joint during movement [因它們很堅韌, 可以黏附骨骼, 這就可防止關節在運動時脫位] - cartilage [軟骨]: at the edge of bones - absorb shock during movement. [它們在硬骨的邊緣, 可在運動時吸收震盪力] - synovial fluid [滑液] - reduce friction between two bones in a joint during movement. [在關節的兩骨之間, 以減少運動時所產生的摩擦力] - synovial membrane [滑液膜] - secretes synovial fluid [分泌滑液]. arthritis [關節炎]: [ Not required 不用考] 1. articular cartilage wears away [磨損關節之間的軟骨] Æ the joint surfaces become roughened [關節的表面變得粗糙]. 2. fibrous tissue grows over the joint surfaces [在關節表面的纖維組織增生]. - both make movement to become painful and difficult [以上兩者使移動時感覺痛苦及困難].) Muscles for movement [用作移動的肌肉] - called skeletal muscles /striated muscles /voluntary muscles [可以叫: 骨骼肌、橫紋肌、隨意肌] - they can contract powerfully, but not stretch with forces [它們可以強勁地收縮, 但當他們伸長時不能產生力量] (∴they can pull, but cannot push [所以它們只可以推, 不能拉動東西] ) - they carries out aerobic respiration in normal time [它們在正常時間, 會用需氧呼吸] (they carry out anaerobic respiration together with aerobic respiration during exercise) [在運動時, 它們會用缺氧呼吸, 也同時用需氧呼吸]

P. 1 of 2

Ch. 13

- tendons [肌腱] - they are tough to transmit forces from muscles to bones to create movement [它們是十分堅韌的, 可把由肌肉所產生的力量傳送到骨, 使我們能夠運動]. Forearm [前臂] - name of muscles: biceps & triceps [肌肉名字: 二頭肌、三頭肌] (要有 “s”, 不是: bicep / tricep) - they are antagonistic (opposing) muscles [它們屬於拮抗肌] (they work in pairs and in opposite directions [它們成雙地工作, 而收縮和鬆弛的方向剛相反]) - types of muscle [肌肉的種類]: flexor [屈肌] (biceps [二頭肌]) bends the forearm as the muscle contracts [當肌肉收縮時,它把前肢屈曲] extensor [伸肌] (triceps [三頭肌]) straightens the forearm as the muscle contracts [當肌肉收縮時,它把前肢伸直]. - bones [骨骼]: scapula [肩胛骨], humerus [上膊骨], ulna [尺骨], radius [橈骨] Lever systems [槓桿] - joints act as fulcrum [關節作為支點], muscle contraction creates the effort [肌肉收縮作為施力], the weight acts as load [重量作為負荷] E E

Arm

tiptoe stands

L - movement in forearm [屈曲前臂] - third order lever system [第三類槓桿] - standing on tiptoes [用腳尖站立] - second order [第二類槓桿] - nodding of head [點頭] - first order [第一類槓桿]

L head nodding L

Types of muscles [肌肉的種類] 1. skeletal muscle / voluntary muscle / striated muscle [可以叫: 骨骼肌、隨意肌、橫紋肌] - connect to bones for movement [連接骨骼, 以產生運動] 2 smooth muscle / involuntary muscles [可以叫: 平滑肌、不隨意肌] - in internal organs [在內臟裏] 3 cardiac muscle [心臟肌] - in heart only [只在心臟裏] Muscle fibres (muscle cells) [肌纖維] - bundles of muscle fibres form a muscle [肌肉是由一束束肌纖維組成的]. Support in plants [在植物中的支撐]: - young plants / non-woody parts of plants [幼嫩的/非木質的植物部分] - mainly by turgidity of the thin walled parenchyma cells in the cortex and pith. [主要由皮層上和髓內, 有薄細胞壁的軟細胞, 以硬脹來支撐] (when cells becomes flaccid due to water lost, the plant wilts) [當細胞因失水而變得軟弱時, 植物就會凋謝] - woody stems [木質莖]- mainly by the rigid lignified cells (xylem vessels) [主要用木質化細胞 (木質導管)] - OR: collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells (eg. fibres). [或厚角組織、厚壁組織 (例如: 纖維)] Distribution of xylem / supporting tissues in plants [木質部 (支持組織) 在植物中的分佈: - stem [莖] - at periphery position - withstand the high bending force of the wind. [在外圍:可抵擋很大的屈曲力] - roots [根] - at central position - withstand the high pulling force when the wind blows onto the shoot. [在中央位置: 當風力拉著莖幹, 根部可抵擋很大的拉力]

P. 2 of 2

Ch. 13

Ch.

Detection of Environmental Conditions [探測環境的情況] (Eyes & Ears) [眼和耳]

irritability [感應] = the ability to response to stimuli [有對刺激作出反應的能力]. - stimuli (both internal & external) are detected by receptors (sense organs) [所有內部和外部的刺激, 都是由感覺器官所探測的] - receptors generate nerve impulses after being stimulated. [當感受器被刺激時, 能產生神經脈衝] - nerve impulses are sent to the brain for interpretation [神經脈衝被傳送到腦部, 以對刺激加以分析] - the brain generates nerve impulses controlling suitable responses to the effectors [腦部發電機發出神經脈衝到反應器, 以產生適當的反應] - the effectors (muscles or glands) then produces suitable responses. [反應器(肌肉或腺體)於是產生適當的反應] General structures of a receptor [感受器的普遍構造] - sensory cells / sensory hair cells [感覺細胞/感覺毛細胞] - some with supporting cells/structures [有些有支撐細胞或支撐結構] - some with accommodating structures (eg. in eyes) [有些有調節結構(如在眼中)] Eyes: sense organ for receiving light [眼: 接受光的感覺器官] it is protected by the skull [它被頭顱保護] - structures around eye-ball [眼球周圍的結構]: - eyebrow [眉毛] - traps the sweat to prevent the dirty sweat flow to the eye. [留住汗水以防止骯臟汗水流到眼睛] - tear glands [淚腺]Æ secrete tears [分泌眼淚] which: wash away dust and germs. [洗去灰塵和病菌] contain enzyme (lyzozyme) which kills bacteria [包含酶以殺死細菌] moisten the eye surface. [滋潤眼睛表面] - eyelids [眼皮] - protect the eyes of being damage from flying object / prevent drying up of the eyeball. [保護眼睛以防止物體飛入眼睛 / 防止眼睛乾燥] - eyelashes [眼睫毛] - protect the eye from particles entering it. [保護眼睛以防止物體進入] - internal structures of eye-ball: [眼球的內部結構] - coat : (3 layers) : [3 層外殼] - sclera [鞏膜] - maintain the shape of the eye-ball [維持眼球的形狀] - protects the inner structures of the eye (because it is tough) [保護眼球的內部結構, 因為它是十分堅韌的] - provides anchorage to eye muscles. [提供給眼肌固定的地方] - choroid [脈絡膜] - with many blood vessels and black pigment. [有很多血管, 也有黑色素] - blood vessels [血管]- supply oxygen and nutrients to the eye & remove metabolic waste. [供應氧氣和營養給眼球, 又除去代謝廢物] - black pigment [黑色素] - absorb light to prevent reflection of light inside the eyeball which may produce multimage [吸收光以防止光在眼球內反射, 以避免產生多重影像] - retina [視網膜] - receives light (image) and forms impulses. [接受光(映像)和形成神經脈衝] - contains light sensitive cells (photoreceptors) and nerves. [包含對光敏感的細胞(感光器)和神經線] - photoreceptors [感光器] - rods [視桿細胞] - for black and white vision in dim light. [在微弱的光之下進行黑白視覺] - cones [視錐細胞] - for colour vision in day time (bright light) [在白天進行彩色視覺] - spots - yellow spot [黃點] - It has clearest vision because it has densely packed cones without rods. [它有清楚清晰的視覺, 因為它有密集的視錐細胞, 但沒有視桿細胞] - blind spot [盲點]- nerve fibres leave the eye-ball [神經纖維在這裡離開眼球] - It does not have vision because it has no photoreceptors (rods & cones). [這沒有視覺, 因為它沒有感光器(視桿細胞和視錐細胞)] {State the functions of choroids [陳述脈絡膜的功能]: It provides nourishment for the eye. [它給眼睛提供滋養] It absorbs light to prevent reflection which forms multimages. [它吸收光以防止光在眼球內反射, 以避免產生多重影像]} {錯誤觀念: no image can be formed on the blind spot because this region does not contain any light-sensitive cells. [沒有映像在盲點形成, 因這裡沒有可感光的細胞]} (Actually an image can be formed on blind spot but there is no photoreceptor to generate impulses to the brain for sensation.) [是實: 有映像在盲點形成, 但那裡沒有感光器去生成神經脈衝, 沒有神經脈衝到腦部而產生感覺]

P. 1 of 4

Ch. 14

- accommodation tissues [視覺調節組織]: - cornea [角膜] - continuous with sclera but it becomes transparent. [是鞏膜的延續, 但它是透明的] - protected by conjunctiva [由結膜保護(角膜)]. - to allow light to enter and refract light onto the retina. [容許光進入和折射去視網膜] - iris [虹膜] - control the size of the pupil [調節瞳孔的大小] - iris is made of circular muscles and radial muscles. [虹膜是由環肌和放射肌組成的] - circular iris muscles relax Æ pupil becomes larger in size. ( at dim light ) [環肌鬆弛, 瞳孔放大(在弱光)] - radial muscles - reverse the direction. [放射肌: 方向相反] - pupil [瞳孔] - the opening which allows light to enter the eye-ball [讓光進入眼球的小孔] - ciliary body [睫狀體](ciliary muscles) [睫狀肌肉] - regulates the curvature of the lens by contraction and relaxation of the circular ciliary muscles. [睫狀體環肌收縮, 可調節晶狀體的曲度] - suspensory ligaments [懸韌帶] - hold the lens in position. [保持晶狀體在故定位置] - transmit the tension from ciliary muscles to the lens. [把拉力由睫狀肌肉傳送到晶狀體] - lens - elastic, biconvex, made of transparent cells. [它是有彈性的, 有雙凸表面的, 由透明細胞造成的] - to focus light exactly onto the retina by changing its convexity [由改變晶狀體的凸出程度, 而把光聚焦到視網膜] - chambers: - anterior chamber [前室] - filled with aqueous humour [充滿水狀液] - refract light onto the retina [把光折射到視網膜] - maintain the shape of the eye-ball [維持眼球的形狀] - supply nutrients to the conjunctiva, cornea & lens. [供應養份給結膜、角膜和晶狀體] - posterior chamber [後室] - filled with vitreous humour [充滿了玻璃狀液] - refract light onto the retina [把光折射到視網膜] - maintain the shape of the eye-ball. [維持眼球的形狀] - optic nerve [視神經] - to transmit nerve impulses to the optic centre in the cerebral cortex (cerebrum) of the brain for interpretation. [傳送神經脈衝到大腦皮層的視覺中樞, 以作分析。] Accommodation mechanisms [調節機制] - focus images exactly onto the retina. [把影像正確地對焦到視網膜之上] - distant objects [遠方物體] - The circular ciliary muscles relax which causes the suspensory ligaments taut (to have higher tension) . This pulls the lens and makes it thin (less convex). [環形睫狀肌鬆弛, 它使懸韌帶拉緊; 這樣牽引晶狀體, 使它變得薄(較小凸出程度)。] - near objects [接近物體] Æ - bright light [強光] - The circular iris muscles contract which causes the pupil to become smaller in size. [虹膜環肌收縮, 它使瞳孔變得細一些] - dim light [暗光] Æ ( NOT ture: the suspensory ligaments contract to pull the lens into a flattened shape when observing distant objects.) [不要寫成: 懸韌帶收縮, 因韌帶是不會收縮的, 它只把拉力由肌肉傳遞到骨骼。] (Distinguish: (1) eye muscles, (2) circular ciliary muscles & ciliary body, (3) circular iris muscle, (4) circular muscle) [區別它們: (1) 眼肌; (2) 環形睫狀肌、睫狀體; (3) 虹膜環肌; (4) 環肌。 Eye defects [眼部缺陷]: - short sight [近視] - image of a distant object formed in front of the retina [遠方物體的映像在視網膜的前方形成] - reasons [理由]: eye-ball too long [眼球太長] lens too thick [晶狀體太厚] - correction [糾正] Æ wear concave lens (配戴凹透鏡). - long sight [遠視] - correction Æ wear convex lens (配戴凸透鏡). - old sight [老花] - the lens becomes less elastic and loses the ability to accommodate [晶狀體變得彈性較小, 調節能力消失] - ciliary muscles weaken [睫狀體肌肉虛弱] - correction [糾正]Æ wear bifocal lens (with two focal lengths)(OR use two different glasses) [配戴雙焦距透鏡]

P. 2 of 4

Ch. 14

astigmatism [散光] - cornea having uneven curvature (cornea oval instead of spherical in shape.) [角膜的曲度不平均 (角膜卵圓形, 而不是正常的球形)] - correction [糾正] Æ wear cylindrical lens [配戴柱面透鏡] colour blindness [色盲] - defect of one or more of the three types of cone cells (usually red & green). [一種或多種視錐細胞有缺陷 (通常是紅色和綠色)] - unable to distinguish between (some/all) colours [不能區別顏色] - inheritable [可遺傳的] night blindness [夜盲症] - lack of vitamin A in the diet [膳食中缺少維生素 A] - cannot produce visual purple in rods. [不能夠在視桿細胞內製造視紫]

Ears [耳]: - outer ear [外耳]: - pinna [耳殼] - collects sound waves [收集聲音] - detects the direction of the sound waves [探測聲音的方向] - external ear canal [外耳道] - transmit sound wave to eardrum [把傳送聲音到耳膜] - eardrum [耳膜] - convert sound wave into mechanical vibration [聲音轉變成機械振動] - middle ear [中耳]: - ear bones [聽小骨] - transmit and amplify vibrations [傳送和放大振動力] - oval window [卵圓窗] - convert vibration in bones to fluid vibration in cochlea [轉換骨骼的振動成耳蝸內液體的振動] - inner ear [內耳]: - cochlea [耳蝸] - receives vibration from ear bone and forms impulses [接受聽小骨的振動並形成神經脈衝] Æ perilymph vibration (upper canal of cochlea) [引致外淋巴液振動(在耳蝸的上管道)] Æ endolymph vibration (middle canal of cochlea) [引致內淋巴液振動(在耳蝸的中管道)] Æ sensory hair cells (in middle canal) being stimulated [刺激中管道的感覺毛細胞] Æ sensory hair cells generate nerve impulses [感覺毛細胞產生神經脈衝] - perilymph vibration transmit to round window which bulges outwards into the middle ear cavity to release the pressure [外淋巴液振動傳送至正圓窗, 它向中耳穴鼓起, 以釋放耳蝸內的壓力。] - auditory nerve [聽神經] - transmit impulses to the auditory centre of cerebral cortex (cerebrum) [傳送神經脈衝到大腦皮層中的聽覺中心] - auditory centre [聽覺中心] - interprets the impulses and produce the sensation of hearing [分析脈衝並造成聽覺] Equalizing pressure on both sides of eardrum [平衡耳膜兩邊的壓力]: (Uphill / downhill) [上山/下山] - upon changes in air pressure in the middle ear (uphill/downhill), the eardrum cannot vibrate properly (it is being pressed) causes pain and temporarily deaf. [中耳氣壓發生變化(上山/落山), 耳膜不能適當地振動(它被壓著), 引致痛苦和暫時耳聾] - corrected by Eustachian tube which connects to pharynx. [由連接咽喉的耳咽管負責矯正] - it opens only during swallowing or yawning, so that it allows air to enter the middle ear, to balance the air

pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear. [它(耳咽管)在吞口水或打呵欠時開著, 因此它容許空氣進入中耳, 平衡外耳和中耳之間(或耳膜兩邊) 的氣壓] Detection of movement/unbalance by the ear: [由耳來探測移動/不平衡] - 3 semicircular canal [三支半規管] - It detects unbalance during movement of the head. [它探測頭部在移動中的不平衡] - they are perpendicular to each other, detect head movement in all planes [他們互相垂直, 以探測頭部在所有平面的移動] - with ampulla at one side of each tube base. [在每條管的一邊底部有壺腹] - mechanism [機制] - the semicircular canal moves in the same direction as that of the head [半規管向頭部的相同方向移動] Æ the endolymph moves in opposite direction due to inertia [內淋巴液再向相反方向移動] Æ the endolymph displaces the gelatinous mass in the ampulla [內淋巴液排擠壺腹內的凝膠塊] Æ the sensory hair cells is stimulated [刺激感覺毛細胞] Æ nerve impulses are generated by sensory hair cells and transmitted along the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation. [感覺毛細胞產生神經脈衝, 由聽神經傳送到腦部以作分析]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 14

- cerebellum [小腦]: It involves in the reflex action to control the responses of corresponding muscles to maintain body balance [它包括反射作用以控制肌肉的反應, 以維持身體平衡] - cerebrum [大腦]: It knows the head movement (after the reflex response of maintaining balance) [它知道頭部的移動 (當然在維持身體平衡的反射反應之後)] Nose (olfactory organ) [鼻子(嗅覺器官)]: - detecting smell [探測氣味] - olfactory cells on upper part of nasal cavity [在鼻腔上部的嗅覺細胞] - produce nerve impulses to the cerebrum. [製造神經脈衝給大腦] - covered with mucus [由黏液覆蓋]: to dissolve chemicals in air which stimulate the olfactory cells [把空氣中的, 可刺激嗅覺細胞的化學品溶解] Tongue (taste organ) [舌頭(味蕾)]: - taste buds [味蕾]: detect the taste of food [探測食物的味道] - chemicals dissolved in saliva in order to be tasted. [化學品溶於唾液後, 才有味道] - flavour of food is given by both the taste and odour of it. [食物的風味是由味道和氣味兩者而成] - different tastes in tongue (in order from the front) : sweet, salty, sour, bitter. [舌頭的不同味覺位置 (由前到後): 甜、鹹、酸、苦] Skin [皮膚]

- many receptors [很多感受體]: touch, temperature, pain, pressure. [觸摸、溫度、痛苦、壓力] - distribution of the receptors are uneven throughout the skin. [感受體是不平均地分佈在不同的皮膚之上]

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 14

Ch.

Coordination in Mammals [哺乳動物的協調]

Systems [系統] - nervous system (it coordinates the receptors with the effectors so that an appropriate response can be made to a certain stimulus. [神經系統 (它協調感受器和反應器, 因此我們能夠對某些刺激作出一個適當的反應)] - central nervous system (CNS) [中樞神經系統] - includes: brain & spinal cord [包括:腦部和脊髓] - peripheral nervous system [外圍神經系統] - includes: cranial nerves & spinal nerves [包括:腦神經和脊神經] - endocrine system [內分泌系統] - includes endocrine glands which secretes hormones [包括內分泌腺, 它分泌荷爾蒙]. Nerve [神經] - a bundle (束) of nerve fibres (神經線) or neurones. (neurons [US 寫法]) [一束神經纖維或神經元] Neurones [神經元] - structures [結構] - cell body [細胞體] nerve fibres [神經線] - dendron, axon [樹突、軸突] (dendron & axon are usually covered by myelin sheath for insulation) [樹突和軸突通常被髓鞘遮蓋以作絕緣之用] - myelin sheath [髓鞘] - prevents impulses transmit to other fibres. [防止神經脈衝輸送到其他神經纖維] Types of neurones [神經元種類]: sensory neurone, association (intermediate) neurone, motor neurone. (form reflex arc) [感覺神經元、聯合神經元、運動神經元 (形成反射弧)] (impulses can only be transmitted along the arc, not reverse) [神經脈衝只可以沿著反射弧傳遞, 而不能夠反轉] (distinguish between reflex action and reflex arc.) [區別它們: 反射作用和反射弧] Synapse [突觸] - a gap in between two neurones. (eg. motor end-plate: a synapse in skeletal muscles) [它是一個在兩個神經元之間的縫隙 (例如: 運動終板: 一個在骨骼肌處的突觸)] - it ensures (保證) impulses to travel in one direction only (prevents impulses to travel backward) [它保證神經脈衝只向某一個方向進行 (防止神經脈衝向反方向進行)] Protection of CNS [保護中樞神經系統] - cranium [頭顱骨]: protect brain [保護腦部] vertebral column [脊柱] (vertebrae [脊椎骨]) : protect spinal cord. [保護脊髓] (distinguish between vertebral column, vertebrae & vertebrate)[區別: 脊柱、脊椎骨、脊椎動物] cerebrospinal fluid [腦脊髓液] - in menings & ventricles (腦室) of brain. [在腦膜和腦室內] in central canal of spinal cord [在脊髓的中央管] - function [功能] - to prevent friction between the menings / absorb shock during movement [防止腦膜之間的摩擦 / 吸收移動所產生的震盪力] - to nourish neurones in the brain & spinal cord. [滋養腦部和脊髓中的神經元] - to support the brain / spinal cord [支撐腦部 / 脊髓] Brain [腦] - forebrain [前腦] - cerebrum [大腦] (cerebral hemispheres [大腦半球]) - functions [功能] - to control higher mental activities, such as thinking. [控制高智能活動, 例如: 思想] to control voluntary actions [控制隨意動作] - regions in the cerebrum (in order) [大腦部位(依次序)]: association area, motor area, sensory area. [聯合中樞、運動區、感覺區] - midbrain [中腦] - hypothalamus [下丘腦] - to control homeostasis of the body [控制體內平衡] eg. body temperature, blood pressure, thirsty, hunger. [例如: 體溫、血壓、口渴、飢餓] - hindbrain [後腦] - cerebellum [小腦] - to control muscular coordination to maintain body balance. [控制肌肉協調, 維持身體姿勢平衡] - medulla oblongata [延腦] - control cranial reflex actions (eg. breathing, heart beat, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, salivation) and condition reflex action [控制腦反射 (例如: 呼吸、心跳、吞口水、咳嗽、打噴嚏、分泌唾液)及條件反射].

P. 1 of 2

Ch. 15

Grey matter & white matter [灰質和白質]: - grey matter [灰質]: cell body of neurone. [神經元的細胞體] - white matter [白質]: nerve fibre [神經纖維] grey matter (cell body) [灰質(細胞體)] white matter (nerve fibre) [白質(神經纖維)]

brain [腦] outer region [比較外圍] inner region [比較內部]

spinal cord & medulla oblongata [脊髓和延腦] inner region [比較內部] outer region [比較外圍]

grey matter [灰質]- in brain [在腦部]: outer region to increase surface area (by folding shape) to accumulate more neurones. [在比較外圍, 以增加表面積(用摺疊方式), 以積聚更多神經元] - in spinal cord [在脊髓]: inner region to provide better protection of cell body of neurones. [在比較內部, 為神經元的細胞體提供更好的保護] (NOT accepted : grey matter is outside the brain) [不要寫成: 灰質在腦部外面] Spinal cord [脊髓] - it transmits nerve impulses to and from the brain. [它傳送神經脈衝去腦部及由腦部帶出] it acts as a reflex centre to control reflex action. [它作為反射中心, 控制反射動作] - structures (in order) [結構(依次序)]: white matter, grey matter, central canal [白質、灰質、中央管] Ganglion (ganglia =複數) [神經結] - a group of cell bodies in the dorsal root (sensory nerve) of spinal cord. [一組脊髓背根上的細胞體(屬於感覺神經)] - it can be used to identify the dorsal root from ventral root (of spinal cord) [它用以識別背根和腹根(脊髓的)] Simple reflex action [反射動作] - reflex arc [反射弧]: sensory neurone, association (intermediate/ connector) neurone, motor neurone (in order) [感覺神經元、聯合神經元 (中間神經元)、運動神經元] [依次序] - nerves from spinal cord: [由脊髓出的神經] - dorsal root (with dorsal root ganglion) [背根(有背根結)]: belongs to sensory nerve [屬於感覺神經] ventral root (no ganglion) [腹根(沒有神經結)]: belongs to motor nerve [屬於運動神經] - spinal nerve [脊神經]: belongs to mixed nerve (with both sensory & motor nerves) [屬於混合神經(有感覺神經和運動神經) - receptor (sense organs) [感受器(感應器)] effectors (muscles & glands) [反應器(肌肉和腺體)] - characteristics of reflex action [反射動作的特徵]: same responses for same stimuli. [同樣刺激, 相同反應] (in voluntary action: same stimuli may create different responses) [在隨意動作: 同樣刺激, 可以產生不同反應] - some impulses can pass from the sensory neuron up the spinal cord to the brain Æ generate sensation [有些神經脈衝可以由感覺神經元經脊髓進入腦部Æ 產生感覺] - importance of reflex action: it helps our body to avoid dangerous conditions quickly. [反射作用的重要性: 它幫助身體快速地避開危險情況] - examples [例如]:withdrawal reflex [退縮反射] - stimulus [刺激]: hot object / pin (pain) [熱物體/針(疼痛)] response [反應]: the hand withdraw [手撤回] knee jerk reflex [膝躍反射] - stimulus [刺激]: a tap on the knee [在膝蓋輕敲] response [反應]: the leg kick up [腿部踢起來] blinking reflex (眨眼反射) - stimulus [刺激]: object flying towards the eye [物體飛向眼睛] response [反應]: the eye blinks (eyelid close) [眨眼(合上眼皮)] Voluntary action [隨意動作]- initiates by [引起]: 1. external stimulation (eg. reading the questions during the examination). [外部刺激(例如: 考試時閱讀問題) 2. cerebrum itself (without stimulations from receptors). [大腦(沒有由感受器來的刺激) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Endocrine system [內分泌系統] - with ductless glands [無管腺]- the secretion diffuse to blood vessels and carried by blood to all target organs. [分泌物擴散到血管, 然後由血液帶到所有目標器官]

P. 2 of 2

Ch. 15

secretes hormones [分泌激素] ( c.f. exocrine glands (eg. digestive glands) which secrete enzymes) [與外分泌腺(例如:消化腺)比較, 它分泌酶] the rate of action is slower than that of nervous system [作用的速率比較神經系統是慢一些] the duration of hormonal effect is longer than that of nerve impulses [激素作用的持久性比神經脈衝長一些] the target organs are more widespread, (whereas it is localized in nervous control) [目標器官是比較分散, (在神經協調中是比較局部化)] it is controlled by negative feedback system - to regulate the body processes. [它是由負反饋機制所控制 – 以調節體內運作過程] eg. pituitary [例如:腦下垂體]: secretes growth hormone, and other hormones that regulate other endocrine glands. [分泌生長激素, 和調節其他內分泌腺的激素] eg. pancreas [例如:胰臟]: secretes insulin that regulates blood glucose level. (Pancreas also acts as exocrine gland) [分泌胰島素, 以調節血糖水平 (胰臟同時也是一個外分泌腺)] Regulation of blood glucose level [調節血糖水平] - After digesting starch and absorb glucose from a rich starchy meal, [當消化了富澱粉質餐和吸收了葡萄糖之後] the blood glucose level increases. [血糖水平增加] It stimulates the pancreas to secrete more insulin to the blood stream. [它刺激胰臟, 以分泌更多胰島素到血液] Increase in insulin stimulates the liver to change more blood glucose to glycogen to be stored in liver and skeletal muscles. [胰島素的增加刺激肝臟, 把更多血糖變成糖原, 貯藏在肝臟和骨骼肌內] (insulin also stimulates tissue cells to absorb more glucose for oxidation to release energy.) [胰島素也刺激組織細胞, 吸收更多葡萄糖, 用作氧化以釋放能量] The blood glucose level then decreases. (negative feedback) [於是血糖水平減低 (負反饋)] diabetes [糖尿病]: due to malfunction of pancreas, not liver, nor kidney. [只因胰臟故障, 不是肝臟, 也不是腎臟] (cannot secrete enough insulin / cannot secrete insulin). [不能分泌足夠胰島素/ 不能分泌胰島素]

P. 3 of 2

Ch. 15

Ch.

Homeostasis

[體內平衡]

It maintains a constant internal environment [它維持穩定的體內環境] It is controlled by negative feedback system [它是由負反饋機制所控制的] Parts of body involved - kidney - control water, mineral salts concentration [牽涉的部份: 腎臟: 控制水份、礦物鹽的濃度] - skin - control body temperature [皮膚: 控制體溫] - liver & pancreas - control blood glucose level [肝臟和胰臟: 控制血糖量] Osmoregulation: regulates the amount of water in relation to that of salt in the body.[滲透調節: 調節體內的水與鹽量] - [sweating / ingest much salt / drink too little water (becomes thirsty)]: [出汗/食大量鹽/飲太小水 (變得口渴)] - blood water potential becomes lower [血的水勢減低] [刺激腎小管, 以再吸收較高比例的水份到微血管中] (NOT to reabsorb larger amount of water) [不是再吸收較大量水份] - the urine becomes smaller in amount and higher concentration. [變得有較小量尿液而濃度較高] Thermoregulation (body temperature): [熱量調節 (體溫)] - poikilotherms (ectotherms) (cold-blooded animals): [變溫動物 (泠血動物)] - body temperature change according to the environment [體溫根據環境而改變] - stimulates kidney tubules to reabsorb higher proportion of water to blood capillaries - hibernate (hibernation [n]) in winter because of low metabolism due to of low body temp. [在冬天要冬眠: 由於低體溫而形成低代謝速率] - homoiotherms (endotherms) (warm-blooded animals): [恆溫動物(溫血動物)] - they can keep body temperature constant even in winter by increasing metabolic rate so that the animal can remain active throughout the year. [他們可以增加代謝速率, 以在冬天保持穩定體溫, 因此這動物能夠在全年保持活力] - only birds and mammals are warm-blooded. [只有鳥類和哺乳類是溫血動物] Skin of mammal: [哺乳類的皮膚] - epidermis: [表皮] - dead outer layer [已死的外層] - relatively impermeable [比較不可滲透的] - protect the underlying tissues - prevent mechanical injury [保護下面的組織: 防止機械性損傷] - prevent bacterial entry [防止細菌進入] - reduce water lost [減少失水] - black inner layer [黑色內層] - with pigment to absorb ultraviolet ray from sunlight [有黑色素, 以吸收陽光中的紫外線] - prevent underlying tissues being hurt. [防止下層組織受傷害] - produce vitamin D. [製造維生素 D] - carry out cell division to repair the lost outer layers of the epidermis. [進行細胞分裂, 以修復損失的外層表皮] - dermis: [真皮] - hair - for temperature regulation [毛髮: 以調節溫度] - sebaceous gland - secretes oily substance. {Excess secretion causes greasy skin} [皮脂腺: 分泌油性物質 {過度的分泌引致油膩的皮膚}] - make the skin waterproof [使皮膚能夠防水] - prevent bacteria entry. {Excess secretion traps more bacteria and cause infection} [防止細菌進入 {過度的分泌會吸附更多細菌並引致受感染(發炎)}] - erector muscle - control the hair movement for temperature regulation [豎毛肌: 控制毛髮活動, 以調節體溫] - sweat gland - secrete sweat - regulates body temperature {Dogs lost heat only by panting} [汗腺: 分泌汗: 調節體溫 {狗只用喘氣以失熱}] - excrete metabolic waste [排泄代謝廢物] P. 1 of 3

Ch. 16

- fatty tissues (subcutaneous fat) [脂肪組織 (皮下脂肪)] - reduce heat lost to maintain body temperature [減少失熱, 以維持體溫] - store fats (energy reserves) [貯藏脂肪 (儲備能量)] - blood capillaries

- nourish the cells of the skin [微血管: 滋養皮膚細胞] - provide water for sweating [提供水份, 用作出汗]

Functions of our skin - protect the body - provide mechanical protection [皮膚的功能: 保護身體: 提供機械性保護] - prevent bacteria entry [防止細菌進入] - reduce water lost [減少失水] - temperature regulation [調節體溫] - excretion of sweat (water, urea, mineral salts) [排泄汗水 (水份、尿素、礦物鹽)] - store fats [貯藏脂肪] - provide sensation (by numerous receptors) [提供感覺 (用眾多感受器)] - produce vitamin D under ultra-violet light. [在紫外線下製造維生素 D]

Control body temperature in cold condition: [在寒冷情況下控制體溫] - body temperature changes stimulates the temperature regulatory centre in hypothalamus [體溫變化, 刺激下丘腦的溫度控制中心] - heat production by- liver metabolism increase [製造熱能: 由肝臟增加代謝速率] - shivering (muscle contraction rapidly) [發抖 (肌肉迅速收縮)] - prevent heat lost - hair erect, by contraction of erector muscle {forming goose-skin} [防止失熱: 豎毛肌收縮, 而使毛髮直立 (形成鵝皮狀)] - to trap a thicker layer of air for insulation [以吸附更厚空氣層, 以作隔熱] - vasoconstriction of skin arterioles [皮下小動脈收縮] - to let less blood flow near the skin surface to allow less heat lost [使更小血液流經皮膚表面, 以容許更小失熱] (by conduction & convection) [以傳導和對流進行] - prolong cool - thicker subcutaneous fat layer. [長期寒冷: 更厚皮下脂肪層] - longer hair. [更長的毛髮] Control body temperature in hot condition: [在熱的情況下控制體溫] - vasodilatation of skin arterioles - let more blood flow near the skin surface to increase heat lost (by conduction and convection). [皮下小動脈血管舒張: 允許更多血液流經皮膚表面, 以增加散熱 (以傳導和對流散熱)] - increase sweating by sweat glands - to increase heat lost by evaporation [汗腺增加出汗: 蒸發汗水以增加散熱] Regulation of blood glucose level (After eating a rich starchy meal): [調節血糖量 (食豐富澱粉餐之後)] - a large amount of glucose is absorbed from starchy meal after digestion of starch [消化了澱粉之後, 大量葡萄糖被吸收] - blood glucose level increases [血糖量增加] - this stimulates the pancreas, which secretes more insulin into the blood [這刺激胰臟, 它分泌更多胰島素進入血管] - high insulin content stimulates the liver to increase converting more glucose into glycogen to be stored in the liver and skeletal muscle cells. (high insulin content also stimulates uptake of glucose by tissue cells for oxidation) [高胰島素量刺激肝臟, 以增加葡萄糖轉變成糖原的速率, 糖原會被貯藏在肝臟和骨骼肌細胞內 (高胰島素量亦刺激組織細胞攝入更多葡萄糖, 用作氧化作用)] - the blood glucose level then decreases [血糖量因此下降] - negative feedback system [這就是負反饋機制] - diabetes - pancreas malfunctions, secretes not enough insulin (NOT malfunction of kidney) {full name: diabetes mellitus} [糖尿病: 胰臟故障, 它分泌不足夠胰島素 (不是腎臟的故障)] - home detection of diabetes: by clinistix paper Æ purple. [家居探測糖尿病: 用尿糖試紙Æ變成紫色]

P. 2 of 3

Ch. 16

Concepts on Homeostasis

[體內平衡的概念]

1. (a) In cold condition: vasoconstriction: skin arterioles constrict / vasoconstriction (NOT constriction of capillaries), this causes less blood flows near the skin surface and make one appears pale. [當外面溫度下降時, 皮膚內的小動脈血管收縮, 這使較小血液流到接近皮膚表層, 這樣就會使人面青口唇白]。 (b) 在普通肌肉, 是contraction[收縮] 和relaxation[鬆弛], 而當提及血管時, 就要用vasoconstriction / arteriole constriction [血管收縮] 及vasodilation / arteriole dilation [血管舒張] (即是: 凡管狀的東西, 都用 constrict/dilate [收縮/舒張]; muscle 就用 contract/relax [收縮/放鬆]) 2. Our metabolic rate increases when the environmental temperature decreases, to produce more energy to compensate the heat loss. [在環境溫度下降時, 我們的代謝速率會增加, 因而能夠產生更多能量, 以補償我們所增加的散熱量] 3. Our sweat gland always secrete sweat. In hot condition, we have more sweating. Sweating cannot increase heat loss, but evaporation of sweat increases heat loss since it carry out large amount of latent heat. [其實我們的汗腺經常都有排汗, 而在熱的環境中, 排汗會更多; 而排汗本身不能散熱, 而只在汗水蒸發時才因帶走潛熱而散熱。] 4. In hot condition, less heat is loss by conduction and radiation. If the relative humidity is high, less sweat can be evaporated, we faint easily. [當環境溫度比體溫高時, 我們不能以傳導或輻射來散熱, 如果當時有高的的相對濕度, 汗水蒸發就是主要的散熱方法。如果當時又遇到高的相對濕度, 排汗後不能蒸發, 因而散熱較少而容易昏迷]。 (Note: in high relative humidity, NOT no sweating, but NO evaporation. [不是: 不能排汗, 而是出汗後不能蒸發]) 5. When environmental temperature decreases, the skin vasoconstriction, less blood flow near skin surface, so that the skin temperature decreases. The mouth cavity has relatively constant temperature and can be used to represent our body temperature. [當環境溫度減低時, 皮膚內有血管收縮而使溫暖的血液較少流近皮膚表層, 因此皮膚溫度會跟隨下降。但口腔內的溫度就比較恆定, 因此我們可以用口腔溫度代表體溫。] 6.

Diabetes: NOT a kidney disease, so it cannot be corrected by kidney machine or kidney transplant. [糖尿病患者不是腎臟的毛病, 因而不能用洗腎機或腎臟移植來改善病情。]

7. (a) Pancreas secretes insulin: NOT controlled by cerebrum, hypothalamus, pituitary. It is stimulated directly by an increase blood glucose level [胰臟分泌胰島素不是由大腦、下丘腦、腦下垂體所控制, 而是直接由增加血葡萄糖水平所刺激的] (b) Pancreas always secretes insulin. When blood glucose level increases, pancreas will secrete more insulin. [胰臟是經常有分泌胰島素的(不是只在血葡萄糖水平上升時才分泌), 當血葡萄糖水平上升時, 胰臟會增加分泌胰島素]。 (c) Insulin, being a hormone but not an enzyme, cannot catalyst the conversion of glucose into glycogen directly. It can only stimulate the conversion……. [胰島素是一種激素而不是 , 因此它不能催化葡萄糖轉化成糖原, 而只是刺激這個反應]。 (d) Insulin not only stimulates the liver to convert more glucose to glycogen, it can also stimulate muscle cells to increase oxidation of glucose. These two reaction together lowers the blood glucose level. [胰島素不只刺激肝臟以增加轉化葡萄糖成為糖原; 它(胰島素)亦可以刺激肌肉以增加葡萄糖的氧化; 這兩者都會使血葡萄糖水平減低。] (e) Insulin and glucagons are produced by liver, their action is exactly opposite. [胰島素和高血糖素都是由胰臟所製造, 而他們的功能卻剛好相反]。

P. 3 of 3

Ch. 16

Ch.

Growth Responses of Plants

Tropism (Tropic movement) - a directional growth movement, response to unilateral stimulus [向性(向性運動)] - 一種方向性生長運動, 對單則刺激作出反應] {The leaves of Mimosa close up and leaf stalks moves downward as it is touched by an insect. Is this a type of tropism? Why?} [含羞草被昆蟲碰觸, 它合上葉子並把葉柄向下移動。這是否一種向性? 為什麼?] Types [種類]-

stimulus [刺激] unilateral light [單則光] water [水] gravity [地心吸力] tropism [向性] phototropism [向光性] hydrotropism [向水性] geotropism [向地性] shoot [幼枝] positive [向着] no response [沒有反應] negative [背着] response [反應] root [根] negative [背着] positive [向着] positive [向着]

Answering questions, should answer [回答問題時, 一定要答的東西]: has it grow ? [它有沒有生長?] has it bend ? [它有沒有彎曲?] the direction of bending. [它屈曲的方向] eg. The shoot grows and bends towards light. [例如: 幼枝生長並向著光處彎曲] eg. The shoot has no growth and no bending. (Not need to mention about direction) [例如: 幼枝沒有生長和彎曲] eg. The shoot grows vertically upward, without bending. [例如: 幼枝垂直地向上生長, 沒有彎曲] Clinostat [旋轉器] - performs control experiment, to make factors uniform (evenly distributed) [進行對照實驗, 使因素變成均一的(均衡地分佈)] Different parts of plants [植物的不同部分] - shoot (the part of plant usually above ground level) (without the root structure) [幼枝 (植物地面上的部分)(沒有根部結構)] - plumule ( in seed ) [胚芽(在種子內)] - coleoptile (protective sheath covering newly grow plumule) [胚芽鞘 (新生胚芽的防護屏)] - root (the part with the root structure) [根 (有根部結構的部分)] - radicle (in seed / newly grown root) [胚根 (在種子/ 新生的根)] Etiolation [黃化] - the condition that a plant grows in dark [植物生長在黑暗環境的情況] - it grows taller than normal plants. [它生長得較正常植物更高] - it has yellow leaves [它有黃色的葉子] - it becomes unhealthy [它變得不健康] Tropism experiments [向性實驗] - decapitation [斬首] Æ no growth, no bending. [沒有生長, 沒有彎曲] - medium used in experiments [實驗中所用的介質] - agar [瓊脂]: diffusible [可擴散的] - mica plate (metal plate) [雲母板(金屬板)]: non-diffusable [不能擴散的] Benefits of having tropism [有向性的好處] - provides better anchorage [提供更好的支撐]: geotropism [向地性] - absorbs more light for photosynthesis [吸收更多光, 以作光合作用]: phototropism [向光性] - absorbs more water and mineral salts [吸收更多水份和礦物鹽]: hydrotropism [向水性] Experiments on oat coleoptiles [用燕麥胚芽鞘的實驗]: (a) (i) decapitated coleoptiles [去莖尖的幼莖] - Results [結果]: no growth, (no bending) [沒有生長 (沒有彎曲)] (ii) cut & replaced tip on coleoptiles [切後補回莖尖] - Results [結果]: growth occur. [有生長] Interpretation from (i) and (ii) : the tip is response for growth [由(i)及(ii)的分析: 尖(莖尖)是負責生長的] (b) Plant illuminated by unilateral light and with black paper covering the following part: [植物被單則光照亮, 而有黑色紙遮蓋以下部分] (i) coleoptile tip [胚芽鞘] - Results [結果]: no growth, no bending. [沒有生長, 沒有彎曲] (ii) elongation region [延長區] - Results [結果]: grows and bends towards light. [生長並向光處彎曲] (iii) no covering on any part [沒有遮蓋任何部分] - Results [結果]: grows and bends towards light.[生長並向光處彎曲] Interpretation from (i) to (iii) : the tip is the place responsible for bending. [由(i)至(iii)的分析: 莖尖是負責彎曲的] P. 1 of 2

Ch. 17.

(c) Plant with coleoptile tip cut and replaced but separated by agar block. [胚芽鞘尖被切,然後又放回,但由瓊脂塊分隔] Another plant with coleoptile tip cut and replaced but separated by a mica plate. [另一胚芽鞘尖被切, 然後又放回, 但由雲母板分隔] There is unilateral light. [有單則光照] Result [結果]: the plant with agar block grows and bends towards light. [有植物瓊脂塊的植物會生長並向光處彎曲] the plant with mica plate has no growth and no bending. [有雲母板的植物, 沒有生長, 沒有彎曲] Interpretation [分析]: the head must have produced a diffusable chemical substance that stimulates growth. [頭(尖)一定是產生一種可擴散的而又能刺激生長的化學品] (d) Plant with coleoptile tip cut and replaced at slightly displaced position at one side (eg. at right side) [胚芽鞘尖被切並放回在有輕微位移的地方 (例如: 向右邊一些)] Result [結果]: the coleoptile grows and bends away from the side of the displaced tip. (towards the left) [胚芽鞘生長並背有位移莖尖的一邊彎曲 (即是: 彎向左邊)] Explanation [解說]: The side with the tip has higher concentration of the particular chemical. The grow rate of this side is faster than the other side. [有莖尖的一邊, 有較高化學品; 這邊的生長速率比較另外那邊快] (the explanation can also work as mica plate is inserted halfway from the side) [這解釋也可以用在植物被雲母板分隔了一半的個案上] Auxins [生長素]

- they are plant hormones [他們是植物激素] - produced by root tip or shoot tip [由根尖或莖尖所產生] - they stimulate growth of the elongation region of the tip. [他們刺激植物莖(根)尖的延長區生長]

Characters of auxins [生長素的特徵] - they are less concentrated on light side, [他們在光處濃度較小] - they may diffuse to the shaded side [他們會擴散到陰暗邊] - some may be inactivated or destroyed by light. [部分會被光弄至不活躍或被破壞] - they are attached by gravity (normal physical/chemical substances) [他們被地心吸力所吸引(因它是正常物質)] auxins concentration

plant parts 植物的部分

high concentration [高濃度]

shoot [幼枝]

positive [正]

root [根

negative [反]

[生長素的濃度] low concentration [低濃度] no effect

[沒有效應]

positive [正]

KEY [索引]: positive [正]= stimulating [刺激] negative [反]= inhibiting [抑制] no effect [沒有效應]= normal growth [正常生長, 不是沒有生長]

Mechanisms of tropism by auxins [生長素的向性機制]:

(no effect ≠ no growth)

Phototropism in shoot [幼枝的向光性] The auxins diffuse to the shaded side, due to the presence of unilateral light. [因為有單則光照, 生長素移到陰暗處] High auxin concentration stimulates growth in shoot. [高的生長素濃度可刺激幼枝生長] The shaded side grows faster than the light side. [陰暗邊延長得較有光的一邊快] The shoot bends towards the light. [幼枝向著光處彎曲] Phototropism in root [根的向光性] The auxins diffuse to the ______ side, due to the presence of unilateral light.[因為有單則光照, 生長素移到____處] High auxin concentration __________ growth in root. [高的生長素濃度可 _____ 幼根生長] The shaded side grows _________ than the light side. [陰暗邊延長得較有光的一邊 _____ ] The root bends ___________ the light. [幼枝 _____ 著光處彎曲] Geotropism in root [根的向地性] The auxins diffuse to the lower side due to gravity. [因為有地心吸力的關係, 生長素移到下則] High auxin concentration inhibits growth in root. [高的生長素濃度可抑制幼根生長] The lower side grows slower than the upper side. [下則延長得比上則快] The root bends downward. [幼根向下彎曲] Geotropism in shoot [幼枝的向地性] The auxins diffuse to the _______ side due to gravity. [因為有地心吸力的關係, 生長素移到 _____ ] High auxin concentration __________ growth in shoot. [高的生長素濃度可 _____ 幼枝生長] The lower side grows _________ than the upper side. [下則延長得比上則 ____ ] The shoot bends _____________. [幼枝向 ____ 彎曲] P. 2 of 2

Ch. 17.

Ch. 18

Defence against Diseases

[疾病防禦]

(Notes)

terms [術語]: pathogens [病原體], infectious diseases [傳染病] Diseases: eg. by bacteria [細菌]: cholera [霍亂] by virus [病毒]: influenza [流行性感冒], hepatitis [肝炎], smallpox [天花], AIDS [愛滋病] by protoctists [原生生物]: malaria [瘧疾], dysentery [痢疾] 因為我們的 by fungi [真菌]: athlete’s foot [腳癬] 白血球真的是戰敗了!

non-specific body defence: this is our first defence barrier, includes: [非專一性的防禦: 是我們的第一道防線, 它包括]:

為什麼說我們是打敗仗?

即是說病菌戰勝了!

1. physical barrier [物理性的屏障]: this prevent pathogen entering our body [它阻止病原體進入我們的身體] - skin[皮膚]: it is relatively impermeable [它是比較上不可透過的] - cilia (ciliated epithelial lining of respiratory tract) [纖毛(在呼吸道的纖毛上皮細胞)]: - secrete mucus to trap the pathogens [它分泌黏液以黏附病原體], then cilia push the trapped pathogen to throat and then swallow [之後以纖毛運動把它推至咽部吞下] 2. chemical barrier [化學性的屏障]: mainly wash away pathogen instead of killing them. Acid can kill pathogen. [主要是多於殺死牠們, 酸就會殺死病原體] - sebum [皮脂]: sebaceous gland / oil gland at the side of the hair [在毛髮旁邊的皮脂腺] 沖走病原體 tear & saliva [眼淚和唾液] gastric juice [胃液], including hydrochloric acid: strong acid to kill pathogen. [包括胃酸: 強酸會殺死病原體] acid in vagina [陰道分泌的酸] - lowers grow rate of pathogen [減慢病原體的生長速率] 3. blood clotting [凝血作用]: prevent excessive blood loss [避免過度失血]; prevent entry of pathogen[避免病原體進入] - including: red blood cells, platelets, blood protein, calcium, wound [牽涉到: 紅血球、血小板、血蛋白、鈣、傷口] 4. phagocytosis [吞噬作用]: phagocyte (one type of white blood cell) engulf bacteria. [其中一種白血球叫吞噬細胞, 它吞食細菌]

吃了你, 我食, 我食, 仲唔死!

救命! 5. inflammatory response [炎性反應]: blood vessels near the wound dilate Æ more blood flow to the infected area Æ red colour. [傷口附近的血管舒張 Æ 更多血液流到受感染的部分 Æ 皮膚看來紅色] permeability of blood vessels increase Æ more phagocytes squeeze out Æ swollen (pain because high pressure) [血管的透過性增加 Æ 更多吞噬細胞擠出 Æ 腫漲 (因壓力增加而感到疼痛)]

specific body defence [專一性的防禦]: as pathogen pass through the first defence system, they will be blocked by our immune system. It has specific cells (lymphocyte) to defence against specific pathogen Æ immune response. [當病原體通過了第一道防線之後, 就觸及我們的免疫系統, 它有特定的細胞(淋巴細胞)以對付特定的病原體 Æ免疫反應。 - antigen of pathogen stimulate lymphocyte to produce specific antibody [病原體的抗原刺激淋巴細胞製造特定的抗體] - specific antibody destroys the particular type of pathogen or toxin [特定的抗體破壞特定的病原體(抗原)或毒素] - pathogen enters body for the first time Æ its antigen stimulates lymphocytes to produce (less) antibody slowly. (primary response) Æ patient ill and later recover (lymphocyte memorize the specific antigen of the type of pathogen) [病原體第一次進入身體 Æ 它的抗原刺激淋巴細胞, 很慢地製造小量抗體 (這就是原發反應)] - same type of antigen enter again Æ lymphocytes recognize it and produce large amount of antibodies quickly. (secondary response) Æ victim not ill. [相同的抗原(病原體)再次進入Æ淋巴細胞認得它而很快地製造大量的抗體 (繼發反應) Æ 患者不會發病] - this type of immune response is due to the contact of pathogen (antigen), that stimulates specific white blood cells (lymphocytes) to produce antibody. This is acquired immunity / active immunity. [這種免疫反應是因接觸病原體 (抗原), 而使白血球(淋巴細胞)製造抗體, 這就是後天性免疫或主動免疫。打了針[vaccine], 就對這種病菌[specific antigen]產生免疫能力[immunity]。

P. 1 of 2

Ch19 Notes

- vaccination [接種疫苗]: injection of dead/weaken pathogen. This stimulates the lymphocytes to memorize the type of antigen. As the same type of pathogen enters our body again, the specific lymphocytes will produce large amount of antibodies in short time, to defence against the pathogen. The patient will not becomes ill. [注射已經死亡或弱化了的病原體, 而使淋巴細胞產生後天性免疫性, 當下一次, 真正的同品種病原體再次進入時, 淋巴細胞就能迅速地製造大量抗體, 以抵抗那病原體, 因而使我們不至生病。 - first injection: initiate the immunity of lymphocytes [通常第一次接種是用作誘發淋巴細胞的免疫反應] - booster injection: stimulate lymphocytes to produce more antibody [其後的加強劑使淋巴細胞製造更多抗體]

Concepts on Body Defence

[身體防衛的概念]

1. (a) Cowpox and smallpox,… etc. are pathogen, there are antigens on their surface. [牛痘和天花等, 都是病原體, 它的表面含有抗原]。 (b) Distinguish the following terms [分別清楚以下名詞]: (i) pathogen: organism causing diseases. [病原體: 使你生病的生物; (ii) antigen: proteins found on the surface of pathogen. Our white blood cells can identify them. [抗原: 在病原體表面的蛋白質, 使我們的白血球可以識別他們, 即是他們的身份證; (iii) antibody: the substance produced by white blood cell, to defence against specific antigen of specific pathogen. [抗體: 我們的白血球為抵抗某種抗原而製造的物質]; (iv) antibiotic: substance produced by some microorganisms, to inhibit the growth of other microorganisms (eg. fungi produced, to defence bacteria growth). [抗生素: 是某些微生物製造出來, 以抑制其他微生物生長的物質 (例如: 真菌製造, 用以抵抗細菌的生長; ….)］ (v) antigovernment: 反政府！ (c) Cowpox can be used as the vaccine of smallpox, because cowpox and smallpox has the same antigens. Our white blood cells cannot distinguish between them. The antigen of cowpox stimulates our white blood cells to memorize (不要寫成: to remember) the specific antigen. As the real smallpox antigen invade our body, its antigen stimulates the specific white blood cells to produce a large amount of specific antibodies in a short time so that we do not have the symptom of smallpox illness. [牛痘可以作為抵抗天花的疫苗, 是由於牛痘和天花有著相同的抗原, 所以我們的白血球不能區別它們(即以為它們只是相同的東西)。所以牛痘的抗原可以刺激我們的白血球去記住這種特定的抗原, 而當天花入侵時, 白血球就能夠更迅速地製造大量的抗體去抵抗它]。 2. antigen stimulates our white blood cells to produce large amount of antibody to defence against it. 而不要寫成: antigen stimulates our antibody to act on it. [抗原可刺激白血球去製造更多抗體, 它不是直接刺激我們的抗體] 3. As a patient recovers from a disease, he can produce enough antibodies for this specific type of antigen. He will not suffer from this disease again. However if this type of antigen has change for just a little bit, his white blood cells cannot generate that corresponding changed antibodies in a short time, so that he becomes ill. (i.e. as he meet similar pathogen, when the antigen on its surface has change for just a little bit, we still becomes ill.) [當一個人對某一種疾病康復之後, 他就能夠對這種疾病的抗原產生抗體, 因而能夠不再患上這病。但只限於有這種特定的抗原的病原體, 如果這些抗原產生了少少變化, 他的白血球就不能夠在短時間之內產生相應的(已改變的)抗體, 因而我們仍然會生病。即是說: 當他遇到近似的病原體 (帶有抗原), 只要這些抗原有微小的的差異, 我們仍然會生病]。 4. As the majority of the skin are burnt, the patient would die of excessive water loss instead of infection. [當一個人的大部分皮膚受傷, 他就會死於大量失水, 而不是死於受感染]。 5. Not all bacteria cause diseases; not all pathogens are bacteria. Pathogen may be virus, fungi,…etc. [不是所有細菌都使我們生病; 亦不是所有病原體都是細菌, 病原體可以是病毒、真菌等等]。 6. 身體防禦分為專一性的[specific defence]和非專一性的[non-specific defence]; 故此不要寫成: body defence is specific because the action of antibody is specific. [身體防衛是專一的, 因為抗體的運作是專一的] (因抗體[antibody]是專一的, 但我們身體的防禦方法卻有兩種。 What are they?__________________________) 7. In bleeding, (before clotting and inflammation), blood vessels constrict, to allow less blood flow to the wound area, so that less bleeding occurs. [在流血時, 即在凝血和發炎之前], 血管會收窄, 使較少血液流到傷口部分, 以減低流血]。 P. 2 of 2

Ch19 Notes

Ch.

Reproduction

[生殖作用]

Asexual Reproduction [無性繁殖]: not involve the fusion of gametes (fertilization). [不牽涉配子的結合(受精作用)] - Amoeba : by binary fission [變形蟲: 用二分體分裂法] - yeast: by budding [酵母菌: 用出芽生殖] - mould: eg. Mucor, Rhizopus - by sporulation (spore formation) [黴菌: 例如: 白黴、黑黴: 用孢子形成 (形成孢子)] - flowering plants - by vegetative propagation - using vegetative (storage) organ. [有花植物: 用營養繁殖: 採用營養器官(貯藏器官)] Vegetative propagation [營養繁殖] - bulbs [鱗莖]: shortened vertical underground stems, surrounded by fleshy scale leaves. (eg. onion, daffodil) [短小的地下莖, 由肉質葉包圍着 (例如: 洋蔥、水仙) ] - rhizomes [根莖]: underground, horizontal stems. (eg. ginger, lotus, mint) [橫向的地下莖 (例如: 薑、蓮藕與薄荷)] - corms [球莖]: shorten erect swollen base of underground stem, with contractile roots. (eg. water chest nut, Gladiolus) [短而直立, 又膨脹的地下莖基部, 有收縮根 (例如: 馬蹄、劍蘭)] - stem tubers [塊莖]: swollen tip of underground stem. (eg. potatoes, arrowheads) [膨脹的地下莖尖端 (例如: 馬鈴薯、慈菇)] Artificial propagation [人工繁殖] - eg. cutting, grafting and layering

[例如: 插條法、嫁接法、壓條法]

Compare vegetative propagation with seed reproduction [營養繁殖和種子繁殖的比較]: - the rate of reproduction (& the growth rate) is rapid (than that of seed reproduction) [繁殖的速率(及生長速率)比種子繁殖更快] - it does not depend on insects or wind for pollination. [它不需依賴昆蟲或風力以傳粉] - it resembles the parent plants (no genetic variation) that causes the plant to be less adapt to changes in the environment. [它和親代植物相似 (即沒有遺傳變異); 這可能引致這種植物對環境的變化, 有較小的適應能力] (but genetic variation does NOT “always give rise to better adaptation to environment”.) [但要弄清楚: 遺傳變異不一定使生物更好地適應環境的改變] - it retains desirable characters [它保全了親代的優良特徵] - it is easily get overcrowd ( no mechanism for spreading) [它容易變得過於擠迫 (因它沒有特殊機理把後代分散) - transmit diseases easily from parent plants. [這種方法容易由親代植物傳染得到疾病] Sexual Reproduction [有性生殖]: involving fusion of two gametes. ( Not necessarily involves sex intercross.) [牽涉兩個配子的結合 (但不一定牽涉兩性的交配)] (2n) (n) (2n) (2n) (2n) (2n) ♀(ovary) [卵巢] Æ ∥Æ eggs (ova) [卵子] ∥Æ zygote [合子] Æ embryo [胚胎]Æ foetus [胎兒]Æ baby [嬰兒] ♂(testis) [睪丸] Æ ∥Æ sperms[精子] (fertilization) (mitosis) (mitosis) (mitosis) (meiosis)[減數分裂] [受精作用] [有絲分裂] [有絲分裂] [有絲分裂] Mould [黴菌] - carries out sexual reproduction only in bad conditions (cold, dry, without food supply) [只在差的環境狀況下 (例如: 寒冷、乾燥、沒有食物供應), 才進行有性生殖] - it forms zygospores - which have thick wall to resist the bad condition. [形成接合孢子: 它有厚壁, 以抵抗壞的環境] Flowers [花]- sepal [萼片] - protect flower bud [保護花蕾] - has some photosynthesis [可以做少量光合作用] - petal [花瓣] - attract insects for pollination - by scant, colour, insect guide, nectary glands [吸引昆蟲以傳播花粉: 用香味、顏色、斑紋、蜜腺] - stamen [雄蕊] - (with anther (花葯), filament (花絲)) : produce pollen grains for pollination. [(有花葯、花絲): 製造花粉粒, 用作傳粉作用] - anther: produce pollen grains for pollination. [花葯: 製造花粉粒, 用作傳粉作用] - filament: support anther [花絲: 支撐花葯] - carpel [雌蕊] - stigma: receive pollen grains during pollination. [柱頭: 在傳粉作用時接收花粉粒] - style: support stigma [花柱: 支撐柱頭] - ovary: protect ovule [子房: 保護胚珠] - ovule : becomes seed after fertilization [胚珠: 在受精作用之後變成種子] Insect pollinated flower c.f. wind pollinated flower [蟲媒花與風媒花比較] - relatively large flower as compared with the whole plant (than that of wind pollinated flower) [比較整棵植物來說, 蟲媒花比風媒花有有較大的花朵] P. 1 of 8

Ch. 19

(Not accept: large flower, if a diagram of a flower is given without suitable scale). [如果只給你一幅花的圖片而沒有給你適當的比例, 就不接受寫成: 大的花朵] - relatively large petal as compared with the whole flower. (Not accept: large petal) [比較整朵花來說, 蟲媒花比風媒花有比較大的花瓣] [不接受寫成: 大的花瓣] - colourful petal (If a picture is given in black & white, we cannot write “colourful” petal) [蟲媒花有顏色鮮艷的花瓣 (但, 如果只給你一幅黑白圖片, 就不能寫成: 有顏色鮮艷的花瓣) - with nectary glands & scant [蟲媒花有蜜腺和香味] - anther & stigma are enclosed inside the flower [蟲媒花的花葯和柱頭都被包圍在花朵之內 (即不吊出花外)] - small amount but heavy pollen grains [少量但重的花粉粒] Ways to prevent self-pollination [避免自花傳粉的方法] - stigma & anther are developed at different levels. (different length of filament and style) [柱頭和花葯生在不同的水平 (即是: 花絲和花柱有不同的長度)] - male & female parts are matured at different time [雄性和雌性的器官在不同的時間成熟] - unisexual flowers & even unisexual plants are developed. [形成單性花或甚至單性植珠] - pollen tubes cannot germinate in the same plant [花粉管不能在同一棵植物的花朵上萌發] Pollination & fertilization in angiosperms [在被子植物(即是有花植物)的傳粉作用和受精作用] - pollination: transferring of pollen grains from anther to stigma [傳粉作用: 把花粉粒由花葯傳至柱頭] - double fertilization: (the sugary solution at the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate a pollen tube) [雙受精: (柱頭上的糖液刺激花粉粒萌芽, 長出一條花粉管, 管內有兩粒雄配子)] 1. sperm nucleus (i.e. male gamete) + egg cell (ovum) Æ embryo (consists of: plumule, radicle, cotyledons) [其中一粒雄配子 + 卵細胞 Æ 胚胎 (包含: 胚芽、胚根、子葉)] 2. sperm nucleus + 2 other cells inside ovule Æ endosperm (3n, provide food for the embryo) [另外一粒雄配子 + 胚珠內的兩粒其他細胞 Æ 胚乳 (因此它是 3n 的, 它只用作提供食物給胚胎)] Fate of flower parts after fertilization [受精之後, 花朵各部分的命運] - sepal, petal, stamen, stigma and style Æ dry up & fall off [萼片、花瓣、雄蕊、花柱 Æ 枯乾並掉下] - ovary Æ become fruit [子房 Æ 變成果實] - ovule Æ become seed [胚珠 Æ 變成種子] - integument in ovule Æ become seed coat [在胚珠外的珠被 Æ 變成種皮] Fruits - functions - protect seeds [果實: 功能: 保護種子] - disperse seeds [把種子散播開出] - different types of dispersal [不同的散播方式] - by wind (has wings / hairs to increase surface area for gliding in the wind) [用風力 (有翼或毛, 以增加表面積, 用作在風中滑行)] - by animals - usually has fleshy & succulent fruit (eg. plum) [用動物: 通常有肉質的果實 (例如: 梅)] OR hooks to attach to animal. [或: 有鉤, 以黏附在動物身上 (或人類的衣服上)] - by water - has structure containing air to float on surface of water. (eg. coconut) [用水力: 形成有氣的結構, 使它可以在水中漂浮 (例如: 椰子)] Seeds - endosperm - store food for embryo development (It is 3n, which is abnormal) [種子: 胚乳: 貯藏食物, 給胚胎發展 (它是 3n, 而這是不正常的)] - embryo - cotyledon - store food for the development of the embryo. [胚胎: 子葉: 貯藏食物, 以利胚胎的發展] (so, endosperm not perform this function) [如果植物用子葉來貯藏食物, 那麼胚乳便不會執行這個功能] - plumule - form the shoot (NOT: form stem) [胚芽: 形成幼枝] - radicle - form the root [胚根: 形成幼根] - conditions for seed germination - water, warm temperature, oxygen (NOT: temperature)(NOT: soil)(NOT: light) [種子萌芽的條件: 水、溫暖、氧氣 (不要寫成: 溫度) (不接受: 泥土或光, 因種子發芽不一定需要它們)] Male Reproductive System: [雄性生殖系統] - testis (testes [pl]) Æ production of male gametes (sperms) & male sex hormones[睪丸Æ製造雄性配子(精子)與雄激素] epididymis - temporarily storage of sperms [附睪: 暫時貯藏精子] - activation of sperms [使精子活化] - release sperms by muscle contraction during copulation [在交配時, 肌肉收縮, 以釋放精子] vas deferens (sperm duct) – transport sperms. [輸精管: 運輸精子] penis - for insertion into vagina during copulation [陰莖: 在交配時插入陰道內] P. 2 of 8

Ch. 19

- dilation of arterioles causes the erectile tissue (spongy tissue) to become turgid as more blood flows into it. [使小動脈擴張, 引致可勃起的組織(海綿組織)因更多血液流入而變得硬脹] - ejaculation: semen is squeezed out from penis to the cervix of uterus. [射精: 陰莖內的精液被壓搾進入子宮頸處] Semen = seminal fluid + sperms [精液 = 精液 + 精子] Sperms - about 30,000,000 for each ejaculation [精子: 每次射精大約有三千萬條精子] - only active at about 34oC (3oC below normal body temperature) [只在 34 oC 時活躍 (即正常體溫之下 3oC)] - testes are located outside the body so that lower temperature can be maintain easily. [睪丸在身體之外(陰囊之中), 因此容易維持較低溫度] - testes are covered by scrotum for protection. [睪丸被陰囊覆蓋及保護 ] seminal fluid - secreted by seminal vesicle , (prostate) gland, (Cowper’s) gland. [精液: 由精囊及其他腺體(前列腺和高柏氏腺)所分泌] - functions - provide a medium for the sperms to swim [功能: 提供一個介質, 使精子得以遊泳] - activate and nourish the sperms [活化和滋養精子] - neutralize the acidity in the female reproductive tract. [中和女性產道中的酸度] Female Reproductive System [女性生殖系統]: ovary - for production of female gametes (eggs / ova) & female sex hormones. [卵巢: 製造雌性配子(卵子)和雌激素] oviduct - carries the ovum forward by - beating action of cilia [輸卵管: 攜帶卵子: 用纖毛的拍打動作] - muscular contraction of oviduct. [用輸卵管的肌肉收縮力來推動卵子] - position of fertilization (at upper part of oviduct.) [受精的位置 (在輸卵管的上部)] uterus - protection embryo and provide a constant environment for the embryo to develop [子宮: 保護胚胎並提供一個穩定的環境給胚胎發展] develop placenta for nourishing the embryo. [發展出胎盤, 以滋養胚胎] muscular contraction to push the foetus out during the birth of baby. [在嬰兒誕生時, 肌肉收縮, 推胎兒出外] cervix - provide support to the developing embryo. [子宮頸: 支撐那發展中的胚胎, 使它不易跌離母體] vagina - receive penis during copulation. [陰道: 在交配時接受陰莖] - it has some acidic secretion to kill pathogen. [它有一些酸性分泌物, 以殺死要進入的病原體] ovulation [排卵] - ovum release from ovary (into the oviduct). [卵巢釋放卵子 (進入輸卵管)] Menstrual Cycle [月經週期]: - once every 28 days (not necessarily 28 days, different length for different person) [通常是每28日一個週期 (不一定要28天, 不同人和不同時間(情況)有不同的長度)] (a) changes in uterine lining [子宮內膜的改變]: thickened during the first 14 days before ovulation to prepare for the fertilized ovum to implant (著床) in it: [前 14 天, 在排卵之前不斷加厚, 以準備受精卵著床 (即植入子宮之內)] - Day 1-5 - menstruation: menstrual bleeding. [1-5 日: 月經: 流經血] - uterine lining decreases in thickness to attend a minimum thickness. [子宮內膜的厚度下降, 形成最低厚度] - Day 6-14 - lining becomes thicker with increased blood supply and tissue development. [6-14 日: 子宮內膜加厚, 有更多血管和組織形成] - Day 14: ovulation. [第 14 日: 排卵 (這日子只供考試時作答之用, 實際情況可以有很大的出入)] - uterine lining increase to a thickness nearly enough for implantation of embryo [子宮內膜加厚, 厚度接近足夠使胚胎能夠著床] - Day 14-28 - Lining remains thick and is ready for implantation of fertilized ovum. [第 14-28 日: 子宮內膜維持厚度, 並準備好受精卵的著床] - Day 28 - If there is no implantation of fertilize ovum, uterine lining breaks down, menstruation starts. [第 28 日: 如果受精卵沒有著床, 子宮內膜會破裂, 之後月經(流血)就會開始] (b) changes in ovary: follicle Æ mature follicle (with ovum inside) Æ yellow body [卵巢的改變: 卵泡 Æ 成熟卵泡 (內有卵子) Æ 黃體] (mature follicle & yellow body can secrete different types of female sex hormones) [成熟卵泡與黃體, 各自能夠分泌不同種類的雌激素] - if no fertilization occur Æ yellow body disappears (消失) after few days [如果沒有受精發生 Æ 黃體會於數天後消失] Æ no sex hormone secretion [沒有性激素分泌入體內] Æ menstruation occurs (discharge of uterine lining) [月經發生 (子宮內膜脫落)] P. 3 of 8

Ch. 19

(If fertilization and implantation occurred, the uterine lining becomes further thicken (no menstruation occurs) for the development of the embryo. The yellow body in the ovary persists for longer time to produce female sex hormone to meet the requirement of embryo development.) [如果受精及著床發生了, 子宮內膜變得很厚 (又沒有月經), 以利胚胎的發展。卵巢中的黃體保留一段長時間, 以製造雌激素, 以迎合胚胎的發展需要] - Events happened after fertilization occurred: [受精之後所發生的事情] - fertilization occurred in the upper part of the oviduct. [受精發生在輸卵管的上部] - zygote (fertilized ovum) is carried to uterus by: [合子(受精卵)被以下方法帶到子宮內] - beating cilia in oviduct. [輸卵管內纖毛的拍打動作] - muscular contraction of oviduct. [輸卵管的肌肉收縮力量] - zygote (from fertilized ovum) develops to early stage (a ball of cells) of embryo before reaching uterus. [到達子宮之前, 合子必須已經(由受精卵)發展成早期的胚胎 (否則不能著床)] - only at this stage can the embryo implants into the uterine lining. [只有在這時期的胚胎, 能夠在子宮內膜上著床] - implantation of embryo into the thick uterine wall. [胚胎著床在加厚了的子宮內膜上] Secondary Sexual Characters [第二性徵] - sexual characteristics besides sex organs [性器官以外的兩性特徵] - its production is initiated by sex hormones [它的產生是由性激素所刺激所而起的] - boy - hair in pubic, facial, axially region [男孩: 很多毛, 生在陰部、面部、腋下的部分] larynx (喉頭) enlarge, voice deepened [喉頭增大, 聲音加深] more muscular appearance, broadened shoulder. [更多肌肉組織, 廣大的肩膀] - girl - larger breast [女孩: 大的乳房] hips widen [寬的臀部] more fats under skin. (thicker subcutaneous fats than the boy) [更多脂肪貯藏在皮膚下面 (比男孩有更厚的皮下脂肪)] menstruation occurs. [有月經] Development of Human Foetus: [人類胎兒的發展] foetus [胎兒] uterus - protect the embryo/foetus. [子宮: 保護胚胎和胎兒] - provide a constant environment for the embryo to develop [提供一個穩定的環境給胚胎發展] - forms placenta to attach and nourish the embryo. [形成胎盤, 以黏附和滋養胚胎] - during birth: push the baby out by muscular contraction. [在嬰兒誕生期間: 以肌肉收縮, 把嬰兒推出外] placenta - as a place for exchange of materials between mother and foetus [胎盤: 作為一個在母體和胎兒之間, 物質交換的地方] (it represent three organs: lung - gaseous exchange (absorbs oxygen, release carbon dioxide) [它代表了三個器官: 肺: 用作氣體交換 (吸收氧氣, 釋放二氧化碳)] kidney - excrete urea [腎臟: 排泄尿素] ileum - absorb nutrients [迴腸: 吸收養份] - secretes female sex hormones (replacing the function of the yellow body) [分泌雌激素 (代替黃體的功能)] - adaptations of placenta to be a place of exchange of materials: [胎盤作為物質交換的適應] - with villi - to increase surface area for diffusion of materials. [有絨毛: 增加表面積, 以利物質的擴散] - maternal (母親) blood and foetus blood flows in opposite direction [母體血液和胎兒血液流向相反方向] - maintain high diffusion gradient of material for the whole length. [在整個長度內, 堅持物質的高擴散梯度] - maternal blood spaces and foetus blood capillaries are separated [母體和胎兒的血管是分隔開的] - prevent high pressure of maternal blood to break the delicate foetal blood vessels. [這可避免母體的高血壓破壞胎兒的嬌弱血管] - prevent harmful substances (eg. bacteria) to enter foetus. [可防止有害的物質 (例如: 細菌)進入胎兒] - prevent the clotting of maternal and foetal blood if they are incompatible. [避免母體血液和胎兒血液因不相容而產生凝結] umbilical cord [臍帶]: - umbilical artery (blood : deoxygenated, less nutrient, more carbon dioxide & waste) [臍動脈 (血液內含: 脫氧的血、較少養份、較多二氧化碳和廢物)] - umbilical vein [臍靜脈有 (與臍動脈相反)] (Blood entering the foetus has higher oxygen content / higher nutrient content / lower carbon dioxide content / lower urea content than that leaving the foetus.) [血液進入胎兒, 比離開胎兒時, 有較高氧氣含量 / 較高養份 / 較少二氧化碳 / 較低尿素] amnion [羊膜] - protect the embryo & secrete amniotic fluid.

P. 4 of 8

[保護胚胎並分泌羊水]

Ch. 19

amniotic fluid [羊水] - to keep the foetus moist to prevent desiccation. [保持胎兒濕潤, 以防止乾燥] - as a water cushion to [作為水墊子, 以] - support the foetus (by water buoyancy) [支撐胎兒 (用水的浮力)] - allow foetus to move freely [容許胎兒有活動的空間] - absorb shock during movement of mother [在母親活動時, 吸收震盪力] - protect the foetus from mechanical injury. [保護胎兒, 避免機械性損傷] - to reduce temperature fluctuation [以減低溫度變動] - during birth: to lubricate the vagina to let the baby out smoothly. [在誕生期間: 潤滑陰道, 使嬰兒比較容易被推出來] The Birth Process : [誕生過程] - uterine muscle begin to make rhythmic contractions, causes pain of the uterus. [子宮肌肉有節奏地收縮 (引致陣痛)] - contractions gradually become stronger and closer [收縮漸漸地變得強列和更頻密] - dilation of cervix to allow the head of foetus to pass through. [子宮頸擴張, 以容許胎兒的頭部通過] - uterine contractions causes amnion to break and fluid to escape out of the vagina. [子宮收縮引致羊膜破裂, 羊水流出陰道外 (穿水廊)] (sometimes the amnion breaks and release fluid before rhythmic contractions of uterus) [有時, 在陣痛之前, 羊膜會首先破裂 (即是穿水廊比陣痛更早出現)] - muscular contractions push the foetus out, head first, through vagina [肌肉收縮把胎兒推出, 以頭部首先通過陰道] - umbilical cord is tied and cut. [臍帶被綁起並切斷] - further contraction of uterus pushes placenta out of the body - “after birth” [子宮再收縮, 把胎盤也推出體外] Parental Care [親代養育]: - it can increase the chance of survival of the young [它可以增加孩子生存的機會] - mother feeds milk to baby: (mother’s milk is better than cow’s milk except cow’s milk has more protein) [母親以乳汁喂養嬰兒 (母乳比牛奶更好, 但牛奶有較多蛋白質)] - mother’s milk provides the babies with a suitable & balanced diet. [母乳為嬰兒提供適合而均衡的飲食] - it contains antibodies which defend the babies against infection. [它含有抗體, 可使嬰兒能夠抵抗感染] - provides education: teaching some skills necessary for maintaining life. eg. hunting of prey. [供給教育: 教授某些謀生技巧; 例如: 捕食] Birth Control [節育]: - problems created without implementation of birth control - human population increases exponentially [如果沒有推行節育, 人類數目就會以指數式增加] - leads to shortage of resources. [引至資源短缺] - problem of pollution becomes more serious. [又會使污染問題變得更加嚴重] - overcrowding easily. [容易導致過於擠迫] - lacking food in certain country easily. [容易在某些國家製造造成食物短缺] Method of birth control [節育的方法]: - contraception [避孕法]: 1. rhythm method (safe period) (natural method) [安全期 (自然方法)]: - stop intercourse during the fertile period. [在受精期停止交配] - fertile period: 7 days before and after ovulation. [受精期: 排卵前後的 7 天] - but sperms can survive 2-3 days in uterus, eggs can survive 2 days. [但是: 精子能夠生存 2-3 天, 而卵子亦能夠生存 2 天] (safety is minimum since the period in female is not really constant. It can vary for many days.) [是最不安全的方法, 因女性的週期是不很準確的; 在那天排卵, 是可以變化很大的] 2. barrier method [利用屏障]: - condom [安全套] - male & female condom [雄性和雌性安全套] - as a barrier to prevent sperms from entering vagina. [作為屏障, 以避免精子進入陰道] - diaphragm [子宮帽] - fitted over the cervix.(prevents sperms to meet egg) [裝在子宮頸上(防止精子遇見卵子)] ( both condom & diaphragm should better be used together with spermicides (殺精濟)) [安全套和子宮帽, 兩者最好都塗上殺精濟] 3. contraceptive pills [避孕丸] - contains female sex hormones: inhibit ovulation (No menstruation). [含有雌激素: 抑制排卵 (沒有月經)] - taken daily (every day for the 28 day cycle). [每天服用 (28 天週期的每一天)] - may have some side effects such as obesity. [可能有若幹副作用, 例如: 過胖] P. 5 of 8

Ch. 19

4. surgical method [手術] - vasectomy (cutting & tying of sperm ducts) [輸精管切除術 (切及紮緊輸精管)] - tubal ligation (cutting & tying of oviducts) [輸卵管結紮術 (切及紮緊輸卵管)] - this is the most reliable method. (but cannot become fertile (有繁殖力) again.) - this method will not interfere the release and transport of sex hormones and so will not affect the secondary sexual characteristics and sexual appetite/urge. (release of sex hormone is carried out by diffusion, transport is by blood circulation) [這方法不會干擾釋放和透明運輸性激素, 因此不會影響第二性徵和性慾 (性慾是由性激素所引致的, 而性激素的釋放是用擴散作用的, 運輸是用血液循環系統的, 而不涉及輸精管)] 5. prevention of implantation [防止著床] - intra-uterine device (IUD) [子宮環] - insert into the uterus [插入子宮內] - it causes irritation to the lining of the uterus. [它使子宮內膜產生刺激] - it can be insert into the uterus for two years. [它能夠被插在子宮內, 達兩年之久] - condom (male & female) can prevent the spreading of some venereal diseases [安全套(男用或女用裝), 能夠避免傳播若干性病] such as AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) [例如: 後天免疫力缺乏症] Concepts on Reproduction:

Sexual and Asexual: 1. 自花傳粉或在動物的自我交配(例如在絛蟲), 雖然只牽涉一個親本並子代之間少有差異, 但它卻是一種有性繁殖。(不要以為有性繁殖一定要牽涉兩個親本)。只要牽涉兩個不同性別配子的融合, 不論親本的數目多少, 都算作有性繁殖。 Self-pollination in flower and self-cross in animal (eg. tapeworm) is a kind of sexual reproduction (NOT asexual

reproduction), although it involves only one parent and rare variation occurs in offspring. (NOT: Sexual reproduction always involves two different parents.) Sexual reproduction involves fusion of two gametes of opposite sexes, regardless of the number of parents. 2. 在一個球莖的營養繁殖(例如:馬蹄): 光合作用之後, 莖葉所製造的食物被輸送到莖的基部(不是到側芽處), 然後在貯藏在子球莖內, 以預備下年度的生長。

In vegetative propagation of a corm (eg. water chestnut): after photosynthesis, food from the aerial shoot is passed down to the base of the stem (NOT to the lateral buds) and stored at the daughter corms in the preparation for the next growing season. 3. 分辨以下各詞彙: 孢子、孢子囊、合子(受精卵)、胚胎、嬰兒。

Distinguish: spore, sporangium, zygote (fertilised egg), embryo, foetus, baby. 4. 分辨以下各詞彙: 受精作用、肥料、肥沃或能受精的。 [Distinguish: fertilisation / fertiliser / fertilise] 5. 根莖是屬於莖部, 因它有節點、節間、芽、鱗狀葉。

A rhizome is a stem because it has nodes, internodes, buds and scale leaves. 6. 卵子的體積與卵黃(貯藏食物)的分量成正比, 這與胚胎的發展方式有關, 即是究竟它是否在母親體內還是體外發育。(它與成年動物的體形無關)。即是哺乳動物卵子的體積較大, 以貯藏食物。(不是: 提供很大的表面積以迎接精子)。

The size of an egg is proportional to the amount of yolk (food reserve) inside the egg and is related to the type of development of the embryo, i.e., whether it is developed inside mother’s body or not. (NOT: related to the size of the adult that produces it.) i.e. the size of a mammalian egg is large to contain food store. (NOT: to provide a large area for meeting sperms.) Plants: 1. 花粉粒帶著配子 (它也製造配子) (花粉粒不是配子)。花粉粒發芽, 生出花粉管, 它帶有兩粒雄配子, 經過花柱, 通向卵巢, 在卵巢內有胚珠而胚珠含有卵細胞 (即胚珠包含雌配子)。(不是: 花粉粒走落花柱。也不是: 花粉粒製造 , 以消化花柱內的組織, 形成一條管道, 以供花粉粒或雄配子的通過), (也不是: 花粉粒去到卵巢或胚珠)

The pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes.(They also produce gametes.)(Pollen grains are NOT gametes.) Pollen grain germinates pollen tube, which carries two male gametes through the style towards the ovary where ovules containing ova are found. (i.e. ovules contain female gametes). (NOT: pollen grain goes down the style, nor pollen grain produces enzymes to digest the tissue of the style in order to form a “channel” for the passage of pollen grains/male gametes.)(NOT: pollen grain reaches the ovary/ovule.) P. 6 of 8

Ch. 19

2. (a) 只有種子幫助植珠的散播, 以避免過於擠迫或開發新的生境。(不是: 花粉粒負責散播植珠)。花粉粒, 因輕而數目夠大量, 它能夠容易到達另一株植物的柱頭, 以達至異花傳粉的目的。(但這與散播植珠無關)。 (b) 種子形成 (不是: 散播種子) 使遺傳變異的機會增加。

(a) Seeds are to help in the dispersal of the offspring in order to avoid overcrowding or to exploit new habitats. (NOT: pollen grains are important in the dispersal of the offspring.) Being light and produced in large numbers, pollen grains can be more easily reaching the stigma of another flower so as to achieve cross-fertilization. (This has no relation to the dispersal of the offspring.) (b) Seed formation, (NOT: seed dispersal) increases the chances of genetic variations. 3. 分辨以下各詞彙: 卵巢、胚珠、種子、果實。胚胎、胚乳、種子、子葉、莖尖。

Distinguish: ovary, ovule, seed, fruit.

embryo, endosperm, seed, cotyledon, coleoptile.

4. 萌芽時去除子葉只會減慢生長, 而不會停止幼苗的生長。

Removal of cotyledons during germination could retard growth, but NOT stop growth. 5. 種子的胚芽會發展成帶葉的莖。種子的胚根會發展成根部。

The plumule of the seed would develop into the leafy shoot. (NOT: stem.) The radicle (i.e. embryonic root) of the seed would develop into the root. 6. 子葉負責貯藏食物, 以作種子萌發之用。 (不是: 用作保護種子)。 7. 種子的有性繁殖優於營養繁殖的是它形成遺傳變異。在園丁的立場, 利用種子以避免過於擠迫是不恰當的, 但在自然界中卻十分重要。遺傳變異可能或不能引致對應於環境的優良特徵。園丁常常用種子, 而不用球莖等去種出新的植珠, 以形成花朵的較佳品質。(不是: 避免過於擠迫)。

Sexual reproduction by seeds is advantageous over vegetative propagation because it produces genetic variation. For gardeners, production of seeds to prevent overcrowding is irrelevant; through it is important for plant in nature. Furthermore, genetic variation may or may not cause desirable adaptation to the environment. Gardeners often use seeds instead of corms to produce new plants for flowers to produce flowers of a better quality. (NOT: to prevent overcrowding.) 8. 如果題目的圖片顯示一朵擁有花葯和柱頭的花, 你可以講述這朵花會自花傳粉的理由是它在同一朵花之中擁有雄性和雌性的部分。(因為我們只能從圖中看到那朵花是雙性的)。(不是: 雄性和雌性都在同一株植物上, 即不要寫一些不在圖上顯示的東西)。

For a question with a diagram showing a flower with both anther and stigma, the reason why self-pollination can occur is because both male and female parts are present on the same flower. (Because we can only see that the flower is bisexual from the diagram.) (NOT: both male and female organs are present on the same plant.) (Never write anything that is NOT shown in the diagram). Animal: 1. 羊水只在嬰兒出生時作為潤滑劑之用, (不是: 胎兒發育期間)。

Amniotic fluid acts as a lubricant at the birth of the baby. (NOT during foetal development.) 2. 結紮輸卵管或輸精管的手術不能影響性激素的釋放, 因它是無管腺, 因此激素被直接分泌入血。這手術不能阻止排卵和月經, 它只阻止卵子和精子相遇。卵泡在卵巢中的發育和子宮的厚度隨月經週期的變化是不受影響的。

Tying in oviduct/sperm duct would NOT affect the release of sex hormones from the ovary/testis, as it is a ductless gland in which the hormones are secreted directly into the blood stream. This operation CANNOT stop further ovulation and menstruation. This method only prevents the meeting of the egg and the sperms. The development of follicles in the ovaries and the changes in the thickness of the uterine lining in the menstrual cycle is not affected. 3. 在一幅顯示一個以上月經週期的子宮內膜厚度變化的圖形中, 我們可以決定第二個週期的首天, 它就是子宮內膜厚度下降的首天。之後就向後數兩個星期, 這就是排卵的大概時間。

To find the time of ovulation from a graph showing the thickness of uterine lining for more than one menstrual cycle, we can begin by determining the first day of the second menstrual cycle, which is the first day of decreases in thickness of the lining. Then by counting two weeks backward, it will be the probable time of ovulation. P. 7 of 8

Ch. 19

4. sperms

testes (produce sperms)

sperms

epididymis[附睪]

male sex glands add nutritive fluid to sperms to form semen

sperm duct

semen

urethra

outside

(store sperms temporarily)

5. 精子如果不被釋出, 它能夠被貯藏最長六星期。之後被分解而有用的物質會被再吸收。

The sperms can be stored for a maximum of 6 weeks if they are not released out. Afterwards they are broken down and the useful materials are reabsorbed. 6. 當婦女到了 50 歲(在更年期, 卵巢不再發生作用), 就會: (a) 沒有月經, (b) 沒有排卵, (c) 沒有性激素分泌。

而懷孕婦女就會是 (a) 和 (b)。 In a woman at the age of about 50 (at menopause (更年期), ovaries become non-functional). no menstruation, (b) no ovulation, (c) no secretion of sex hormone.

There is (a)

In pregnant woman: (a) and (b).

7. (a) 作為考試目的而言, 月經週期通常被算作是 28 天, 排卵是在第 14 天, 而不安全期(即受孕期)是在第 11 至 17 天。但實際上, 週期的長度因人而異, 而排卵的日子在不同的情況下會有不同。 (b) 一個卵子能夠在排卵後生存 24 小時(算作兩天, 因我們不知道它在什麼時間被釋放出來)。一個精子能夠在女性生殖系統內生存兩天。 (c) 排卵之後, 體溫大約會上升 0.5 oC, 而這情況會維持直至週期的結尾 (即維持在約 37.5 oC)。

(a) For examination purpose, the length of a cycle is usually taken as 28 days. The time of ovulation is day 14 and thus the unsafe period is day 11-17. In reality, the length of a cycle varies among individuals and the time of ovulation differs at different situations. (b) An human egg can survive for 24hrs (count for 2 days, because don’t know exact time) after ovulation. A sperm can survive for 2 days in the reproductive system of female. (c) After ovulation, the body temperature rises for about 0.5oC and it lasts until the end of the cycle (i.e. remain at about 37.5 oC). 8. 在輸卵管內的合子要再分裂成一群細胞, 然後才能黏附在子宮內膜中, 因此卵子要在輸卵管的上部受精, 以備有足夠時間給它發展。

Zygote in oviduct has further divisions to become a ball of cells before it can attach to the uterine wall. egg should be fertilized in the upper part of the oviduct to allow sufficient time for its development.

So the

9. 嬰兒出生的次序: 子宮有節奏地收縮(陣痛)引致羊膜破裂(穿水囊)Æ子宮頸舒張Æ嬰兒被推出Æ縛臍帶Æ胎盤

被拉出。 The correct order in the process of giving birth to a baby: uterus contracts rhythmically (pain) causing the amniotic membrane to rupture (release of amniotic fluid) Æ the cervix dilates Æ the baby is pushed out Æ the umbilical cord is tied Æ the placenta is detached and expelled from the uterus. 10. 牛奶提供蛋白質給懷孕婦人, 以生長胎兒的組織; 它亦提供鈣質, 使胎兒的骨骼生長。

Milk provide proteins for growth of tissues of foetus in pregnant woman, it also provides calcium for the bone development in foetus.

P. 8 of 8

Ch. 19

Ch.

Growth

and

Development

[生長和發展]

Growth - a permanent increases in size, weight & complexity. [生長: 永久體積、重量和複雜性的增加] - it is attended by repeating cell divisions to increase the number of cells and cell enlargement. [它由重複細胞分裂, 以增加細胞數目及細胞長大而達成] Measure growth - by height/length/size - defect: different parts have different growth, the whole body weight is only a general measurement. [量度生長: 用高度/長度/體積: 缺陷: 不同部分有不同生長速率, 整個身體只是代表一般量度] - by fresh weight - defect: not accurate, because the amount of water always varies [用鮮重: 缺陷: 不太準確, 因體內的水份經常變化] - by dry weight - defect: too destructive to kill all the organisms & too time consuming (takes many days or even weeks) [乾重: 缺陷: 太大破壞性, 殺死所有生物, 亦太費時 (需要很多天或周)] Plant growth - primary growth - grow in length [植物生長: 初生生長: 長度的增加] - by apical meristem (plant tissue that retain the ability for cell division) [用頂端分生組織 (保全了細胞分裂能力的植物組織)] - secondary growth - grow in diameter (only in dicotyledonous plant) [次生生長: 直徑的增加 (只在雙子葉植物)] - by cambium - to produce secondary xylem (inward) and secondary phloem (outward) which forms annual ring (one ring per year) [用形成層: 以製造次生木質部(向內)和次生韌皮部(向外), 它們形成年鱗(一年形成一環形)] - cork cambium - to form cork layer to replace the broken epidermis [木栓形成層: 形成木栓層, 以替換破爛了的表皮] Root tip (L.S.) - root cap - protect the growing point. [根尖(直切片): 根冠: 保護生長點] - region of cell division (growing point) - increase the number of cells for growth [細胞分裂區(生長點): 增加細胞數目, 用作生長] - region of cell elongation - actual cell elongating region (i.e. growth) (this is the growth measurable region) - about 2 to 4 mm from the tip [伸長區: 細胞真正伸長的區 (即是:生長) (這是真正可量度生長之區)] - region of differentiation - similar cells differentiate to form different tissues [分化區: 相似的細胞分化, 形成不同組織] - region of root hair (maturation) - various tissues fully developed [根毛區(成熟區): 各種組織, 完全成長] - main water absorption area [主要吸收水份的地方] Growth pattern in plants - annual plants - one sigmoid (S-形) curve (in dry mass against time) [植物的生長模式: 一年生植物: 一個 S-形曲線 (在乾重及時間的圖形)] - biennial plants - two sigmoid curves [二年生植物: 兩個 S-形曲線] - perennial plants - numerous sigmoid curves to form a straight line. (unlimited growth) [多年生植物: 許多 S-形曲線, 以形成一條直線 (形成無限制生長)] Biennial Plant

Annual Plant

Perennial Plant

dry

dry weight

weight

time

Time Animal growth - different parts have different grow rate at different stage. [動物生長: 不同部分在不同階段有不同生長速率] - eg. the brain grows first in baby, the reproductive system grows only at puberty . [例如: 嬰兒的腦部首先生長, 生殖系統只在青春期才快速地生長]

Time

(Insects growth - they have exoskeleton which limit their growth [昆蟲生長: 它們有外骨骼, 限制他們的生長] - they should have moulting (ecdysis), which changes and produces a new skeleton with larger size. [它們需要有脫皮, 它製造並轉用另一個新的, 大一些的支架] - metamorphosis - change in form and shape rapidly in insects & frog) [變態: 在昆蟲和青蛙中, 形態和形狀的迅速改變]

P. 1 of 2

Ch. 20

Concept on Growth 1. Growth implies an irreversible increase in dry mass. (normally) But during seed germination (before the development of foliage leaves): the seed uses up stored organic food for respiration and for the formation of new tissues. Growth occurs rapidly but this is indicated by the increase in fresh mass, the length of stem and root, but NOT in the dry mass, which is actually decreasing. (NOT accepting that the stored food is used for growth without specifying whether the food is used for respiration or for the formation of new cells). 生長, 正常來說, 是一種不可逆地增加乾重。但在種子發芽的時間 (在綠色的葉片長成之前): 種子利用貯存的食物, 以作呼吸作用和製造新組織細胞之用。這時間的生長很迅速, 它的鮮重、莖和根的長度增加, 但卻沒有增加它的乾重, 相反乾重正在減少。 (不接受只寫成: “貯存的食物用作生長”, 而沒有說明究竟那些食物是用作呼吸作用或是用以製造新的細胞。) 2. To explain why a large sample of seeds (eg. 100 per batch) was used in studying the effect of removing cotyledons on the growth of bean seedlings, we do NOT accept that the result would be more reliable or accurate without giving that the purpose is to reduce sampling errors or errors due to individual variation in the dry weight of the seeds or due to unsuccessful germination. 要解釋為何我們要用很多種子 (例如: 每批用 100 粒) 來做移除子葉對幼苗生長的影響; 我們不接受只寫 “這結果會更加可信或準確”, 而沒有指出其目的是用以減低因在乾重上的個體差異而做成的取樣誤失, 或因為部分種子不能成功發芽。 3. Growth must include the incorporation of new cellular materials (protoplasm) into the body. Only increases in size and weight (eg. fresh weight) of an organism do not necessarily indicate growth. 生長包括在體內增加新的細胞物質(即增加細胞數目或乾重)。只是增加體積和重量(例如: 鮮重)不一定顯示有生長。

P. 2 of 2

Ch. 20

Ch. (21)

Cell Divisions

[細胞分裂]

Purpose of cell divisions: [細胞分裂的目的] - increase the number of cells for growth of the body and repair of worn out tissues. [增加細胞的數目, 用作身體生長和修復用壞的組織] - transmit genetic information to later generations: reproduction & heredity [傳送遺傳信息到後代: 生殖作用和遺傳] Nucleus: [細胞核] chromosomes: only visible during cell division. [染色體: 只在細胞分裂時看得見] - each kind of organisms has a specific number of chromosomes. [每種生物都有特殊的染色體數目] - genetic materials found inside the nucleus [它是細胞核之內的遺傳物質] - made of protein and DNA [由蛋白質和去氧核糖核酸所製造] - DNA controls protein synthesis that controls the characteristics and activities of an organism. [去氧核糖核酸控制蛋白質的合成, 因而控制生物的特徵和活力] - genes - short length of DNA which controls an inheritable character [基因: 它是在染色體上的一小段去氧核糖核酸, 它控制一個可遺傳的特徵] - a chromosome carries a lot of genes [一個染色體攜帶很多基因] - genes control characters (1 gene 1 character) [基因控制特徵 (一個基因控制一個特徵)] - each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell. [每個物種的細胞核內, 都有固定的染色體數目] - homologous chromosomes - chromosomes in pairs in body (somatic) cells [同源染色體: 在體細胞內成雙的染色體] - each human somatic cell has 46 chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs) [每個人類體細胞有 46 染色體 (即是: 23 雙)] - members of homologous chromosomes carry same type of genes in same loci [pl], but may be of different forms/expressions (alleles) [同源染色體中, 每條都在相同的位點攜帶相同類型的基因, 但每對基因可能有不同的形式或表達 (等位基因)] - human - 22 pairs of autosomes [人體: 22 對常染色體] - one pair of sex chromosomes (♂= XY , ♀= XX) [一對性染色體 (雄性 = XY, 雌性 = XX)] - chromatin - long, thin form of chromosome (in non-dividing cells) [染色質: 長而幼的染色體形式 (只出現在非分裂中的細胞內) - chromatids - two threads that appears in one chromosome (in dividing cells)(i.e. genetic materials already duplicated) [染色單體: 一條染色體內出現了兩條線 (只出現在分裂中的細胞)(即是: 遺傳信息已經被複製了)] Cell division - 2 processes - nuclear division - 2 types: mitosis & meiosis (mitosis and meiosis are NOT: cell divisions) [細胞分裂: 兩個過程: 核分裂: 有兩種: 有絲分裂和減數分裂 (有絲分裂和減數分裂不是細胞分裂)] - cytoplasmic cleavage (cytoplasmic division). [細胞質分裂] Mitosis - produces two identical daughter cells [有絲分裂: 製造兩個相等的子細胞] - each daughter cell has the same kind and number of chromosomes as the original parent cell [每個子細胞都和原本的親代細胞有相同的染色體種類和數目] - interphase (resting stage) - chromosomes cannot be seen (it is in long & thin chromatin stage) [間期(休息階段): 不能看見染色體 (因它仍然是在又長又幼的染色質時期)] - chromosomes duplicate and double in number of genetic materials. (but the duplicated chromosomes are unable to be seen.) [複製染色體, 因此遺傳物質的數目成了雙倍 (但複製了的染色體還是不能被看見)] - four steps: [四個步驟] 1. - chromosomes become visible [染色體變成可以看得見] each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids (seen at later stage only). [每條染色體包含兩條相等的染色單體 (只在較後期才能被看見)] 2. - chromosomes line up at the equator (central line of the cell) [染色體排列在赤道板上 (細胞的中線區域)] spindle fibres are formed to attach to the centromere of each chromosome [形成紡錘絲, 黏附在每條染色體的著絲點處] 3. - sister chromatids separate to become individual chromosomes [姊妹染色單體分開, 變成個別的染色體] they move apart towards the opposite poles (separation of sister chromatids) [它們(染色體)向著相反的極移動 (姊妹染色單體分開)] 4. - chromosomes gradually disappear [染色體漸漸地消失了 (變回長而幼的染色質, 因此不能被看見)] nuclear membrane is form around each set of chromosomes [在每個染色體組外形成核膜] P. 1 of 4

Ch. 21

Cytoplasmic division - animal cells - by cleavage furrow [細胞質分裂: 動物細胞: 用分裂溝畦] - plant cells - by cell plate (made by vacuole) [植物細胞: 用細胞板 (由液泡做成的薄板)] Significance of mitosis - it produces new body cells that maintain exactly the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent cell. [有絲分裂的重要性: 它製造新的體細胞, 以維持和親代細胞有相同數目和種類的染色體] - it produces normal, diploid (2n) body cells for growth & repair [它製造正常, 二倍體體細胞,以作生長和修補] therefore mitosis is important in producing more cells for [因此有絲分裂的重要性是製造更多細胞, 用作] - growth [生長] - repair [修補損壞] - replacing dead and damaged cells [替換已死和損壞了的細胞] - asexual reproduction [無性生殖] Meiosis - produces gametes with chromosome number half that of the parent cell so that after fertilization, the zygote and embryo can restore the normal diploid chromosome number again. [減數分裂: 製造比親代細胞少一半染色體數目的配子, 而使受精後形成的接合子和胚胎可以回復正常二倍體時的染色體數目] i.e. body (somatic) cells have pairs of homologous chromosomes - diploid (2n) cells. [即是: 體細胞有一對對的同源染色體: 二倍體(2n)細胞] gametes have only one chromosome from each homologous pair - haploid (n) [配子內, 每雙同源染色體中只有一條染色體存在] - two nuclear divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II) [兩次核分裂 (第一次減數分裂和第二次減數分裂)] - four haploid (n) cells are produced [製造四個單倍體的細胞] -

First meiotic division [第一次減數分裂第二次減數分裂] 1. - chromosomes become visible [染色體變成看得見 (縮短並加粗了)] nuclear membrane disappears [核膜消失] homologous chromosomes pair up (pairing) (NOT in mitosis) [同源染色體配對 (不在有絲分裂中出現)] cross-over may occur between homologous chromosomes [互換可能在同源染色體之間發生] (Distinguish: pair up/pairing - homologous chromosomes line up together.[區別:配對:同源染色體在一塊兒排列] in any 2n cells - existing of homologous chromosomes, homologous chromosomes need not lie up together.) [同源染色體在任何二倍體細胞中存在, 但正常狀態下, 它們不需要排列在一齊] 2. - homologous chromosomes pair up at the equator. [同源染色體在赤道板上配對地排列] 3. - the two members of each homologous pair of chromosomes separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell (separation of homologous chromosomes)[同源染色體中的每一支分開並移到細胞的相對極] 4. - nuclear membrane reforms, [核膜再次形成] followed by cytoplasmic cleavage [之後便是細胞質分裂] (Now: each cell has half the chromosome number as the parent cell but each chromosome has two chromatids) [現在: 每個細胞有親代細胞的一半染色體數目, 但每條染色體有兩條染色單體] - Second meiotic division - separation of chromatids of each chromosome [第二次減數分裂: 分開每條染色體中的染色單體] (The processes are just the same as that in mitosis) [這過程是和有絲分裂一樣] - four daughter cells each with half of the chromosome number of the parent cells are formed. [形成四個子細胞, 每個子細胞只有親代細胞的一半染色體數目] - Occurance of meiosis - plants - anthers & ovules [減數分裂發生: 植物中: 在花葯及胚珠處] - mammals - testes & ovaries [哺乳動物: 在睪丸及卵巢處] - significance of meiosis: [減數分裂的重要性] - leads to halving of chromosome number of gametes, so to ensure that the diploid number of chromosomes can be restored in the zygote after fertilization. (so that a constant chromosome number can be maintained over successive generations.) [使配子得一半染色體數目, 保證受精之後能夠回復成為正常的二倍體接合子 (因此一個固定的染色體數目能夠在世代間維持)] - produce haploid gametes which after fertilization, can restore normal diploid stage [製造單倍體的配子, 它受精之後, 能夠恢復正常的雙倍體狀態] - produce genetic variation at [產生遺傳差異, 在] - crossing–over between homologous chromosomes during stage (1) above. [同源染色體之間的交換, 在上面的第(1)階段] - independent assortment of chromosomes during stage (2) above. [染色體之間的獨立分開, 在上面的第(2)階段] P. 2 of 4

Ch. 21

Sources of genetic variation [遺傳差異的源頭] - crossing over between homologous chromosomes during meiosis [同源染色體之間的交換, 在減數分裂時] - independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis [染色體之間的獨立分開, 在減數分裂時] - random fusion of gametes during fertilization (random fertilization) [受精時, 配子之間的隨意併合 (隨意受精)] - mutation at chromosome level or gene level. [在染色體層面或基因層面的突變] Comparison between mitosis and meiosis:

Number of divisions [分裂的數目] Number of daughter cell produced by one parent cell [子細胞的數目] Type of cells produced [產生的細胞種類] Chromosome number of daughter cells [子細胞的染色體數目] Genetic make-up of daughter cells [子細胞的遺傳信息] Pairing of homologous chromosomes [同源染色體的配對] Crossing-over [交換] Occurrence [發生在] Role [角色功能]

[有絲分裂和減數分裂的比較] Mitosis [有絲分裂] one [一次]

Meiosis [減數分裂] two [兩次]

two [兩個]

four [四個]

somatic cells [體細胞] same as parent cell (diploid) [和親代細胞一樣(二倍體)] identical to parent cell [和親代細胞相等]

gametes [配子] half of parent cells (haploid) [親代細胞的一半(單倍體)] May be different from the parent cell [和親代細胞可能不同]

No [沒有]

Yes [有]

No [沒有] growing tissues [生長中的組織] growth, repair, replacement of old tissues, asexual reproduction [生長, 修補, 替換老化的組織, 無性生殖]

Yes [有] reproductive tissues (gonads) [生殖組織(生殖腺)] gamete formation for sexual reproduction [形成配子, 用作有性生殖]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 21

Concepts on Chromosomes and Cell Divisions 1. Chromosomes contain DNA (the genetic material) and some proteins. Specific DNA molecules indirectly control the synthesis of specific protein molecules. DNA acts as genetic material by controlling the types of protein production. 染色體含有 DNA (遺傳信息)和若干蛋白質。特殊的 DNA 分子間接地控制合成特殊的蛋白質分子。 DNA 因控制製造所蛋白質的種類而被當作遺傳物質。 2. DNA content are duplicated at interphase stage during chromosome duplication. At this stage, the duplicated chromosomes are joined together so that they are treated as “one” chromosome with two chromatids. The chromosome number is duplicated in later stage only [at anaphase] as chromatids are separated to form separated chromosomes. DNA 物質在間期之中在染色體複製時倍增。在這個時期, 複製了的兩個染色體聯接在一起而被當成為 “一個染色體內有兩條染色單體”。染色體數目只在較後期(在後期)當染色單體被分離而成為獨立的染色體。 3. Meiosis gives rise to haploid gametes. (NOT haploid offspring) (NOT: meiosis reduces the chromosome number of the offspring by half.) Meiosis is the cell division to form gametes that have half the chromosome number of the parent cell. After fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete [i.e. fertilization], a diploid offspring is produced.) 減數分裂製造單倍的配子 (不是單倍的後代)(也不是: “減數分裂使後代的染色體數目減減半”。) 減數分裂是一種形成只有半數染色體數目的配子的細胞分裂。當一個雄配子和一個雌配子結合(受精作用)之後, 一個雙倍體後代因而產生了。 4. Each body cell is diploid, (but NOT: “mature red blood cells”, because they are without nucleus and chromosomes), Gametes are haploid. The zygote formed after fertilization is diploid. 每個體細胞都是雙倍體 (但不是: 成熟的紅血球, 因它沒有細胞核和染色體。配子是一個單倍體。在受精作用之時形成的合子是雙倍體。 5. (a) In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and line up in pairs at the centre (equator) of the cell. Then, the homologous chromosomes separate, members of each pair go to opposite poles. Reduction in chromosome number is achieved. (Meiosis I is the actual reduction division.) (b) In mitosis, members of a homologous pair do not pair up; they lie up independently at the centre of the cell. Then, only the chromatids separate and go to opposite poles. 在第一次減數分裂時, 同源染色體成雙地在細胞中間(赤道板處)排列。之後同源染色體分離, 每對的每個成員去相反的極, 在這時, 染色體數目減半(因同源染色體分離而使染色體數目減半, 因此減數分裂其實是真正的 “減數分裂”。) 6. NOT: “ALL cells have cell divisions”. Cells such as red blood cells and neurones haven’t cell divisions. 不是: “所有細胞都有細胞分裂”。因有些細胞, 例如: 紅血球、神經元都沒有細胞分裂。

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 21

Ch.

Genetics

[遺傳學]

Types of variations - discontinuous variation - the character is clear-cut & not showing intermediates [變異的種類: 不連續變異: 清楚而沒有中間的特徵] - eg. tongue rolling, ear lobes, colour of corn [例如: 捲舌, 耳垂, 玉米的顏色] - continuous variation - with a continuous range of intermediate values [連續變異: 有連續很多中間的範圍] - eg. height, weight, intelligence quotient (IQ), heart beat rate. [例如: 高度、重量、智能、心跳速率] Mendel’s First Law - The Law of Segregation [孟德爾第一定律: 分離定律] - for monohybrid cross (inheritance of one selected character) [用作單基因雜交 (挑選其中一個特徵的遺傳)] - It states that the alleles will separate during gamete formation [它陳述那等位基因在配子形成時將會分開] Terms - genotype - the genetic composition of an individual. [術語: 基因型: 生物的基因組合] phenotype - the external appearance of an individual. [表現型: 生物的外觀] - homozygous (pure-breeding)(pure-line) - with alleles of same effects in the same character [純合的(純種的): 一個特徵的兩個等位基因有相同效果] heterozygous (hybrid) - with alleles of different effects (forms/expressions) (eg. Aa) [雜合的(雜種): 一個特徵的兩個等位基因有著不同的效果(形式/表現) (例如: Aa)] - dominance gene (or character) - which express its effect even in heterozygous condition [顯性基因(或顯性特徵): 即使在雜合的狀態之下, 亦能夠表現出它的效果] recessive gene (or character) - which express its effect only in homozygous condition [隱性基因(或隱性特徵): 只有在純合的狀態之下, 才能表現出它的效果] - pedigree - it shows the inheritance of one or more character(s) in different generations. [譜系: 它顯示出一個或多個特徵在不同世代之間的遺傳] - test cross - cross the organism with dominant character to an organism with homozygous recessive character [測交: 使一個有顯性特徵的生物與另一個有純隱性的個體交配] - test whether the organism with the dominant character is homozygous or heterozygous. [測試那個有顯性特徵的生物, 究竟是純合的或是雜合的狀態] Backcross - cross an organism with one of its parent. [回交: 一隻生物與其中一個親代交配] Genetic diagram: eg. To show the result when two heterozygous green pod (pea) plants are crossed. [基因圖: 例如: 顯現兩個雜合的綠色豌豆交配所得的結果] Let G represents the dominant allele for green pods. [讓 G 代表綠色豌豆的顯性等位基因] Let g represents the recessive allele for yellow pods. [讓 g 代表黃色豌豆的隱性等位基因] Punnet square [龐氏表]:

P [親代]: Gametes [配子]: F1 [F1 代]:

Gg G GG

G Gg

Genotyptic ratio: 1 2 [基因型比值] Phenotype [表現型]: green pod [綠色豆] Phenotyptic ratio: 3 : [表現型比率]

g gg

G g

1 yellow pod [黃色豆] 1

Sex determination - by sex chromosomes - male: XY, female: XX [決定性別: 以性染色體: 雄性: XY, 雌性: XX] chromosomes other than sex chromosomes [性染色體以外的其他染色體] - somatic chromosomes which control normal body characters. [體染色體, 它控制正常的身體活力]

P. 1 of 4

female gametes

male gametes [雄性配子] G g GG Gg Gg gg

Human sex ratio [人類的性別比率]:

Age birth 18 yrs 50 yrs 85 yrs 100 yrs

Male 106 100 85 50 20

Ch. 22

Female 100 100 100 100 100

{sex ratio = 1:1, Why?}

[性別比率 = 1:1, 為什麼?]

{Human female sex determination: A sperm with X chromosome fertilizes with an egg which always contains an X chromosome to form a zygote with two X chromosomes which determines the female sex.} [決定人類的女性: 如果一條帶有 X 染色體的精子與一個卵(一定有 X 染色體)受精, 他們形成的接合子有兩條 X 染色體, 它們決定女性的性別] Sex in other animal

chick: XO, XX [其他動物的性別: 雞: XO, XX, 即是說公雞少了一條性染色體] honey bees: haploid (♂) or diploid (♀) [蜜蜂: 單倍體(雄性), 雙倍體(雌性)] lizards: environmental temperature in egg stage [蜥蜴類: 孵蛋時的環境溫度] snail: bisexual [蝸牛: 兩性體]

Twins - identical twins - one embryo separates into two and each develops into a new individual [孿生子: 同卵雙胎: 一個胚胎分開成為兩個新的個體] - they should have same characters and same sex [他們有相同特徵和性別, 因為他們有相同的基因] - non-identical twins - formed from two different zygotes from two separate fertilizations [異卵雙胎: 由次不同的受精, 而成的兩個不同接合子形成] - they usually have different characters [他們通常有不同的特徵] - they may have different sexes. [他們可能有不同的性別] Controlling characters [控制特徵] - characters are determined by genes. (1 gene 1 character) [由基因決定特徵 (一個基因控制一個特徵)] - it may be modified by environmental factors. [它可能被環境因素所修改] - eg. temperature (affect the sex of lizards by different temperature during embryo development) [例如: 溫度 (胚胎發育時的不同環境溫度影響蜥蜴類的性別)] - fur colour of some rabbits (eg. Himalayan Rabbit) [部分兔子的毛色 (例如: 喜瑪拉雅山兔, 它的毛白色, 而突出的地方, 如耳、腳、尾巴是黑色)] Sources of variations: [變異的源頭] - sexual reproduction [有性生殖] - gamete formation - alleles separate to form different gametes. [配子形成: 等位基因分開, 形成不同配子] - gamete recombination (random fertilization) - different gametes recombine to form new individuals. [配子重組(隨機受精): 不同配子重組, 形成新的個體] - cross over in meiosis - form new combinations of alleles [在減數分裂中交換: 形成新的等位基因組合] - mutation - sudden change in form and function (may be spontaneous or induced by environment) [突變: 狀態和功能上的突然轉變 (可能是自發的或由環境所誘導的)] - supported by natural selection [以自然選擇所支持] {Explain why not all the cells are plasmolized even if plant tissue is immersed into a concentrated solution for a long time: Even though most cells have water potential higher than the surrounding solution so that plasmolysis occur. Since individual variation occurs in between different cells, the water potential of the cell sap in some cells may be equal to or lower than that of the surrounding solution so that plasmolysis will not occur in that type of cells.} [當植物組織浸在高濃度溶液很久之後, 為何不是全部細胞都有質壁分離現象? 答案: 即使大部分細胞的水勢都比周圍的溶液高, 因而出現質壁分離現象; 但是由於細胞之間有個體差異存在, 部分細胞的水勢可能與周圍的溶液相等甚或低於周圍的溶液, 所以質壁分離不發生在那些細胞中]

P. 2 of 4

Ch. 22

The four families below show the possibility of occurrence of a special big nose character: (shading denotes the possession of the big nose character) [以下四個家庭顯示出可能擁有一個特殊大鼻子的特徵 (陰暗代表大鼻子)] Family 1 [家庭 1]

Family 2 [家庭 2]

Family 3 [家庭 3]

Family 4 [家庭 4]

(a) From which family can you determine which character is dominant? [你可以從那個家庭決定那一個特徵是顯性的] Ans: From family 2. [從家庭 2] Both parents 6 and 7 have the big nose character; each of the parents must posses at least one allele for the big nose character. [親代 6 和 7 兩者都有大鼻子的特徵, 雙親每人都要擁有最小一個大鼻子的等位基因] They give rise to a normal daughter 11; this daughter must receive at least one allele for the normal character from either of the parents. [他們生了一個正常的女兒 11, 她要從任何一個親代接受最小一個正常鼻子的等位基因] Thus either one of the two parents is heterozygous, i.e. with one big nose and one normal allele. [於是她父母的任何一個要是雜合的, 即是: 有一個大鼻子和一個正常鼻子的等位基因] Since the phenotype of both parents is big nose, the big nose character must be dominant. [由於父母雙方都有大鼻子, 大鼻子一定是顯性特徵] (b) What is the genotype of individual 6? Explain. [個體 6 的基因型是什麼? 請解釋它。] Ans: He is heterozygous. [他是雜合的] He has big nose character (which is proved to be dominant), so he must have a dominant allele. [他有大鼻子特徵(這特徵已經被証實為顯性), 所以他一定有一個顯性等位基因] He should give a recessive normal allele to individual 11, so that he must have a recessive allele. [他一定要付出一個隱性的正常等位基因給個體 11, 所以他一定有一個隱性的等位基因] (c) By means of a genetic diagram, explain the chance of the first child of the couple of individual 5 and 8 to be, if 8 is heterozygous: [請用基因圖, 以解釋個體 5 和 8 婚後的第一個孩子是如下列所示的機會率, 倘若 8 是雜合的]: (i) heterozgygous; [雜合的] (ii) dominant. [有顯性特徵] Ans: Let B be the dominant allele of the big nose character. [讓 B 是擁有大鼻子的顯性等位基因] Let b be the recessive allele of the normal character. [讓 b 是擁有正常鼻子的隱性等位基因] For individual 5 and 8 [個體 5 和 8]: P. [親代]:

individual 5 [個體 5] Bb

gametes [配子]:

F1 genotype [F1 代]: genotypic ratio [基因型比率]: phenotype [表現型]:

(i) (ii)

B Bb

Bb 2

bb :

Big nose [大鼻子]

phenotypic ratio [表現型比率]: so

BB 1

individual 8 [個體 8] Bb

1 normal

The chance of being heterozygous (Bb) = 2/4 = ½ [他是雜種的的機會 = 2/4 = ½ ] the chance of being dominant (big nose) = ¾ [他有顯性特徵(大鼻子)的機會 = ¾ ]

(d) For individual 9, explain how you can test whether he is homozygous or heterozygous. (Genetic diagram is NOT accepted) [對於個體 9, 解釋你怎樣能夠測試出他究竟是純合的或是雜合的 (不接受基因圖)] Ans: We can use a test cross, i.e. to cross individual 9 with a homozygous recessive (normal) female. [我們能夠用測交, 即是使個體 9 與一個純合的隱性(正常的)女性交配] If the offspring is all having dominant character (big nose), the individual 9 should be homozygous. [如果他的後代全部都有顯性特徵(大鼻子), 個體 9 一定是純合的] If the offspring have both dominant and recessive character, with ratio of 1:1, the individual 9 should be heterozygous. [如果他的後代有顯性特徵(大鼻子)和隱性特徵(正常鼻子), 而比率是 1:1 的話, 個體 9 一是雜合的] P. 3 of 4

Ch. 22

Concepts on Genetics 1.

Distinction among genes, alleles (alternative forms of a gene in the same loci of homologous chromosomes) and chromosomes. 請分辨以下各詞彙: 基因、等位基因(在兩條同源染色體內相同的位點中的一對不同顯示模式的基因)、染色體。

Homozygous (pure-line) means an individual with identical alleles. Homologous chromosomes mean a pair of chromosomes with the same size and number (and types) of genes. (The expressions of the alleles contained may/may not be the same). 純合的(純種的): 有相同等位基因的個體。同源染色體: 一對擁有相同體積和基因數目的染色體 (而其中的等位基因的顯示模式可以是或不是相等的)。

Hybrids are formed from crosses of genetically different members of the same species. (NOT of different species). 雜種是由相同物種的兩隻帶有不同等位基因顯示形式的個體交配而生成的。 (它們並不是不同的物種)。

Clear definition of genetic symbols used is required. (except being instructed by the question). The letter used represents the allele for the character. (NOT represent the character). 要清楚地定義你所用的字母符號的意思。 (除了在題目已經給予指示的(即題目指示你用某字母, 你就無需要再寫定義)) 所用的字母只是代表那特徵的等位基因。 (而不是代表那特徵本身)。

Distinguish between genotypic ratio and phenotypic ratio. [分別清楚: 基因型、表現型。]

(a) A batch of pure breeding dwarf plants with genotype “tt” may give rise to different heights because they are grown under different environmental conditions. 一批擁有 “tt” 基因型的純種侏儒植物, 可能生出不同的高度, 因他們可能生長在不同的環境因素之下。 (b) To explain the formation of different sized seeds (with same genotype) in the same plant, we CANNOT use the environmental factors such as temperature, water supply and mineral supply (that affect the plant as a whole). Instead, we can use more localized factors such as light supply. 要解釋在同一株植物中有不同體積的種子形成(有相同基因型的), 我們不能用一些大型的環境因素, 如溫度、水分供應、礦物質供應等等(因這些影響整株植物)。我們應該選擇一些更為局部化的因素, 如光照。

(a) Only mutation of germ cells is to be transmitted to the future generations. (NOT in somatic tissue cells). For the offspring to be affected, mutation should have occurred in the parts of the flower that are directly involved in the production of the seeds, such as the anther, pollen grain, ovary and ovule. 只有生殖細胞的突變才可以傳至下一代。 (在體細胞的突變是不能傳至下一代的) (b) Variations provide a wider range of adaptable features among the offspring so that some of them can adapt better to the changes in environmental conditions. Variation may or may not be better adapted to the environment. (Usually Less adapted). (NOT: genetic variation will always give rise to better adaptation to the environment.) 變異使後代對環境轉變能夠有更寬的適應性, 從而他們中的一部分能夠更好地適應環境轉變。變異能夠或不能夠導致個體適應環境 (通常是較不適應)。(不接受: 變異總是使個體更能適應環境改變。)

The different phenotypic expressions shown by the offspring of the same generation can be due to genetic variation and/or differences in environmental conditions. [不同的表現型是由於個體有不同的變異或環境因素。]

Mutation is NOT the main cause for the genetic variation that lead to the difference in the mass of seeds under normal conditions. Independent assortment in gamete formation and random fertilization in fertilization play a more important role. 一般而言, 突變導致變異不是種子有不同質量的主因。而在配子形成時的獨立分配和在受精時的隨機性受精卻起更大作用。

10. Self fertilization does NOT gives rise to identical offspring with no genetic variation. (Distinguish between self fertilization and asexual reproduction.) Since self fertilization only involves one parent, the genetic variation of the offspring is less than that from cross fertilization in which genes from two different parents are combined. 自花受精不是生產出相等的後代而沒有變異。 (請分別清楚: 自花受精和無性生殖)。但因自花受精只牽涉一個親本, 後代的變異機會當然會比雜交受精(牽涉兩個親本個體)來得少。

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 22

Ch.

Ecology

[生態學]

Ecological energetics - energy source : sunlight - input by photosynthesis [生態能量流: 能量源頭: 陽光: 由光合作用輸入] (NOT : solar energy which includes heat that is not useful for photosynthesis) [不要寫成: 太陽能, 因它包括了熱能, 而熱能對光合作用是沒有用的] - food source : producers (green plants) [食物源頭: 生產者 (綠色種植)] Food chain / food web - shows the feeding relationship between organisms [食物鏈/食物網: 顯示出生物之間的捕獵關係] Position in food chain / web [食物鏈/網內之位置] producer [生產者] primary consumer [初級消費者] secondary consumer [次級消費者] tertiary consumer [三級消費者]

feeding types herbivores [草食性動物] carnivores [肉食性生物] carnivores [肉食性生物]

trophic level [食性層次] first [第一層] second [第二層] third [第三層] fourth [第四層]

- other organisms not listed in food chain [其他不在食物鏈列出的生物] - omnivores (feed on both plants & animals) [雜食性動物 (捕食種植和動物兩者)] - decomposers (feed on dead organic matters) [分解者 (進食已死的有機物質)] - they are saprophytic bacteria & fungi [他們是腐生的細菌和菌類] - they decompose complex organic substances into simple inorganic compound for recycling of material. [他們分解複雜的有機物質成為簡單無機化合物, 以利物質的再循環] Energy lost up a food chain [在食物鏈中向上移動而致的能量損失] - 10% rule - up a trophic level, energy remain is at most 10% (i.e. lost at least 90%) [10% 規則: 在食性層次中, 每上升一層, 最多只剩下 10%能量 (即是: 損失最小 90%)] - why is there energy lost ? [為什麼會損失能量?] - respiration of organisms lost the largest amount of energy (it includes heat lost, body activities, etc.) [生物的呼吸作用, 損失最多能量 (它包括散熱, 身體活動, 等等)] - excretion & egestion by the organisms [生物排泄和排糞] - death of organisms not being consumed [未被捕食的生物死亡] - therefore solving the food problem - consume/eat organisms in lower trophic level [因此解決食物危機: 進食較低層次的生物] - down a level Æ increase at least 10 times of food available [向下一個層次Æ最小增加 10 倍食物供應量] - material (eg. mineral salts) can be recycled by decomposer even after being absorbed by the plant, but energy CANNOT be recycled. [物質(例如: 礦物鹽), 被種植吸收之後, 亦可以被分解者分解而再循環; 但能量不能循環使用] Ecosystem - a community in which organisms interact with each other and with the environment, to form a stable (roughly constant in number) and self-supporting (not influenced by man) system [生態系統: 一個落, 它的生物之間及和環境之間有互動, 而形成一個穩定(數目大致不變)及自給自足(沒有人類的影響)的系統] - depends on: continue supply of light energy (eg. sunlight); [依賴: 持續供應光能(例如: 陽光)] recycling of materials such as nitrogen compounds. [物質(如:陽光)的再循環] Terms - population - organisms of the same species living in the same area [術語:族 (種 ):在同一地方的相同種類生物] - community - many populations (different species) living in the same area [ 落:在同一地方的許多族 (不同種類)] - environment - physical (abiotic) & biotic factors around the organisms. (a = Not) [環境: 在生物周圍的物理(非生物性)和生物性因素] Physical factors - temperature - affected by latitude & altitude [物理因素: 溫度: 受緯度和高度影響] - affects plant distributions mainly. (eg. tropical rain forest, tundra) [影響種植分佈 (例如: 熱帶雨林、北極苔原)] (plant distribution in turn affects animal distribution) [種植分佈再影響動物分佈] - light - diurnal organisms (active in daytime) [光: 晝行性的生物 (日間活躍的)] - nocturnal organisms (active at night) [夜出的生物 (夜間活躍的)] - rainfall, relative humidity (NOT : humidity) [降雨量相對濕度] - rainfall affects relative humidity. [降雨量影響相對濕度] - rainfall and relative humidity both affects plant distribution. (eg. desert) P. 1 of 4

Ch. 23

[降雨量和相對濕度, 兩者都影響植物的分佈 (例如: 沙漠)] - oxygen supply - especially important in aquatic animals [氧氣供應: 水生動物尤其重要] (the solubility of oxygen limits the abundance of aquatic animals) [氧氣的溶解度限制水生動物的數量] - soil conditions / texture (especially important for plants) [泥土狀況/材質 (對於種植尤其重要)] - wind speed - especially important for plant in high altitude. [風速: 對於高山植物尤其重要] - soil - texture - affects: aeration, water retaining ability, drainage ability, fertility, etc. [泥土: 材質: 影響: 通氣性、保水性、排水性、肥沃度、等等] - pH (affects by rock type, pollution (acid rain), etc) [pH 值 (受岩石種類、污染(酸雨)等所影響)] Soil - texture - sandy soil - good in aeration, good drainage ability. [泥土: 材質: 沙土: 通氣良好、排水性良好] - clay soil - good water retaining ability & fertility [黏土: 保水性及肥沃度良好] - loam soil - (mixed both soils) - the best soil. [壤土: (兩種泥土混合): 最好的泥土] - composition - soil: air, water, mineral, humus [成份: 泥土的: 空氣量、礦物鹽量、腐殖質量] - humus - provide mineral Æ the soil becomes fertile [腐殖質: 供應礦物質Æ泥土變得肥沃] - add to sandy soil Æ improve water-retaining power & fertility. [加落沙土中: 改良保水性和肥沃度] - add to clay soil Æ improves aeration [加落黏土中: 改良通氣性] - maintain soil fertility- add fertilizers - natural fertilizers (eg. manure) [維持泥土肥沃度:加肥料:天然肥料(例如:糞肥)] - artificial fertilizers (soluble chemical) [人工肥料 (水溶性化學品)] - by crop rotation - rotating the type of crop planting in the field [用輪植: 在同一塊田內輪種植不同農作物] - benefits - easy maintain soil fertility [利益: 容易維持泥土肥沃度] (different plant requires different elements Æ not easily lacking one mineral) [不同品種植物需要不同元素(礦物質) Æ不容易缺乏某種礦物質] - decreases the chance of pest spreading [減低害蟲傳播的機會] Monoculture [單一栽培] - advantages: [優點] - easy to transfer the simple techniques for generations orally. [簡單技術容易在以口述地世代相傳] - easy provide a large amount of economical products at the most suitable time. [容易在適當時間供應大量經濟作物] - easy management: Chinese calendar (農曆) teach the farmer when to perform the correct task. [容易管理: 農曆也用作教導農夫於何時進行合適的工作程序] - disadvantages: [缺點] - easy stimulates the growth of pest [容易刺激害蟲生長] - as the egg/seed of the pest hatches, the host has developed already every year. [在每一年中, 當害蟲的蛋或種子孵化時, 寄主已經有相當成長 (可以付託)] - the soil is easily lacking one/more type of mineral [泥土容易缺乏一種或多種礦物質] - easy lost productivity during the changes in environmental conditions. [在環境狀況改變時, 容易損失生產力] prey [獵物] Biotic environment: [生物性環境] - predation (predator-prey relation) [捕食]

predator [捕食者]

- the population of prey is lager than that of the predator. (NOT necessarily) [獵物族通常比捕食者族較大] - the changes in the curve of the predator lags behind that of the prey. [捕食者曲線有少少落後於獵物曲線] - as number of prey increase, the predator number increase, because increase amount of food supply. [當獵物數目增加, 捕食者數目也增加, 因為食物供應量增加了] Then the prey number decrease, because more predator feeding on them. [然後, 獵物數目減低, 因為更多捕食者捕獵他們] The decrease in number of prey causes the predator to be starved and hence decrease in number. [獵物數目減低引致捕食者容易挨餓, 因此他們的數目減低] When the predator number decrease, the prey number increase again because less chance of being killed. [當捕食者數目減低, 獵物數目再次增加, 因為被捕殺的機會減少] - competition (competitors)

[競爭 (競爭者)]:

P. 2 of 4

winner [勝利者] loser [失敗者] Ch. 23

- as the populations are at low level, no competition occur, all the curves are rising. [當族在低水平, 沒有競爭, 所有曲線都上升] - as real competition occurs at higher level, the winner will tend to be constant, but the loser will drop to lower level or even to zero point. [當真正的競爭在較高水平處發生, 勝利者曲線傾向於穩定, 但失敗者會跌落較低水平 (不一定是這樣, 可以兩條曲線都在較低水平傾向於穩定)] - the maximum point attended will usually be lower than if only one species exist. [最高點會較只有一種物種為低] - If the competitor is removed, the other species will increase in number because of more food is available (or others. eg. shelter area). This causes more reproduction in the species. [如果競爭者被移除, 另外的一種物種的數目會因多了食物供應而增加 (或因其他因素, 例如: 遮蓋物面積); 這樣引致那物種有更多生殖機會] Symbiosis

[共生]:

- 1. commensalism - one gets (physical) benefit, one feels no effect. [片利共生: 一隻取得(物理的)好處, 另一隻感覺沒有影響] - easy separate from each other. [容易把兩者分隔] eg. barnacle on crab (barnacle gets transport). [例如: 藤壺在蟹上 (藤壺取得運輸)] - 2. mutualism - both obtain benefits: [互利共生: 雙方都有好處] - not easy separate (some even cannot separate) [兩者不容易分開 (有些甚至不能分開)] eg. lichen (mutualism of specific algae & fungi ) [例如: 地衣(特殊的藻類和真菌類的共生)] - fungi absorb moisture from air and moist the algae [真菌吸收空氣中的水氣, 從而濕潤那藻類] - algae provide carbohydrate for the fungi, by photosynthesis. [藻類進行光合作用之後, 供應碳水化合物給真菌] (they are so dependent on each other that they cannot be separated without harmful effects) [他們是如此依賴另外一個, 以致他們不能夠(無傷害地)被分隔開] eg. nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants. [例如: 在豆類植物根部根廇中的固氮細菌] - bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogenous compounds (eg. ammonium ion, amino acids) for the plant. (NOT: nitrate directly). [固氮細菌固定空氣中的氮氣, 成為含氮的化合物 (例如: 氨化物、氨基酸)給植物 (不是: 直接的硝酸鹽)] - the plant provide carbohydrates to act as food for the bacteria [豆類植物提供碳水化合物給細菌, 作為食物]

怎樣確定它們是否豆類植物呢? 所有豆類都有豆莢(即長形的莢果), 花生也有"長形的莢果", 而根部又有根廇(root nodule), 因此花生是豆類。 eg. sea anemone on hermit crab [例如: 海葵在寄居蟹] - sea anemone gets free transport; hermit crab gets protection

[海葵取得運輸, 寄居蟹得到保護]

- 3. parasitism (parasite & host relation) [寄生: (寄生蟲和寄主關係)] - parasite obtain benefits (food & protection) [寄生蟲取得利益 (食物和保護)] - host gets harmful effect [寄主得到傷害] eg. tapeworm in man (endoparasites) [例如: 絛蟲在人體內 (內寄生物)] eg. ticks & mites on fur of animals (ectoparasites) [例如: 蜱和在動物皮毛 (外寄生物)] eg. dodder (兔絲子)(絲蘿) on green plants [例如: 兔絲子(絲蘿)在綠色植物上] Ecological pyramids:

[生態金字塔]

- pyramid of number [數目塔]: - easy to prepare (requires only counting) [容易製作 (只需要數數目)] - but it doesn’t consider the size of the organisms [但它不考慮生物的大小] - easy creating inverted pyramids as the organisms in lower trophic level have larger size. [當食性層次的較低層生物有較大的體積, 很容易形成倒轉金字塔] - pyramid of biomass [生物量塔]: - the total dry mass of the trophic levels (already considered the size of all different types of organisms) [在食性層次某層的總乾重 (已經考慮了所有不同種類生物的體積)] - most accurate, but very destructive by killing the organisms [是最準確的, 但很有破壞性, 因它殺死生物] - time consuming (費時的) to prepare. (long time is required to make sure that organisms are “dry”) P. 3 of 4

Ch. 23

[製作是很費時的 (要確定那生物完全乾燥需要非常長的時間)] - (killed organisms cannot growth – only kills and measures different samples at constant interval) [殺死了的生物不能夠生長: 只有在持續間距的時間內殺死並量度不同個體的樣本] (But: the measured organisms may have individual variation [但是: 被量度的生物可能有個體差異] Æ measure a group of organisms instead of an individual one, then take their average) [Æ量度一組生物以代替某一個體, 然後取得他們的平均數] Effects of DDT: [DDT 的效應] - DDT has be use for about 20 years. [DDT 被人類用了大約 20 年] It had been forbidden over 30 years [而它卻被禁止了超過 30 年] But, nowadays, the body of every people still has DDT. [但時至今曰, 每一個人的身體內仍然有 DDT] - reasons - it has excessively long degeneration period (it requires tens of years) [理由: 它需要很長的分解期 (數十年)] - it is not easily destroyed by metabolism of living organisms, so that it is easily accumulated along the food chain. [它不容易被生物的代謝作用所破壞, 所以它很容易沿著食物鏈累積] - It killed many predatory birds by accumulate to high concentration through the food chain. [它很容易沿著食物鏈累積到很高濃度, 而殺死很多作為捕食者的雀鳥] {DDT can kill predatory birds which feeds on large fish even though very dilute concentration is applied among the leaves of fruit trees. Why? : DDT is dissolved in rain and washed out to the river. The algae in river absorb dilute DDT from the water. Each small fish feeds on a lot of algae and each large fish feeds on a lot of small fish. Predatory bird feeds on a lot of fish but the DDT cannot be removed during metabolism or excreted by the bird. It is concentrated along the food chain.} [雖然人類只把很稀釋的 DDT 份量用在果樹上, 但 DDT 仍然能夠殺死捕食大魚的雀鳥, 為什麼? : DDT 被雨水溶解了, 然後被沖落河中; 河中的藻類吸收那稀釋了的 DDT, 每條小魚進食大量藻類, 而每條大魚又捕食大量小魚; 作為捕食者的雀鳥捕食大量魚類而 DDT 不能夠被代謝作用移除或排出, 因此 DDT 沿著食物鏈向上累積] Carbon Cycle [碳循環]:

Carbon dioxide in air [在空氣中的二氧化碳]

respiration [呼吸作用]

respiration [呼吸作用] feeding [捕食]

organic substances in animals [動物中的有機物質]

absorption & photosynthesis [吸收再加光合作用] organic substances in plants [在植物中的有機物質]

incomplete decomposition [不完全分解]

burning [燃燒] fossil (化石)

{Explain the main causes of increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere [試解釋大氣中的二氧化碳量增加的主要成因] - deforestation [濫伐林木] - using too much fossil fuel} [使用太多化石燃料] Nitrogen Cycle

[氮循環]: nitrifying bacteria [硝化細菌] (eg. Nitrosomonas , Nitrobacter)

ammonia [氨]

(nitrification) [硝化作用]

denitrifying bacteria (denitrification) [反硝化細菌] [反硝化作用]

nitrate in soil [泥土中的硝酸鹽]

putrefying bacteria [腐敗細菌] (putrefaction)(decomposition) [腐敗作用、分解作用] nitrogen in air [空氣中的氮氣] (nitrogen fixation) faeces, urine, dead body [固氮作用] [糞便、尿、死屍] nitrogen- fixing bacteria [固氮細菌] protein in animals [動物中的蛋白質] 4 of 4 feedingP.[捕食]

nitrogenous compounds [氮化物] absorption & photosynthesis [吸收和光合作用]

protein in plants [植物中的蛋白質] Ch. 23

Concept on Ecosystem 1.

The absence of decomposers in an ecosystem would stop the recycling of materials (or nutrients) but NOT the energy. 如果生態系統內沒有了分解者, 物質(養料)的再循環就會停止 (不是能量的再循環, 因能量是沒有再循環的)。

Humus is dead, decaying organic matter. NOT inorganic fertilizer. 腐殖質是已死的、腐爛中的有機物質。而不是無機肥料。

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria changes atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds (eg. ammonium ion) inside the root nodule (NOT into nitrates in soil). Such formation of nitrogenous compounds promotes protein synthesis that is essential for plant growth. 固氮細菌在根廇中把空氣中的氮氣變成氮化物(例如: 氨離子)(實則不是變成硝酸鹽)。這種轉變促進植物合成蛋白質, 以利生長。

Organisms living in the same microhabitat (eg. caterpillar and bee on the same tree) may utilize different resources and thus they do not compete with each other. 生活在同一微生境的生物(例如: 毛蟲和蜜蜂生活在同一株樹上), 也可能會利用不同的資源, 於是它們不會互相競爭。

An increase in the number of a species is due to its: (i) lowered predation pressure, and (ii) own rapid multiplication/reproduction. 一個物種內個體數目的增加是因為: (i) 較少捕食者存在, (ii) 自己的生產能力夠高。

Competition of the individuals of a population: food and space (mainly). They also compete for some more indirect or subtle (微細的) factors such as resistance to disease and escape from predation. 一個族內的個體之間的競爭主要是在於食物和空間。它們亦會競爭一些比較間接或微細的因素, 例如: 對疾病的抵抗和逃避捕食者。

The arrows in a food chain indicate the direction of matter and energy flow. They must always point from an organism to its consumer and not the opposite direction. 在食物鏈中的箭咀顯示物質和能量的流動方向; 它一定要由一隻生物指向它的消費者而不能指向相反方向。

Decomposers are usually omitted from a food chain but a portion of energy and matter in each level are in fact transferred to the decomposers. 在食物鏈中, 一般不會顯示分解者; 但實則每一食性層次都有部分能量和物質會傳至分解者。

The organisms in a complex food web will have more sources of food. Thus the greater the number of cross-links in a food web, the more stable it is. 在一個複雜的食物網中, 生物會有較多食物來源; 因此在食物網中的連接越多, 這個食物網會越穩定。

10. Plants compete for: sunlight, water, minerals and space. Animals compete for: food, shelter, mates and territory. 植物競爭: 陽光、水、礦物質、空間。動物競爭: 食物、遮蔽的地方、配偶、佔領地域。

P. 5 of 4

Ch. 23

Ch.

Man and Microorganisms

[人與微生物]

Types of microorganisms [微生物的種類] - bacteria [細菌] - prokaryotic cells (without nuclear membrane) [原核細胞 (沒有細胞核)] - reproduce by binary fission (every 20 minutes in favourable conditions) [以二分體分裂法繁殖 (在適合的條件之下, 每 20 分鐘分裂一次)] {Now there is only one bacteria among a dish of remaining food, how many bacteria is formed (1) in the 6th generation, [如果現在碟子的食物內只有一粒細菌, 有多少細菌: (1) 在第六代;] (2) at this moment tomorrow, [(2) 在明天的這個時間] if the rate of binary fission occurs every half hour? [倘若二分體分裂法在每半個小時發生] Ans: (1) 32 , (2) 248 , i.e. } - some are pathogenic, some are useful - NOT all bacteria are harmful to us. [有些是病原體, 有些是有用的 (不是所有細菌都是有害的)] - viruses [病毒] - with only DNA / RNA + protein coat [只有 DNA/RNA + 蛋白質] - all are parasitic (they are considered living only when they are inside living cells, because they reproduce only inside the cell of its host) [所有病毒都是寄生的 (它們只在活的細胞內之時是擁有生命的, 因為病毒只在細胞內才能夠繁殖)] - fungi [真菌類] - eg. Mucor, Rhizopus (classified as a separated Kingdom) [例如:白黴、黑黴(分類為一個獨立的界)] - protozoa [原生動物] - eg. Amoeba (變形蟲), Paramecium (草履蟲) Protoctists kingdom ( Protists ) - algae [藻類] - unicellular / colonial form [單細胞的/ 成團的]. eg. Spirogyra (水綿) [原生生物界 (原生動物)] Useful micro-organisms

[有用的微生物]:

- yeast [酵母菌] - fermentation to produce alcohol - brewing beer / making wine [發酵, 以製造酒精: 釀啤酒/ 釀酒] - produces carbon dioxide - baking bread (to raise the dough) [製造二氧化碳: 烘烤麵包(升高生麵團)] - decomposer [分解者] (saprophytic bacteria & fungi) [腐生的細菌和真菌類] - important - decompose organic waste & dead body into ammonia for recycling of materials in the ecosystem. [重要性: 分解有機廢物和死屍, 成為氨, 以利生態系統內物質的再循環] - (nitrifying bacteria further change ammonia to nitrate which can be absorbed by plants.) [硝化細菌再把氨變成硝酸鹽, 它就能夠被植物吸收] - symbiosis [共生] (eg. nitrogen-fixing bacteria in leguminous plant. (root nodule)) [例如: 在豆類植物中的固氮細菌 (在根廇中)] - produce nitrate to soil. (actually produce, not recycle) [為泥土製造硝酸鹽 (真正是製造, 而不是循環使用)] - sewage disposal [污水排放] - organic sewage decomposed by bacteria (secondary treatment) [細菌分解有機污水 (次級處理)] - prevent algal bloom [防止藻類過量繁殖] - antibiotic production [製造抗生素] - eg. Penicillium produces penicillin. [例如: 青黴菌製造青黴素] - antibiotic: chemical substance produced by one microorganism, and has the ability to kill or suppress the growth of another microorganisms. [抗生素: 由一種微生物製造的化學物質, 它可以殺死或抑制另一種微生物的生長] - it is specific in action (one antibiotic inhibits only one microorganism effectively) [它表現很專一的 (一種抗生素只對某一種微生物有效)] - Clear zone in bacteria culture on agar plate after incubation with antibiotic drops: [在培育前, 如果加入了幾滴抗生素, 細菌培養皿內會出現清澈的抑制環] - The existing bacteria in the region have been killed by antibiotic. No bacteria multiplication (cell division) P. 1 of 4

Ch. 24

occurs to form milky condition. [已存在的細菌被抗生素殺死了, 沒有細菌能夠繁殖(細胞分裂)而形成乳濁的狀況] - Clear solution in liquid culture of bacteria after incubation with antibiotics: [把抗生素加在細菌液體培養基內一同培養, 就會出現清澈的溶液] - antibiotic kills bacteria, the dead bacterial cells sink to the bottom. No cells are present in the clear upper liquid. [抗生素殺死細菌, 而死亡的細菌會沉落底部, 沒有細胞在上部出現, 因此上面的液體變得清澈] Harmful microorganisms - by parasitic & saprophytic bacteria & fungi (eg. Athlete’s foot) [有害的微生物: 寄生和腐生的細菌及真菌 (例如: 腳癬)] - disease causing (pathogens) [引致疾病 (病原體)] - decay useful materials. [使有用的物質腐爛] Food Preservation

[食物的保存]

- UHT treatment [高溫消毒] - heating with high temperature [加熱至很高的溫度] - kill microorganisms by destroying the enzymes of them. [破壞微生物的酶, 從而殺死微生物] (eg.150oC to milk for few second - stored for months, but flavour changed) [例如: 把牛奶加熱至 150 oC 幾秒鐘, 可以貯藏很多個月, 但味道會被改變] - pasteurization [巴斯德消毒法] - for milk and juice. [用於牛奶和果汁] - by lower temperature, with short time, then cool quickly and bottled. [用較低溫度, 較短時間, 然後立刻冷卻入樽] (75 oC for 15 seconds OR 65oC for 30 minutes) cool quickly to 10 oC. [75oC 15 秒或 65oC 30 分鐘, 立刻冷卻至 10 oC] (kill most microorganisms without changing the flavour of food) [殺死大部分微生物, 而沒有改變食物的味道] - must be stored in refrigerator. (for short time only.) [一定要貯藏在雪柜內 (只可以貯藏短時間)] - Ultra high temperature (UHT) treatment for milk - short heating at high temperature.[把牛奶以高溫消毒,短暫而高溫] - milk can store for long time. [這些牛奶可以貯藏很長時間] - refrigeration [冷藏法, 即是放入雪柜] - at about 4oC [雪柜的溫度大約是 4oC] - to decrease the activities of microorganisms (NOT killing) [減低微生物的活躍度 (而不是殺死它們)] - microorganisms can still grow slowly. [微生物仍然能夠慢慢地生長] - food still decay after a long period of time. [經過長時間之後, 食物仍然會腐爛] - freezing [急凍法, 即是放入冰隔] - stop the activities of microorganisms [使微生物的活力停止] - NOT killing them [不是殺死它們] - they can resume activities when ice melts/thawing. [熔雪後, 微生物可以回復活力] - drying (dehydration) [脫水法] (a) microorganism cannot grow due to water deficiency. (usually NOT killing the microorganisms) [微生物不能在缺乏水份時生長 (通常不能殺死微生物)] (b) vacuum drying: is used to make milk powder and soup powder. [真空脫水法: 用以製造奶粉及湯粉] (c) freezing-drying: food frozen quickly, then water removed by low pressure. (eg. dim sum, vegetables in cup-noodles.) [急凍脫水法: 食物快速凍結, 然後用低壓脫水 (例如: 點心、杯麵中的乾蔬菜)] - smoking [燻製法] - surface dry, coat with smoke which has chemical to inhibit bacteria growth. [使表面乾燥, 加上一層煙覆蓋著食物, 這層煙可以抑制細菌生長] - eg. fish and meat/ham/bacon. [例如: 魚、肉、火腿、燻豬肉] - canning & bottling [罐藏法、入樽] - it is kept vacuum to avoid bacteria entry [維持真空, 避免細菌進入] (NOT stopping the growth nor killing microorganisms) [不能使微生物停止生長, 亦不能殺死微生物] (Aerobic microorganisms cannot survive/growth because no oxygen) [需氧微生物因沒有氧氣而不能不能生長] - should work together with sterilization (this process kills microorganisms) P. 2 of 4

Ch. 24

[要與高溫消毒一同使用 (高溫消毒可殺死微生物)] - osmotic preservation [滲透保存法] - by adding: salt / sugar / honey. [加鹽、糖、蜜糖] - microorganisms killed/inactivated by removing water due to osmosis. [用滲透作用的方法, 除去食物的水份, 以殺死或使微生物不活躍] - eg. jam, food in syrup, ham. [例如: 果醬、浸在糖漿中的食物、火腿] - pickling [醃製法] - add vinegar (salted first) - acid prevents bacteria growth. [加醋 (先加鹽): 酸可以防止細菌生長] (if salt is added: also related to osmosis) [如果已加鹽: 亦與滲透作用有關] - Irradiation [輻照法] - γ-radiation kills bacteria and moulds.

[γ射線的輻射殺死細菌和黴菌(真菌)]

- preservatives [防腐劑] - kill / stop the growth of bacteria. [殺死細菌或停止細菌的生長] - eg. sulphur dioxide, some nitrites in ham, benzoic acid in canned food. [例如: 二氧化硫、某些在火腿中的亞硝酸鹽、在罐頭食物中的苯酸]

P. 3 of 4

Ch. 24

Concepts on Microorganisms 1. In raising dough during making bread, the dough is kept in the oven so that yeast is killed at high temperature. (NOT denatures). 製造麵包把生麵團發起來之後, 又把生麵團放在焗爐內, 以高溫殺死酵母菌。(不接受: 變性; 有生物的東西會死, 才會變性。) 2. Acidic solution (eg. vinegar), only prevents the growth of microorganisms. (Cannot kill microorganisms). 酸性溶液 (例如: 醋), 只是防止微生物生長。(不是: 殺死微生物) 3. Below freezing point, enzyme is inactive. (NOT denatured). Deep-freezing can: (a) prevent the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms, (b) inactivate their digestive enzymes, (c) inactivate the natural enzymes in the food to prevent self-decomposition. 在冰點以下, 只是不活躍。 (不是: 變性) 深層冷藏能夠: (a) 避免微生物的生長及繁殖, (b) 使消化 (細菌的)不活躍, (c) 使食物中的不活躍, 以免它進行自我分解。 4. Wine is made from grapes and beer is made from barley. 酒多是用葡萄造的, 而啤酒是由大麥。 5. The number of bacteria is more important than the activity of the bacteria. eg. in low temperature, the bacteria are inactive so that their reproduction rate (growth rate) is low, so that they cannot accumulate to a large number to cause disease. (Not accept: the activity of bacteria is low so that it cannot cause disease.) Low temperature cannot kill bacteria. It causes the bacteria to become inactive. 細菌的數目比細菌的活躍度更重要。例如: 在低溫時, 細菌是不活躍, 從而它們的繁殖速率很慢, 因此它們不能累積到一個相當大數目, 以引致疾病。 (不接受: 細菌的放射強度很低, 因此不能引致疾病。) 低溫不能殺死細菌, 只能使它們不活躍。

P. 4 of 4

Ch. 24

Ch.

Man’s Effects on his Environment

[人類對環境的影響]

Rapid population growth - increase demand for land [快速族生長: 增加土地的需要] Æ 1. destruction of natural habitats [(1): 破壞自然生境] 2. disturbance of the balance of nature. [(2): 干擾自然平衡]

Land use [土地使用] - deforestation [濫伐林木] - atmospheric carbon dioxide increases [大氣中的二氧化碳增加] - soil erosion by heavy rain or strong wind, because no root to hold soil particles together [因為沒有植物的根部去抓住泥土, 大雨或強風會把土壤侵蝕] - soil washed into rivers, filling up the river bed, causes flooding [泥土被沖落河中, 填充河床, 引致氾濫] - destroy natural habitats & causes loss of species [破壞自然生境, 引致物種消失] - lost important Chinese medicines, esp. in tropical rain forest [損失重要的中草藥, 尤其是熱帶雨林] - increase contact of man to wild animals Æ easy transmit new type of diseases from them. [這使人類增加與野生動物的接觸 Æ 容易輸送新品種疾病給人類] - monoculture [單種栽培] - benefit - easy acquire (取得) techniques (even through Chinese Calendar) [好處: 容易取得需要的技術 (甚至連農曆也可以教導耕作技術)] - easy transmit techniques for generations (even orally) [容易在世代之間傳遞 (甚至用口述)] - easy gain large amount of economical crops in the most suitable time. [容易在最適合的時間獲得大量經濟作物] - disadvantage - increase chance of pest growth [缺點: 增加害蟲生長的機會] - easy exhaust of particular type of minerals [容易用盡特殊種類的礦物質] - not easily response to the changing environmental condition [不容易對環境變化作出反應] - cannot response to changes in market condition [不能夠對市場情況變化作出反應]

Pollution: Any undesirable change in the environment caused by human activities. [污染: 任何由人類活動引致的討厭環境變化] Air pollution: [空氣污染] - pollutants [污染物]: - carbon monoxide [一氧化碳] - form carboxyhaemoglobin irreversibly with blood. [不可逆地與血液形成碳氧血紅素] - carbon dioxide [二氧化碳] - form green house effect in the world [在世界形成溫室效應] Æ causes the melting of polar ice, causing the flooding of many cities [引致兩極的冰熔解, 弄至很多城市氾濫] - sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide - produce acid rain which is corrosive to building [二氧化硫、氧化氮: 產生酸雨, 它腐蝕建築物] - particles: carbon, dust - causes respiratory diseases. [粒子: 碳、灰塵: 引致呼吸系統疾病] - lead: from car - affect the mental development of baby and child. [鉛: 由汽車: 影響嬰兒和兒童的心智發展] Now: motor car must use unleaded petrol [現在: 汽車一定要用無鉛汽油] - CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons): [氯氟碳化合物] - as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioner, in hair sprayer and making plastic foam. [作為冰箱和冷氣機的冷卻劑、噴髮膠和製造發泡膠] - speed up ozone layer breakdown in the upper atmosphere. [加快上空臭氧層的破壞] (this decreases the protection of the earth from ultraviolet radiation that causes skin cancer to human). [這會減低對地球的保護, 使紫外線增加而引致人類容易患皮膚癌] - sources - industrial, constructional work, traffic, power stations. [源頭: 工業、建築、交通、發電廠] - Fog formation [霧的形成] - Pollutant particles accumulate at windless conditions. [在無風的情況之下, 污染物累積] Pollutant particles act as nuclei to form water droplets which suspense in the air. [污染物用作水份的凝聚核, 在空氣中形成懸浮物]

P. 1 of 3

Ch. 25

- Smog formation [毒霧的形成]: - pollutant trapped by a layer of warm air above, so that it cannot rise & disperse as usual. [一層暖氣在上空覆蓋城市, 使污染物不能夠如常地上升而吹散, 因而積聚污染物] - if: windless + light energy [如果: 無風, 故不能吹散; 再加上陽光照射而得到能量] - forms PAN & ozone (both are poisonous gases) [形成過乙硝酸酯和臭氧 (兩者都是有毒的氣體)] - (kill 4000 persons in London 1952 photochemical smog) [在 1952 年倫敦的一場光化毒霧, 殺死了 4000 人] Water pollution [水污染]: sources [源頭] - domestic eg. detergents [家居的, 例如: 清潔劑] - create foam on water surface, decrease oxygen content of river [在水面形成泡沫, 減低河中的氧氣含量] - affect the functioning of sewage treatment plant by killing microorganisms [殺死微生物, 影響污水處理廠的功效] - increase phosphate ions, causes algal bloom (eg. red tides) [增加磷酸鹽, 會弄至藻類繁殖過度 (例如: 紅潮)] - agricultural [農業] - inorganic fertilizers contain nitrate or phosphate. [無機肥料含有硝酸鹽或磷酸鹽] Æ algae population increases [藻類數目於是增加] Æ when, algae die, bacteria increase, [當藻類死亡, 細菌便增加] Æ both algae & bacteria causes oxygen content in water decreases (esp. at night). They both secrete toxic substances into water. [藻類和細菌的繁殖, 兩者都使水中的氧氣含量減少 (尤其在夜間); 他們兩者都分泌有毒的物質到水中] Æ clean water organisms die. [清水生物死亡] - manure & sewage [糞肥和污水] - decomposers (bacteria) increases, because [分解者 (細菌)增加, 因為] - sewage contain bacteria & [污水含有細菌, 及] - bacteria reproduction increase due to sufficient food provided. [細菌因有豐富食物而增加繁殖] - pesticides [殺蟲劑] - accumulate along food chain [容易沿著食物鏈積聚] Æ easy reaching high level of toxicity in higher trophic level. [容易在高的食性層次累積成很高的毒性] - industrial waste - poisonous soluble heavy metal compound [工業廢料: 有毒而又是水溶性的重金屬化合物] - hot water - from power stations [熱水: 由發電廠而來] - reduce oxygen content (solubility) in water [減少水中氧氣的含量 (降低氧氣溶解度)] - crude oil [原油]: (from wrecked tankers) [由失事油船而來] - stick feathers of birds, which die due to bad insulation. [黏住鳥類的羽毛, 它因失熱而死亡] Noise pollution [噪音污染] - sources - domestic, industrial, constructional, traffic [來源: 家居、工業、建造、交通] - effects - causes psychological stress & even deafness. [影響: 引致心理壓力, 甚至耳聾] Land pollution [陸地污染] - rubbish - domestic mainly (eg. garbage, plastics and metal cans) [垃圾: 主要是家庭的 (例如: 剩菜、膠袋、金屬罐頭)] - lack of suitable disposal area. [缺少適合的堆填區] - if burn (in incinerator) Æ cause air pollution. [如果在焚化爐內焚燒Æ引致空氣污染] Conservation [環境保護] - definition - wise use of natural resources. [定義: 聰明地使用天然資源] - least disturbance to the natural environment [對自然環境有最小的干擾] Æ to give good quality of life to man. [給我們好的生活品質] - resources - renewable resources: (can be regenerated at reasonable period of time), eg. timber, fish [資源: 可再生資源: (使用了之後, 在合理的時間之內, 是能夠再生的); 例如: 木材、魚] - solution - cutting woods followed by planting new trees [解決方法:砍伐樹木之後, 就種植一棵新樹] - recycling of waste paper [廢紙再循環] - not to catch newly hatched fish [不捕捉新生的小魚] - control the amount of fishing per year. [控制每年的釣魚量] - non-renewable resources - eg. metal, crude oil (energy) [不可再生資源: 例如: 金屬、原油 (能量)] (cannot be regenerated / regenerated only at million of years) [不能夠再生或只能在萬年之後才能再生] - solution - recycling of aluminum can [解決方法: 鋁罐再循環] - conserve the use of energy [節省使用能量] - find new type of energy (eg. nuclear power) [尋找新的能源 (例如: 核能)] P. 2 of 3

Ch. 25

- conserving natural environment (country park conservation): [保護自然環境 (郊野公園的保護)] - fixed place and path for human activities. [有固定的地方和路徑給人們活動] - easy management (eg. collection of waste & prevent fire) [容易管理 (例如: 收集廢物和防止火災)]

Sewage treatment plant [污水處理廠]: - primary treatment (a physical method) [初級處理 (是一個物理學方法)] - large solid (floating rubbish) is taken away by grids. [大的固體(漂浮的垃圾)通過網柵時被取走] - sedimentation - separate solid faeces (sludge) from liquid (sewage) [沉降: 分隔固態糞便(污泥)和液態(污水)] - secondary treatment (a biological method) [次級處理 (是一個生物學方法)] - oxidation (for sewage) [氧化作用(用於污水)] - aerobic respiration of micro-organisms in aeration tank (oxidation tank) [微生物在曝氣池(氧化池), 進行需氧呼吸] - by bubbling air / churning arms. [用抽氣方法或攪拌臂, 以送空氣入污水內] - digestion (for sludge) [消化作用] - anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms in digestor (digesting tank). [微生物在消化池進行缺氧呼吸] - produces methane gas - toxic and explosive [產生沼氣: 有毒並有爆炸性] - used as fuel to produce energy. [當作燃料, 以生產能量] - dry sludge used as fertilizer for agriculture. [曬乾的污泥, 作為肥料, 用於農業] - tertiary treatment ( a chemical method) [三級處理 (是一個化學的方法)] - precipitate special pollutants (especially heavy metal ions) by adding specific chemicals. [用加入特殊的化學品, 以沉澱特殊的污染物 (尤其是重金屬離子)] - in some industrial sewage treatment plants only. (domestic sewage usually does not contain much heavy metals) [只用在部分工業區的污水處理廠 (家居污水通常不含太多重金屬)] - very expensive. [非常昂貴] - final treatment - steriled by chlorination. [最後處理: 用氯氣消毒] - the liquid sewage is filtered ( by sand) before discharging into the sea.

[已處理的污水被過濾, 然後排放入海]

Ways of conservation [環境保護的方式]: - recycling of used materials - paper, aluminum can [物質的再循環使用: 紙、鋁罐] - pollution control - by sewage treatment plant [控制污染: 用污水處理廠] - town planning - separate residential area from industrial area (esp. good for noise pollution) [城市設計: 分隔住宅區和工業區 (對噪音污染幹說, 尤其有好處)] - legislation - control the amount of pollutant discharged [立法: 控制污染物的排放量] - heavy penalty for over-discharging of pollutants / too much noise. [對過量排放(或製造太大噪音)者, 添加重的處罰] - education - by mass media (大眾傳媒) (eg. promoted by superstar in TV shows) [教育: 由大眾傳媒 (例如: 以影星或歌星在電視作出宣傳)] - normal lessons in school. [在學校的正規教育] - birth control - decreases the stress on natural resources. [節育: 減低對天然資源的需求壓力]

P. 3 of 3

Ch. 25

Concepts on Environment 1.

Bacteria feed on organic pollutants in water and may cause oxygen depletion. This is a cause of sudden drop of fish population. (NOT bacterial infection or lack of algae for food). 有機污染物使細菌繁殖, 使水中缺氧, 引致魚的族迅速下降。 (魚族下降不是由於細菌感染、缺乏藻類作為食物)

Animal waste is rich in organic matter, which provides food for the growth of bacteria. 動物廢料富有有機物質, 它為細菌提供生長所需要的食物。

Landfill takes up disposed wastes, eg. construction wastes. Waste disposal in the board sense includes both: (i) throwing off and (ii) treatment of unwanted things. 垃圾堆填區化去廢物, 例如: 建築廢料。廢物處理在廣義來說, 包括兩部分: 把不需要的東西 (i) 拋棄, (ii) 處理。

The importance of tropical rain forest are in (a) maintaining the balance of atmospheric gases (eg. carbon dioxide and oxygen), (b) maintaining a diversity of species, (c) conservation of natural habitats, (d) prevention of soil erosion. 熱帶雨林的重要性是: (a) 維持大氣中氣體的平衡 (例如: 二氧化碳和氧氣的平衡), (b) 維持物種多樣性, (c) 自然生境的保護, (d) 防止土壤侵蝕。

Conservation involves: (i) reducing the use of fossil fuels and artificial fertilizers, and (ii) recycling the waste into useful matters. There is NO USE to state that animal wastes could be used to produce fuels and fertilizers without specifying how this is related to conservation. 環境保護牽涉: (i) 減少使用化石燃料和化學肥料, 及 (ii) 把廢物循環成為有用的東西。在回答環境保護的問題時, 不能只寫: “動物廢料可以產生燃料和肥料”, 而沒有詳述這些如何涉及環境保護。

In water pollution: (a) In the absence of oxygen, the organic matter is broken down anaerobically to form large amount of toxic and bad-smelling gases such as methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulphide, the water quality is further deteriorated. (b) The mineral salts resulted from decomposition of organic matter may cause algal bloom and this will also lead to oxygen depletion. (c) Red tides are algal blooms caused by some red algae. Although most of them are not poisonous, they cause death of other organisms by using up all the dissolved oxygen in water for respiration (especially at night), leading to oxygen depletion. (d) The effluent passing out from a treatment plant contains much less organic wastes and all harmful microorganisms are removed. However, the high mineral content of the effluent may cause algal bloom if large amount is discharged into small water bodies such as rivers. One possible solution is to drain the effluent to some nearby farms to act as fertilizers or to large water bodies such as the sea. 在水污染中: (a) 在缺少氧氣的情況下, 有機物質被缺氧呼吸分解為大量有毒而又惡臭的氣體, 如: 甲烷、氨、和硫化氫, 這些東西使水質更壞; (b) 由有機物質分解而形成的礦物質, 引致藻類繁殖過度, 這也引致水中缺氧。

(c) 紅潮是一種紅藻類。它們雖然大部分都沒有毒性, 它們殺死其他生物的方法是在呼吸時取去水中的氧氣 (尤其在晚上), 使水中缺氧。 (d) 在污水處理廠排出的水, 包含較少有機廢物, 全部有害的微生物也都已被清除。但那麼高的礦物鹽含量在小的水中(例如: 小河流), 容易引致藻類繁殖過度。其中一個解決方法是引領污水處理廠所掛出的水到附近的農地作為肥料, 或去大的水域(例如: 海洋)。

P. 4 of 3

Ch. 25