Basic Mountaineering Course

BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE Guide to mountaineering, a basic neccesity to be a true mountaineer.

Prepared by PADAYON MOUNTAINEERS

INTRODUCTION: The Climber’s responsibility If there is an established trail, walk in a single line and avoid creating new trails.

Widening of such and formation of new ones can damage the soil and kill the plants crossing the paths of hikers.

Do not take anything from the forests as souvenir. If each climber would bring home one souvenir, the future climbers may be left with nothing but ugly remains of a oncebeautiful place.

Avoid disturbing wildlife. Many species of animals become stressed due to disturbance by man.

Never leave garbage along the trail or at the campsite. Oftentimes, the local communities do not have well-managed waste disposals, so it will be better to bring the garbage to the cities for proper disposal.

For human waste, each climber can dig his own "toilet", about six inches deep, and cover it with soil afterwards. Common latrines are proven to be bad because the soil cannot break down concentrated amounts of waste in reasonable time; it would be much better to bring along waste treatment gear to bring down the wastes back to the cities for proper disposal.

Bring along camping equipment like stoves to minimize the use of forest materials (like wood for cooking). In some cases, the only resources available are almost irreplaceable.

Do not bathe or wash dishes along rivers. The people downstream may be using the water for drinking purposes. Do the washing or bathing about twenty feet (make that 100 ft.) from the river bank. A more acceptable bathing practice is to do it without using soap.

Before traveling to a foreign culture or to an isolated village, it is best to learn the locals' culture to avoid embarrassing situations, both to the visitors and to the hosts.

Be sensitive to the values of the local people. Tourists may bring culture shock to the villagers and may alter the basic values of the population.

Abandon the old practice of digging trenches at the side of tents of campsites. Doing this leaves permanent damage to the environment.

Do not buy souvenir items made from rare animal or plant species or questionable sources.

Find out the maximum capacity of the trekking area before going to prevent overcrowding and to minimize the impacts on the environment.

Always register with the municipal or barangay (village) or park office or leave the names and number of the trekkers to any local official at the jump-off point. Tell them the date the group is expected to return so that emergency measures can be adopted the soonest possible time in case of accident.

Avoid giving money or token candies to the children in areas visited. The practice will ultimately affect the local children's set of values and condition them that each hiker is a source of easy money.

Make sure that health measures are taken into account in order to avoid disease transfer between the visitors and the locals.

If no one is familiar with the destination, always hire a guide. It saves time and lessens the probability of accidents.

Basic Mountaineering Course Padayon Mountaineers PART I

BACKPACK AND BAGS Choosing a backpack is a personal choice. Basically your pack is your home away from home. Knowing that it contains everything you need for the climb, you need a sturdy pack that fits comfortably on you. Walking eight hour a day with a pack is no joke so you better be careful in considering comfort based on the design of the pack. Having a good pack that is made of durable materials that can resist majority of abrasions experienced along the trail can contribute to the life span of your pack.

Before buying a pack work out how large it needs to be; where you aim to put everything you need for the trip. Different packs work for different people. Having the pack custom made is better simply because you will have a better fit and a unique design. In backpacking, a well-designed backpack is centered on its functionality and not because it is the latest in fashion/styling.

TYPES OF PACKS ACCORDING TO USE Daypack A daypack should be able to carry your needs for just a day's hike that should be able to contain just enough supply of food, water and some extra clothing. Buy a strong model equipped with frame and a padded back. Be careful to distinguish between a mountaineering daypack from an ordinary commercial daypack intended for urban use.

Internal frame backpack It is the most preferable and widely used backpack in the Philippines. Its design allows you to move freely along thick vegetation without any hindrance of the branches getting entangled in your pack due to the thick vegetation that is usually encountered along tropical rainforest trails. Another advantage of an internal frame backpack is that the weight of the backpack is closer to your body’s center of gravity. The only disadvantage is you tend to perspire a lot at the back.

External frame backpack This type of pack is not usually used in the country. Although the external frame holds the weight away from your body that allows the air to circulate and carry away some of the sweat from your back, it can cause some problems while moving on trail. The frame being exposed gets caught in the branches of trees more often than not, affecting your pacing.

Belt bags This type of bag is designed for easy access of things like the trail food, emergency kits, camera and coin purse while on trail.

BACK PACK COVER It is made of waterproofed material designed to keep your pack dry. It is highly necessary when climbing rainforests.

How to Test Fit a Backpack (internal and external frame packs) The pack you are testing should have approximately 20-30 lbs. of weight inside, centered close to your body and between your shoulder blades. Perform the procedure below (in front of a mirror). Enlist the help of an experienced salesperson if possible.

Step #1.

Loosen the pack's shoulder straps and hip belt.

Step #2.

Slip your arms through the shoulder straps.

Step #3.

Position the hip belt comfortably near the top of your hipbones.

Step #4.

Close the hip belt buckle and tighten it.

Step #5.

Check the padded sections of the hip belt to make sure they wrap around your hips comfortably without touching in front.

Step #6.

If the belt is too loose or tight, try re-positioning the buckle pieces on the hip belt straps. If this doesn't solve the problem, you may have to try a different pack (or hip belt).

Step #7.

Once the hip belt is positioned properly, cinch the shoulder straps down tight, then back them off slightly.

Step #8.

Look sideways in the mirror.

Step #9.

Check the shoulder strap anchor points.

External frame packs without load-lift straps - The shoulder straps should attach to the pack frame at a point roughly even with the top of your shoulders.

External frame packs with load-lift straps - The padded sections of the shoulder straps should wrap around the top of your shoulders comfortably and attach to the frame three or four inches below them.

Internal frame packs - The padded sections of the shoulder straps should wrap around the top of your shoulders comfortably and attach to the frame three or four inches below them.

Step #10.

Check load lift straps - Most modern backpacks come with load-lift straps.

These straps should begin just below the tops of your shoulders (near your collarbones) and angle back toward the pack body at roughly a 45-degree angle.

Step #11.

Check shoulder strap width - Shoulder straps should be far enough apart that they don't squeeze your neck, but close enough together that they don't slip off of your shoulders during hiking. This width can be adjusted on many backpacks.

Step #12.

Check for a good torso fit - If the pack fits you correctly, you should be able to redistribute the weight of the pack between your shoulders and your hips simply by loosening and tightening your shoulder straps slightly.

Step #13.

Check for comfort - Does the pack feel good on your back? Does it pinch or bind or restrict your freedom of movement? Can you look up without hitting the pack with your head. Can you squat down without cutting off the circulation to your legs?

PACKING YOUR BACKPACKS After sorting out what you should bring to a climb, the next step is to pack it in. A good technique before packing is to spread your things on a dining table or bed. This is to make sure that you will not forget a single item. Arrange them in categories, i.e. sleeping equipment, cooking equipment, and the like. Remember to bring only what you need for that particular climb.

Following are guidelines when packing your backpack: Know where you are going and for how long.

Sort them by category. It is also a good idea to pack your items like clothes in colorcoded self-sealing plastic bags for easy access. Like this orange plastic is for my clothes in the evening or this red plastic bag is my cold weather clothes and the like.

Gender. Males are generally stronger than females and can carry more items.

Center of Gravity. Not necessarily dependent on gender. This is important since the skeletal structure of males are different from the females. A number one factor that is neglected by most of our local climbers. Generally, males have wide shoulders than the females, while the latter has wider hips. Therefore when packing your packs make sure that the heavy items are high up in the pack for males while for females its lower.

Line your backpack with a large plastic bag (a clear, thick body bag will do, usually sold at your local market) this is to ensure that your gear inside does not get wet when the rains arrive.

Next is your sleeping pad.

The rest is up to you. But then again, bring what you only need and or the group.

Take care of your pack Backpacks are built to be sturdy, but a little common sense and TLC (tender-loving care) will keep them in good shape for years and years.

Pack carefully, and keep sharp and/or hard-edged objects covered. Things like cook pots, knives, and stoves can rub holes in your pack.

Keep your pack clean and dry. If you plan to backpack in rainy conditions, invest in a backpack cover that will keep your pack and your stuff dry. A wet sleeping bag and soggy food is sad event out on the trail. Remember, even the most water-resistant pack is not waterproof!

Clean and dry your pack completely when you return from each trip. Let it air out a bit before storing. If it's really filthy, scrub with soap, rinse with water, and air dry. Use a washing machine? No way! And don't hang or store it in the sun for extended periods, either. UV rays aren't good for nylon.

BOOTS It is our feet that takes us where we want to go and mountaineers who don’t show respect for their feet is in for a rough journey. Nothing can make a hiker more miserable than ill fitting boots. Mountaineers should always put in mind that footwear is very important because our body weight is spread over our two feet considering the added weight of packs including the hazard in the mountain, the feet are under constant pressure. So you should buy a pair of boots that have traction and a decent sole which can absorb the impact of roots and rocks and can grip on wet, slippery ground. Boots should support your ankles and arches and most of all should be comfortable and reliable.

TYPES OF BOOTS Fabric boots Generally a combination of fabric and some other materials like leather. They are usually very comfortable because they are soft, flexible, and lightweight. Fabric boots lets the feet 'breathe' which is especially important with the type of weather here in the Philippines. Fabric boots has the advantage to dry out quickly when wet. Appropriate for tropical weather.

Leather boots They are relatively heavier than fabric boots and fall on the category of mid-weight boots. Leather boots are durable and gives good protection to your feet. They usually have strong cleated soles and are usually durable and water-resistant. The leather uppers give good ankle protection. These types of boots are commonly more expensive than fabric boots.

Jungle boots Designed by the US army for tropical countries like the Philippines but rarely used in mountaineering. Jungle boots have rubber soles and cleats. It is usually wide and deep for a good grip on wet ground. It gives protection to the ankle from thorns and rocks while allowing the feet to breathe through the canvas uppers. Special instep vents allow water to be squirted out after wading in water.

CARING FOR YOUR BOOTS Never dry leather boots under direct heat or near a fire. You will end up with damaged, cracked leather.

Applying wax or conditioner to your boots will lengthen their life. Follow the manufacturer instruction for care. You could use waterproofing wax or silicon type spray.

After a hike, clean your boots and always store it in a cool and dry place.

OTHER OUTDOOR FOOTWEAR Sport Sandals After a long days walk, wearing sandals is much comfortable than wearing your boots in the campsite. Your feet can finally breathe and relax. They are terrific for crossing streams because they dry almost immediately. It also comes to the rescue if your boots gives-in or blisters arise. Do not use as substitute for hiking boots because they do not give much protection to your feet.

Slippers Slippers are lightweight, soft, very comfortable, easy to dry and best of all are very cheap. One disadvantage though, rubber slippers do not last long and does not give much protection.

SOCKS Just wearing a good pair of boots doesn't exactly give protection to your feet. Socks cushion the feet and prevent the boots from rubbing the skin, as well as keeping the feet warm and dry. It is advised to wear two pair of socks. The inner pair should be of breathable fabric which wicks moisture away from the feet and thick outer socks to insulate the feet and pad them against the boot. Some hiking socks have thick soles for insulation and padding and thin uppers to minimize sweating.

CLOTHING (Only in the Philippines) One should wear the appropriate clothing based on the natural condition in which we live in. You should be able to equip yourself with the right garments for any type of weather.

In bad weather, you may not have garments manufactured for specific climates, but you could use the layering system in conjunction with shelter as protection against the elements wind, cold, heat and rain. The basic Filipino mountaineering outfit would consist of a pair of short and a T-shirt, a hat or bandana, socks and liners. Hikers prefer modified bicycle short or tights and nylon T-shirt and tank top (sports bra) for women. In

cold weather you could use jogging pants fleece jacket and windbreakers. If the weather gets worse you could wear a couple of extra layer of clothes.

THE LAYERING PRINCIPLE Several thin layers of clothing that trap air in between them gets warm and keeps you warmer than a single thick garment. If your body get too warm you can control body temperature by removing layers or venting. This principle applies both in hot and cold weather.

Upper layering The core Layer - the first layer, which lies next to your skin, should consist of a cotton vest or long sleeved, which should not be too tight.

The second layer- should be loose fitting, but be able to keep the blood vessels of the neck and wrists protected and warm. It can be a shirt with collar, sleeves that can be rolled up or with just a windproof shell.

The outer Layer- The third layer should be woolen pullover, fleece jacket and a jacket that is either wind resistant or waterproof, depending on the climate.

Underpants Long thermal underwear is usually only necessary in extreme cold temperature. In mild Philippine climate you may wear cotton type underwear. Trousers must allow freedom of movement and should be made of a fabric that will dry quickly if it gets wet.

TIPS: Getting wet creates problem. Waterproofs, like poncho, raincoat and water-resistant jacket must be put on when rain starts, but remove immediately when the rain stops. Rain gears made from impermeable materials is no good for walking because it traps air thereby making you feel hot, sweaty and uncomfortable.

CLOTHING ACCESORIES Bonnet – which can protect your entire head from the cold climate.

Gloves- keep your hands warm and protects your hands from getting bruised.

Bandanna- a piece of cloth larger than a handkerchief, serves as a sweatband, headcover, towel, and can also be used a s water filter and placemat.

Malong –Originated from Mindanao is basically a cloth with ehtnic designs and can cover body from neck down. Mountaineers have used it.

TENTS Tents are one of those things you only truly appreciate when you need it. The minute you are caught in an unexpected storm with strong winds and rain, you will need a good, strong shelter. Something secure as being huddled in a tent that you know can protect you from getting wet, keep you warm and most of all, does not leak. You have an almost unlimited number of choices of protecting yourself from the elements. Tents come in a wide variety of shapes and function. You also can be protected with tarps and rain flies, or you may plan to bivouac under the stars if the weather permits.

What to look for in a tent?

Quality - Your tent is your defenses against the elements so do not sacrifice quality for price. If you plan to buy a tent save for it and go for a good tent. A cheap tent would not do the same job of a good quality tent. Also, take into consideration what kind of terrain you are going to use it? Mountain, beach, resort or a very established campsite; keep this in mind before buying.

Size - Consider your personal choice if you plan to share it with friends or have the luxury of being alone inside the tent.

Weight – the lighter the better. A lightweight tent obviously will lighten your pack.

Choose one with aluminum poles which is far lighter then fiber glass poles.

Free standing - You can virtually pitch the tent anywhere. Also if your chosen spot doesn’t work out you can move the tent without taking it down. It is also easier to clean and dry this type of tent.

TIPS ON USING YOUR TENT Keep your tent in a convenient place in your pack where you can get the tent without taking everything else out first. This is important when it rains.

Use a ground sheet under the tent to protect the bottom from roots and rocks. Make sure you tuck in the ground sheet underneath the edges of the tent to keep the out water from collecting underneath.

Never cook inside the tent, even when it rains.

Don’t leave the tent under direct sunlight, because the sunlight weakens the fabric and the waterproofing.

TYPES OF TENT FOR ALL TERRAINS Horizontal-ridge tent or A Frame This style of tent can come in virtually any size from one person to several people. It can be set up almost anywhere. It has a central horizontal roof pole and two end poles of the same height.

Dome tent This is ideal for extreme condition, since it is very stable. Very easy to pitch and dismantle and also spacious.

Tunnel tent A tunnel tent is a cross between a dome tent and a ridge tent. They can be used on grass or on rocky terrain.

Tadpole or frog type Very stable and can withstand bad weather. It is aerodynamic which can deflect high wind and is usually lightweight.

Geodesic Dome tent They are strong and lightweight. The shape provides a lot of headroom.

SLEEPING BAG Nothing is better than sleeping warm and dry after a hike. Resting is essential for a climber, and being warm and dry makes you feel comfortable. A sleeping bag gives you comfort and warmth. Therefore, you should safeguard its dryness as if your life depended on it. You need a sleeping bag that has good insulation, compact (not too bulky) and lightweight. Always keep it in a waterproof cover.

Sleeping bags are manufactured accordingly from low, average to high temperature rating depending on the weather conditions. Therefore, you should buy an average temperature bag suitable for the Philippine weather.

Sleeping bags come in many shapes. The advisable shapes are: Mummy bag – This style of bag minimizes heat loss, but some find it tight fitting.

Semi-rectangular bag - They are very comfortable and widely used in the Philippines.

They have zippers that provide easy access to the bag and a hood to prevent heat from escaping from the head, neck and shoulder.

SLEEPING ACCESSORIES Sleeping Bag Liner The lining is usually made of cotton. It keeps a layer of air between you and your bag. It does not have that sweaty feeling compared with no lining. It also protects wear and tear of the sleeping bag. It can also be made up of polyester, which is also good in keeping body heat.

Sleeping mats or Earth pad Sleeping mat is usually made up of rubber or durable lightweight foam. It is used to pad your sleeping bag from small rocks that can hurt your back. It is also used to give extra shielding from the cold ground. You can choose from imported Therm-a-rest products or local polyurethane foams, which can be bought from stores in Divisoria.

Space Blanket A space blanket is a lightweight aluminum foil which is wind proof and provides heat by reflecting body heat to the person using it. It gives added warmth and comfort especially in extremely cold weather conditions. Usually used in emergency situations only.

STOVE AND COOKING UTENSILS Cooking by open fire is no longer advisable as the man-made fire can endanger the forest.

Nowadays, portable camp stoves are used because of the convenience it offers. It is easy to operate but one should exert an extra effort of going through the manual first before operating the stove or any equipment and take note of the precautions indicated.

There is a wide array of stoves to choose from. But the basic types are the refillable and cartridge stoves.

Multi-fuel stove This stove is the most popular stove around the world. These stove runs on liquid gas, most often white gas or lighter fluid, paraffin, aviation fuel, unleaded, and kerosene. This stove is more expensive than the cartridge stove but the consumption and cost of fuel is minimal. This comes in two types. Namely, multifuel with built-in tank and multifuel with a detachable tank.

Cartridge stove This stove use disposable gas cartridge containing butane or propane. Although the stove itself is a lot cheaper than the multifuel stove, the cost of fuel it consumes and the thought of accumulating non-biodegradable gas cartridges should be taken into consideration when making a choice. You are also at the mercy of cartridge supplies available at the stores. Ultimately, which will be cheaper?

COOKING UTENSIL The basic cooking utensils for camping are few different sizes of pots, or Billy can set.

When cooking, both pot and stove fire must be sheltered from the wind. This will conserve fuel. You probably have lightweight small pots in your kitchen, which you could use or improvise. For hikers lightweight cooking utensils are preferred. Well you don’t have to bring lot of utensils, you could convert a pot for frying pan, can for mug and so on.

These are the suggested Utensils. pots frying pan kettle plate mug bowl spoon and fork knife aluminum foil.

TIP: Always look for multi-purpose utensils to lessen the things you have to bring.

WATER EQUIPMENT Water is as essential and vital to life as the oxygen we breathe. The amount of fluid lost through perspiration and evaporation needs to be replenished. Otherwise, the body's chemical equilibrium will become disturbed; illness is more likely to occur. Dehydration occurs not only during hot weather but during cold conditions also. This happens when one does not crave for water or does not feel thirsty due to cold climate. Moisture loss occurs during cold (extreme) conditions.

An average mountaineer consumes around 1.5 liters per day for moderate hiking with normal temperature of 25-34 degrees centigrade. Note that consumption will increase as much as 3 times during climbs in extremely hot conditions. Discipline of the mountaineer is also one factor to consider. Some of the heavy drinkers are those who take gulps of water instead of taking small sips. For water intake while trekking, a small bottle is usually positioned at the side pocket of the pack for easy access. Containers vary in shapes and sizes but generally, the mouth or opening of the container should be no bigger than the softdrink-bottle's mouth. A wider mouth or opening would mean a bigger amount of water going out of the container. Modern hydration systems (such as Platypus) is a container that has a hose connected to the opening, is getting popular due to its easyaccess feature. No need to stop and reach for the bottle. A sip from the hose's end will do.

Water sources coming from the falls and rivers must be treated with puritabs to avoid getting sick. 1 liter needs 1pc of puritabs/iodine tablet/magnesium sulfate to purify. Wait for around 30 minutes before drinking. It takes a while to get used to the taste. Some mask the taste by adding powdered juice. If you detect any silts or foreign objects floating, filter the water first before purification. A coffee filter or filter paper can be used to filter out the silt.

Another method of water purification is the use of a filtration device. This is available at mountaineering shops but is seldom used among mountaineers here in the Philippines.

After filtration, water needs to be treated to ensure water-borne diseases or any other harmful bacteria are no longer present. The safest way to purify water is by boiling which is not so popular also since it consumes gas. Boiling water is reserved only for coffee or chocolate drinks and food preparation.

CAMP NECCESITIES The ability to pack the barest essentials and not carry extra equipment requires a lot of self-control. One has a tendency to bring the comforts of home in the mountains, weighing down your pack, causing you to climb slower and eventually slowing down the phasing of the group. However, there are critical items that one might not use during the climb but are lifesavers during emergencies.

The list of essential items may vary depending on the nature of the trip but basically these are the items each backpacker should carry along in case the unexpected happens. A brief explanation on the essentials follows: FLASHLIGHT/HEADLAMP. Choose a flashlight or headlamp that is compact, lightweight and waterproof. Most commonly used is the Maglite, which has an adjustable focus. It lets you adjust the lighting for viewing objects from afar or focusing on things close by. Others prefer headlamps as it keeps their hands free.

EXTRA FOOD.A day's supply of extra food in case one gets delayed for some reason.

Usually, those that are easy to prepare like cup noodles and canned goods requiring the minimum of cooking.

EXTRA CLOTHING. Depending on the season of the year, ensure that you have extra clothing in case of rain. Note that one should keep warm and dry as much as possible to combat sickness.

FIRST AID KIT. The kit is not an emergency room fully equipped to treat injuries. It only acts as a tool to keep the injured stabilized. (Refer to Chapter IV for complete list of first-aid kit) POCKET KNIFE. A minor climb does not require a 20 blade pocket Swiss knife. As discussed earlier bring the barest essential. A pocketknife with 2 blades, can opener and knife will do. Knives are brought along basically to help in food preparation and first aid.

MATCHES. Carry an extra emergency supply of waterproof wooden matches aside from the lighter.

WHISTLE. In case you get separated or are in an emergency situation, blow 3 blasts (long, short, long) to signify that you require help. Blowing a whistle is more practical than shouting.

OTHER ESSENTIALS Maps and compass: Since the trails in the Philippine mountains are established, the use of maps and compass has been unnecessary. However, the basic "know hows" should be acquired by those who plan to take on mountaineering as a sport or hobby. One should acquaint himself in the correct use of these tools in order to be prepared in cases of emergencies.

REPAIR EQUIPMENT Anticipating emergencies makes one plan ahead and prepare for problems that might possible arise during the climb. Even if it’s just an overnight hike, it is better to be ready.

For instance, a repair kit can be handy in case of broken equipment. Although carrying a repair kit does not ensure that the equipment can be fixed entirely but it will have to suffice at the moment.

Pack Repair Carry extra pins, buckles and lathers locks just in case something gets loosened during the climb.

Tent Repair This kit should include a duct tape, needle & thread and a seam sealer. Seam sealers will only be used if the trip lasts for 2 months depending on how much you need to use it on the tent. Duct tape can also be used to repair boots. Another important part of the tent repair set is an aluminum tube about 6 inches in length where you can insert your tent pole if it breaks off as a temporary measure.

Stove Repair Stoves are designed for heavy-duty use but as discussed earlier, better come prepared.

Upon purchase of your stove, always inquire if its comes with a repair kit.

Clothing Repair Small sewing kit is available at most department stores. It usually contains different colored threads, needle, thimble, scissors and buttons. Ultra lightweight but is not a necessity to take along if your trip last for less than a week.

PART II PREPARATION Physical Preparation Mountaineering is a strenuous sport that is why days before a scheduled climb one must prepare for it physically. We don’t actually count out the unfit to experience a "climb" for some mountains here in the Philippines are not that difficult that even "couch potatoes" can survive. But to truly enjoy the experience, a serious mountaineer should develop his physique to the point that it will never be a question and that he could focus on other matters such as appreciating a view than lingering in pain.

Engaging on other sports that are invaluable to the development of necessary physical skills involved in mountaineering can help him do this. It is not only as a preparation to a climb that these should be done, but it should already be a way of life if one wishes to become serious in this sport. Here are some suggested exercise regimes:  Running/Jogging-endurance  Biking-endurance  Swimming -endurance  Weight lifting-strength FOOD & NUTRITION Mountaineering demands a great amount of energy and effort. Such an activity drains the body of its water and other energy-boosting nutrients that needs to be replenished. With careful planning, the food one brings should be sufficient sources of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fiber & water. Other factors like age, sex, weather conditions, duration and difficulty of the expedition should be considered not only to have a well-balanced diet but also in order to determine the demands of energy the body needs are supplied sufficiently.

In order to maintain a well-balanced diet, it is necessary to eat the right amount of food daily. The food guide pyramid ideally provides a basis for general meal planning, arranged to indicate the proportion each group should consume on a daily basis. (insert food guide pyramid) Amount of food per serving: Milk, yogurt & cheese group 1 serving

1 cup of milk or yogurt or 1 ½ to 2 ounces of cheese

Meat, poultry & fish group 1 serving

2 to 3 ounces of cooked lean meat, fish or poulry;1 to 1 ½ cups of cooked dry beans; 2 eggs; or 4 to 6 tablespoons of peanut butter

Vegetable Group 1 serving

1 cup of raw, leafy, vegetables; ½ cup of other vegetables (cooked or chopped raw); or ¼ cup vegetable juice

Fruit Group

1 medium apple, banana or orange; ½

1 serving

cup of cooked, chopped or canned fruit; or ž cup of fruit juice

Bread, cereal, rice & Pasta Group 1 serving

1 slice bread; 1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal; or ½ cup cooked cereal, rice or pasta

ROLE OF NUTRIENTS IN MOUNTAINEERING Carbohydrate: A major source of fuel to skeletal muscle, enabling the muscles to contract and you to perform the activity. Different activities would require different amounts of energy, depending on how strenuous the climb is going to be. It is generally practiced that before joining a major climb, mountaineers usually eat a lot of food highly rich in carbohydrates termed as carbo-loading. Carbohydrates provide us with 60-65% of our total energy intake. As the body could only store a limited amount of carbohydrate, the energy is also provided from the body's fat stores. Note that if the diet is not rich enough in carbohydrate to fuel the muscles, it will be difficult to sustain a long walk.

Symptoms such as tiredness and heavy legs will be experienced.

Fat: A concentrated source of energy if uncontrolled could be harmful to health. The emphasis of a mountaineer's diet should be on foods containing carbohydrate and a small amount of fat. More than 35% of fat intake for long periods is associated to heart disease, obesity and cancer. During climbs or hikes, carbohydrates will be used initially and after a short time, a mixture of carbohydrates and fats.

Protein: Generally, 10-15% of the total energy intake comes from protein. It restores and repairs the body and helps fight infection. Excess protein from the diet is converted to fat.

Vitamins & minerals: A climb less than a week will not cause too much deficiency. Only in expeditions longer than a week would a body require additional vitamin supplements.

Fiber: Facilitates normal gut function and aids in regular bowel movement. During climb, it is suggested that you reduce the amount of fiber eaten as it creates a feeling of fullness limiting the amount of food intake. 30 grams of fiber is recommended and will not be harmful to health if this requirement is not met for a short period.

To summarize, the proportion of energy intake, which should come from carbohydrates, fat and protein is 60-65%, 25-30% and 10-15% respectively.

In actuality, your mess plate should contain more than half the plate of pasta, potatoes or rice (the carbohydrates food); a quarter should contain veggies (carbohydrate + protein); and the remainder should have lean meat, chicken or fish (protein + fat).

CRITERIA IN CHOOSING WHAT FOODS TO BRING Based from experience, one will know whether it is just right, too much or too little. Bear in mind though that too much food means a heavy backpack and will take a slower trip.

Too little will leave you hungry and affecting energy levels, strength and endurance. The following criteria should be kept in mind when choosing the right food to bring: (in no particular order)  Minimal spoilage  Lightweight  Less water consumption  Easy to prepare  Nutritious Before packing, ensure that the unnecessary packaging has been disposed of, as this adds to the load. Packing a kit containing condiments and seasoning for not so popular and tasty meals may be worthwhile. Extra packs of coffee or chocolate or instant noodles must be on hand to keep you warm.

Suggested Foods to bring: BREAKFAST

FOOD WHILE ON TRAIL

LUNCH (pre-packed)

EVENING MEAL

Porridge (lugaw) Cereals Hash browns Muesli/granola bars Rice with dried fish Bread Peanut butter Jam Juice Coffee or hot choco Fruit

Gorp* Bread Biscuits Fresh fruit Dried fruit Chocolate bar Raisins Candies Gelatin Fruit cup

Rice with meal (usually canned goods) Instant noodles Sandwich Fruit

Soup Rice Pasta Mashed potatoes Corned beef Sardines Canned meat (tuna) Dried fish Mixed vegetables (prepacked) Hot choco Fruit drink

* Gorp is a mixture of raisins, dried fruit, peanuts, and M&M’s DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT

For a more scientific approach on how much food should be consumed based on the number of calories, see table below. Note that everyone has varying degrees of requirements so the table presented below is an average and may be adjusted to suit a climber's needs.

Estimated Daily Energy Requirements (DER) in kcalories Sex

Male

Female

Age

15-18

19-50

15-18

19-50

DER in kcal

2755

2550

2110

1940

An additional 10 percent must be added for external factors.  if a full backpack is carried  for every ascent of 500m  extreme weather conditions For example, the DER for a 70-kg man aged 27 yr. old undertaking a day's climb at Mt. Apo , with an ascent of 1000m.

Kcal Baseline DER 2550 20% for 1000m ascent 508 10% for a full backpack 254 ----Estimated requirements 3312 kcal

PART III

ORGANIZING A CLIMB INTRODUCTION Mountaineering is one sport that one can enjoy either with a team, a group of friends, with a partner or even by his lonesome. It is good to experience each one of them once in a while but before one should venture out into the wilderness on his own, it is advised that he first join an organized climb and learn the basic mountaineering skills for his safety and enjoyment. It is advisable for an individual to join some mountaineering group where he could learn and experience the basics extensively through the courses they offer. Just be sure that the organization one will join offers such services.

This chapter deals with the details of organizing a climb. Although most mountaineers love the idea of freedom and spontaneity than rules and organization, these structures were meant for the climber’s safety and the protection of the environment at the same time thus it’s importance never undermined.

The organizer should have mastered the basic skills at the minimum and have a good record of experiences before he leads a group. This is due to the fact that still, mountaineering has dangerous aspects.

PLANNING A CLIMB In planning a climb here are points to consider:  Decide where to go.  Choose your companion or target participants.  Collect route information and other useful information on the destination considered. It is advisable to contact any LGUs or local mountaineering group to get current information on the status of the trails, costs, permits, etc.  Assess the physical fitness of the group.  Arrange for food and equipment distribution.  Check weather forecast.  Acquire permits in advance if necessary.  Assign climb officials.  Conduct pre-climb meeting or briefings.

CLIMB COMPOSITION Although there are no rules on the number of person to join an expedition, three is the suggested least number of people in an expedition. This is because if an emergency occurs, one can accompany the victim while the other goes out for help considering the injured is only one of the participants; or even two if one has only minor injuries. With regards with the number of maximum participants, these should depend on the carrying capacity of the place although no such studies still exist in the Philippines as of this date.

Too many climbers make the team slow and stressful to the environment. Eight is the ideal number based on the principles of a military squad.

As a practice here in the Philippines, here is a list of basic climb officials and their duties and responsibilities.

   

Team Leader Lead man (trailblazer, lead packer) Sweeper (tail ender) First- aiders

TEAM LEADER 1. The team leader is the final authority during the climb, and all participants are expected to support and comply with his decisions. Any negative evaluation of his conduct of the climb should be brought out during the post-climb meeting.

However, the team leader is expected to consult with the participants before making major decisions that affect the itinerary or conduct of the climb.

2. He is expected to exercise good judgement and to consider safety, comfort and fun.

3. The team leader assigned for any climb preferably must have had prior climb experience on the same route unless it is an expedition climb, or when a local guide is available. In any event general familiarity with the route is required.

4. Duties of the team leader : Preparatory activities  Consult those who are familiar with the terrain and locality particularly the security situation, trail conditions, campsite limitations and travel restrictions.  Conduct a survey of the route when possible or when advisable.  Prepare the climb itinerary.  Conduct physical diagnostics.

Pre-climb  Objective of the climb based on its nature (initiation, fun, training, induction or expedition)  General information, historical significance, folklore, etc. of the location of the climb.  Itinerary and highlights of the climb.  Route condition and trail hazards.  Water sources and its condition.  Main and alternative campsites.  General weather conditions.  Local weather conditions or peculiarities.  Cultural peculiarities of the locale (beliefs, taboos, etc.)  Contact persons in the locality and residence.  Special medical precautions on malaria, typhoid, dengue, etc.  Purchase opportunities in the locale.  Special equipment checklist and assignments (for overall group equipment such as ropes, harness, etc.)  Transportation arrangements.  Budget.  Review of ethics, policies and Basic Mountaineering Course when necessary.  Assignments of groupings and climb officers. (it is important to remind all the participants of the functions, responsibilities and authorities of these key climb officers)



Review of the itinerary. (It is best to distribute copies of the itinerary to all participants. If copies are unavailable, remind them to copy the itinerary as presented) Pre-departure  In case of any pre-departure change in itinerary or plans, the team leader shall immediately notify all participants. At the pre-departure assembly point, the team leader shall ensure that all present have actually complied with all mandatory requirements that apply to them and shall require compliance with those that are not yet complied with.  The team leader must prepare a list of participants before departure. It shall be the basis for periodic head counts and allocation of common expenses. If possible, a copy of the list should be left with a contact person at the point of departure in the event that a rescue becomes necessary.

Climb Proper  Before the start of the trek and at every major rest stop. Check the head count and general physical conditions of all participants.  As needed, consult with the other climb officers or participants any need to modify the itinerary due to weather, injury, unforeseen trail hazards, etc. After consultation, make the decision and notify all the participants.  Control the overall pacing of the climb so as not to unduly delay the trek without sacrificing safety of any participant.  Check that proper trail signs are installed at critical places like forks and trail splits.  At the campsite, ensure that camp protocol and proper practices are observed as well as compliance with organization ethics, rules and regulations.  Observe the conduct and comfort of participants.  Observe and monitor performance of climb officers.  Ensure that the campsite is left clean before taking off.  Establish/maintain contact with local community leaders and dwellers along the trail but more particularly at or near campsites.

Emergency Situation  In case of any situation requiring extreme deviation from the climb schedule, the team leader shall, in so far as practicable, consult with the participants. In any event, the team leader must make the final decision taking overall and individual safety into consideration.  In case of incapacitating injury to any member of the party, the team leader must call-off the climb. Steps must be taken to protect and care for the victim/s. If a provisional camp is established to stabilize the victim, a team of at least 2 experienced climbers must be sent ahead to alert the base camp and contact rescue authorities as well as the contact person of the victim. The team leader may allow other members of the party to proceed down while ensuring that experienced and strong climbers are left to attend to the injured member/s until a rescue party reaches them. At all times, the team leader must maintain composure and keep all members calm but alert.  In case of prolonged lack of contact with tail-enders, the team leader must make the decision on whether or not to send a search party to backtrack and assist the

tail- enders as needed. In this case, strong and experienced climbers must be sent while the main body set up a temporary holding camp as needed. The leadsman should be notified to either hold their position or rejoin the main body.

Post Climb Briefing  As soon as possible, preferably within a week after the completion of the climb, the team leader shall take up the following: 1. Review and assessment of the climb: general conduct, trail, pointers for subsequent climbs, etc.

2. Comments, admonitions, congratulations regarding conduct of individual participants.

LEADMAN  As much as possible, the assigned leadman should not be team leaders themselves. Exceptions can be made in cases of small groups (12 or less) which are not likely to get separated, climb of short duration, or absence of qualified members.  He must have prior experience on the particular trail unless accompanied by local guides.  He should be selected among the stronger, healthier, experienced and patient members of the party. For a large climbing party or a long duration climb, more than one should be assigned.  He has the duty to put in place the proper trail markers for the guidance of the following groups. When in doubt, or when the possibility of doubt exists, the trail must be marked in such a manner that no confusion could arise in its interpretation.  He must stop and wait for re-assembly at designated major rest stops, and they must remain within whistle-hearing distance of the next group at all times.  He should not deviate from the planned route without waiting for the team leader’s decision.  He shall implement the pacing as instructed by the Team Leader.

SWEEPERS  As much as possible, the assigned sweepers should not be team leaders themselves. Exceptions may be made in cases of small parties , (12 or less) which are not likely to get separated; climbs of short duration; or absence of qualified members.  They must have prior experience on the particular trail unless accompanied by a local guide.  They must be self-contained as completely as practicable.  The sweepers must be selected from among the stronger, healthier, experienced and patient members of the party. For a large climbing party or a long duration climb, more than two must be assigned.  The sweeper must remain at the tail-end of the climbing party at all times.He must be ready to assist lagging climber/s who may need assistance, and must maintain the pace, and control the rest stops of the lagging participants, taking into consideration their physical situations, safety needs, and the climb schedule.  In case of incapacitating injury or illness, or danger brought about by unexpected weather, darkness or natural occurrence, the sweeper may decide to set-up a

temporary camp at his direction. Other members of the group, who are capable of going on, must be sent ahead to notify the team leader of the actions taken, so that the latter may make the necessary decisions. Again, safety is first considered.  One of the sweepers must be assigned to remove trail markers put up by the lead group.

FIRST AIDER  Expedition first-aiders should preferably be chosen from among those who had proper training under the auspices of the Philippine National Red Cross, or had professional medical training. In this connection, the organization shall endeavor to maintain a pool of trained members.  At least one should be assigned per climb. For large parties, more than one should be designated. If more than one is assigned they should be distributed over more than one team.  In the event of an injury, the first aider shall have the responsibility for applying the necessary aid, prescribing medication, and recommending corrective action or assistance. If necessary to deviate from the itinerary, he shall make his recommendation known to the team leader for the lather’s decision. In the presence of a designated first-aider, no other member shall intervene with the treatment of a victim unless he/she is requested by the first aider to assist.

PART IV

TRAIL MOVEMENTS INTRODUCTION The Philippine wilderness may not be that hospitable to the foreign backpacker as well as to the locals, considering the state of the trail, location and number of participants.

Knowing how to organize and behave with your group will make or break your trip.

Basic know-how and common sense plays an important role in your survival in the wilderness.

Before setting out be sure that you are in good condition. Eat a heavy breakfast to ensure energy during most of the day and stop walking when there is plenty of daylight to set-up your first campsite. Following are warm-up and stretching techniques. This is particularly important since this will loosen your muscles and therefore greatly reduce the chances of injury.

WARM-UP AND STRETCHING TECHNIQUES The general warm-up should begin with ‘joint-manipulation,’ starting either from your toes and working your way up, or from your fingers and working your way down. Make slow circular movements (both clockwise and counter-clockwise) until the joint moves smoothly. You should rotate the following (in the order given, or in the reverse order): 1.

Fingers and knuckles 2. Wrists 3. Elbows 4. Shoulders 5. Neck 6. Trunk/waist 7. Hip 8.

Leg 9. Knees 10. Ankles 11. Toes After your general warm-up, you should engage in some slow, relaxed stretching. Once again you should start from the top and work down (or from the bottom and work up) to stretch the following: 1. Forearms and wrists 2. Triceps 3. Neck 4. Chest 5. Sides (external oblique) 6. Back 7. Buttocks 8. Groin (adductors) 9. Thighs (quadriceps and abductors) 10. Hamstrings 11. Calves 12. Shin 13. Instep. Hold the stretched position for 5 seconds, at least.

MOVING OUT Keep an eye on the mountain during the approach hike, studying it for climbing routes.

The distant view reveals gross patterns of ridges, cliffs, as well as the average angle of inclination. As you get closer, you can get the general idea of the terrain, i.e. fault lines, brand of cliffs and crevasses. Throughout the approach follow the old mountaineering dictum to "climb with your eyes." Keep on the lookout for alternative routes, possible water sources, emergency campsites, firewood and or anything that can be used in case an emergency arises. In short, be wary of your surroundings. The ideal distance between climbers is two (2) meters or seeing distance.

SIGNALING Before setting out be sure that your group set rules for signaling. The following are the signals used by the MMS when climbing. The signal for stopping is two (2) short whistle blasts; while signal to proceed is one (1) long whistle blast and these are the sole responsibility of the lead and tail men. The international mountaineering distress signal is 6 blast to a minute. To signal that aid is on the way, give 3 blast to a minute.

WALKING TECHNIQUES The basic skill that is required for a mountaineer is walking. The oldest form of transportation ever used by man and it is the most indispensable technique the mountaineer will ever use. When walking into the wilderness the shortest distance between two points is not necessarily a straight line. The shortest distance for a mountaineer is the most easy and safe one. Also, before setting out, make sure that you are properly and thoroughly warmed-up, either by a 5minute jog-in-place or stretching techniques.

LACING TECHNIQUES Following is an insight on how to lace your shoes properly for maximum comfort. This was taken from University of Texas Lifetime Health Letter dated January 1995. For mountaineers or backpackers, all we know is that we have to lace our shoes the way we do it when we are in grade school. The way you lace your shoe can increase your foot comfort or relieve foot pain while walking. Proper lacing can also increases the lifespan of your shoes, according do the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society.

Tips for lacing:  Loosen laces as you slip shoes on to reduce stress on eyelets and backs of shoes.  Beginning at the toe end, tighten laces one pair of eyelets at a time to reduce eyelet stress and ensure uniform pressure.  When buying new shoes, keep in mind that shoes with more eyelets make for easier adjustment (many better athletic shoes have two sets).  Conventional crisscross lacing works best for most people. Alternative lacing patterns may be appropriate for specific types of feet or to ease some foot problems.

Carol Fray, M.D. associate professor of orthopedic surgery at the University of Southern California, offers these suggestions (letter in parenthesis indicates illustration):  Narrow feet: Consider using wide-set eyelets that bring the sides of the shoe more snugly across the top of the foot (a).  Wide feet: Eyelets set closer to the tongue and set closer together add width to the lacing area (b).  Narrow heel, wide forefoot: Consider using two laces for a custom fit (c). The wide-set eyelets help snug up the heel, and the closer-set eyelets help adjust shoe width to the forefoot.  Feet pain: For pain in specific areas of the foot, try skipping eyelets in the vicinity of the pain and tightening laces above and below the skipped eyelets (d).  High arches: Lacing straight across between eyelets (instead of crisscrossing) can reduce or eliminate pressure points (e).



Toe problems: For toe problems, including hammertoes, corns and painful toenails, insert laces so that one lace traverses diagonally across the length of the tongue, from toe to top (f). Pulling on the lace will raise the toe box to reduce pressure.  Heel fit: The lacing pattern shown in illustration (g) can help prevent your heel from moving in the shoe and rubbing blisters. Laces are looped through each other before being tied.

PACING Beginners often makes two mistakes in walking; they walk faster than they should or they walk slower than they could. Walking too fast is the most common mistake. This may be due to concerns of the long miles ahead or from a desire to perform well in front of the group and or companions. But why wear yourself out of the first mile of a 10-mile hike if the whole day happens to be available for that walk? Enjoy the walk, take your time and smell the flowers. Pacing varies from person to person. It also depends on the cardiovascular capacity of the person. A simple test may reveal that your pace is too fast if you cannot sustain it hour after hour. You’re going too fast. The other mistake is walking too slowly. Your body might ache but they still have 10 miles in them; your lungs may be gasp but be able to go on gasping for 3 hours. A degree of suffering is inevitable on the way to becoming a good walker. Pacing also depends on the time of day and also the humidity. Walk slowly at the start, letting your body adjust to the demands to come. Then start striding out, using willpower to get through this period of increasing work until the body experiences it's second wind. Physiologically, this means that the heart has stepped up is beat, the blood is circulating more rapidly and the muscles have loosened. Psychologically, the hiker feels happy and strong. Vary your pace depending on the trail. Plod slowly and methodically up steep hills; as the grade lessens, pick up the tempo. Your pace will slow late in the day as fatigue sets in. Adrenaline may fuel short bursts of exertion, but there is no "third wind." When in a group, the pace should follow the slowest member or person with the heaviest load. Do not lag anyone behind.

TRAIL PRACTICES  When walking with a group, with any number of participants, walk in a single file to protect the side vegetation. Avoid overtaking. Stay on the trail even if it is muddy or rutted. Help save vegetation and prevent erosion by not cutting switchbacks. Make your rest breaks in resilient areas and guard against damaging stream banks. If you see something interesting, just look or take photographs of it instead of picking or collecting. Do light trail maintenance and remove litter as you pass by it. Leave the trail as you passed it. Remove cairns and flaggings unless they are already there; let others experience the adventure of route finding.

If you need to mark you're route, remove the markers on your way down. Choose talus instead of fragile meadows for cross-country travel. Always take the ridgelines for path finding and avoid water lines and gullies. Water always takes the steepest route down the mountain. Do not step on obstacles; it might upset your balance. Avoid dislodging rocks.  When walking uphill lean forward and place you foot flat on the ground before pushing the other foot forward and take small steps to conserve your strength. Do not walk on your toes since this will cramp your legs readily.





When you walk downhill, take small steps and move steadily. Lean backwards to take the strain off your knees and never lock them straight when placing you foot on the ground. Learn to dig with the heels or side of the foot first. Use a walking stick if necessary to relieve help relieve the strain off your knees.

When walking on steep slopes, place your foot sideways and place the walking stick downhill for added support. Always look for support, hold on to roots or vines and make sure that these are sturdy and free of thorns.

REST STOPS Depending on the terrain, weather and the capacity of the individual in a group, rest stops are determined. Some have rest stops of 5 minutes per 1-hour walk for flat terrain. A 5minute rest per 30-minute walk is advisable for ascending terrain while a 5-minute rest per 15-minute walk is recommended for steep terrain. Rest stops on descent will depend on the terrain but usually its 5 minutes per 1-hour descent. Do not sit or lie down at once during rest stops. Keep standing for 30 seconds before sitting to stabilize blood circulation. Take only sips of water. Drinking too much will induce an abrupt lowering of body temperature making it hard for you to maintain your pace again.

When trail-blazing, avoid indiscriminate cutting of vegetation. Keep trailblazing to a minimum to preserve the natural state of the wilderness. Make sure to inform the immediate person behind you of the obstacles and/or dangers encountered along the path.

A leadman should be assigned if the group is unsure of the trail. Side trails not used should be closed to prevent others from taking it. Do this by blocking the path with sticks or branches. To make the path safer, cut sharp thorns and poisonous plants along the trail.

Avoid littering. Pocket all candies and biscuit wrappers. Smoking on the trail and /or during short rest stops is strictly prohibited. It may cause forest fires. Flop belts and knots and shoelaces might become loose. It is the duty of the man behind to check if the man ahead of him has dropped anything on the trail. If lost, do not panic. Try to assess your position and then take necessary steps to find the correct route. When walking in cold weather, minimize the rest stops to prevent the body from cooling-off too fast.

DIFFICULT AREAS One of the characteristics that backpacking offers is the challenge of overcoming differing obstacles due to bad weather or difficult terrain.

When walking up the mountain the temperature changes rapidly. It can be from a high temperature and humidity to cold temperatures and dry air. A cold wind easily dissipates body heat. When resting be sure to cover the head and neck to slow down the heat loss.

The ground may also be cold, therefore sit on your backpack if possible.

The Philippine weather changes rapidly. One moment it’s sunny and in 30 minutes, a torrential rain is pouring in. Rains here are occasionally accompanied by lightning.

Therefore when climbing, especially at around 1,000 meters take these precautionary measures in avoiding lightning strikes. Some signs are apparent like the smell of ozone and the crack of thunder. Lightning usually looks for the shortest route it can make between the cloud and the ground. Therefore get off peaks and ridges as much as possible. Medium sized trees provide some protection if they are not hit first. When you are above treelines, look for rocks that are taller than you do and stand several yards

away from it. When lightning hits the ground it travels to a point of least resistance, therefore stay away from paths like: 1. Steep inclines; where the current travels more freely 2. Wet areas; since water is a good conductor If you find yourself above the treelines, look for big rocks that you can crouch on to (not the highest one) that is elevated and not connected to other rocks underneath. Do not go into a cave or a rock depression or even an overhang, since these places attract ground currents.

When crouching, the best position is to put your feet close together as possible. Stand on something that can insulate you from the ground, like a sleeping bag, mattress or a coil of climbing rope, or even your backpack (without the metal frame). You need to stay away from any metal objects like your external pack frame or mess kit. Being hit by lightning requires emergency first-aid procedures like shock, burns and if necessary, CPR. TRAIL SIGNS Trails signs are used to keep the next group to follow the persons lead. They are usually set-up by the first sweeper for the next group. They are placed in the middle of the trail for everyone to see. Rocks, pebbles and small branches are used for this.

CROSSING RIVERS The Philippines, as a tropical country has numerous streams and rivers. Many are wide and deep and some are just streams. Considering the geography and weather conditions of the Philippines we do not have a lack of this natural feature.

Crossing them will depend on the physical feature of the river. It can also depend on the weather, since most of the shallow rivers here turn into raging rapids when rainfall hits.

You may have the choice of using bridges. It may be a short distance and a waste of time, but at least you are dry. If there are no immediate bridges available, scout the river upstream and downstream to find a suitable shallow area to cross. You may find rocks to hop on to. This is just an option if the river or creek has small rocks or boulders to hop on to. But if it is knee deep, chances are there might not be enough rock to hop on to.

Especially here, the rivers may be shallow but the rocks are covered with moss that the chance of slipping is inevitable. Accept the fact that your feet will get wet and also your boots.

If you are to cross a river, never go barefoot. There is a great possibility that you may step on sharp stones or bones and shell fragments. Wearing sport sandals is the best alternative. Aside from giving adequate protection to your feet, they also dry out relatively easy. Another alternative is the local rubber sandals or "tsinelas." They are much lighter than the sport sandals, dries out more readily, cheap and comes in various colors. One disadvantage is its unsturdiness. Sneakers are another alternative. Aside from giving better protection to your feet, it dries out longer. Many still wear their boots (fabric boots), since it provides much more protection to the feet and ankles if the water is too deep and the bottom cannot be seen. Before wearing your boots in the water, be sure to take off you socks. At least there is something dry to wear on the other side.

Preparation When crossing a river be sure to pick the widest area, since a narrow channel is generally deeper. Look for a part of the river that is still and you can see the bottom. Do not go straight or perpendicular to the direction of flow. This will leave you more vulnerable to the current. Before wading into the water be sure that you take measures to protect your clothes dry in your backpack. Loosen all straps, sternal and waist belt of your backpack.

This is done to easily discard your pack if you fall into the water. When wading alone, use a pole to probe the bottom of the river. This will serve as your third leg and to maintain your balance during the crossing. Some use two poles to provide better stability.

Always head downstream and in an angular direction. Place your foot sideways across the current and squarely on the riverbed.

MAPS There are many types of maps. There are political maps, world maps, street maps, topographical maps, National park maps, Profile maps and others, each with a different purpose and use. For the outdoorsman a geographic or topographical, "topos", is the ideal type to use. It shows the supposed terrain of a particular locality as seen from above. It displays the hills, valleys, and mountains, rivers and also man-made structures that are represented by grids and contour lines. There are 2 types of topos; the 15-minute map and the 7.5-minute map. A minute refers to a fraction of a degree and one minute is equal to 1/60 of a degree. Therefore, one inch on a 15-minute map is equal to one mile or 1.6 km on the ground. For the 7.5-minute map, a one-inch will equal 2/5 of a mile on the ground.

The advantage of a 7.5-minute map is its more detailed picture of the land. Another type of map is the National Park map. These maps provides the traveler with general info about major hiking trails, as well as where to find campsites, foods, restrooms, good swimming and other activities but it does not provide enough detail for serious hiking. A profile map provides info such as the ups and downs of a trail, the mileage between important landmarks, and the steepness and length of climbs and descents. But profile maps are not topos. Instead of using contour lines these maps convey information on a graph that measures the elevation gained or lost per mile.

MAP READING The worst time and place to learn how to read a map is when you realized that you’re lost in the middle of a remote wilderness. The best way to learn is to take a map with you when you’re on a well-marked trail. Start by identifying the map’s landmarks in the field such as mountain peaks or a river’s mouth. As with everything, the more you practice the better you’ll get to read the map.

There are also times you are deep in the woods and you cannot see any of your established landmarks. Right before entering the forest you should have established your route. You can then rely on where you were last, your general direction, and the speed of your walk. This is your "educated guess" in which time provides an approximate location on where you are based on the last location verified. When you’re out of the woods, in an open field or peak, re-establish your location by using identifiable landmarks. Be careful in choosing landmarks since they are a lot to choose from in an open field or summit.

BASIC PARTS OF A MAP The grids determine the approximate distance as described by their scale. For walkers a 1:50,000-scale map will do. Vertical lines are called eastings while the horizontal lines are called northings.

Contour lines These lines are the basic building blocks of a topographic map. It describes the actual look of the terrain, if it is a hill, mountain, valley, or river as seen from above. Following are some map features in relation to the actual terrain. Successive circles form hills and mountains, getting smaller and smaller as the altitude goes higher and as they get closer to each other the steeper it gets. Valleys are drawn as lines with varying lines. Saddles are drawn when two hills or mountains are close together. A ridge is drawn with an elongation and a circle at the end. (with pictures and illustrations) Gradient lines These are used to describe the slope of a particular terrain. They are usually drawn as successive lines that are either close together or far apart. There are two kinds of slope, one is the convex slope, wherein the contour lines are close to the slope and spread out towards the top. The concave slope has its contour lines bunch up at the top.

Legends These are usually found at the side corner of your map. They describe man-made features such as churches, houses, roads, bridges, farmlands, and others. Some maps have color legends to describe forestlines, rivers, lakes and other natural features. One important feature of a map that is to be without is the declination factor. This will be discussed on the topic of compass reading.

MEASURING MAP DISTANCES After knowing where you are, you have to know how far you have gone. You can estimate the distance traveled by using a piece of paper. Since the route you are taking is rarely a straight line, your estimating technique must be accurate.

1. Start at the corner of the paper, align the edge with the route. Put a pencil at the point on the route where it turns. Mark the paper.

2. Rotate the paper and align it to the route again. When you encounter the next turn mark it with the pencil. Place any landmarks you have encountered along the way.

3. When you reach the other corner of the paper, rotate it and continue along the edge of the paper.

4. After you have completed the route on the paper, place it against the key at the foot of the map. Mark each kilometer or mile on the sheet.

5. Total the number of kilometers or miles. This is your route distance. By marking the steep gradients, it will help you determine the length of time it will take to walk the route.

ESTIMATING JOURNEY TIME You already know the distance but how long it will take you to walk the route is another problem. You must bear in mind that the paper procedure for determining distance is on a flat surface and does take into account the topography of the route. Therefore when estimating travel time you must include allowances for time lost when climbing steep hills. But this can be gained when going down a steep terrain or hill as well as it can slow you down.

NAISMITH'S RULE There are several other names for this travel time estimation technique, but the basics of the technique are:  For every 5km of easy going, allow 1 hour  For every 3km of easy scrambling, allow 1 hour  For every 1km of rough land, deep sand, or thick bush, allow 1 hour  Add an extra hour for every 500m up (cumulative)  Add an extra hour for every 1000m down (cumulative)  Add an extra hour for every five hours, to allow for fatigue.

For example, take our hike up Mt. Banahaw (Tayabas trail). We will be travelling about four kilometers over clear terrain. So allow one hour for that. We will be climbing about 200m, then coming back down 200m, so allow an extra half-hour for that. We won't be travelling for a long time, so there is no allowance for fatigue.

The total travelling time is therefore 2 hours. This is a very pessimistic approximation, as I have done the complete trip in less than half an hour - but that is with no pack. Once you do the walk with a pack on, in rough country, on fire trails rather than on open road, your speed will start to drop a little.

Nota Bene Note that not everyone can maintain a cracking pace of 5km/h with an 18kg pack on their backs! You will need to adjust this rule to suit yourself and your hiking partner or group.

The best way to do this is to find a day hike close to you, get the topographic map relative to that area, and do the hike. While you are doing that hike, time how long it takes you to get up hills, down hills and along straights. Once you have done that, calculate your straight and level travelling speed. Use the time it took you to climb the hill to calculate the "up climb" adjustment. Use the time it took you to climb down the hill to calculate the "down climb" adjustment. When you have finished, apply Naismith's rule to your hike and see if you get within 5% of your actual travelling time and checkpoint times. Keep adjusting the figures in the rule to suit you.

USING A COMPASS [Did you know: The compass is less than 4500 years old. It is a fairly simple piece of equipment that was invented by the Chinese around 2500 BC. It consists of a magnetized piece of steel balanced on a pivot so that it is free to swing in any direction.]

One of the important gadgets you need when in the wilderness is a compass. Without one is like asking yourself to get lost. You can use the compass to do the following;

1. To know where you are by identifying landmarks surrounding you like peaks, ridges, passes, lakes.

2. To know what is your position. By using a map you can know where you are through bearing readings.

3. To give directions to others. Basically, if you have a map and a compass you can give bearing directions to other people. This is also important on emergency situations wherein your location is uncharted.

4. To follow a bearing to a location which you cannot see.

TYPES OF COMPASS: Air filled compasses work just fine, the drawback is that you must wait quite some time for the needle to come to rest so that you can take a bearing. It also requires the compass to be held stationary, so they do not work well when hand held.

Liquid filled compasses are the most effective in breaking the swing of the needle quickly. The majority of compasses on the market are liquid filled which is a mixture of water and alcohol.

KINDS OF COMPASS Silva compass (protractor, orienteering) Prismatic compass GPS PARTS OF A COMPASS (PROTRACTOR/SILVA TYPE) Direction-of-travel arrow on baseplate Magnifying lens "N" north indicator (needle) Orienteering arrow on bottom of housing Baseplate Map scale – expressed in mm or cm Luminescent spots North-seeking end of the rotating arrow Rotating compass dial, with cardinal points and degrees DECLINATION OR MAGNETIC VARIATION When you see your map there is that reading at the side, bottom corner, stating the declination factor. This number indicates the corrective reading for the map based on the three norths and three arrows mark them. The map will show you only the relative direction you are taking, mainly from one point to another point. But when you relate the direction of your compass to the map you might find that it is off to a few degrees. This is declination. It is the difference, expressed in degrees, between where your compass says north is and where the grid north and magnetic north really is. There are three north poles, one is the magnetic North Pole, wherein your compass points to, the grid north, it is the north marked on maps and the "true" geographic north pole. The true North Pole is taken from measurements of the astral and geography of the earth, it’s the axis where the earth rotates.

Maps are typically drawn using the true north reading typically because it is based on mathematical calculations and it does not vary from one location to the other while your compass points to the magnetic north, it changes from time to time therefore it is not that accurate.

NAVIGATION METHODS Orienting your map Before beginning your trip, make sure to set your map with your compass. This will ensure that you know your destination on the map. In addition to knowing the bearing of your destination, you must also know its distance. You can do this by using either the scale along the edge of the compass, or the scale provided at the bottom of your map. Be sure to check your bearing on the map while walking against the terrain you are crossing.

Here are some steps you can make to orient your map using your compass: 1. Place your map on a flat surface. To find the bearing from point A to point B, lay the compass between points A and B. make sure that the direction arrow is pointing to your destination. Read the distance between the two points using the scale at the edge of the compass. Compare the reading to that of the map scale.

2. Without moving the compass, turn the central dial until the parallel north-south lines are aligned with the grid lines on the map. If you don’t have a topographical map with the gridlines use the margins or side of the map. The number on your compass housing that line up with the direction of travel is your bearing. If you have a hassle free compass with the built-in declination feature, then the number is your true bearing, otherwise calculate the declination.

3. Take the compass off the map and hold the compass firmly against your chest with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing toward the landmark. When you adjust your position turn your body with the compass. Check and recheck the alignment of the direction-of-travel arrow. Face the landmark squarely.

4. Look down at the compass and turn the dial until the north end of the needle is closest to N. Do this without changing your position and the direction of the compass. Read the bearing on the dial against the direction-of-travel line (arrow).

Backtracking Reciprocal bearings and headings, sometimes marked on the azimuth dial, are simply the reverse of your original bearing, or 180 degrees different. For example: For an original bearing of 20 degrees NE, the reciprocal bearing is 200 degrees SW (20 + 180).

If math isn't for you, simply line the red arrow up with south instead of north and use the same heading you took to get there.

CHECKING DIRECTIONS In the wilderness accurate prediction of where you are is vital. This is true if you don’t have a compass to start with or something happened and you have just lost it along the way. Knowing where you are in relation to the four cardinal directions – North, East, West and South is a basic skill that every mountaineer or backpacker for that matter must know. Other ways of finding your way is by the sun and a staff; the sun and a watch and at night, the North Star is your guide.

Finding directions by using the sun This method is often used since we are given the fact that the sun rises at the east and sets in the west.

Staff Method.

This method uses the staff and the sun to find directions. Get a staff or a similar implement. Post it in the ground in direct sunlight in the morning, mark the tip of the staff’s shadow. In the Northern Hemisphere this is West. Get a string of the same length as the cast shadow of the staff. Tie one end to the staff and the other end to a small stick.

Draw a semi-circle with the staff as the center. Be sure to tie the string loosely on the staff. In the afternoon mark the tip of the shadow where it touches the arc, this is east.

Draw a line from the afternoon stick to the point where you placed the morning stick. The halfway point between the two sticks is the true North.

Watch Method Northern Hemisphere: using a watch, point the hour hand at the sun. Then draw an imaginary line between the hour hand and 12 o’clock mark. Halfway between the line is south.

Southern Hemisphere: point the 12 o’clock mark at the sun. Halfway between the hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark is North. *Since the Philippines is in the Northern Hemisphere the first procedure is applicable.

Nevertheless knowing how to use this in the Southern Hemisphere is an added bonus.

FINDING NORTH BY THE NORTH STAR Stars can be used at night to find direction. They move through the sky as the Earth rotates. But there is only one star that never moves and this is called the "North star" or "Pole star." The North star is particularly important if you are in the Northern hemisphere, while in the Southern hemisphere you must find the Southern Cross to establish South.

Northern Hemisphere: the Big Dipper or Ursa Major is the constellation to use to find North. It is those group of seven stars that form which looks like a ladle (Plough). When you have established its location look for its front end. The two stars of the bowl farthest from the handle will point you to the North Star. Do this by drawing an imaginary line about four times the distance of the two stars. The bright star is the North Star and directly below it lies North.Southern Hemisphere: use the Southern Cross to find the approximate South. After you have found the Southern Cross draw an imaginary line 4 ½ times its length. Locate two stars just below the Southern Cross. Draw an imaginary line in between these two stars.

The point where the imaginary lines cross is south.

As with finding the directions using the sun, you can also use any star to roughly establish your direction. When the stars move up, you are facing east. When the stars move down you are facing West. If the stars move in an arc towards your left, you are facing north. When the stars move in an arc towards your right your are facing a Southerly direction.

KNOWING THE WEATHER Going out to the wilderness does not mean that you are always dry and warm. In the Philippines, since our location is on the equatorial region, most of the Philippine wilderness is rainforests. Expect rain, most of the time. You can apply the expression "when it rains, it pours" and it really does. Weather here, typically is unpredictable. It might rain on one side while at the other side its dry. Combined with high humidity and temperature walking along most Philippine trails is very taxing to the body.

Because of the location of the Philippines, the mountains here are usually wet rainforests.

Temperature may range from 36 degrees Celsius at sea level to 10 degrees Celsius at 800 meters above sea level. Therefore, it is best to check weather forecast before making your trip. Although it is not accurate, at least you have a general idea on what to expect.

BASIC WEATHER FORECASTING Clouds Clouds may indicate what weather to come. Cumulus clouds (billows) indicates good weather though they can sometimes turn-quite quickly into darker clouds, which means that thunder and lightning will become the order of the day. Stratus clouds (layered looking) is usually prevalent on hazy days. They become thicker and get dense enough to block the sun. it this happens, a light rain may ensue. Should they turn dark and get lower in the sky heavier rain may be on the way. Cirrus clouds (wispy) have turned up ends that give them the nickname "mare’s tails." If they get dark and seem to descend from the sky, rain can result. These are the most elusive of clouds, and can keep you guessing as to what they will do.

Winds Hot air rises and cold air falls. Wind is created when this happens; combining this knowledge with your observations of clouds, you can guess the coming weather fairly well. When clouds are moving quickly across the sky, condition can change quite rapidly.

If the temperature gets cooler as clouds are getting darker, there’s a pretty good chance that foul weather will follow. If cumulus clouds appears at a distance, and temperatures are on the rise, count on fair weather.

Humidity and Fog Humidity results from a lot of water in the air and can indicate coming of showers.

Hikers who notice greater humidity in combination with a darkening sky should prepare for rain. Fog is an extreme form of humidity – saturated air; in fact, it’s a cloud that has formed down near the land because conditions happen to be right for it. Fog may become so dense that vision is limited; identifying the landmarks on your map may become impossible.

Animals Many birds flying around a cloudy sky can indicate rainfall.

Other indications  Red sunsets usually indicates good weather the next day. A gray or yellowish glow indicates wet weather is on the way. A red sky in the morning shows the sun lighting up high cirrus clouds, which may lower later on – a warning that wet weather may follow.  If voices seem louder, or the clink of pats and pans against the side of the rock or at each other are more shrill than usual, this may foretell an approaching storm.

As clouds lower in the sky, sound waves hit them and bounce back faster than usual. You might think that your hearing has become more acute. Once the clouds have lifted, sounds will return to normal.  At night a halo around the moon tells of approaching rain. The halo is the refraction of light off ice crystals in cirrus or light clouds.

- Observe camp fires, when the smoke is sideways, rainfall is coming.

PLANNING A ROUTE Planning your route Before climbing be sure that you know where you are going, exactly. Right now, the best way to plan your route is by going there yourself. It is quite impractical and time consuming but if you are to be with an expedition group it may be a time saver. Clearing obstacles and solving problem trails during this time. In the Philippines, you can plan your route by asking the locals. They can point you to an established trail, since most trails here are already being used by the locals for their agricultural as well as hunting needs. If however you got lost, look for an open spot, or a high point to survey the land.

Usually, ridgelines are easier to follow, as well as rivers, since they have footpaths that have been used by locals.

Walking at night When walking at night, have a torch strapped on your head. Walk slowly if the trail is not familiar, muddy and raining. If in doubt, test the ground with your foot before putting any weight on it. This is true in situations when it is raining and the ground is saturated with water, mud can easily accumulate and slippage is imminent. Walk in hearing distance with each other. This will ensure your safety along the way.

HEIGHT DETERMINATION Knowing your own personal measurements is a big plus when walking in the wilderness.

You can determine the distance you have taken during your walks, know the height of certain trees and cliffs and widths of campsites and rivers. There are standard measurements such as a foot (12 inches) or 1 meter (2 strides). But these are relative measurements, meaning that they differ from person to person. Therefore it is important to know your own measurements. For instance, your foot can measures 8.5 inches and your stride can be 1.5 stride per meter.

Shadow Method - (this method can be used only if the sun is in the position to cast a shadow over an object) 1. Measure the length of the shadow cast by a person or staff of known height (CD in the illustration).

2. Measure the length of the shadow of the tree (AB).

3. Divide the distance in (2) by the distance in (1).

4. Multiply the result by the known height.

This is the height of the tree MEASURING WIDTHS Here are some simple ways to find out the width of a river.

Napoleon Method (usually used if the river is narrow) 1. Stand erect on one shore or bank of the river.

2. Bend your head so that your chin rests on your chest.

3. Push your hat forward until the front edge of the brim seems to touch the opposite shore. (If you have no hat, place your hand on your forehead, palm down, so that the front edge of your palm seems to touch the opposite shore).

4. Standing on the same spot, turn 90 degrees to the right. (make a right face) 5. Transfer the point on which the brim of your hat or the edge of your hand which seemed to touch the opposite bank to a spot or the ground on your side of the river.

6. Stride it off and find the distance.

Stride or Step-measuring method (usually used if the river is wide) 1. Select any point (A) on the opposite side of the river which can serve as a landmark – a tree, a rock, etc.

2. Place a stake (B) on your side of the river exactly opposite the point (A) you have selected.

3. Walk a straight line along the shore for a distance of 100 steps. (More may be necessary if river is very wide. Your path should make a right angle with the imaginary line AB.) 4. Place another stake at this point, (C).

5. Continue walking along the shore on the same line (BC) half as many steps as you have made before (in this case, 50).

6. Place another stick on the spot indicating the 50th step (D).

7. From point D, turn left 90 degrees (make a left face).

8. Walk a straight line (your path should make a right angle with the line DB) until you can sight point C and landmark A forming a straight line.

9. Stop and mark this point E. the distance between points I and E is half the distance across the river.

10. Walk from D to E, counting your steps.

11. Multiply the result by two.

MEASURING DISTANCES There are times when you are tasked to judge distances. Practice will play an important role in doing this. You may have to start at short distance, lets say 20 meters and gradually increase it by 100 then to 150 and then to 200. By practicing this you can gain accurate measurements by just looking at a subject at a distance. The following are some hints to measure distance accurately: The range of objects is usually overestimated: When kneeling or lying; When the background and the object are of familiar colors; On broken ground; In avenues, long street, or ravines; When the object is under the shade; In the mist or falling rain, or when heat is rising from the ground; When the object is partly seen.

The range of objects is usually underestimated: When the sun is behind the observer; When the atmosphere is clear; When the background and the object are of different colors; When the ground is level; When looking over water or a deep chasm; When looking upward or downward.

It is worthwhile to know and remember the following facts: At 50 yards the mouth and eyes of a man can be clearly seen; At 100 yards the eyes appear as points; At 200 yards buttons and any bright ornament can be seen; At 300 yards the face can be seen; At 400 yards the movement of the legs can be seen; At 500 yards the color of the clothes can be seen.

PART V

CAMP MANAGEMENT There is an ever-growing interest in the great outdoors. It is quite heartening to see people get close to nature. However, many are still lacking in awareness of the proper care for the wilderness.

And so, as more and more people take interest in mountain climbing and other similar sports, there must be a continued education on the proper way of treating nature. There are such ways to enjoy the thrill of the great outdoors without substantially withdrawing from the environment.

One word for all campers to keep in mind: LOW-IMPACT. No matter how much advances there may be in the realm of outdoor gadgetry and gears, the basic ethics of low-impact camping must not change: Take nothing but pictures; leave nothing but footprints; kill nothing but time Campers ensue the greatest impact on the environment at the campgrounds. Therefore, one must take utmost care in choosing a campsite and make efficient use of it. ***Environment-friendly Mountaineer Take home garbage. Do not leave any refuse from cooking and camping at the campsite (as well as along the trail).

As is, where is. Leave the camp ground exactly the way you found it.

Campfire's nice. But do not cut down trees for firewood. Use fallen branches, instead.

Detergent-free Washing. Wash dishes by cleaning first the remnants off the plates and utensils and drying them with cloth (or tissue) or sand, when available. Then rinse with water away from any body of water.

Go Organic. Use biodegradable soaps and shampoos Silence please. Keep voice tone and volume at a minimum, some other creatures need their rest, too.*** CHOOSING A CAMPSITE Enjoying the great outdoors depends mostly in finding a good campsite. For one thing, the itinerary should clearly point out that the campsite must be reached by mid-afternoon in order that the camp is set and cooking dinner is well under way before nightfall. This would also provide ample time for checking the surroundings for possible dangers.

Select an established campground as much as possible. If an established campsite can not be located, choose a place conveniently away from the trail and try not to disturb much the present environment. ***Most campsites require that a permit be secured ahead of time. Permits are usually issued by regional representatives of DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources) or by officials of the locality. Make sure that you and your group register your names so that mountain rangers and local officials know where to go looking in case of any danger.***

Tent. Place your tent on relatively flat terrain, sheltered, and dry. Do not pitch your tent near the inside bend of a river because this area is prone to flooding. Erect your tent with its entrance facing the leeward. You have a choice in erecting your tent either you set it up under trees or open space. The latter is preferable since after a rainfall the sun comes up and everything is dried quickly. Under trees however will only save you if there is heavy downpour but will leave wet for hours since the trees is still dripping the rainwater.

Latrine. Building a latrine is not that quite common to mountaineers and backpackers as well. Usually when the number of people exceeds 12 by all means, designate a common place away from any water source to prevent surface-water contamination. Check for wind direction. Be sure that you dig your latrine downwind.

Fire. For mountaineers, it is not advisable to build a campfire. It will just stress the already damaged environs. Locate the fire close enough to the tent area in order to smoke out insects without creating any risk of setting the tent on fire.

Water. Fetch drinking and cooking water well upstream and away from any campsite.

LOCATING WATER An ideal campsite would be one with available source of water for drinking and cooking.

Actually, it is one of the criteria in choosing a campsite. In the absence of rivers and lakes, water might still be available in the not so obvious places.

Where there is an extensive growth of mosses at the edge of a mountain means that this area has cut across a groundwater source and could possibly be a source of water. River crevices or natural ponds can be source of rainwater. Extra caution, however, must be taken in getting utility water from this origin because these are stagnant water sources.

Water can also be located under dried riverbeds.

TENT PITCHING One must learn the art of pitching a tent quickly and sturdily. This will be certainly necessary in cases when there is a storm coming.

Steps in erecting your Tent 1. Clear the ground of any sharp objects like stones and tree branches. Free the surface of any bumps by spreading ample amount of dried leaves or grasses. Then spread over this area a ground sheet to provide extra covering against any moisture from the ground to enter the tent, 2. Lay down the tent over the ground sheet with the entrance facing the leeward of the wind. Quickly peg down all the corners. Make sure that the pegs are secured enough into the ground.

3. Insert all the poles in their proper position and maneuver the tent canvass making the tent stand.

4. Cover the tent with the flysheet. Secure the flysheet into the ground ensuring that tension is equalized around it.

Inside your tent. Organize your tent in a manner that you can reach almost anything without leaving the comforts of your sleeping bag.

**Useful Tips In places where there is stiff or hard surface, where the pegs could not penetrate, use large rocks, onto which the tent will be tied.

Do not allow the tent and the flysheet to touch in order to maintain an insulating layer of air in between the two.*** FIRE BUILDING Fire building is a basic technique all campers must learn. Its importance is not only limited to cooking (especially now that portable stoves are available), but to a large extent on survival. From a source of heat in cold weather, to smoking away insects and to restraining some wild animals to enter the campsite and to signaling positions in order to aid search and rescue teams.

However, campers must check for any restrictions on making a fire in a particular campsite. For as much as it is useful, it can be rendered dangerous in places, which are prone to forest fires.

Starting a fire is different from lighting a fire. Although our basic concern here is the former, it is important to note that there are technologies available now which far more efficient than rubbing two stones together. There is the basic wooden match and butane lighters, never ever leave for the mountains without them. Magnifying glass but this can only be used during daytime. And in very damp conditions, the use of a magnesium fire starter is one safety accessory that must be made available in any camping trips.

Whatever method of lighting a fire you should choose, the next steps in building a fire is as basic as ABC. First, one must gather more than enough materials to sustain the fire. Fire ingredients include the following: Tinder. Dried tree bark, twigs and other smaller pieces of wood which are highly combustible. Kindling. Dried leaves and small sticks not thicker than an inch, which is, place at a pyramidal position over the tinder. Wood. Branches and logs which are placed loosely over the tinder and kindling; starting with a slightly larger piece of wood than the kindling and adding much bigger wood in intervals.

Then dig a circular trench not deeper than 30 cm., which would provide protection from the wind for the tinder fire. Place on the center of the trench a generous amount of tinder material. Build a teepee shape with the use of kindling materials. Balancing four sticks in a pyramidal position and adding more and even larger sticks in the same manner does the teepee shape. Strike a match or use a lighter to light up the tinder materials. Add more tinder and kindling material until the fire stabilizes and is able to burn the bigger sticks.

When the teepee catches fire, it will then collapse into a bed of ember, which can be fed, with larger pieces of wood.

Eating Outdoor and Food Preparation (Wilderness Kitchen) Eating in the wilderness is much affected by time. Main meals are usually breakfast and dinner. A heavy breakfast helps to get you going throughout the activities of the day.

Short snacks shall be taken intermittently along the trail. A quick lunch will sustain your strength until the end of the day. Do not continue without taking enough sustenance along the trail because fatigue will suddenly fall on you. A substantial and hot meal at night is the best way to replace the calories lost during the trek.

TYPICAL BREAKFAST. It is always a great sensation to start the day with something hot; hot chocolate, coffee, tea, milk. Hot drinks keeps you company while you are cooking up a large breakfast.

Rice, dried fish, eggs or Champorado with processed meat.

TRAIL FOOD. It is advisable to take little but often small ’meals’ along the trail. Jelly-ace is a sweet source of sugars necessary for giving energy to your body. Fruits like oranges, apples or singkamas give sugars as well as fluids to your body. Salty food like nuts and chips are also necessary to prevent muscle cramps. Taking in salts also re-hydrates your body.

TYPICAL LUNCH. Most of the time, lunch will be taken along the trail, the most typical is having soups and sandwiches. This would require minimal preparation and your body would not be required be as full as it did during breakfast time.

TYPICAL DINNER. The biggest meal of the day. Usually, you have the luxury of time preparing for this meal.

Hence, dinner must have a wide variety of food, a complete course; from soup to main meal to desert.

AT BEDTIME. Make sure that you have had drank plenty of liquids before retiring to bed to prevent dehydration. In cold conditions it is best to have a hot, highly sugared drink to keep you warm throughout the night. It is also advisable to keep warm water ready in a flask for the hot drink of the next morning, OUTDOOR CULINARY SKILLS Golden rule is to bring enough food, but not too much. PLANNING the menu is the biggest factor in making outdoor cooking a success. Make a plan as what to eat, how much of each ingredient to bring, and who will be bringing the ingredients as well as the cutlery and plastic containers, plates, pots and pans and stove, and do not forget the matches.

Some food items and spices must be kept handy in every trip. These are: Stock Cubes Pepper Chili Rice Onion Salt Garlic Egg Safe Camping (Safety First, as Always) In the premise that every precaution was taken in choosing a safe campsite, one must then run a safe campsite.

Some safety precautions are: 1. Keep fire at a conveniently far distance away from the tent.

2. Do not cook inside the tent.

3. Have a sand bucket readily available to put out the fire.

4. Provide guide ropes in going to the latrine area and provide ample lighting, too.

5. Rope off any unsafe areas.

SAFEGUARDING YOUR FOOD. The smell of food might attract insects, birds, and mammals’ alike ensuing danger to the inhabitants of the campsite. Make sure that food is sealed in plastic bags and left hanging from a tree branch.

CAMPSITE PESTS Keep a close guard on some pests, which may cause harm or may be a risk to health.

Flies and Mosquitoes are known to be disease carriers. As much as possible prevent them from getting in contact with your skin and food.

Ants usually come in groups. Always look out for ant nests before you pitch camp.

Scorpion is known to be highly poisonous. Make sure that you always shake your sleeping, boots and clothes as a measure to eject any presence of scorpions.

Snakes are quite a scary danger in the wilderness. When in doubt always check your tent and sleeping bags for any presence of snakes.

Rats always go for your food. Take extra care not to leave food just lying around the campsite.

STRIKING CAMP As a last goodwill gesture to nature and to those who will follow in the trail, ensure that all garbage had been picked up and packed out and taken home away from the wilderness. This etiquette is known to almost everybody but is still often ignored. Unless we take on this responsibility by heart, the following damages of overuse will overtake that which was once beautiful: Garbage Barren, stripped land Exposed tree roots Downed plants, or absence of vegetation Numerous firepits on a single campsite Absence of ground wood for campfires Scarred tree where branches have been torn away Bottles, cans, and plastics, in or near sources of water. *Clearing the campsite, some practical ways of maintaining the beauty of the wilderness: 1. Put out fire completely. Scatter the ashes and collect and take unburned debris.

2. Pack all rubbish in plastic bags and take it home with you.

3. Latrine must be filled in, returfed, and labeled to inform future campers 4. Dismantle tent and leave site after your equipment is fully packed.

WILDERNESS ETHICS (A REVIEW) All climbers most especially those belonging to organized climbs should strictly follow the wilderness ethics. Behavior of the group would reflect the kind of organization or the kind of leadership the group has. Here is some internationally accepted wilderness ethics.

Prepare well. Know about your route and the area. Take adequate food. Bring clothing that will keep you dry & comfortable. Know the basics of first aid, navigation and minimum impact camping. Know what to do in case of overheating, hypothermia or landslide danger.

Local practices. Know the local practices in the area. Respect local customs and traditions. Respect other people’s desire for privacy and solitude. Unnecessary disturbances (noise and horseplay) should be avoided.

Trekking. While trekking into the wilderness avoid widening the trail. Stay off the shoulder and walk in the middle of the trail. Suppress the desire to shortcut switchbacks.

Cutting switchbacks tramples vegetation and leads to erosion. Use established trail when possible. On rest breaks, select a hardened area to absorb your impact. Select footwear

appropriate for comfort, safety and the terrain. Heavy lug-soled boots have an adverse impact on fragile terrain. Use light footwear in camp.

Camping. Select a level campsite with adequate water runoff, and use a plastic sheet under your tent to stay dry without ditching. Locate your site at least 100 feet away from natural water sources. Generally, select a shelter site that has already been used, to eliminate further expansion of the camp. Whenever possible, position your tent so it blends with the environment. Careful selection of campsite helps preserve the atmosphere of solitude even in popular areas. Choose your site and use it lightly, leaving it in as natural state as possible.

Garbage. Carry out all of your non-biodegradable garbage. Bury only biodegradable trash. Pick up litter as you encounter it. Burning of non-paper trash should be minimized since complete cremation is difficult. Remember litter attracts more litter.

Sanitation. Use established latrines if these are provided. Use a cat hole if there are no established latrines. Proceed with a trowel inn hand to an area at least 100 feet away from water sources trail and camp. After carefully removing the surface duff, dig a hole several inches into the dirt. Replace the dirt and duff.

Washing yourself. Even biodegradable soap is a stress on the environment, so do as much of your cleanup without soap. Try a soapless bath or clothes-wash, for all but the most persistent dirt. When using soap, even biodegradable soap, wash yourself, your hair and your clothing at least 100 meters away from water. Pour soapy water into highly absorbent ground. Brush your teeth well away from water sources.

Washing dishes. Try a soapless cleanup. For health reasons, wash dishes with hot water when possible. Wash at least 100 meters away from natural water sources.

PART VI

ROPEMANSHIP INTRODUCTION Ropes are used in the mountains for varied occasions. They are used from rescue or emergency situations to drying your wet clothes as a clothesline. When going out into the wilderness, bring the lightest and strongest rope you can carry. It can really make a difference when you encounter emergency situations.

ROPES AND KNOTS Types of Rope Following are types of ropes used in mountaineering or backpacking work. They are described by their characteristics as well as to their general usage.

Weaves The most popular weaves are three-strand, twisted, and braided or sheathed. Twisted rope strands unravel when heated and are therefore difficult to flame-whip when cut. They are whipped with waxed string, plastic whipping compound, or heat shrunk plastic tubing.

SYNTHETIC FIBER ROPES Nylon: is the most popular rope fiber used. Aside from being strong, it is lightweight, does not rot and is shock absorbent.

Braided: or sheathed rope, as it is commonly called in the US is actually two ropes, one inside the other. It is very pliable and resists twists and kinks when coiling. These ropes flame-whips easily and it is resistant to abrasion because of its outer casing. One downside of this type of rope is that you cannot see the damage inside the core, hence makes it unreliable for long hauls.

Polyethylene: This type of rope is inexpensive, slippery, slightly elastic, unaffected by water, available in many colors, and it floats.

Polypropylene: Polypropylene is similar to polyethylene but less slippery and more elastic (a better rope).

Polyester: Yes, polyester is also used for ropes aside from the clothes you are wearing.

One brand is Dacron and it is used for sailboat sheet and mooring lines and every place you need a rope that is dimensionally stable and resistant to ultraviolet light.

Kevlar: The Dupont Co. developed a gold-colored synthetic fiber. It is used as a tire cord fiber for bullet-resistant vests and as fabrication material for ultra-light canoes and kayaks. Kevlar rope is very light (specific gravity is 1.44); it is about four times as strong as steel of the same diameter, and so expensive that it is recommended only for applications where extreme strength, light weight, low elongation and non-corrosion are major concerns. Kevlar rope is difficult to cut, even with the sharpest tools.

NATURAL FIBER ROPES Except for cotton, which is still used for sash cords and clothesline, natural fiber ropes like manila, sisal, hemp, and jute are almost obsolete. These natural fiber ropes have a nice hand; they coil well and hold knots tenaciously. Natural fiber ropes rot easily and for their weight, they are not very strong. For example, the tensile strength in pounds of new manila rope is roughly 8,000 times the square of its diameter in inches. Thus, new threeeighths inch manila will theoretically hold about 0.375 x 0.375 x 8,000 = 1125 pounds (the Cordage Institute figure is 1220) – hardly a match for the modern synthetics in Table 2.

PREPARING A NEW ROPE A rope may last for decades if it is well maintained. An ill-kept one will not survive a season. When you buy a rope, make sure that you seal the ends. This procedure is called "whipping." This is done to make sure that the rope will not unravel and waste a perfectly good rope.

Here is one procedure for whipping a rope. First flame one-half inch back of the end. Cut the cooled flamed section and then re-flame the cut end.

Following are other procedures for whipping: Flame whipping Almost all synthetic ropes flame-whips easily since most of them are made of plastic material. You just need a cigarette lighter or a small propane blow-torch. Braided (sheathed) ropes, which includes parachute cord, should be seared around the diameter of the cord, just at the back ends, then cut square through the (cooled) flamed section with a sharp blade. For a neat, trim look, finish by lightly flaming the cut end, as illustrated in figure 2. This two-step procedure will prevent the ends from cauliflowering when heat is applied.

Twisted rope tends to unravel when heat or flame is applied. To get around this, wrap the ends firmly with tape, then sear the area behind the tape, along the diameter of the rope.

After cooling, remove the tape, cut the ends square through the flamed section, and reflame the end as illustrated in figure 3. The length of your whipping should equal the diameter of the rope.

1. Tape the end 2. Flame behind the tape 3. Cut through flamed area 4. Re-flame end String whipping This procedure is more time consuming but is more reliable than flame whipping. The "simple whip" illustrated in Figure 4 is adequate for most ropes. Shoemaker’s waxed thread or heavy button/carpet thread (dental floss works great) are the best one to use.

When string whipping be sure to wind against the lay of the rope, towards the end.

Plastic whipping This procedure requires you to dip the rope end into "liquid plastic rope whipping" compound. Allow it to dry and for a neater look, apply heat-shrunk plastic sleeves to the rope ends. These products come in a variety of colors and are available at most marinas.

COILING YOUR ROPE FOR PROPER STORAGE Old Navy Method 1. Coil the rope: take care to lay each coil carefully into place, twisting it a half turn so it will lay without twisting. Then, grasp the main body of the rope with one hand and place your thumb through the eye of the coils to hold them in place as shown in Figure 5, Step 1.

2. Remove the last two coils of rope; take this long free end and wind it around the main body of the rope several times (figure 5, step 2). Wind the free end downward, toward the hand holding the rope body. Wind evenly and snugly. Do not make the coils too tight.

3. Form a loop with the free end of the rope as shown in step 3, and push it through the eye of the rope body.

4. Grasp the wound coils with one hand and the rope body with the other hand and slide the coils upward tightly against the loop. The rope is now coiled and secured (step 4). Pulling the free end of the rope will release the line, which can quickly be made ready for throwing.

Sailor’s Stowing Coil This method does not look as neat, but it better preserves the integrity of the coils (they’re less likely to snag when the rope is tossed out): Procedure: Coil the rope and double the last few feet to form a long loop. Wind the loop around the coil and secure with a pair of half hitches as illustrated. Hang your rope from the loop at top.

HOW TO MAINTAIN YOUR ROPES Please keep in mind the following guidelines in maintaining your ropes.

1. Pad your ropes at potential abrasion points. Abrasion will cause your ropes to be frayed hence decrease their strength and eventually their usage.

2. Keep your ropes clean. Dirt and grime can get into the rope and cause internal abrasions as well as external. Always use a separate protective pack or bag to transportation and storage. Wash your ropes with cold water using mild, nondetergent soap. You can use fabric softeners as this can improve the flexibility of the fibers. Never bleach your ropes. Always air-dry your ropes and never to direct sunlight. Also never dry them in a drier or under a hot blower.

3. When storing your ropes make sure that it is in a cool dark place, away from ultraviolet light like sunlight. Store them away from chemicals like acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents and bleaching compounds. These include battery acid, salt, oil and or gasoline, kerosene and the like. Synthetic ropes are not much affected by these chemicals, but remember that these chemicals, even water, can attract dirt, which can cause the rope to wear quickly.

4. Never step on a rope. This will greatly increase the risk of wear to your rope.

Stepping on it can send dirt into the rope and eventually causing added abrasion inside the rope.

5. Be sure to inspect your rope before and after every use. Make sure that you know the history of the rope as where and what it has gone through. From this you can gauge whether or not to retire the rope.

Tip: To remove the "memory" of store-bought coils, slightly stretch a new rope (tie it off tight between two trees) for an hour or two. An old snagged rope may forget its windings if you soak it briefly in water then administer the stretch treatment.

All ropes – natural and synthetic – are injured to some extent by ultraviolet light. So keep your ropes out of the sun as much as possible.

KNOTS Left-handed knots are indicated by the LH symbol and appear on the left side of the text or in a special box adjacent to the right-hand knot versions. To save space, the knots, judged by the author as "universal," are illustrated in right-hand form only.

How Strong Are Knots?

As a general rule, knots reduce rope strength by about 50 percent. Table 3 indicates the approximate breaking strength of some popular knots. Note that splices (which really aren’t knots at all) detract barely, if at all, from a rope’s breaking strength – the reason why they are the preferred way to join lines.

APPROXIMATE BREAKING STRENGTH IN PERCENT OF SOME COMMON KNOTS* Anchor (fisherman’s) bend: 70 Bowline: 60 Bowline on a bight: 60 Clove hitch: 75 Figure eight (end) knot: 48 Monofilament fishing knot (clinch knot): 80 Single overhand knot (half a "granny"): 45 Two half hitches: 75 Sheepshank: 45 Square (reef) knot: 45 Timber hitch: 70 Eye splice: 95 *Figures are derived from: Plymouth Cordage, 1946, and from tests by Scovell, Miller, Dent, Trumpler, and Day, as reported in The Art of Knotting and Splicing, by Cyrus Lawrence Day, 1970; and Ropework, Practical Knots Hitches and Splices, by J. Grant Dent, University of Minnesota Agricultural Extension Service, U.S.D.A. 1964. *ANCHOR (FISHERMAN’S) BEND: With a breaking strength of approximately 70 percent, the Anchor Bend is one of the strongest knots known. It won’t slip or jam and it can be easily untied. The hitch was originally used to tie the anchor ring on sailing vessels – testimony to its reliability.

Probably the best hitch to use for mooring small boats, the anchor bend also works great for securing lures to monofilament fishing line. Its one drawback is that it is difficult to make in large diameter rope. Belt-and-suspenders folk sometimes complete the bend with a bowline on the standing part. *These are the most useful knots – the ones you’ll want to master first.

*BOWLINE: The bowline is one of the oldest and most useful knots. Captain John Smith (1627) considered it one of the three most important knots aboard ship – the other two being the sheepshank and the wall knot (a crown-like end knot, which is infrequently used today).

The bowline is a very secure knot, which won’t slip, regardless of the load applied. It is commonly used by mountain climbers to tie their climbing ropes around their waists. Use this knot whenever you want to put a non-slip loop on the end of a line.

Beginners are often told to make the bowline by forming a loop, or "rabbit hole." The rabbit (bitter or free end of the rope) comes up through the hole, around the tree (standing part of the rope) and back down the hole. The bowline will slip a few inches before it tightens, so allow an extra-long free end.  Belt and suspenders people will apply two tight half hitches LOCKING BOWLINE: For complete security, especially in slippery plastic ropes, complete the bowline with two half-hitches, as illustrated. This "improved bowline" is sometimes called the locking bowline. Page 30 shows how to tie a basic "half-hitch." *BUTTERFLY NOOSE: (Right-hand only) Mountain climbers use the butterfly noose to attach carabiners or whenever they need a non-slip loop in the middle of a rope. Butterfly loops are secure and will accommodate a load in any direction. They can be spaced along a line to provide purchase points for a winch line – essential in canoe rescue work. Need to pull a long rope tight? Evenly spaced "butterfly nooses" will give each person a secure handhold. The knot is also handy for fastening gut leaders to monofilament fishing line.

Like the bowline, the butterfly noose will not jam, regardless of load direction. Also called the "lineman’s loop," this knot was once popular with telephone line men.

BOWLINE ON A BIGHT: Use this whenever you need to make a two-legged "bosun’s chair" for rescue work, or when you need a non-slip loop in the middle of a rope when both ends are inaccessible.

The bowline on a bight differs from the conventional bowline in that the loop in the center of the "rabbit" (see description of bowline on page 17) is passed over the doubled loop which is hanging below then forced up behind the standing part of the rope. Hold the rope firmly with your left hand as you pull down with your right to tighten the knot.

CAT’S PAW: (Right-hand only) Here’s a slick way to attach a rope to a hook or the towing link of a vehicle. Thecat’s paw is secure under heavy load, yet it comes apart easily – the reason why it remains popular with longshoremen and movers. Form two loops at the end of your rope, twist them around several times, and hook them in place. That’s all there is to it. *CLOVE HITCH: A popular knot for mooring boats to piers and pilings, and to secure ratlines to the shrouds on sailboats, the clove hitch is also a common "starter" knot for lashings and the diamond hitch. When absolute security is needed, finish the knot with one or two halfhitches, as illustrated in figure 7c.

DIAMOND HITCH: (Right-hand only) For centuries, this classic hitch has been used by prospectors, fur traders and trappers to secure gear on pack animals. Use the diamond hitch to tie a load onto a car top or trailer: all you need is one long rope. The real value of the diamond hitch is that strain on one

part of the rope is taken up elsewhere in the hitch, which causes the line to tighten. The "six-point" diamond suspension provides security even when the load shifts.

To apply a diamond hitch to a pack frame, begin by tying a rope end at point "a", using a clove hitch (see page 23). Then, loop the line around "b" and "c", as illustrated. Next, twist the horizontal center strands a couple times and feed the bitter (free) end of the rope through, looping it over the frame points in the order illustrated. When the hitch is complete, pull the rope to tighten the hitch, then tie it off where you started it, with two half hitches. Note: when tying to a pack animal, the hitch usually originates and ends at the ring in the girth strap, and the "diamond" in the center appears much larger than illustrated.

FIGURE EIGHT (END) KNOT: Use this beautifully symmetrical knot as a "stopper" knot on the end of a rope. It functions like an overhand knot, but with more bulk. The knot also makes a convenient slip-noose for tying packages. When used in this manner it is called the "packer’s" or "parcel" knot.

FIGURE 8 LOOP: The figure 8 loop is a sort of shlocky bowline. It’s easy to make and it holds securely, even in slippery, synthetic rope (some- thing which cannot be said of the bowline.) If you need a quick, non-slip loop in the middle of a rope, the figure 8 is much faster to make than a bowline on a bight. It’s also ideal for putting a loop on hard-to-grasp twine and thread. However, the knot jams under load, so forget about untying it later. Use the figure 8 loop for thin cordage; stick with the bowline for rope.

FISHERMAN’S KNOT (WATER KNOT): Once popular for tying leader to line, the fisherman’s knot is now seldom used for this purpose as there are better knots for slippery nylon. However, mountaineers like it for tying ropes together because the knot has a finished, symmetrical look. Canoeists and kayakers use the fisherman’s knot to secure rope "grab loops" to the ends of their boats.

Note: the knot is somewhat stronger when tied against the lay. *ONE HALF HITCH / TWO HALF HITCHES: Use two half-hitches to tie a rope to a tree or a boat or animal to a ring. Sailors sometimes complete a clove hitch with one or two half-hitch when they want infallible security. It’s important that both half-hitches are alike, as illustrated, i.e. both left or right- handed.

Half-hitches are one of the most essential knots in macramé.

TWO SLIPPERY HALF-HITCHES AND A ROUND TURN: This is the quickest, most secure way to tie a boat or pack animal to a ring or bar. The "round turn" on the rail takes most of the stress off the basic knot. For faster removal, complete the hitch with a quick-release loop ("slippery" end), as illustrated.

MOORING HITCH: Looks like a slippery half hitch, but it’s not. The mooring hitch holds fast under load yet comes apart instantly with a pull of the bitter end. You can tie it loosely and allow it to slide up to the rail like a slipknot, or jam the knot anywhere along its length so you can reach and release it without getting off your horse or out of your boat. This slick little hitch is well worth learning!

PRUSSIK KNOT: (Right-hand only) Use the Prussik knot whenever you want an absolutely secure loop that won’t slip along a tight line. Mountaineers use this knot for footholds to help them climb a vertical rope.

The Prussik loop slides easily along a tight rope, yet it jams solidly when a load (horizontal or vertical) is applied. This knot is useful for rigging rainflies in camp and for rescuing rock-pinned canoes in a river. Make the loop from a length of parachute cord, completed with a fisherman’s knot.

SHEEPSHANK: (Right-hand only) Problem: your rope has a length of worn section in the middle. Eventually, you’ll get around to splicing it, but for now, it will have to be used as is. The solution is the sheepshank – an ancient knot used by sailors to shorten rope that’s too long for the job at hand. The sheepshank holds only when there is tension at each end, even then, it sometimes fails. For this reason, it is best to secure it by inserting sticks of wood through the end loops as illustrated in figure 2-19. *POWER-CINCH (TRUCKER’S KNOT): Scenario: The rutted, muddy road worsens with each yard you travel. "Gotta keep up speed, or we’ll never make it," you mutter. Then, it happens: suddenly, you’re axle deep in coal black ooze, and despite the determined whining of the front drive wheels, you realize you are going nowhere. You take stock of the situation. On hand, is a shovel, 50 feet of three-eighths inch diameter nylon rope, and four sets of willing arms. With these, you’ll have to free the car. First, you shovel the "stopper" mud from under the belly of the car. Then you attach your long rope to the auto frame and rig a power-cinch around a smooth-barked birch nearby. Just six inches ahead is firmer ground. If you can just move the car that far. The four manpower winch line tightens: seconds later, the car pops free, like a cookie from a mold! The power-cinch is the most ingenious hitch to come along in recent years. It effectively replaces the tautline hitch and functions as a powerful pulley.

Skilled canoeists use this pulley knot almost exclusively for tying canoes on cars, and it remains popular with truckers for securing heavy loads in place. Use it any time you need to tie an object tightly onto a car top or truck bed. Begin the hitch by forming the overhand loop shown in Figure 2-20, step 1. Pull the loop through as in step 2. It is important that you make the loop exactly as shown. It will look okay if you make it backwards, but it will not work! If you’re tying something onto a car top, run the bitter (free) end of the hitch through an S-hook attached to the bumper. (Step 4.) Snug the hitch and secure it with a pair of half-hitches around the bight, as illustrated in step 5. Or, for ease of removal, end the power-cinch with a quick-release half-hitch, as in step 6. The power-cinch as a multiple pulley: For additional power, as in the above scenario, forms a second loop in the free end of the rope as shown in step 7. This will double the mechanical advantage, albeit increase friction. The Nantahala Outdoor Center (a whitewater canoe and kayak school) as the "Z-drag popularized this rescue technique – commonly set up with aluminum carabiners instead of rope loops –" because the rope pattern forms a lazy Z when viewed from overhead.

*QUICK-RELEASE (SLIPPERY) LOOP: If you end your knots with a "quick-release" (slippery) loop, as illustrated, you’ll be able to untie your ties with a single pull. Form the "QR" feature by running the bitter end of the rope back through the completed knot – same as making a "bow" when you tie your shoes. Use a simple overhand knot with a slippery loop to seal draw- string bags and stuff sacks. The plastic "cord-locks" sold in camping stores for this purpose are for people who don’t know how to tie slippery knots. *SHEET-BEND/DOUBLE SHEET-BEND/ SLIPPERY SHEET-BEND: The sheet-bend is one of the most useful knots, and one of the few that can be used for tying two ropes together, even when rope sizes and materials differ greatly. Some years ago, a friend of mine won five dollars when he fixed a broken water-ski tow-rope with this bend.

When the tow-line snapped, the ski-boat captain bet my friend that he couldn’t tie the two ends of the slick polypropylene rope back together tightly enough to hold. My friend won the bet and skied the remainder of the day on the repaired line. It’s important that the bitter (free) ends of the sheet bend be on the same side, as illustrated, otherwise the knot will be unreliable. If you want the knot to release instantly, end it with a quick-release (slippery) half hitch (figure 22b). For greater security, especially in plastic rope, use the double sheet-bend (Becket Bend). Same as the single version but with an extra coil around the standing loop (figure 22c).

STRAP KNOT: Not a knot, per se, but a handy method of tying leather or nylon straps together to form a long rope. Nothing more than a single half-hitch, each made opposite to the other.

S-KNOT: Here’s an artistic way to tie two ropes together. Similar to a fisherman’s knot, theSknot has more coils and so is probably more secure, especially in slippery ropes. Place the ends of the rope parallel to one another and take three or more complete turns around the two ropes, then run the bitter (free) end down the center of the knot. Do the same with the other rope. Finally, slide the knots together to complete the S-knot.

SQUARE KNOT (REEF KNOT): For centuries sailors have used this knot for reefing sails and tying things aboard ship.

The square knot is still used for this purpose but is probably more popular for tying packages, gauze dressings, tourniquets, and other medical applications. Don’tuse this knot for joining two ropes together if they will be under load! The square-knot jams under tension and falls apart (it becomes two half-hitches) if the ropes are very dissimilar or the pull comes unevenly. Use a sheet-bend, fisherman’s knot, or two bowlines for joining ropes. To form a square knot rather than a common granny, complete each overhand knot opposite the other. Thus, if the first knot is formed right-handed (right over left), the second must be made left-handed (left over right).

TAUT-LINE (ROLLING HITCH): Sailors use the rolling hitch whenever they want to attach a rope to a spar. The knot is much more secure than a clove hitch, especially when the load is parallel to the spar. The same hitch can be applied to a tight rope that’s secured around a tree or tent stake, in which case it is called the "taut-line hitch" (figure 2-27b). Boy Scouts prefer the taut- line hitch for anchoring their tent guy lines. The hitch slides freely, yet jams under load. The original rolling hitch (figure 2-27a) is a fine knot for its intended purpose. The taut-

line version, however, is less versatile and much inferior to the more powerful powercinch (trucker’s knot) explained on page 38.

TIMBER HITCH: (Right-hand only) Use the timber hitch for hauling logs, timbers, heavy pipe, and cumbersome objects. It’s very strong (about 70 percent), won’t slip, and it can’t jam, no matter how heavy the load.

I often attach the tow rope to my Jeep with a timber hitch when clearing brush and trees.

It always comes apart easily. It’s best to complete the timber hitch with a half-hitch near the hauling end to keep a long log from twisting.

SQUARE LASHING: Use this classic lashing to secure two spars that touch each other at the point where they cross. Begin the lashing with a clove hitch or timber hitch around the vertical spar, just below the cross-piece (A). Run the cord over the horizontal bar, around behind the vertical bar, then back over the face of the horizontal bar on the left. Tighten snugly, then bring the cord behind the vertical bar and up the right front side of the horizontal bar.

Repeat this three or four times. Finish with two "frapping" (binding) turns to tighten the lashing, and lock everything in place with a clove hitch on the crosspiece.

TRIPOD LASHING: Here’s a fast, secure way to make a support for a camera or coffee pot. If you end the lashing with a quick-release (slippery) clove hitch, it will come undone instantly.Procedure: Lay out the spars on the ground with the center spar pointing away from the other two. Begin with a clove hitch or timber hitch at the end of one of the side spars. Then, make six to eight loose turns around all three spars and finish up with two frapping (binding) turns between each spar. A clove hitch on the center bar completes the lashing. Note: the sheer lashing (not illustrated) – which is used to secure parallel spars in bridges and tables – is simply a two-legged version of the tripod lashing.

PART VII BASIC EMERGENCY CARE BASIC EMERGENCY CARE IN THE WILDERNESS Adventure through the wilderness is an exhilarating feeling for an avid backpacker and most especially a mountaineer. Either to escape the metro or to be one with nature, the thrill of going into untamed territory tests a person's skill in coping up with his basic resources.

Certain medical conditions may arise on such events and knowing how to handle them can make the difference of continuing to enjoy the trek or become a full-blown emergency. This chapter deals with such conditions that maybe encountered and dealt with accordingly.

THE FIRST AID KIT Equipping oneself with the basic medical aid kit is the first step for a less precarious trip in the backcountry. There are available emergency first aid kits that are sold locally and abroad but you can assemble a set of your own by just knowing the essentials at a lesser cost. The list rundowns the supplies and instruments that you should have on hand. PICTURE OF KIT 1. Bandage Scissors 2. Oral Thermometer (preferably with own plastic case for preventing it to be broken) 3. Tweezers (for removing splinters) 4. Safety pins 5. Snakebite kit (scalpel and suction for the venom) 6. Flashlight/penlight 7. Syringe needle gauze 21 8. Sterile gauze pads individually packed 9. Roll of gauze bandage 10. Band-aids 11. Butterfly bandage or steri-strips (small bandage for facial/gaping cuts) 12. Adhesive tape, 1 inch size recommended 13. Elastic bandage 3 inch size 14. Cotton tipped swabs 15. Roll of absorbent cotton 16. Hydrogen Peroxide 17. Calamine Lotion 18. Povidone-Iodine solution 19. Rubbing (70% Isopropyl) Alcohol or Bar of plain soap Over the counter medicines that maybe useful. (OTC Meds) 1. Aspirin or an Analgesic (i.e. Mefenamic acid*) or an Anti-inflammatory (Ibuprofen**) 2. Paracetamol tablets *Locally available such as Ponstan ** Sold as Alaxan

N.B. Aspirin/Mefenamic/Ibuprofen should not be given to persons with allergic reactions to these medicines. Asking before administration is a must.

Individuals who have specific medications to carry should bring it along, i.e. antiasthmatic inhalers or anti-allergy meds, and inform their companions of their health status.

TIP: 1. Do not minimize or forego portions of the kit. Doing so will undermine the First Aid Kit's use and it will be to your disadvantage.

2. Place the kit in a water repellant pack to prevent the materials from getting soaked if such occasions arise.

3. A Swiss Army Knife or any multi-purpose device that you bring along may already have tweezers and scissors as well as a penlight. This can spare you a few grams off your pack.

VITAL SIGNS Proper taking of the pulse, temperature and breathing is easy but must be done properly.

Such vital signs monitor a person's condition along the trail that guide the one administering the first aid of what to do.

Areas that a pulse can be monitored: Should be taken for one full minute.

1. Common Carotid (Neck) 2. Radial (Wrist area) 3. Femoral (Inguinal /Crouch area) 4. Dorsalis Pedis (Top portion of foot) NORMAL: Resting Pulse of an average Normal adult is between 60 to 100.

1. Clean the bulb of the thermometer.

2. Hold the thermometer at the stem and shake it until the mercurial reading is at least down to 35C or 95F 3. Read the baseline temperature and place the mercurial bulb under the patient's tongue. Instruct the patient to close his lips tightly.

4. Leave the thermometer for 3 minutes after which you remove it and get the temperature reading.

5. Clean the bulb and stem of the thermometer before replacing it in its container.

6. NORMAL: Average range of a resting individual is between 36 to 37.5 C (96.8 to 99.5 F) BREATHING: 1. Monitor the breathing by looking at the chest expansion of the patient.

2. Look for any signs of labored breathing such as: 3. Gasping for air through the mouth 4. Enlarging nostrils 5. Use of neck muscles for breathing 6. Asymmetry or unequal expansion of the right and left side of the chest 7. Monitor for a full minute: NORMAL: Average range of a resting Respiratory rate is 24/min

WHAT TO DO's: I. Open Wounds: (Scrapes/Scratches, Cuts/Lacerations, Puncture Wounds) Basic procedures for any of the above injuries are the following: 1. Wash your hand or rub with alcohol before treating the wound.

2. If there is bleeding, stop or control it. If it is continuous or severe, SEE Management of severe bleeding.

3. Remove as much as possible any dirt that is around and within the wound.

4. If possible, wash the injured area with soap and water. Plain clean water for washing off dirt will do.

5. Sterilize or disinfect any instrument to be used for the care of the wound.

Objectives of managing open wounds are to: 1. Stop bleeding 2. Prevent contamination and infection 3. Seeking medical attention if wound is severe. a. SCRAPES AND SCRATCHES After doing the basic procedures. PICT: 1. Pat the wound dry 2. Place an antiseptic like povidone iodine on the wound.

Large areas of wound or areas most likely to be reinjured or soiled should be covered with sterile gauze and bandage.

1. Minor scrapes can be left exposed to the air.

2. Watch for any signs of infection b. CUTS (LACERATIONS) 1. Primary concern is to stop the bleeding with the basic procedures in mind. PICT: 2. When bleeding stops, wash the wound to remove the dirt or other foreign materials in and around the wound. Pat the wound dry 3. Do not remove foreign objects deeply inserted in the muscle or any deeper tissue, this may cause serious bleeding.

4. If no foreign object is imbedded, apply an antiseptic over the wound 5. Cover the cut with sterile dressing and use a bandage around it. If cuts are gaping, especially in the face area, apply steristrip or butterfly bandages to appose the wounds. PICT c. PUNCTURE WOUND This results from a sharp, pointed object that pierces the skin and deeper tissues. Nail, splinter, horn, or teeth/fang marks are samples of puncture wounds.

1. Assess the wound if any object had broken off and remained inside the wound (deeper than the skin).

2. Do not attempt to remove it since serious bleeding may ensue.

3. Do not manipulate, poke or put medication into the wound.

4. Cover the wound with sterile gauze and bandage it.

5. Seek the nearest medical attention.

6. For minor puncture wounds, objects lodged no deeper than the skin may be carefully removed with tweezers.

7. Press on the edge of the wound to encourage bleeding to wash out germs inside the wound.

8. Cover the wound with sterile gauze and bandage it.

MANAGEMENT OF SEVERE BLEEDING: Continuous or profuse bleeding is a medical emergency that needs prompt management and control. Bleeding can come from the veins or arteries or both. Venous blood is characterized by a dark red color and flows steadily while arterial blood is bright red and spurts from the wound. Immediate treatment can be done by a.) Direct pressure to the wound, b) application of pressure points or c) tourniquet. a. Direct Pressure: Picture The first and preferred choice to control bleeders. This is usually all that is needed to prevent further lose of blood.

1. Apply a thick clean gauze or soft clean cloth, i.e. a towel or handkerchief, directly over the entire wound to act as a compress. In extreme situations, bare hands or fingers can be used to compress the bleeder, but be sure that it should be clean as possible. Keep the pressure steady over the wound.

2. Do not remove or disturb blood clots that have formed on the compress.

3. Apply another pad over the initial compress if this gets soaked with blood. Do not remove the initial compress. Apply a firmer pressure over a wide area.

4. Elevate the bleeding limb/portion above the victim's heart level. Do not do these if a fracture is suspected.

5. Once bleeding stops, apply a pressure bandage to hold the compress in place.

6. Placing the center of the gauze directly over the compress does this. Pull it while wrapping both ends around the injury. Tie the knot over the compress. PICTURE 7. The ties should not be to tight that it cuts circulation. Check the pulse distal to the wound or check the nailbeds if they become bluish in color. Any change means it is too tight.

8. Keep the limb elevated. b. Pressure Points: This should be used only if bleeding cannot be abated by direct pressure. This requires pressure on the artery supplying blood to the wound against an underlying bone and cuts off the arterial supply to that area affected. This should be used with direct pressure and elevation.

ARM: 1. Hold victim's arm bone midway between the elbow and armpit. The thumb should be on outside the victim's arm. The other fingers should be on the inside of the arm. This places the arm bone in between the thumb and 4 fingers.

2. Squeeze the fingers firmly toward the thumb against the arm bone. This compresses the arterial vessel. Do this until the bleeding stops.

LEG: 1. Position the patient by letting him lay on his back. Supine position.

2. Press at the front center of the thigh, at the crease of the groin, by using the heel of you hand.

N.B. Pressure point technique is used no longer than necessary. If bleeding recurs, it may be reapplied. c. Tourniquet: This is a measure that is used as a last resort for life-threatening situations where the two above management are non-relieving. Weighing its use is based on fact of either losing a limb or bleeding to death.

Requirements of a tourniquet: 1. 2 or more inches wide.

2. Length should be enough to wrap around the limb twice with ends for tying.

Procedure: 1. Place the tourniquet just above the wound. Wrap it around twice.

2. Do a half knot.

3. Place a stick or straight object on top of the half knot.

4. Tie then 2 full knots over the stick 5. Turn the stick to tighten the tourniquet. This is done until bleeding stops.

6. Secure the stick in order to hold its place by tying the loose ends of the tourniquet to the stick..

7. Do not remove tourniquet.

8. Attach a note to victim's clothes or body as to what time the tourniquet is place.

9. Don't cover the tourniquet.

II. Bruises The most common type of injury that is sustained from a fall or blow to the body. Small blood vessels break beneath the skin that causes discoloration and even hematoma.

1. Assess if there are any broken bones. See Splinting:.

2. If there are no suspected fractures, apply immediately a cold compress on the affected area to minimize swelling, pain and hematoma formation.

3. Apply pressure on the affected area.

4. Elevate the part or limb affected 5. Stabilize or immobilize the joint as needed.

III. Burns: Burns arising from camping stoves, fires or hot utensils and boiling water are the most common causes one will encounter.

1. Cool running water or cold water compress over the burned area is an ideal immediate management which is applied for about 5 to 10 minutes. This is to give pain relief over the site.

2. Protect or cover the area with sterile gauze or clean bandage. In less than ideal settings, a clean polyethylene bag wrapped around maybe used.

3. DO NOT apply any butter or grease to a burn area. Locals have the habit of placing even toothpaste or powdered antibiotics to the burn site. Just keep the area cleans and protected.

4. If blisters form, (sign of second degree burn), do not puncture or remove the skin covering. This helps keep the wound safe and free from infection.

N.B. Second degree burns that are more than 15% of the body surface for an adult needs medical care immediately. Rough estimate is by using the palm of the hand with the fingers to represent 1% of total body surface that is burned. Injuries covering the face, groin, hands and feet or has inhaled smoke that could have injured the lungs are also included for prompt medical attention.

IV. Blisters: Usually caused by excessive rubbing of skin over clothing or equipment (i.e. boots).

1. Minor, small, unopened blisters that will have no further irritation can be managed by placing a sterile gauze pad and bandage over it. If it was accidentally opened, wash the wound with clean water and cover it with a sterile dressing.

2. Puncturing large blisters that are prone to be broken is a last option wherein just sterile dressing will likely fail. Puncture site should be at the lower edge of the blister. A sterile needle is needed to puncture the blister. Press the blister slowly until it flattens. Cover with sterile gauze 3. Watch out for signs of infection such as redness or pus. This needs prompt medical management.

4. Blisters caused by burns should not be opened. Fluid imbalance may occur if this is done especially if it covers a lot of area.

V. Splinters: 1. Wash the area and clean your hand.

2. Sterilize a sewing needle (ideal is a syringe needle) and tweezers by boiling for 5 minutes or holding it on an open flame.

3. Splinters stuck inside the skin with a portion exposed can be pulled out gently with the tweezers placed at the same angle as to which it entered.

4. Use the needle to loosen the skin around the splinter if it is not deeply imbedded and remove it with the tweezers at the same angle as which it entered.

5. Once removed, clean it and cover it with sterile dressing.

6. Watch for any signs of infection.

VI. Foreign bodies in eye/ear. a. EYE: Foreign particles that are floating in the eyeball or inside the eyelid can be removed with proper care. NEVER attempt to remove particles that are piercing the eyeball. Trained medical personnel should handle such cases. Protect the area and bring him/her down to the nearest medical facility.

Management for foreign bodies that are floating on the eye is as follows: 1. Do not let the patient rub the eye.

2. Wash your hands.

3. Flush the eyes with warm water until particle is removed.

4. If particle is still not washed-out and is attached to the inside of the upper lid, ask the patient to look down.

5. Hold the upper eyelid down. Place a cotton bud handle horizontally across the outside of the lid. Flip the eyelid backward over the lid causing the inner portion to be exposed with the foreign particle.

6. Remove the particle with moistened corner of a cloth or handkerchief.

7. If the particle is on the inside of the lower lid, gently pull down the lower eyelid and carefully remove it with the handkerchief tip.

8. If particle remains, cover the eye and seek medical attention. b. EARS: Insects may find the ear canal a tempting place to investigate and buzz over with the result of getting stock and you in anxious haste.

1. Placing several drops of oil (cooking, baby) is warranted if the insect is alive and buzzing all over. This will immobilize and kill it. N.B. Do not use oil on foreign objects that may absorb it and make it more difficult for extraction.

2. Flushing with warm water may also be a next option for removing insects.

3. Attempts to remove clearly visible foreign objects may be tried. Do not poke or proceed if the object is unyielding or goes in further. Seek medical attention.

VII. Nosebleed or Epistaxis Epistaxis or nosebleeding occurs on certain situations such as high altitudes, hot weather or even persons with high blood pressures.

1. Make the patient sit down and lean the head forward. Keep the mouth open.

2. Pinch the nose for 15 minutes. Release it slowly, if bleeding recurs, pinch it again for 5 minutes. Check and continue this until it stops.

3. Place cold compress/cloth against the nose to help constrict the blood vessels.

4. Don't let the patient swallow the blood or blow his nose VIII. Insect Stings Stings from bees, wasps or hornets can cause local swelling, pain, redness, and a burning or itching reaction to the bitten site. Mostly this is non-life threatening unless the bitten patient is allergic to the venom. Shock may ensue. Backpackers’ known to be susceptible to such reactions should bring their own medications and instruct their companions on how to use it.

1. Removing the stinger is by using a knife blade and scraping it off. Tweezers should not be used since you may squeeze and push the venom into the skin.

2. Wash it with water.

3. If available, wrap it with a cold compress.

4. Calamine lotion, paste of baking soda and water may be used to relieve discomfort.

IX. Animal bites.

Bites from wild animals carry the risk of bacterial or tetanus infection. Animals infected with rabies may introduce this condition to the ailing victim. Treatment should be sought if this occurs.

1. Wash or pour water over the wound for around 5 to 10 minutes to remove as much as possible the saliva and other foreign object introduced with the bite.

2. Bleeding should be managed by applying continuous pressure until it stops and sterile dressing placed over the wound site.

X. Venomous bites/Stings a. Scorpions Scorpions or "Alakdan" in the local dialect just like bee stings can cause severe burning pain at the site of the sting. Signs and symptoms that develop vary from the amount of venom introduced to the victim. Adults rarely die from such stings* except that they are particularly harmful to young children* or adult individuals who show signs of shock or convulsions. Numbness or tingling sensation may be felt or even difficulty in swallowing and breathing for extreme cases.

1. Immediate treatment by maintaining an open airway and restore breathing should be done.

2. Simply clean the wound and the surrounding area with water or alcohol 3. Keeping the bitten part lower than the level of the heart will help minimize spreading the venom.

4. Place ice compress on the bitten site is also advisable.

5. Watch out for any signs of shock or allergic reactions.

6. Secure him to the nearest medical center if symptoms progress Grade I to II scorpion envenomations such as local pain/and or numbness at the site of envenomation or remote from the site of sting are treated symptomatically with oral

analgesics. They are observed for 3 to 4 hours to note for any progression of the symptoms.* Grade III and IV such as blurring of vision, hypersalivation, trouble swallowing or breathing, slurring of speech or even jerking of extremities needs immediate medical attention to the nearest health center.* b. Snake bites: Bitten by a snake, entails one to immediately assess if the snake is a poisonous or nonpoisonous variety.

Poisonous snakes have slitlike eyes, poison sacs or deep pits between the nostrils and the eyes and sharp long fangs leave a distinctive 2 piercing fang marks. In comparison with non-poisonous snakes that have rounded eyes and no deep pits.

Grading of envenomation by signs and symptoms is helpful in assessing the current state of the patient.

(The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine p614.by Harwood-Nuss,M.D., Ann; Linden M.D.,C.; et. al. 1991, J.B. Lippincott Company) Dry Bite (Do not result in envenomation)

Minimal

Moderate

Severe

Puncture wound, pain, little or no swelling. No systemic symptoms or progression.

Localized pain, edema, ecchymosis or blood clot formation on the site

Progressive pain, edema, ecchymosis.

Variable systemic symptoms i.e. nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, perioral paresthesia, salivation, weakness.

Stable vital signs

Massive edema, hematoma. Unstable vital signs. Coma, seizure or respiratory distress.

Signs of clinical coagulopathy or bleeding.

N.B. Dry bites produce no signs or symptoms other than the mechanical puncture wound.

Sudden severe pain at the bite site followed by progressive swelling and/or numbness is a sign of envenomation.

Immediate care for snake bites: 1. Maintain an open airway and breathing if this is affected.

2. Position the bitten part lower than the victim's heart.

3. A light constricting band at bites on the arm or leg can be placed 2 to 4 inches above the bite toward the body. It should not be too tight that it cuts circulation to the affected limb. Feel for the pulse on the distal portion. A finger should be able to slip under the band. The wound should ooze.

4. Replace the band another 2 to 4 inches above from its previous position if swelling reaches its initial position.

5. Do not remove the band until the patient is safely brought to medical care.

6. Wash the bite area and immobilize the limb 7. For Dry bites, cleaning the wound with vigilant monitoring up to 12 hours should be done to note for any changes or progression of symptoms. Medical attention should be done as soon as possible.

8. Loose (lymphatic) tourniquet, incision and suction are probably effective if used within 30 minutes of envenomation but are not substitutes for definitive care in the nearest medical facility.* Reference 9. A Snake bite kit is helpful in this situation. A sterile knife should be used to make a one-eight to one-fourth inch deep cut through each fang marks. This should be in the direction of the length of the leg or arm, not across. The incision should not be more than one-half inch long. Do not make cross mark cuts. Incision should be done not any deeper than the skin since muscle or tendon may be damaged.

10. Suction cups are then used to draw out the venom on each fang mark. Continue suctioning for 30 minutes. Suctioning the venom by mouth can be used if free from cuts, sores or open wounds. Don't swallow the venom. It must be spitted out.

Rinse the mouth after finishing the suctioning.

11. Cover the wound with sterile dressing, keeping the victim calm. Do not let the victim walk unless extremely necessary.

12. Do not give alcohol or water if victim is nauseated, vomiting or unconscious. If he/she has no difficulty in swallowing, sips of water is permitted.

13. Prompt medical care to the nearest facility is a must.

14. Take note of the time of envenomation, vital signs of the patient during the course of management.

XI. Plant Irritations: Itching, redness of the skin or blister formation, and even headache or fever can occur if such irritating plants touch the skin of a backpacker. Plants like the poison ivy can have a very annoying effect.

1. Remove the clothing and wash the area with soap and water.

2. Apply rubbing alcohol to the affected site.

3. Application of calamine lotion will help alleviate the itchiness.

4. Wash the clothes used to remove unwanted irritants.

XII. Heat and Cold induced conditions a. Hypothermia Body temperature is a function of the production and loss of heat.* Hypothermia occurs if heat production fails to balance heat loss. Hypothermia is defined as a core (Rectal) temperature less than 35C (95F). It can be a.)Mild (32-35C) b.)Moderate (28-32C) or c.)Severe (<28C). It can be characterized as acute (<6 hours duration) or Chronic (> 6 hours). N.B. Oral temperature is normally 0.5C lower than the rectal temp.* Ganong p232 Mild hypothermia causes shivering, difficulty in doing complex motor functions with noted cooling or vasoconstriction of the peripheral area like the fingers and toes.

Shivering can be stopped voluntarily.

Moderate hypothermia causes loss of fine motor coordination, apathy "I don't care attitude" or confusion, slurred speech, and violent involuntary shivering. Shivering increases body temperature by 0.5 to 1C per hour.* Emer. Paradoxical undressing may happen which is a person starts to take off his clothes even though he is feeling cold.

Severe hypothermia can make a person shiver in violent waves wherein the interval between shivers increases until it totally stops. This is a telltale sign of a critical condition. The person cannot walk, muscle rigidity develops, the skin is pale, pupils dilate. The pulse rate decreases too.

Cold, wet weather on high altitude with poor raingear and warming clothes is a sure way to acquire hypothermia. Water dissipates heat away for the body 25 times faster than air.

Wet clothes increase the potential for conductive heat loss to 5x normal.

Mild-Moderate Hypothermia: Rules to live by: 1. Reduce heat loss by a. Removing wet clothing and replace with dry ones b. Increase or add more layers of clothing; a large plastic bag covering his body and extremities can help retain heat for the victim. c. Increase muscle/physical activity d. Keep the victim warm and dry in a shelter 1. Adequate hydration and food intake a. Carbohydrates are a good source for energy. i.e. bread, rice, candies b. Hot liquids helps a lot in increasing the core temperature 1. Never take in alcohol (a fallacy), caffeine or tobacco/nicotine. All of these may aggravate heat loss.

2. Add heat by: a. Fire or other heat source b. Body to body contact with dry clothing on.

Severe Hypothermia 1. Reduce heat loss by placing a hypothermia wrap. The patient should be dry. A 4" insulation covering the entire neck, body and extremity should be done using blankets, sleeping bags, or clothing. A space blanket could be used.

2. Give a dilute solution of warm water with sugar every 15 minutes. Severe hypothermic victims' stomachs usually will not digest heavy, solid food.

3. A full bladder increases the loss of core heat. Let the patient urinate but make sure the insulating material will not get wet from the urine.

N.B. Afterdrop - core temperature decreases or drops during rewarming. Peripheral vessels in the arms and legs dilate causing cool blood flow to the core. This is best avoided by just rewarming the core and not the peripheral area (hands, feet) b. Heat Illnesses: Heat cramps are due to muscle fatigue combined with water and salt depletion.* Heat exhaustion results from dehydration with inadequate fluid and electrolyte replacement.* This may progress to heatstroke.

Heat stroke is due to severe dehydration with failure of the body's thermoregulation causing body temperatures above 40C (105-106F).

Heat Cramps/Exhaustion:

1. Patient may complain of headache, nausea or vomiting, dizziness, weakness and fatigue and even disorientation.

2. Find a cool shady place and keep victim there.

3. Apply cool clothes. Give adequate ventilation and cool the patient using a fan.

Stop if he develops shivers. Do not over cool him.

4. Instruct the victim to take in fluids if conscious. Intake of a mixture of 1 pint water with 1 teaspoon of salt every 30 minutes is advisable.

5. Don't give patient alcohol beverages and cigarettes. Do not leave him alone until he is stable.

Heat Stroke: 1. Patient may present with mental confusion or disorientation, incoherent speech or even unconsciousness. Victim develops flushed, dry or warm skin with extremely high body temperature.

2. Immediately place him on a cool shady place.

3. Remove most of his clothes. Apply cool compress if possible. Fan may increase heat dissipation.

4. Don't give fluids, alcohol to incoherent or unconscious victims. Don't overcool him by causing shivers. Monitor the patient until he is stable. Transporting to the nearest medical facility is warranted if condition does not improve. Do not give medications for lowering fever, it is not effective.

XII. SPRAIN/STRAINS Sprain is an injury to the supporting ligaments of a joint while strains are injuries that occur on the muscle or tendon. Sprain occurs commonly on the ankle for backpackers when there is poor hold of the foot while stepping on slippery surfaces. Strains usually occur at the lower back during sudden lifting of the packs from a forward bending position at the hip area. a. Sprains: Assess if the area affected is just a sprain or a broken bone. If there is high suspicion of a fracture, treat it as a fracture. (See splinting) Ankle/Knee: 1. If possible, place cold compress on the sprained area 15 to 30 minutes intermittently. Do not apply warm compress for the first 24 hours since this will aggravate the swelling or edema. Note for the amount of swelling and or any signs of hematoma formation. Sudden enlargement of the joint due to swelling and presence of a hematoma are signs of a severe ankle sprain or a possible broken bone.

2. Keep the affected part elevated to minimize further swelling.

3. Bandage or support with a blanket the site. Loosen the bandage if numbness or increased swelling is seen. The bandage is then to tight at this point.

4. If victim need to walk, minimize bearing weight on the affected foot, secure a sturdy stick or wood that can be used as a crutch or cane. General rule is placing the stick opposite the affected limb, this will serve as a support during walking.

When going downhill, the bad leg first before the good one. Uphill is good leg first before the bad. Easier to remember is by the saying "Good leg to heaven, Bad leg to hell!"

5. Medical attention should be done as soon as possible.

Wrist/Elbow/Shoulder: 1. If possible, place cold compress on the sprained area 15 to 30 minutes intermittently. Do not apply warm compress for the first 24 hours since this will aggravate the swelling or edema.

2. Just like in the ankle, elevate and bandage/support the area. A supporting bandage can be used for the wrist 3. Seek medical care as soon as possible. b. Strains: 1. Victims may have a difficult time in moving the area, especially if it occurred at the back. Rest it immediately. Apply cold compress if possible. No warm compress for 24 hours.

2. Look for medical assistance if pain or swelling is severe.

N.B. Anti-inflammatory over the counter medications like "Alaxan", which is a combination of Paracetamol/Ibuprofen, can be tried to help alleviate the pain. DO NOT give it if the victim is known to have allergic reaction to this medicine or to aspirin.

Ibuprofen is usually the culprit for such allergic reactions. DO NOT also give it if victim is known to have a stomach ulcer. Oral intake of the medicine is contraindicated.

XIV. Hematoma under toenail: Subungal hematoma (Patay na Kuko) Injuries of the toes either by tripping on a rock or root or heavy object falling over the boots can cause hematoma formation below the nailbed. Prolonged walking causing contusion of the toe over the inner portion of a poorly fitted shoe can also cause this.

Options for this condition is either letting it as is and place cold compress on the nailbed affected or to evacuate the hematoma if there is severe pain.

Draining the blood.

1. Clean the nail and toe.

2. Use a sterile needle and gently press the nail doing a screw-like motion. Do this until you feel a 'give'. You have then reached the inner end of the nail. Another option: If you have a straightened paper clip, heat it up until it turns red. Apply the heated end to the nail and it will bore through the nail with minimum pressure.

3. Drain the blood by pressing on the sides of the nail.

4. Apply povidone-iodine and cover it with a dressing.

N.B. Consider delaying in doing the removal of the blood if you will still go over a lot of mud or dirt trail that may soil or infect the toe. If needed, make sure you always clean and apply a new dressing to the punctured nail.

XV. Leech management The "Limatik" or "Linta" in the common dialect is notorious for its stealth like feature. It has a covert way of attaching to the skin and sucking blood without ever knowing it until you bleed.This is very common especially on the wet season, wet forest areas or after a rain in the woods.

1. DO NOT pull off the leech, its suckers may be left attached to the skin.

2. Apply a hot material, knife or any metal object put over a flame, on the leech.

This will make it detach by itself. Application of rubbing alcohol may also do the trick.

3. Bleeding over the site of attachment will be noted. This is due to the anti-clotting factor that the leech uses for to get the blood. Some itchiness maybe noted. Wash it thoroughly.

XVI. Diarrhea: There are many causes for diarrhea. Trying to deduce through the victim's history would help in knowing the probable culprit. This may range from food poisoning, intake of medications, emotional stress, excessive alcohol beverage, viral or bacterial infection.

Assess the victim if there are any signs of dehydration. The victim is dehydrated if the mouth and tongue is dry, restless and irritable attitude and very thirsty.

1. Replace the same amount of fluid solution (1 liter clean water, 1 teaspoon salt and 1 tablespoon sugar) with the amount of loose stools.

2. Vomiting may also be present. Let the patient sip the fluid solution gently and slowly to avoid further vomiting.

3. Loose stools that are blood tinged or bloody or even black in color warrants immediate medical attention. These may be an internal bleeding or an infectious type of diarrhea.

IV. Techniques in bandaging, splinting, basic cardio-pulmonary resuscitation. CPR: Practice makes perfect, is the key ingredient for proper use of medical materials. With limited resources in the backcountry, you must make use of this in the most efficient way.

A. Circular Bandage: Placed over the sterile gauze covering the wound to keep it in place and avoid further contamination.

This is used on areas that have a relative uniform width, like in the forearm or leg.

1. Place the end of the gauze over the affected part. Make 2 to 3 turns around the wound at the same spot. This serves as the anchor for the bandage.

2. If the site to be bandaged is large, make additional turns by overlapping the bandage strip one from the other by around 3/4 the width of the previous turn.

This is done until all of the area to be protected is covered.

3. Secure the bandage by applying tape or safety pin. If it is not available, tie a knot by rolling out the gauze for about 8 inches in length from the underside of the arm/leg. By using the thumb or any finger, place it in the middle of the rolled out gauze and pull the half section back under the wrist to the opposite side. Then tie the knot with double gauze on one side (the one with the loop), and single gauze on the other side B. Figure of eight bandage: Its use is for the ankle, wrist or hand that need stability and a little mobility.

1. Anchoring the bandage is first done at the distal (toe area). Make 1 to 2 circular turns around the same area.

2. The bandage is then brought diagonally across the top portion of the foot and around the ankle.

3. The bandage is continued across the top of the foot and passing under the arch.

4. Follow the #2-3 procedure with each turn overlapping the previous one by 3/4 of its width.

5. Continue this until the foot, ankle and lower leg are completely covered. Make sure the bandage is snugly in place. DO NOT cover toes in order to assess if the

bandage is too tight. Bluish discoloration of the toes is indicative of a too constrictive bandage.

6. Secure the bandage with clips or tape.

C. Finger Bandaging: Suspected fracture or injury to the finger could be immobilized by using the buddy taping.

1. Appose the affected finger with the adjacent good finger.

2. Use a tape or gauze to anchor the two together. Make sure the tape is placed at the farthest/distal end as well as the portion near the base of the fingers. This secures the fingers. Tape between this if needed.

3. A cut tongue depressor or flat wood can by used to secure the palm side of the finger for better stability.

D. Triangular bandage: Can be used as a shoulder sling.

1. A 40-inch square cloth cut diagonally from corner to corner makes two equal triangular halves.

2. One end is placed over the non-injured shoulder. This makes the base and the other end is hanging down over the chest. The point should be under the elbow of the injured shoulder/arm.

3. Position the hand 4 inches above the level of the elbow 4. Wrap the injured forearm/arm/elbow by lifting the lower end of the bandage over the shoulder of the affected extremity. Tie the two ends over the side or back of the neck.

5. Fold the point forward and secure it with a pin on the outside portion.

N.B. Fingers should not be included in the covering to assess if there are any circulatory compromise.

E. Splinting: Fractures of the arm and leg should be immobilized during transport. This is to protect it from further harm during the travel to the nearest medical facility.

Lower extremity: 1. If necessary, gently straighten the injured extremity. Stop if pain increases during the procedure.

2. Place paddings such as folded blankets between the victim's extremity.

3. A board placed underneath is the most ideal way of immobilizing the affected extremity. If not available. Using sturdy wood placed on both sides of the extremity may be used. Length of the board/wood should stretch from the heel to the buttock area. Secure it by tying it at the following areas.

4. Just above the ankle 5. Just above and below the knee 6. Above the thigh, near the groin.

7. DO NOT tie directly over a broken area 8. Another alternative is to tie the injured extremity to the uninjured extremity with the ties at the same positions in securing one with a splint.

9. Watch for signs of circulatory compromise, bluish toenails, poor distal pulses Upper extremity: This follows the same principle like in the lower extremity.

1. Use a sturdy board or stick to immobilize the injured area. A rolled blanket may be used.

2. Tie it at both ends and in between, just below and above the elbow.

3. Don't cover the fingers. Watch for any circulatory compromise.

Neck: Suspected fractures on the neck is a possible life-threatening situation. Any wrong movement of the neck can result to paralysis or death. Seek medical assistance.

1. If the victim's life is of immediate danger in the vicinity and needs to be moved, immobilization of the neck is a MUST. Do this by placing a rolled towel or blanket around the neck and tie it in place. The tie should not interfere with the breathing. If a flat wide wood is available, place it behind the neck and back.

Secure the neck by tying the board to the victim around the forehead and under the armpits.

2. Lifting the head is done together with the shoulders and upper trunk with no twisting motion (Log rolling technique). The one giving the first aid should position himself at the top of the victim's head. Place both palms of the hand at the back of the shoulder with the forearms at the side of the head. Press the head to secure it by using the forearms. Once it is secured, lift the head and neck together with the shoulders.

3. If there is difficulty in breathing, slightly tilt the head backward to maintain an open airway.

4. Place the victim in a secure location and seek for medical assistance.

5. Rigid boards or a make shift stretcher must be used for transport of the victim.

F. Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) A life-saving procedure for victims not breathing and has no pulse. The first priority in suspected arrest is that if the patient is breathing or not. Remembering the "ABC" of CPR that stands for Airway, Breathing and Circulation are the basic steps for CPR. First assess if the patient is conscious or not. Then do the following if unconscious.

Airway: 1. Lay victim on his back on a firm surface, such as the ground.

2. Check the mouth and airway if there are any foreign objects i.e. dentures, that may block the air flow.

3. Assess if there is a suspected neck injury.

4. If this is suspected, gently tilt the head with the head-tilt/chin-lift procedure. Place one palm of the rescuer on the forehead of the victim with the other hand, using two fingers, under the chin. Simultaneously, tilt the head back with the hand/finger in place. This is to clear the airway.

Breathing. If not breathing 1. Keep the head tilted 2. Feel and see if the patient is breathing. Placing an ear of the rescuer near the nose of the victim such as the rescuer is facing towards the chest will help him detect if there is breathing from the nose and lifting of the chest. If there is none then continue the procedure.

3. The hand that is placed on the victim's forehead is used to pinch the nose using the thumb and index finger.

4. The rescuer takes a deep breath in order to blow air into the victim's open mouth (mouth to mouth). Make sure it is effective by noting a rise from the chest with your mouth completely sealed during the blowing. Inflate the lungs rapidly for 35 times. (Take deep breathes in between) 5. Feel for the carotid pulse. If pulse is present, continue blowing air at the rate of 12 per minute.

Mouth to nose resuscitation may be warranted if the victim's mouth is blocked for free air passage.

Circulation: If pulse is absent 1. Feel for the carotid pulse. If pulse is absent begin cardiac compression. General rule: a. One rescuer: 15 compressions then 2 quick breaths. b. Two rescuers: 5 compressions then one breath 1. Palpate with the index finger one of the victim's lowest ribs then slide upward until the sternum or breastbone is felt meeting with the rib. Keep the index finger there.

2. Use the other hand's heel by putting it over the breastbone above the index finger.

This is where compression is done.

3. Place the other hand over the other one pressed on the breastbone. Keep your elbow straight, lean over the casualty and press down vertically and release.

Depress the sternum approximately 4-5 cm.

4. This is done until spontaneous pulse returns.

V. Dangerous Diseases: The table below lists the diseases to watch out for.

Disease

Source of infection, How it is transmitted

Sign and Symptoms

Typhoid

Contaminated food and drinks from infected stools.

Transmitted by fecal to oral route.

Fever for days to weeks, headache, vomiting, even diarrhea. Abdominal pains

Malaria*

Female anopheles mosquito.

Introduction of malaria parasite into the blood

On and off chills, fever and sweating with feeling of well being in between. Headache, anorexia, nausea, vomiting.

Hepatitis A

Fecal to oral pathway with stool/urine of infected individuals contaminating food and water.

Fever, anorexia with urine becoming dark yellow; skin, eyes become icteric (yellowish in hue)

Cholera

Ingestion of food or water contaminated with stools or vomitus of infected

Abrupt onset of diarrhea, profuse watery "rice waterlike" stools. Stools may be

individuals

odorless or fishy in character.

Vomiting, may lead to severe dehydration in a short span.

Tetanus**

Spores of bacteria entering a wound. Found in the soil, rusty materials, nails, pins.

Fever, Stiffness of muscle of the jaw, extremities.

Rabies

Saliva of rabid or infected wild animals, i.e. bats, wild cats

Fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, restlessness, agitation, confusion, hallucinations* Lethal disease if left untreated.

*Malaria prophylaxis is advised on locals that are endemic with the disease. Locally available medications are Fansidar (Pyrimethamine/Sulfadoxine) and Chloroquine.

Consult a physician on its proper use and precaution. Some individuals may have adverse reactions to these meds i.e. rashes, tinnitus, deafness. **It is advisable to secure a tetanus shot from your physician and remembering when was the last booster shot. This would help the attending physician in knowing the recommended form of tetanus immunization once the situation arises.

VI. Emergency Signals: Signaling for help.

A. Ground Markers Using ground markers for aircraft to spot the signal is a good way to send your message across. Make sure signaling the serious injury marker is used with utmost importance.

There is no room for false information. PICT. B. Smoke: Creating a camp fire and signaling using its smoke may be used to attract attention.

Windy or rainy situations limit the capability of this type of signal.

C. Sun: A mirror or a heliograph (reflective surface with a hole in the center) can be effective in seeking attention from flybys. Use the sun to reflect a bright beam focused on the vehicle's cockpit. Move the reflected beam to and fro to catch attention rather than focused on one place.

D. Morse Code: An international standard of transmitting messages that still has its use. It takes time to know it by heart, but it is worth the effort.

Picture of Morse code.

Practice it with the following phrase: "The quick brown fox jump over the lazy dog" E. Semaphore: It is an alphabet signal using arm/hand positions for transmitting messages. A person deciphering the message needs binoculars if the person signaling is at a very distant

location. Do it slowly. Flags (Square with red and yellow divided diagonally) are held with arms extended.

The arm patterns are fashioned like a clock but with only ten positions, Up, Down, Out, High, Low each for the left and right.

An easier way to familiarize with the flag signals is grouping it into circles: First Circle: Left Right A or 1 down low B or 2 down out C or 3 down high D or 4 down up E or 5 High down F or 6 out down G or 7 low down Second Circle: H or 8 across out Low I or 9 across up Low K or 0 Up low L high low M out low N low low Third Circle: O across out high P up out Q high out R out out S low out Fourth Circle: T up high U high high 'Annul' low high Fifth Circle: 'numeric' high up J out up V low up Sixth Circle: W out across high X low across high Seventh circle: Z out across low

PART VIII

OTHER THINGS TO DO

Besides hiking, there are also a lot of things you can do in the mountains. Imagination is your only limitation. Here are some well established activities you can do to make your mountaineering experience more exciting.

WARNING: Most activities listed here are extremely dangerous and requires advanced skills in mountaineering. Never do it without the presence of an experienced person and proper safety equipment.

ROCK CLIMBING Rock climbing in the Philippines is a relatively young sport but one of the fastest growing in terms of participation. Nowadays, there are a lot of rock climbing destinations in the country though there are still many unclimbed areas. Best time to climb is between November and March. Here are some popular places for rock climbing :  Montalban (Rodriguez Rizal)  Antipolo Rizal  Mt. Maculot  Atimonan Quezon  CampThree, Kenon Road  Chapis  Palawan There are also a lot of Indoor climbing gyms that have opened throughout the country to accommodate enthusiast. There they can train safely under controlled conditions before hitting the outdoors or keep themselves busy during the rainy days or late evenings after school or work as a part of regular physical fitness regime. Here you can get information on places to go, buy climbing equipment and share techniques to sharpen your skills. (See lists of popular climbing gym at the appendix of this book). One useful resource on rock climbing in the Philippines is Simon Sandoval’s Rock Climbing Internet site at www.amanet.net/~simon/bato.html.

SPELUNKING Spelunking is the technical term for caving. The Philippines is rich in limestone formations where caves abound. In fact there are a lot of foreign caving expeditions who have recognized the potential of Philippines as a top spelunking destination. Here are some list of popular caving destinations :  Sagada, Mountain Province (Crystal caves, Big cave, Lokoong, Sumaging)  Bulacan (Madlum Caves, Biak na Bato, Pinagrealan)  Cagayan (Peñablanca Caves)  Leyte (Sohotan)  Montalban  Palawan  Cagayan de Oro

  

Bohol Surigao Tanay The recently formed Philippine Cave Guides Association offers competent and professional guide services to many cave systems around the country. You may contact their president Mark Dia at 125 (page ID Rock).

RIVER TREKKING A special form of hiking where balance, agility and tolerance to the feeling of trekking while wet is a must. River trekking is a very exciting adventure to experience. There are a lot of exciting river trails here in the Philippines. From an experience of riding your backpack amidst the strong water current (back pack riding) to water fall climbing and rappelling as well as fast river trekking (river gliding). The experience will definitely relive your youthful desire of playing under the rain. Here are some suggested river trekking destinations :  Romelo (Famy Laguna)  Daraitan, Tanay Rizal,  Doña Remedios Trinidad, Angat Bulacan  Wawa, Montalban Rizal  Dulangan River, Mt. Halcon, Mindoro  Matulid River System (Mt. Irid) 

RAPPELLING A simple sport with a near bungee-jumping experience though milder and tolerable. From the standard form to the more daring spider and Australian style, the adrenaline rush will surely help you remove the "fear of heights" in your system. Though you can do rappelling from any building, bridge and similar man-made structures, nothing compares to the experience of doing it in a natural environment, say near a waterfalls where you can be one with the water as it cascades down the lagoon. Some sites suggested for rappeling:  Romelo (Famy Laguna)  Buntot palos, Laguna  Twin Falls, Cavinti Laguna  Mt. Maculot, Cuenca Batangas  Wawa, Montalban Rizal 

CROSS COUNTRY CYCLING Although cycling has long been a very popular sport here in the Philippines, multi-day cross country cycling has yet to be established as one outdoor alternative. It is basically a combination of backpacking and cycling. Here are some suggested adventure routes you can take in this new and exciting sport :  Laguna Lake Circuit – a tour around Laguna Lake passing through the historic Laguna and Rizal towns. Campsites can be established in Mt. Makiling, UP Los Baños, Laguna.  Taal Lake Circuit – a tour around the panoramic roads circling the Taal lake, passing through the towns of Batangas, Cavite and Laguna. Camps can be





established in Tagaytay or in a beach front along the stretch of Nasugbu to Lemery.

Rizal – Real Quezon Circuit – a backbreaking tour along the Rizal, Laguna and Quezon part of the Sierra Madre mountains. Campsite can be established in the beach along Real Quezon.

Baguio Sagada Circuit – a popular route being taken by an annual Baguio – Sagada bikathon, cycle above the clouds!



WHITE RIVER RAFTING/ KAYAKING Yes, there are places here in the Philippines where one can challenge the waves.

Kayaking combines the physical challenges of a breath taking adventure while enjoying the natural splendor of the outlying environment. The Philippine Department of Tourism lists Tibiao River in Antique as the top White Water River. The Tibiao River is located near Boracay in Antique. Another place is the Bubunauan River south of Cagayan de Oro in Mindanao. Northern Palawan, Sohotan Caves, Bucas Grande and Surigao del Norte are other locations offering world class kayaking. Other recommended sites are Boracay, Cebu and Subic bay. For more information, you can contact Tribal Holdings Philippines Inc., as they organize kayaking programs. Kayaks are vailable for rent in Palawan, Leyte, Boracay, Cebu, Subic Bay and Puerto Azul in Cavite. The best time for river kayaking in Palawan and the Visayas is July to December while in Mindanao, it can be enjoyed all year round.

MOUNTAIN BIKING There are very few real mountain biking routes established here in our country. Although the popularity of mountain biking has long been here, mountain biking here usually takes the same road routes of traditional cycling and no real mountain trails to make the sport a true "mountain" biking experience. In the United States, there are mountain trails created for mountain biking. The only problem is when the foot trail and bike trail share the same trail. Here ethics should be clearly observed. One popular mountain biking destination within the proximity of Metro Manila is the UPLB Mt. Makiling trail winding up three fourths to the mountain’s summit. There are also some short mountain trails in Antipolo Rizal.

BEACHINEERING This term was coined by mountaineers to the activity of going to the beach and setting up camp there. Although beach is far from a mountaineering activity, here in our country, most mountains has its base along a beach front making the activity some sort of a reward after the strenuous hike up to the summit of a mountain. In beachineering comes other popular water sport such as snorkeling. Mountains which is usually tied-up to beachineering includes Mt. Talipanan – Puerto Galera, Mt. Maculot – Lemery, Pico de Loro – Nasugbu, Infanta National Park – Real Quezon and Mt. Guiting Guiting – Romblon.

PM 2011-20112