The Historian December 2012 Vol. 2, No. 2
1
Table of Contents Editor’s Note
page 3
Editor & Creator
Upcoming history events
page 4
Arthur der Weduwen
The History SSLC at Exeter
page 5
The Relevance of History
page 6
Contributors
Ladislaus LĂśb Visit at Exeter
page 8
Rose Bray
Imperial War Museum Lecture
page 10
Conor Byrne (series contributor)
The Chalke Valley History Festival
page 11
Oliver Cary
Re-interpreting the events of 1688
page 13
Michael Doyle
Witch, Adulteress, Victim: Representations of Anne Boleyn
page 18
A History of Exeter City FC
page 21
The History How-To-Guide
page 23
Madeleine Holder Alex Louch Alex Manning Paul Middleton Lydia Murtezaoglu Arthur der Weduwen
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The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
Editor’s Note By Arthur der Weduwen Dear reader, Before you lies the second issue of this year’s Historian. It is but our second issue in print, but things are changing and more exciting than ever. Once again, some great content has been submitted for your reading pleasure. This issue contains two wonderful reviews of this term’s History Society events: the visit and lecture held by Professor Ladislaus Löb, the charismatic Holocaust survivor who told a haunting tale of hardship and survival under the Nazi regime, and the talk by Suzanne Bardgett of the Imperial War Museum in London. Following on these successful events, this journal also contains announcements on next term’s Department and Society events, including a new fortnightly Historian newsletter! In addition, this issue features two articles regarding history as an ever-changing methodological subject for research and teaching, to which the English government must pay attention and not forsake. There are four other great articles, which include a piece of advice for history students looking for those elusive high marks, the first instalment of a two-part series on Tudor Queens, a narrative of the history of Exeter City FC and a re-interpretation of the Glorious Revolution. As always, anyone is welcome to contribute to The Historian, whatever discipline or age. This journal seeks to be thought provoking and hopefully reaches out to you, giving you inspiration and sharing ideas that you might find useful or highly disagreeable. The last issue of The Historian is scheduled for the end of the second term, and anyone with an idea for an article, review or essay is welcome to contact me at ad383@exeter.ac.uk. Finally, I would like to thank you for your time and I bid you to enjoy this journal. The spread of historical awareness and knowledge, together with the establishment of a larger and more communicative historical community at Exeter, is the goal that this publication seeks to achieve. With the outstanding contributions of our writers and your attention, this is largely realised. Naturally, this journal is a work in progress, but I believe that it stands at a beautiful time; a birth amidst the growth of the University and its community in terms of quality and quantity. Interest in history will never be lost. Neither will the timeless discourse of analysis, research, and interpretations. The Historian merely seeks to add to this wonderful discussion and thereby not only contribute to History at Exeter, but also to the discipline itself as a small tribute of thanks.
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The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
Upcoming History Events Exciting lectures organised by the History Society and Department are taking place in the New Year By Madeleine Holder (History Society Academic Officer) & Arthur der Weduwen
Miri Rubin, Professor of Medieval and Early Modern History at Queen Mary’s, University of London, will be visiting Exeter on the 22nd of January 2013 to give and discuss a paper. Miri Rubin is a specialist on social relations within religious cultures in Western Europe between 1100 and 1600 AD and has written on the cult of Corpus Christi, the cult of the Virgin Mary and the tales of blood libel used in the persecution of Jewish Communities. Following on from our term in which we focused upon the Holocaust and Modern History, this event will be the first of History Society's Early Modern and Medieval term. Particularly useful for those studying social or religious history in the medieval and early modern era, this talk promises to provide enlightening information on these areas. As a talk shared by the department, discussion afterwards promises to be lively!
Miri Rubin, pictured above
Additionally, on the 7th of May, at 6:30 PM, Dr. John Guy of the University of Cambridge will hold another lecture useful and highly interesting for Early-Modernists. The topic of the talk is “What is the Future of Tudor History?” The lecture will be held in the Amory Moot Room. As always, questions and discussion will follow the talk. Details on bookings and admissions for the events described above will also be released closer to time.
More updates on history events in the second and third terms will be released in January, when the History Society and the History SSLC will launch a fortnightly edition of The Historian to keep you up-to-date with everything that’s going on.
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The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
The History SSLC at Exeter Help for students and a new publication By Alex Louch For those of you who are blissfully unaware as yet, your History Student Staff Liaison Committee (SSLC) is here to discuss any problems you have with the department, and to attempt to improve the student experience of history as a whole. Any problems; get in touch with your representative, and we'll do our best to get the matter resolved. The history department in Exeter is absolutely fantastic at listening to your opinions and taking action to resolve issues. In the past, the History SSLC and History Society have not always worked together, and this year we are very keen to build bridges, which we feel will be far more mutually productive for every history student in the University. Therefore, beginning in second term, we plan to publish a joint venture, The Historian Lite on a fortnightly basis. We hope in this short newsletter, to incorporate news and events from the department and the many Historical Associations around Exeter, with updates from the Head of Education, staff interviews and general ways to get involved. We also hope to publish The Historian Lite simultaneously online, so students can check the letter wherever they are. We hope that the paper will be something that History students own, and we welcome any short piece articles, satires, cartoons etc. that are related to history at Exeter. The shorter versions will then build up to the longer work, The Historian which will again be published once in the second term, incorporating longer articles and comment. Through this joint venture, we hope to initiate a greater sense of community in the History department. As one of the best subjects at the University, with fantastic staff and some of the most talented students, we hope to create a sense of belonging to the department. We are looking for volunteers from across all year groups to get involved. If you are interested email Alex Louch (ajl217@ex.ac.uk) and we'll be in touch! Stay in touch with your SSLC reps, via ELE and the Facebook page. If you have any issues don't hesitate to email any of the contacts below: Subject Chair: Charlie Mackay (cem227@exeter.ac.uk) Year 1: Andrew Eckert (ate202@exeter.ac.uk) Year 1: Chris Freeman (cf342@exeter.ac.uk) Year 2: Helen Crowther (hc329@exeter.ac.uk) Year 2: Maria Brannan (mb457@exeter.ac.uk) Year 3: Alex Louch (ajl217@exeter.ac.uk) Year 3: Joshua Cole (jc447@exeter.ac.uk) Postgraduate: Emily Kirov (elk204@exeter.ac.uk) Publicity Officer: Miranda Fern (mef208@exeter.ac.uk)
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Why History is Still a Relative Academic Discipline in the TwentyFirst Century An analysis of government discrimination against History By Michael Doyle
Critical reasoning, the ability to construct an
In October 2010, the Chancellor of the
argument
Exchequer, George Osborne, announced that
diligently
analysing
the
evidence and selecting the relevant parts are
there would be a cut of 40% to the higher education budget.1
after
imperative if one seeks a career in the legal
However, Mr. Osborne
profession. The historian is able to write well
protected the science budget, saying that “scientific research is vital to our economic
structured and fluid prose which is clear and
future.”2 Whilst that is undoubtedly true, this
coherent; and are essential skills if a historian decides to enter the media profession.
does not mean that a subject like history is any
historian is trained to think objectively and
less vital. The impression one takes from this
craft solutions to any problems arising from
government and the previous government’s
their research. This is an invaluable skill and
budgetary decisions on higher education is that
one which many professions seek.
STEM subjects are the only worthwhile
to the labour market.
The current coalition
Pursuing a degree in
STEM is vital if one seeks a career in
government has made big cuts to the direct
occupations of a more practical nature. The
funding of history education at tertiary level,
skills a historian possesses are just as important
and has effectively passed on the financial cost
today as they were in the twentieth century. It
of funding history on to the universities hoping
seems rather quaint that at the same time the
that the £9,000 pounds a year in tuition will make up the shortfall.
So a
historian brings innumerable transferable skills
academic disciplines which contribute to economic growth.
A
government seeks to make our labour force
Neglecting the
more dynamic and innovative, it chooses to
economic value a historian brings to the labour
malign an academic discipline which makes it
market is a mistake.
easier for one to move from one occupation to The historian acquires a broad skill-set which
another.
can be utilised in many different professions.
ability to put forward a concise argument based
It is those transferable skills, the
on analysing research that are in danger of
1
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sto rycode=413956 2 http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sto rycode=413956
withering on the vine. That is why history is 6
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
still an academic discipline worth pursuing in
the inevitable consequence of ignorance of the
the twenty-first century.
past. But a man may wear himself out just as fruitlessly in seeking to understand the past, if
Yet studying history is not just beneficial to one’s job prospects.
he is totally ignorant of the present.” As he
The historian, like the
continues, “this faculty of understanding the
literary critic and art historian, is a guardian of
living is, in very truth, the master quality of the
our cultural heritage, and familiarity with that
historian.”5
heritage offers insight into the human condition
when Bloch was practicing his craft 40 years
– a means to a heightened self-awareness and
ago. A historian understands his social and
empathy with others.3 The understanding of
political context better than most, and is able to
the changing nature of the society around us
make an immense contribution to public life
and of the human condition is still essential in
with their skill in assessing changes that are
the twenty-first century. Investigation of the
taking place today, and how significant they
past is important if one seeks to attain a better
are when compared to previous periods.
understanding of a certain period in history.
History has no intrinsic monetary value; it is a
The former education secretary Charles Clarke
vital element of our national life. The historian
said, “I don’t mind there being some
who imparts this knowledge of the past helps
medievalists around for ornamental purposes,
to bind our society together, by telling our
but there is no reason for the state to pay them.”4
national story and providing a conduit to future
Pretentious and wholly vacuous
generations. These are still invaluable benefits
statements like Mr Clarke’s demonstrate
and they have not become redundant in the 21st
ignorance of the importance of understanding
century. History remains a relevant academic
the past, how institutions were formed and have
evolved
over
time,
how
This is as true today as it was
discipline and one hopes that it shall remain so
societies
for many decades to come.
functioned during a certain period of history and why that is still relevant to us today. These functions of history add greatly to the social and cultural fabric of the nation. The historian who disseminates this knowledge to wider society is doing a public service; encouraging the populace to acquire self-knowledge. Marc Bloch, the French medievalist put it best when he wrote, “misunderstanding of the present is 3
John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, (London, 2006), p.51 www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2003/may/09/highereducatio n.politics 4
5
www.alanmacfarlane.com/TEXTS/Bloch_craft.pdf
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Professor Ladislaus Löb’s visit at Exeter The incredible story of a Holocaust survivor By Rose Bray
Ladislaus Löb, a Holocaust survivor, gave a
played with his new friends.
testimony to a lucky one-hundred-and-fifty on
Luckily for him, his fathers’ quick thinking
Wednesday, 17th of October. What struck me
meant the two of them escaped, through
most about Löb’s testimony was his humour
bribery
and positivity when discussing his experience
and
forged
papers.
Their
luck
continued, as they became part of a group of
of the Holocaust and Bergen-Belsen
1,700 Hungarian Jews that were being taken
concentration camp. Perhaps surprisingly, he
from Hungary to Palestine, as part of a barter
kept the audience laughing at his jokes
between Adolf Eichmann, a powerful SS
throughout his story. This positive attitude is
leader,
something we could all probably benefit from,
and
Rudolf
Kastner,
a
Jewish-
Hungarian lawyer. This group left Hungary on
and his sad tale serves to bring a little
the 30th of June 1944.
perspective to our lives.
The Jews were crammed into a train that was
Löb was only eleven years old when, on the
identical to the ones that took people to
19th of March 1944, the Germans invaded
Auschwitz, with two buckets in the corner, one
Hungary, and the fate of the 700,000
for water, and one as toilet. The future looked
Hungarian Jews (including Löb and his father)
bleak as rumours spread that they were indeed
was thrown into jeopardy. Along with his
being taken to Auschwitz, but Löbs luck
grandparents and other relatives, he was
continued, as this was not the case.
rounded up and taken to the Kolozsvár Ghetto. Even here
Nonetheless, they were not allowed the
Löbs’
immediate passage to Switzerland and then
positivity
Palestine that they had hoped for. Instead they
shone
were taken to the Bergen-Belsen concentration
through as
camp, arriving on July 9th 1944, after nine days
his main
on the cramped, unsanitary train. However,
memories
further misunderstanding meant that the first
were the
fifty passengers, all women, had their heads
games he
shaven and were disinfected as though they were to be treated like the other, unfortunate, 8
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
prisoners of the concentration camp. But, as
in a puddle the day before. Furthermore, he
this group were part of a deal with the Nazis
notes that the inhabitants created lives within
they received better treatment than other
the camp – academics ran lectures, rabbis led
inhabitants of the camp, and Löb sees this as
prayers, and teachers organised a school,
the sole reason why he survived Belsen.
although these activities became fewer as winter drew closer.
Even so, he vividly remembers the horrors of the camp, which was designed for 5,000 and
Löb and the group of 1,700 Hungarian Jews
actually held 50,000. He recalls the terrible
finally continued their journey from Belsen in
food, damp dark huts, and roll calls outside in
December 1944, after five months in the camp.
the cold that could take hours. Nonetheless, he
Their train took them to Switzerland, which he
also
for
describes as looking like ‘heaven’, lit up
example the camp guard who brought a pair of
against the bleakness of Germany in its black-
mentioned
touching
anecdotes,
out. Rather than continuing to Palestine, Löb stayed in Switzerland for nineteen years, attending boarding school and University. In 1963 he moved to Brighton, England, to teach German at the University of Sussex, and it was not until his retirement in 1998 that he began to share this moving story. How lucky we are to have heard it!
shoes for a girl who had had to stand barefoot
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Impressions of an Exhibition Suzanne Bardgett, head of research at the Imperial War Museum, told Exeter of the museum’s first Holocaust exhibition By Lydia Murtezaoglu (History Society Vice-President)
To depict the trauma of the Holocaust
Finding the balance between using survivor
coherently appears an insurmountable task and
testimonies to enhance the exhibition and not
yet it fell to Suzanne Bardgett, alongside a
giving the impression that to survive was
dedicated team, to research, create and
normal was, according to Suzanne incredibly
establish the first Holocaust specific exhibition
difficult.
in Britain. Located in London’s Imperial War
When asked if she would change anything
Museum, the exhibition has proved a huge
about the exhibit, Suzanne replied that there
success by standing the test of time.
was just one thing, the apparent fluidity of time
Suzanne referred to difficulties that arise when
between the years depicting the pre-second
creating any new exhibition; finding the right
world war years and the start of the war. She
way to present the information, constructing
has always wanted there to be a more dynamic
the right space and collating the exhibits, all
change between the two sections to show a
the more difficult when dealing with the
significant shift in atmosphere.
Holocaust. Add to this the difficulty of
Questions were raised about whether attitudes
designing an exhibit which, though harrowing,
towards the Holocaust exhibition had changed
would engage visitors for the entirety of their
over time. She said she felt that people were
trip. To do this the Imperial War Museum had
just as shocked now as they were twelve years
to collect exhibits from a wide range of places.
ago. It is difficult to imagine that, in today’s
The exhibition was being set up in the first
digital era there has not been a decline in
days of e-mail, so enquiries had to be made by
shocked reaction, when images from the
letter, making the process far lengthier than it
Holocaust can be reached with a few taps into
would be today. The audience grasped the
Google images. Having said this, I believe that
extent to which the exhibition is highly
the exhibition is something that every person
regarded amongst survivors and the wider
needs to see and we owe thanks to people like
Jewish community who sent their own
Suzanne Bardgett for working so hard to
possessions or those of family members to the
educate people whilst dealing with one of the
Imperial War Museum.
most 10
sensitive
subject
areas.
The Chalke Valley History Festival A discussion regarding necessary changes in the British History Curriculum By Oliver Cary
The
Government’s
next
Hislop, Tom and James Holland, and Dan
generation in Britain is evident with a new
Snow amongst others. In discussion with a
curriculum in core subjects being established
member of the audience Dan Snow remarked
next year and a complete implementation
that narrative history teaching based around
across
Intellectuals,
chronology lacks depth and students cannot
professors, teachers are among those who have
fully appreciate the effects or nature of the
criticisms of our curriculum, and it is
topic. James Heneage, co-founder of the
understandable as the prestige of British
festival, believes ‘it’s easy to drill facts into
education has faded. In global tables South
children’ but enthusiasm is lost.
subjects
by
focus
2014.
on
the
Korea, Japan and China are all rated highest,
Enthusiasm was ever present at the festival as
and Finland topped the table for most of the
all ages attended. From school children
last decade.
listening to Tom Holland’s animated telling of
Michael Gove, secretary of education, hopes
the Odyssey, to veterans of the Falkland war
that changes to the history curriculum will
listening to Rowland White describing the role
spark a more fervent interest in the subject. The
of the heroics of Vulcan bombers in the
current system is often argued to be too
Falklands. Outside the tents, War Horse
modular and specific, and Gove wants children
displays, sword schools and WW1 trench
to understand a narrative of British history.
warfare re-enactments took place to the
Poor knowledge of important people and no
crowds. Ian Hislop described the festival as
grasp of British chronology are central to
‘quite extraordinary...with a great audience’. If
complaints of the latest young generation.
Michael Gove’s wish for children to learn Britain’s ‘story’ is to come to fruition, the
At The Chalke Valley History Festival this
Empire must be seen as fashionable, says
June discussions between field experts and the
Jeremy Paxman. In addition, Paxman, replying
public were prominent on this very subject.
to questions at the festival, says that imperialist
The event, the UK’s largest history festival,
history is tarnished by prejudice as modular
boasted lectures from Sir Max Hastings,
history often reduces a national perspective of
Antony Beevor, Amanda Vickery, Jeremy
history. He believes that history in schools has
Paxman, Michael Morpurgo, Ian and Victoria 11
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
‘succumbed to a dull doctrinal set of prejudices
seem to be important but are not properly
that do not inspire people’.
addressed’ as Paxman argues about British imperialism, our society has diversities and
Nick Gibb argued in the Telegraph this
appreciation of African and Asian history is
October that this debate is not new, and that student
‘self-discovery’
occurs
also important. Benjamin Zephaniah criticises
through
Gove’s desire to focus on British history, as the
teaching continuity and change instigated in
Empire
the 1920’s at Teacher’s College, Columbia,
was
oppressive
and
a
British
perspective only tells ‘half the story’. He thinks
New York. Perhaps the central issue is not how
a wider understanding of events and different
history is taught but its short exposure to
cultures is important in British education and
children in schools. James Holland, the other
continues to say that ‘Black history is not just
co-founder of the Chalk Valley History
for black people’.
Festival, thinks that lack of knowledge and understanding exists because History is ‘one of
Although debate regarding the nature and
the subjects that can be opted out of very early on.’ History should be made compulsory till the age of sixteen, asserts Linda Colley, like ‘it is in many European countries.’ A continuation to GCSE allows not only more time for students to become enthused by the subject but also for topics to be returned to in more detail. David Cannadine, professor at Princeton
method
University, in the Telegraph November 2011
of
teaching
history
has
been
longstanding, criticisms will continue in this
said the current curriculum lacks time to look
country as teachers attempt to find the best way
at ‘the big picture’ and that Sir Keith Joseph
to educate, enthuse and impart the knowledge
and Kenneth Baker wanted history to be
of the past to children. However it is
studied till the age of sixteen in their School
universally agreed that ‘you need to understand
Curriculum of 1981.
your past to make sense of what you’re doing
The intentions of the new approach of the
now’ says James Holland. This cultural literacy
curriculum
Gove’s
allows people to participate in society, and
chronological and British related course may
perhaps Michael Gove’s new curriculum would
lead to introspection says Tom Devine,
be praised if it made the subject of History
professor at Edinburgh University. While it is
compulsory till the age of sixteen.
are
admirable
but
important to ‘engage with those things that
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Glorious Revolution or Dutch Conquest? A re-interpretation of the events of 1688 that shaped the future of Empire By Arthur der Weduwen
Due to the revolutionary events taking place in
to the lengths of regarding the events of 1688
the last decades of the eighteenth century,
as an English ‘revolution’, with the aid of a
political thought in the United Kingdom turned
foreign
statesman.9
This
article
will
6
demonstrate a relatively less-explored side of
Edmund Burke7 defined the events of 1688 in
the Glorious Revolution. It will be argued that
his Reflections on the Revolution in France:
this event was a conquest by the Dutch similar
its focus to the ‘Glorious Revolution’ of 1688.
to the Norman Invasion of 1066. In support of “The [Glorious] Revolution was made to
this argument, the difference in nature between
preserve our antient indisputable laws
a ‘revolution’ and a ‘conquest’ will be
liberties,
and
that antient constitution
and of
determined.
Furthermore,
this
article
government which is our only security for law
discusses the importance of language and
and liberty.... The very idea of the fabrication
perception, as these are vital to the construction
of a new government, is enough to fill us with
of historical interpretations regarding the
disgust and horror.”8
‘Glorious Revolution’. This will lead to the conclusion that the events of 1688 can be
This statement was celebrated in 1790, and
portrayed dually: as an internal English
since then historiography has supported Burke
revolution, or as a Dutch conquest.
6
There is an obvious difference between the
In 1688, James II fled England after Dutch Stadtholder William III landed in Devon. William, through the legitimacy of his wife Mary Stuart, established the House of Orange in England, and was crowned joint monarch with Mary.
words ‘revolution’ and ‘conquest’. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a ‘revolution’ is defined as “a very important change in the way
7
Edmund Burke (1729-1797), was a Whig MP. He opposed Dr. Richard Price, whose Revolution Society argued for British support to the French Revolution on the basis that it was similar to the English monarchical struggles of the Glorious Revolution. Burke attacked Price’s arguments in his Reflections on the Revolution In France, claiming that his interpretation was mistaken, as the French Revolution destroyed the ancient principles of the French state, whilst the Glorious Revolution had reinforced the English monarchy and the rights of the people.
that people do things”, and a political revolution is “a change in the way that a country is governed”.10 ‘Conquer’, is defined as “to take control or possession of a foreign 9
Such as in Lord Thomas Macaulay’s volumes of A History of England. 10 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/rev olution_1
8
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, Paragraph 51
13
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2 11
land…by force”. These definitions are central to the examination of the term ‘Glorious
On the fifth of November 1688 William set
Revolution’.
foot at Brixham, near Torbay, Devon. Over the next
The term was coined in 1689 by John
two days,
his
21,000-strong army
disembarked from a fleet consisting of 463
12
Hampden , and is still used in Parliament
ships. This massive undertaking had been
today.
the
planned for months.15 Concerned with the
events13 also support and use the term.
potential Anglo-Franco Catholic alliance of
Applying the ‘Glorious Revolution’ to describe
James II and Louis XIV, William sought to
the events of 1688 has a twofold implication:
invade England and dethrone James, thereby
the events must have been highly successful
allowing him to fight a one-front war against
(glorious), and created a change radical enough
France. This plan was reinforced by the birth of
to
James’ son, who replaced Mary Stuart as heir
be
Traditional
labeled
a
interpretations
of
‘revolution’.
These
implications pose a considerable issue in
to
the
English
throne.
William
then
branding the events of 1688. From a non-
investigated whether there would be English
English, non-Protestant perspective, the events
support for his cause: he found it in the form of
could be defined differently. And although
the ‘Immortal Seven’16. These seven men
John Hampden coined the term in accordance
signed a secret letter, promising their and their
with his own opinion and that of many other
allies’ support if William were to invade
Englishmen,14 the term is not appropriate from
England.17 The ‘Immortal Seven’ were vital for
the perspective of other European states of the late seventeenth century. William III and James
Hampden’s
creation
of
the
‘Glorious
II could rightfully regard the ‘Glorious
Revolution’. The seven men were the proof
Revolution’ as a successful foreign conquest,
that the removal of James was an English
for reasons that will be examined below.
revolution – started by prominent nobles for the liberty and good of the English people.
11
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/co nquer?q=conquer
However, as the evidence presented thus far
12
has shown, this is but one side of the truth.
MP and part of the opposition to the regimes of Charles II and James II.
William had been planning his invasion of
13
As given by historians Lord Thomas Macaulay and Jonathan Israel.
15
Mark Kishlansky, A Monarchy Transformed: Britain 1603-1714, London, 1996, p. 277 16 Consisting of Henry Sydney (the author of the letter), Edward Russell, Henry Compton (Bishop of London), the Viscount Lumley, and the Earls of Danby, Devonshire and Shrewsbury.
14
A protestant monarchy had been established (glorious and successful for most English, who belonged to the Anglican Church), and an illegitimate, catholic monarch had been ousted by the will of the people (namely the Immortal Seven, who signed the invitation for the invasion to William), leading to greater privileges and rights for the English nation – a true revolution. Therefore, a ‘Glorious Revolution’.
17
Link to the text of the letter: http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/WIIIinv ite.html
14
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
England for months. He had gathered the
William, however, as he commanded a capable
support of Dutch dignitaries and financiers, and
army consisting of Dutch, Germans, Swiss,
had secured the construction and use of a fleet
English, Scots, and many other nationalities.
larger than the Spanish Armada of 1588. His
This army allowed him to progress unopposed
army
and
towards London. If William hadn’t had such an
experienced. To William, the ‘invitation’ of the
impressive army, James would surely have
seven nobles was a reassurance of some
attacked and imprisoned him. This is evident
support – proof that he wouldn’t land in a
from
country completely hostile to his cause – but
Monmouth’s
not an invitation. The invasion was William’s
earlier.20
was
furthermore
formidable
James’
reaction rebellion
to only
the
Duke
three
19
of
years
undertaking. This is supported by a declaration
Furthermore, after the coronation of
of the Dutch States-General that the Dutch
William, the new monarch was required to
Republic, as a nation, was not directing the
fight for his crown and conquest in the
invasion, but instead that it was conducted as a
Williamite, or Jacobite, war in Ireland between
private family affair of William.18 Given the
1689 and 1691.21 The amount of force required
earlier
all
by William to take and secure the crown of
indications that the ‘Glorious Revolution’ was
England is more closely aligned to the
a conquest by William.
definition of a ‘conquest’ than a ‘revolution’.
definitions,
these
factors
are
In addition to the statements above,
From the perspective of James it also seems
there is more
that England was conquered rather than
evidence
that
revolutionised: the Catholic monarch was not
the events of
deserted by his subjects, but in the wake of the
1688
Dutch invasion and impressive force, he chose
demonstrate
to flee and save himself the indignity of being
the
definition
captured by William and his allies.
of a ‘conquest’. no
It has now been established that the ‘Glorious
battles
Revolution’, in the eyes of William and James,
were waged between William and James
was not much less than the Norman Conquest
Although great
directly in the wake of the invasion, the army 19
Kishlansky, A Monarchy Transformed: Britain 16031714, p. 279 20 James’ 3,000-strong army, partly commanded by John Churchill, the future Duke of Marlborough, defeated the Duke of Monmouth’s 4,000 men at the battle of Sedgemoor in 1685. Monmouth and 350 captured soldiers were executed. 21 Kishlansky, A Monarchy Transformed: Britain 16031714, p. 287
of James did not immediately desert to William’s side, as had been predicted by the ‘Immortal Seven’. This was no problem for 18
Wout Troost, Stadhouder-koning Willem III: Een Politieke Biografie, Uitgeverij Verloren, 2001, p. 198
15
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
of 1066. Perhaps it is possible to reconcile the
history does not provide a single narrative of a
two
of
broad range of events which includes different
classifying the events of 1688 as either a
players and nationalities, no one interpretation
‘revolution’ or a ‘conquest’, it might be
is necessarily more ‘truthful’ than another.
different
perspectives.
Instead
possible to divide the entire proceeding into different phases. It could be suggested that
A search for interpretations regarding the
events commenced with the ‘conspiracy’ of the
events of 1688 leads back to the issues of
‘Immortal
through
language and perception. The definitions of
correspondence, which was followed by the
‘revolution’ and ‘conquest’ were given earlier
invasion and conquest of William’s army, and
and used to sustain the argument that, from
finished with a ‘revolution’ as William and
William’s perspective, the ‘revolution’ was
Mary were crowned joint monarchs, James was
more alike to a ‘conquest’. But as stated above,
ousted and new rights were secured for the
history never provides a single narrative.
English people in the form of the new Bill of
Therefore history is told in the way that man
Rights.22
brands and perceives it. After that, what
Seven’
and
William
remains is the question of why one or the other Although
the
and
interpretation has prevailed over others and is
reconciliation of terminology contributes a new
preferred in the present. This question is
perspective to the events of 1688, it does not
certainly
become more than that. Reconciling ‘conquest’
Revolution’. Since John Hampden created the
and ‘revolution’ leads to a new perspective, but
term in 1689, it has been used globally by
this stands equal to the previous perspectives.
historians and institutions. There are reasons to
A new perspective does not lead to a higher
explain this phenomenon. William, after being
‘truth’ of history in this case. To some, a
crowned monarch, did not upset his new
tripartite
and
subjects by branding his recent exploits as a
revolution is closer to the course of events,
great ‘conquest’ – this would surely have
because this provides a more complete
angered and alienated the English, who, from
analysis. But to William and proud Dutchmen,
their
for example, it remains a conquest, for reasons
Hampden coined his famous term and William
explained earlier. Similarly, to the Immortal
occupied himself with the Jacobite war in
Seven, British MP’s, and Lord Thomas
Ireland. The Dutch, after the events of 1688,
Macaulay, the events remain most accurately
did not contest the term ‘Glorious Revolution’,
portrayed as a ‘Glorious Revolution’. Since
as they also saw the events as a successful
22
revolution: a Dutch stadtholder sat on the
of
above
conspiracy,
sequence
conquest,
Also known as the Declaration of Right of 1689, enacted by parliament to secure future freedom and rights under the new monarchs.
applicable
perspective,
to
were
the
‘Glorious
liberated.
John
English throne, causing a united front between 16
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
the two rival nations. This, to Dutch minds,
discredit the ‘Glorious Revolution’ per se, but
would surely have brought more prosperous
it is vital that the events are also established to
times.
have constituted a ‘Dutch Conquest’.
A
‘Glorious
Revolution’
seemed
therefore apt to describe the extraordinary situation.
In conclusion, the events of 1688 can be
Sadly, for the Dutch, the union led to a
interpreted in different ways. Historically, the
shift from Amsterdam to London, causing the
term ‘Glorious Revolution’ has been favoured,
Dutch Republic‘s trading hegemony to be
and it has largely been ignored that the
replaced by England.23 The term remained in
invasion and subsequent coronation of William
use, however, and Edmund Burke, used it with
III as King of England were alike to the
his nationalistic fervour in 1790, because the
Norman
term installed a sense of self-preservation and
interpretations can be reconciled. The validities
righteous survival of the English nation.
of the interpretations are based on the different
Thanks to Burke, it became coded into
perspectives that create the narratives of the
Britain’s vocabulary. From that point onwards,
events of 1688. Therefore, both work together
through the dominance of British education
to present a unique, and more complete, view
and historians, the ‘Glorious Revolution’
of the historical events that shaped the future of
became a regular term. It was not doubted until
England and the Dutch Republic. In the end,
2008, when Lisa Jardine questioned the nature
one can only speculate what William would
of the events of 1688, claiming that the English
have done if he had known that he would be
robbed the Dutch of a victory by coining the
leading his new Kingdom to unimaginable
term ‘Glorious Revolution’.24 Nonetheless,
glory and his own Republic to decline.
conquest
of
1066.
These
two
Jardine does not provide more justice to historical
truth
than
Burke
did.
Both
Further Reading:
interpretations rely on a sense of perspective.
Lisa Jardine, Going Dutch
Therefore both the interpretations are valid to the extent that they are linked back to and are
Mark Kishlanksy, A Monarchy Transformed:
seen as originating from their perspectives. If
Britain 1603-1714
one takes away the background, or the Lord Thomas Macaulay, A History of England
perspective, then one takes away the validity of the interpretation. Hence, it is important not to
Jonathan Israel, The Rise, Greatness, and Fall of the Dutch Republic
23
It remains ironic that one of the Dutch Republic’s greatest exploits, the conquest of England, was also the greatest catalyst to its own downfall and the greatness of the British Empire. 24 See Lisa Jardine, Going Dutch: How England plundered Holland’s Glory, London, 2008, p. 27
Steven Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution 17
Witch, Adulteress, Victim Assessing the representation of “the most controversial queen consort in English history”, Anne Boleyn, in Part One of the Two-Part Series By Conor Byrne
In the words of one historian, no English
influencing the shape and course of the
queen has been so persistently vilified or
Reformation in England, religious perspectives
condemned as Anne Boleyn. This in part
of her will be highly relevant.
accounts for the claim that she is the most
Catholics,
controversial queen consort in English history.
understandably,
were
highly
opposed to Anne during her courtship with
Yet, as Eric Ives warns us, we should not
Henry VIII since they despised the fact that, if
solely focus on her tragic downfall and
made queen, she would supplant a Catholic
execution when considering her career and life.
queen. None more so opposed Anne than the
Rather than considering complex theories for
Spanish ambassador Eustace Chapuys, who
why Anne fell from power in 1536, this article
arrived in England in 1529. Refusing even to
will instead consider how representations of
have a conversation with this lady, he
Queen Anne have changed and developed over
characterised
time, starting from her own lifetime through to
Anne
as
a
she-devil,
an
Agrippina, and suggested that Anne used
the present day. However, it should be borne in
witchcraft to manipulate Henry VIII. He also
mind that, in the words of Alison Weir, Anne is
famously attested that she plotted the murders
‘an enigma’.
of Katherine of Aragon and her daughter Mary
Notoriously, the sixteenth century was a time
Tudor. As Retha Warnicke has convincingly
of religious turmoil, largely seen in the English
argued, much of what he alleged about Anne
Reformation which occurred in the 1530s due
cannot be corroborated by other evidence.
to Henry VIII’s desire to annul his marriage to
Other Catholics violently slandered Anne, both
Katherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne.
during her courtship and marriage to King
Due to this conflict, a new form of Christianity
Henry, and even more so after her brutal death.
– Anglicanism – emerged during the period. It will
therefore
make
sense
to
Reginald Pole, a cardinal during Mary I’s reign
consider
and a potential royal claimant, alleged that she
representations of Anne Boleyn from religious
was a Jezebel and a sorceress, while Nicholas
perspectives. Since she is viewed by some
Sander, a Catholic historian during Elizabeth
historians as being ‘fundamental’ in
I’s reign, created a monstrous picture of Anne. 18
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
He alleged that she had six fingers on one
values. From the eighteenth century, the
hand, warts, and a protruding tooth. It should
general public seemed largely to have viewed
be remembered that Sander was six years old at
Anne with increasing sympathy, rather than
the time of Anne’s death and probably never
with hostility as was so apparent in Catholic
saw her. He also suggested that she was the
sources in the sixteenth and seventeenth
daughter of Henry VIII and, by referring to
centuries. Simultaneously, Henry VIII was
these grotesque features in an age, which saw
gradually condemned as being cruel, lecherous,
physical characteristics as representative of
and authoritarian.
personality and traits, portrayed Anne as the
In
embodiment of evil.
the
eighteenth and
Paradoxically, given that Anne was actually
early
conventional
nineteenth
in
late
her
religious
beliefs,
Protestants during the reign of her daughter
centuries,
Elizabeth viewed her as ‘a veritable saint’. One
rise
Scot reformer informed Elizabeth that ‘true
Romanticism
religion in England had its commencement and
influenced
its end with your mother’. Anne was viewed as
representations
religious, charitable, and a model queen. Foxe,
of Anne Boleyn. Jane Austen bewailed the fate
in his Book of Martyrs, emphasised the critical
of Henry VIII’s unfortunate wives and
role Anne played in influencing the rise of
condemned Henry VIII for being a sadist and
Protestantism in England, and described her as
fornicator. Largely during this time period
being ‘godly’. At the time of her execution,
Anne was viewed as a tragic, wronged heroic
many reformers were dismayed to hear of
figure. The influence of Victorian values, as
Anne’s death; poems were written in her
seen in the work of Agnes Strickland, led to
memory while Melanchthon wrote that it was a
harsh judgments of Henry VIII and burgeoning
‘catastrophe’.
sympathy for Anne.
Although an impenetrable mystery surrounded
Conversely, the rise of modern academic
Anne Boleyn’s fall (readers may be surprised
scholarship has largely led to more balanced
to read that the reasons why Anne was
views of Anne. While some historians, such as
executed
highly
Paul Friedmann, Alison Weir and David
controversial: academic historians fiercely
Starkey, present her as being scheming and ‘an
contest each other’s views), representations of
ambitious adventuress with a penchant for
her in the modern period continued to be
vengeance’, others are more appreciative of
are
unknown
and
shaped by religious, political, and cultural 19
the of
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
Anne’s fundamental role in religious change
something for which there is no evidence).
and court politics.
G.W. Bernard is nowadays the only modern historian who sees Anne as guilty as charged.
The rise of psychology and gender history in
Others, such as Joanna Denny, employ their
the twentieth century has influenced alternative
own religious beliefs – in Denny’s work, Anne
perspectives of Anne’s incredible career and
is characterised as a Protestant figure who
tragic death. Yet, as Weir argues, ‘rarely are
sought to inaugurate Protestantism in England.
historians entirely impartial about her’. Her main biographer, Eric Ives, describes her as
This divide is seen in films, novels, plays, and
being a ‘self-made woman’ and deserving of
television series. In The Tudors, Natalie
her role in modern society as a feminist icon,
Dormer portrayed Anne as being intelligent,
describing her as a highly educated, motivated
motivated, and highly cultured, yet also
and cultured woman who enjoyed music, art,
characterised her as a scheming temptress. In
and was a central figure in the English
The Other Boleyn Girl, Natalie Portman
Reformation and a ‘brutal’ politician at court.
presents her as scheming and cold, while in the
Others have attacked this view. Warnicke sees
novel she is depicted as a murderess,
Anne as essentially younger and challenges
promiscuous, physically violent, and ruthless.
Ives’ reliance on Chapuys’ dispatches, while
Yet this conflict conveys how, over time,
arguing that Anne’s tragic death resulted from
representations of Anne have continued to alter
‘human
and develop. From being characterised as
ignorance
about
pregnancy
and
either a whore or witch in Catholic circles in the aftermath of her execution, to a feminist icon in modern society, Anne Boleyn continues to remain an enigma. Further Reading: E. Ives, The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn R. Warnicke, The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn G.W. Bernard, Fatal Attractions A. Weir, The Lady in the Tower: The Fall of Anne Boleyn
conception’ (her belief is that Anne died because she gave birth to a deformed foetus
J. Denny, Anne Boleyn: A New History of
which convinced Henry that she was a witch –
England’s Tragic Queen 20
A History of Exeter City FC A piece of local history narrating the fortunes and falls of Exeter’s own Football Club By Alex Manning
Exeter City Football Club, nicknamed the
Masters side played Exeter in a friendly at St
Grecians, have a particularly rich and colourful
James
Park
to
mark
the
club’s
100th
history. In 1904 St Sidwell’s United, a well
Anniversary -
known area of Exeter for University students,
perhaps
and Exeter United decided to merge into one
unsurprisingly
club. St James Park was chosen as the ground
it finished 1-0
where this newly formed Exeter side would
to the visitors.
play their home games. With a current capacity
In 2012 it was
of 8,541 Exeter City still play at St James Park
reported
that
today, just a stone’s throw from the University.
Exeter City officials were hopeful of a similar
In their first game as a new club Exeter City
event being staged in 2014 to mark the 100th
won 2-1 against the 110th Battery of the Royal
Anniversary of that famous meeting.
Artillery in the East Devon League. It wasn’t
Exeter became one of the founding members of
until 1908 that City became a professional club
Division Three of the Football League in 1920.
and entered the Southern League in England.
During the 1920s Exeter groomed a number of
In 1910, Exeter disposed of their Green and
football stars including future Arsenal and
White quartered shirts in favour of the Red and
England legend Cliff Bastin who went on to be
White stripes they play in to this day.
the Gunner’s highest scorer, a record only
Possibly the most famous game in Exeter
broken by Ian Wright. The next seventy years
City’s early history occurred when they toured
of the clubs history were fairly unremarkable,
South America in 1914; during this tour City
being spent moving between division three and
played a Brazil side who were playing their
four of the Football League. City has never
first ever international fixture. The game ended
reached the Second tier of English Football.
in a 3-3 draw with no apparent signs of the 5
Tony Kellow played for City during this
World Cup victories the home side would later
period, becoming the club’s highest goal scorer
experience. Pleasingly, the connection has
with 129 goals.
lasted through the years and in 2004 a Brazil 21
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
In more recent times, Exeter City have suffered
under the management of Paul Tisdale. Back to
both highs and lows. The 1990s saw off-the-
back promotions followed and City enjoyed
field issues as financial difficulties hit the
two seasons in the current Football League 1
Devon club; they were relegated to the
before being relegated at the end of the 2012
conference in 2003 and were forced to sell St
season. The time spent in the third tier saw the
James Park to a company of developers. There
revival of the fierce derby against Plymouth
was a real risk that the club was going under. It
Argyle FC. City currently reside in League 2 of
was during this period that the supporters
the Npower Football League. Exeter University
bought the club; the stadium was bought back
has maintained a good relationship with Exeter
by the council and leased to the club, which
City, which has led to an annual Varsity fixture
enabled Exeter City to get back on its feet. The
being
club is still owned and run by a supporters’
set
trust, a fact of which they are very proud. This
between
revival was helped by a famous FA Cup tie
the two
against Manchester United in 2005 where City
in aid of
gained a replay with a highly commendable 0-0
charity.
draw at Old Trafford. United eventually won
City has
the replay 2-0 at St James’ Park, but the money
won
received from the fixtures helped to keep the
every varsity to date, however the fixture
club going.
remains fiercely competitive, drawing a crowd
up
of over 4000 in 2012. As a University, we
In 2008, after a number of near misses at
should look to support our local Football Club
promotion, City managed to regain their
with its rich history as much as we possibly
football league status by beating Cambridge
can.
United 1-0 in the Conference playoff final,
22
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
The History How-To Guide: What ELE doesn’t tell you Several tips on how to get those elusive high marks By Paul Middleton
Here are five essential tips, spoken from someone who has already endured three years of essays, presentations and source commentaries. 1.) Find Out What You’re Good At, And Fast. After coming from a relatively restricted A-Level History curriculum, you really need to be experiencing areas of history that don’t involve Hitler and the Nazis. You will probably have a handful of modules over the course of your first year, so make a point of picking ones that don’t go together in any way possible. By choosing a range of topics you will be able to find out which period of history you’re good at, and that leads me on to the next point… 2.) Stick To What You Know. Once you’ve figured out which area of history you’re good at, stick to it. A lot of people think it’s a good idea to carry on trying different parts of history they think might be interesting. This is possibly the worst thing you could ever do, and this gamble rarely pays off. It will be this module that you will look back at when you get your 69.4 at the end of the three years and you’ll just think, ‘if only…’ This is especially the case for the Doing History module and for your Third-Year Dissertation, which leads me on to my next point… 3.) Stick To Who You Know. By the time you get to your third year you’ll have a pretty good idea of what you’re good at, and you’ll find that the same lecturers have been popping up in your seminars since you first started. You might have even identified a couple of them as particularly generous markers, and these are the people you have to get friendly with. If they are teaching a third-year Options module, you do it. If they are supervising dissertations, you choose them. That way, all you have to worry about is step number four… 4.) Checklist Essays. By your third year you will start to become familiar with how to set out an argument in essay form, but you will probably have varying success in terms of the marks you receive. So what is missing? The simple answer is, detail. Lecturers don’t care if you know every type of Victorian contraceptive; all they care about is your arguments for how one or two particular types impacted on history. Obviously contraceptive practices won’t be applicable to all of you, but the basic theory is the same. Write in your introduction that although there are many factors to a particular
23
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
question, you will only focus on one or two. That way, you are giving them the detail they need. Also, primary sources are highly important. Throw in a few of those and you are well on your way. 5.) Presentations Can Make Or Break. Assessed presentations are probably the easiest ways to get firsts, and a good presentation could see you landing in the high-seventies. By identifying a module that you enjoy, and a lecturer who pretty much loves you, you’re already half way there. My only piece of advice is to try not to use any notes at all. It will be hard, but with enough practice you will manage it. This will instantly put you up there into first-class territory, and will set you apart from all the mumbling muppets who just read off a sheet. Hopefully this five-step plan has come some way to dispelling the myths set out by the College of Humanities, and has given you simple, objective advice as to how to succeed with high marks. The thing to remember is that it is so much easier to lose marks than it is to gain them, so stick to these points and you should be able to make your way through the minefield that is a history degree.
Interested in writing for
Watch out for the next
The Historian? Contact
issue of The Historian
the Editor at
In March 2013!
ad383@exeter.ac.uk
24
The Historian, Vol. 2, No. 2
The Historian would like to take a moment to thank the generosity of the Alumni Society, which has provided the funding for this publication through its annual Reserve Fund. Details about the Society can be found on www.alumni.exeter.ac.uk.
With support of the University of Exeter Alumni Society
A University of Exeter History Society Publication
Note: Content may only be reproduced and/or used with permission of the editor and respective contributors.
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