Holocene year 4 issue 1

YEAR 4/ISSUE 01-02-03/SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2018

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YEAR 4/ISSUE 01-02-03/SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2018

Year 4/Issue 01/September – November 2018 The Holocene is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years BP and continues to the present. As Earth warmed after the Ice Age, the human population increased and early man began to change the planet forever. For Exploring Nature, our newsletter Holocene is our platform to convey our concerns on human threat to biodiversity. We will use our newsletter as a media to highlight the current local and global issues which could impact biodiversity of Mother Nature and promote awareness of biodiversity in alignment with our group’s mission of promoting awareness of different aspects of Mother Nature among people.

In this newsletter our readers will get information and periodic updates on.  Recent significant discussions on biodiversity, going on across the world.  Major recent research and studies on biodiversity.  Biodiversity explorations planned and conducted by national and international groups as well as Exploring Nature.  Information and interesting readings on wildlife photography and biodiversity modelling etc.

Content:  Editorial Gaja Sutra – Unravelling the story of the Indian Elephant …This is a specially curated collage of stories compiling best practices and challenges of storytelling from the perspective of humans and elephants 3|Page  Back to Basic Basic of Nature and Wildlife Photography by Dwaipayan Ghosh Founder of Exploring Nature taking us back to school to get our basics right…..

7|Page  Story Room Teesta’s Teachings by -Gauri Noolkar-Oak A Policy Research analysis and specialist in Hydropolitics with Pune International Centre and Fellow with Joke Waller-Hunter Initiative, Both Ends, The Netherlands…. Gauri had a wonderful year-long opportunity to research on Teesta River Basin and develop communication, negotiation and conflict management skills.

She can also be caught www.gaurinoolkar.wordpress.com

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Holocene Year 4/Issue 01/September - November 2018 © Exploring Nature Cover, Design and Illustration © Exploring Nature All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without proper prior permission in writing from Exploring Nature.

Editorial Board Team Exploring Nature Holocene Cover: Koushik Mondal Logo and Title Design Arijit Das Majumder and Saikat Chakraborty

 The Solo Nature Voyager Six Months in Four States (Part Two) by Sutonuka Majumder A Bangaloe based banker, had dreams of mountains and then to chase her dreams, she took six months sabbatical from her white collar job, sold her all belongings, accumulated all her money, packed rucksack, and started her solo nature voyage …..second part of her story on Ladakh and Markha valley She can be caught up at https://makingmemories30plus.wordpress.co m/ 11|Page  Exploration Camp Diary of a Highland Scout: (Part Four) by Arnab Basu …story of Scottish Highland continues 16|Page  Expert Speaks Importance of Caves and Karst (Part Two)

by Vrushabh Borkar 18|Page

Website www.exploringnature.org.in e-mail info@exploringnature.org.in

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 Bio-Enterprising Bats with Catharine Wuster by Katrina Southerland, a student of zoology from Bangor University of Wales, telling us about Bangor University’s Zoological Society’s most recent talk about bats, given by Catherine Wüster PhD MCIEEM. 23|Page  Theme-Poster Eyes that reach into your soul speaking the unspoken words - Save me while you can still see me...by Kalyan Chakraborty 24|Page

YEAR 4/ISSUE 01-02-03/SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2018

Editorial: Gaja Sutra – Unravelling the story of the Indian Elephant

The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant and native to mainland Asia. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the wild Asian elephant population has declined by at least 50% since the 1940s to 1930s, i.e. three elephant generations. The Asian elephant is threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.

There are a total of 138 state elephant corridors, 28 interstate corridors and 17 international state corridors where Indian elephant populations are found. The table below enlists the corridors: Region

Number of Corridors

Are (Sq Km)

North-East East North South

58 54 8 46

41000 23500 5500 40000

Elephant Population Percentage 33 10 4 53

The pre-eminent threats to Asian elephants today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Loss of significant extents of elephant range and suitable habitat continues; their free movement is impeded by reservoirs, hydroelectric projects and associated canals, irrigation dams, numerous pockets of cultivation and plantations, highways, railway lines, mining and industrial development.

Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Poaching of tuskers impacts on sex ratios that become highly female biased; genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline. Poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where between 1969 and 1989 the adult male: female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122.

Elephant conservation in northern West Bengal has been set back due to high-levels of human–elephant conflict and elephant mortality owing to railway accidents. The railway track between Siliguri and Alipurduar passes through 74 km (46 mi) of various forest divisions. Every day, 20 trains run on this track at high speeds. Elephants that pass through from one forest patch to another dash against the trains and die. A total of 39 dead elephants were reported during the period of 1958 to 2008, of which ten were reported killed between 2004 and 2008.

Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I. Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states for their free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure long-term survival of viable conservation reliant populations of elephants in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats and migration corridors. Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting research of the ecology and management of elephants, creating conservation awareness among local people, providing improved veterinary care for captive elephants.

India has more than half of the world’s Asian elephant population. The elephant is protected under Schedule I of Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and has also been declared as “National Heritage of India” in 2010 by Government of India.

Cultural Depictions of elephants: Elephants have been depicted in mythology, symbolism and popular culture. They are both revered in religion and respected for their prowess in war. They also have negative connotations such as being a symbol for an unnecessary burden. Ever since the stone age, when elephants were represented by ancient petroglyphs and cave art, they have been portrayed in various forms of art, including pictures, sculptures, music, film, and even architecture.

In Hindu iconography, many devas are associated with a mount or vehicle known as a vāhana. In addition to providing a means of transport, they symbolically represent a divine attribute. The elephant vāhana represents wisdom, divine knowledge and royal power; it is associated with Lakshmi, Brihaspati, Shachi and Indra. Indra was said to ride on a flying white elephant named Airavata, who was made the King of all elephants by Lord Indra. A white elephant is rare and given special significance. It is often considered sacred and symbolises royalty in Thailand and Burma, where it is also considered a symbol of good luck. In Buddhist iconography, the elephant is associated with Queen Māyā of Sakya, the mother of Gautama Buddha. She had a vivid dream foretelling her pregnancy in which a white elephant featured prominently. To the royal sages, the white elephant signifies royal majesty and authority; they interpreted the dream as meaning that her child was destined for greatness as a universal monarch or a buddha.

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Elephants remain an integral part of religion in South Asia and some are even featured in various religious practices.

Temple elephants are specially trained captive elephants that are lavishly caparisoned and used in various temple activities. Among the most famous of the temple elephants is Guruvayur Keshavan of Kerala, India. They are also used in festivals in Sri Lanka such as the Esala Perahera.

In Islamic tradition, the year 570 is when the Prophet Muhammad was born and is known as the Year of the Elephant.

In that year, Abraha, ruler of Yemen tried to conquer Mecca and demolish the Kaaba, reportedly in retaliation for the previous Meccan defilement of Al–Qalis Church in Sana'a, a cathedral Abraha had constructed. However, his plan was foiled when his white elephant named Mahmud refused to cross the boundary of Mecca. The elephant, who led Abraha's forty thousand men, could not be persuaded with reason or even with violence, which was regarded as a crucial omen

by Abraha's soldiers. This is generally related in the five verses of the chapter titled 'The Elephant'[b] in the Quran.

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, medieval artists depicted the mutual killing of both Eleazar the Maccabee and a war elephant carrying an important Seleucid general as described in the apocryphal book of 1 Maccabees. The early illustrators knew little of the elephant and their portrayals are highly inaccurate.

As Holocene is reaching to its 4th year, in this 3rd anniversary issue we would like to pay tribute to this phenomenal animal by remembering ten famous elephants from history.

Although known for millennia by many of the peoples of Africa and Asia, elephants’ introduction to the classical West came around 331 B.C., when Alexander the Great encountered war elephants as his army swept from Persia into India.

At the river Jhelum, in present-day Pakistan, Alexander defeated the Indian ruler Porus, who was said to have 100,000 war elephants in his army. Ever since, whether revered as a divine symbol of luck and wisdom, used as unique tools of diplomacy between leaders, deployed to intimidate opposing armies or put on display in the service of status or science, elephants have loomed large in the historical record.

Pyrrhus’s Pachyderms After Alexander, it became fashionable (if not always militarily expedient) for up-and-coming generals to field a few elephants in their armies. In 279 B.C., the Greek general Pyrrhus attempted to revive Alexander’s empire, invading southern Italy with a force that included 20 armed and armored elephants. Pyrrhus hoped his tuskers would terrify the defending Romans, but the beasts’ main effect was to block his own army’s advances through narrow streets. Pyrrhus also ran into the most common difficulty with war elephants: whenever the beasts panicked they often bolted, trampling his own army’s foot soldiers. Pyrrhus’ invasion was successful, but costly, spawning the term “Pyrrhic Victory”—the ancient historian Plutarch quotes him as quipping: “If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined.”

Surus: Crossing the Alps with Hannibal Widely acknowledged as one of the greatest military leaders in history, the Carthaginian general Hannibal famously invaded Italy from the north in 218 B.C., crossing the Alps from Gaul with an army of foot-soldiers, cavalry and a handful of north African forest elephants, smaller than the Asian and African elephants familiar to today’s zoo-goers. Of the six elephants that survived the arduous mountain trek, five died the following winter. The sixth, a one-tusked elephant named Surus, became Hannibal’s mount and mobile viewing platform in the marshes of the Arno. Over the next 15 years, Hannibal won significant battles and occupied much of Italy, sometimes with reinforcement elephants shipped directly from Africa. In a 209 B.C. battle with the Roman consul Marcellus, Hannibal’s war elephants created havoc until the Romans managed to wound one, touching off a cascade of panic among the pachyderms.

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Kandula: The Elephant Who Helped Unify Sri Lanka Another famed ancient elephant was the trusty companion of King Dutugamunu, the second-century B.C. ruler of Sri Lanka, who famously defeated King Elara, his South Indian rival, to become ruler of the entire island of Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka). Captured in the forest around the time of Dutugamunu’s birth, the elephant Kandula grew up alongside the young prince. As the royal mount, he performed heroically in the siege of Vijitanagara (161 B.C.), returning to finish breaking down a fortified gate after recovering from having molten pitch poured on his back.

According to the Mahavamsa, an ancient Buddhist chronicle, the king rushed to Kandula to administer a salve, exclaiming, “Dear Kandula, I’ll make you the lord of all Ceylon!” Later Kandula was Dutugamunu’s mount in his oneon-one combat when he defeated Elara (whose elephant’s name, Maha Pambata, means “big rock.”).

Mahmud: The Elephant Whose Arrival Marked Muhammad’s Birth The first year of the Islamic calendar corresponds to A.D. 622, the year of the Hirja (the prophet Muhammad’s emigration from Mecca to Medina), but the prophet’s birth occurred 52 years earlier, in what is known in the Islamic world as the “Year of the Elephant”—so named because it was the year a Christian Yemeni ruler attempted (with one or more war elephants) to invade Mecca and destroy the Kaaba, the central shrine in Mecca that predated Islam. According to Islamic tradition, the lead elephant, prophetically named Mahmud, halted at the border of Mecca and refused to enter.

Abdul-Abbas: Charlemagne’s Elephant In A.D. 801, a Jewish trader named Isaac returned to Europe after a four-year mission to the Persian Empire and Africa. He had been sent by Charlemagne, the Frankish king who was crowned the first Holy Roman Emperor, to procure an elephant from Haroun-alRaschid, the Abbasid Caliph who would later be immortalized in many of the “Arabian Nights” stories. Known for making Baghdad a cosmopolitan center of religious and scientific study, Haroun sought friendly relations with Charlemagne in part to counterbalance two rival dynasties—the Byzantines in Greece and the Umayyads in Spain. The elephant, named Abdul-Abbas after the founder of the Abbasid empire, found a welcome home at Charlemagne’s court at Aix-la-Chapelle (today’s Aachen, Germany). Charlemagne took Abdul-Abbas to war with the Danes in 804, but the elephant steered clear of the fighting.

Henry III’s Elephant Charlemagne was hardly the only Medieval European ruler to be the recipient of large-mammal diplomacy. Henry III, who ruled England from 1207 to 1272, was the recipient of several such gifts.

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II sent him a camel, while the king of Norway gave a polar bear. But Henry’s biggest gift came from France’s Louis IX—an African elephant. Henry quickly dispatched the Sheriff of London to build, without delay, “one house of forty feet long and twenty feet deep, for our elephant.” Crowds flocked to see it, including the English chronicler and illustrator Matthew Paris, who made a remarkably detailed illustration of the beast.

Sadly, after just two years as the toast of London, Henry’s elephant died, purportedly after having been given too much red wine to drink.

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Hanno: Pope’s Pet, Artist’s Muse, and Critic’s Barb In 1514 a grand procession, led by the Portuguese explorer Tristan de Cunha, wound its way into Rome. Its highlight was a white Indian elephant, covered in gold brocade and topped with a silver safe containing precious gifts. This was Hanno, sent by King Manuel I of Portugal as a gift to Pope Leo X. On cue, the trained animal knelt before the pontiff, and delighted onlookers by spraying them with a trunkful of water. Hanno was the centerpiece of Manuel’s strategy to win papal backing for Portugal’s claim to the newly discovered Spice Islands in present-day Indonesia— then the world’s sole source of mace and nutmeg. The strategy worked, and for several years Hanno made appearances at various Roman festivals. After the elephant died in 1516 at the age of seven, Leo commissioned the artist Raphael to create a memorial portrait of the beast (now lost). Leo’s devotion to Hanno provided fuel for the pope’s critics, including Martin Luther, describing Leo as “indolently catching flies while his pet elephant cavorted before him.”

Thomas Jefferson’s Mistaken Mammoth In 1801 pioneering American natural historian and museum-founder Charles Willson Peale asked President Jefferson for a federal grant to excavate a set of bones that had been uncovered in a tar pit near Newburgh, New York. Jefferson obliged, and Peale uncovered the first known full remains of a North American mastodon, a prehistoric cousin of the elephant and mammoth that went extinct 11,000 years ago.

Misidentified as a mammoth, the skeleton of the 11-foot-tall animal was put on display at Peale’s Philadelphia museum. In 1804 Jefferson, who doubted that species could go extinct, instructed the leaders of the Lewis and Clark expedition to keep an eye out for any mammoths, living or dead, as they journeyed to the Pacific. In 1807 Jefferson commissioned William Clark to collect mammoth fossils from Big Bone Lick, Kentucky. Clark then forwarded set of bones to the White House, where Jefferson enthusiastically laid them out in the East Room.

Jumbo: The Elephant Who Became an Adjective Though it was never given to a king or president, the 19th’s century’s most famous pachyderm counted Queen Victoria as a devoted fan.

Captured by a river in the spring of 1861 in what is now Mali, Jumbo was eventually taken, by way of a French zoo, to the London Zoological Society. There the bull elephant became a hugely popular attraction, ferrying a dozen children at a time around the garden. His name quickly became a synonym for anything gigantic. In 1882 the zoo set off a nationalist controversy after it agreed to sell Jumbo to the American entrepreneur and showman P.T. Barnum for $10,000.

Donor campaigns, prayer vigils and Jumbo’s own dislike of shipping crates were ultimately unable to keep him on British soil. It took Barnum just two weeks of American circus ticket sales to recover the cost of Jumbo’s purchase and transport.

How big was jumbo? According to Barnum’s publicity, he stood 7 feet tall and weighed 7 tons. Jumbo was the star of the Barnum & Bailey Circus until 1885, when he was struck and killed in an Ontario rail-yard accident. In the years following Jumbo’s death, Barnum continued to make handsome profits exhibiting the elephant’s skeleton and taxidermic hide.

Lin Wang: World War II Veteran and National Symbol of Taiwan In 1942 the Japanese invaded Burma, commandeering work elephants to build roads and fortifications. A year later, Chiang Kai-shek’s Chinese Expeditionary Forces captured 13 of the Japanese elephants, marching them to China along the Burma Road. After World War II’s end, the seven surviving elephants from that group were used to build war monuments. In 1947 three were taken to Taiwan. Three years later, there was only one surviving elephant. Nicknamed Lin Wang (“forest king”), the elephant was donated to the Taipei City Zoo in 1954, where he became a popular attraction. After his death in 2003 at the published age of 86 (few elephants live past 70), Lin Wang was made a posthumous citizen of Taipei

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Back to Basic: Basics of Nature and Wildlife Photography

By Dwaipayan Ghosh, Founder of Exploring Nature There are two key elements in nature and wildlife photography - Understanding Wildlife and Understanding Photography Techniques.

To understand wildlife, again we need to focus on two aspects: Understanding the Natural History of the Area and Understanding Animal Behaviour.

Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment; leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian. Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. So while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world, through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature.

Whenever, you are preparing for nature and wildlife photography exploration, you can always get secondary information available in public domain to understand the natural history of your subject area. But Animal Behavior has always been a mystery to many. Scientists are drawn to the study of animal behavior for varied reasons and the field is extremely broad, ranging from research on feeding behavior and habitat selection to mating behavior and social organizations. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. Research on non-human primates, for instance, continues to offer valuable perspectives into the causes and evolution of individual, social, and reproductive human actions. Understanding why some animals help others at the potential cost of their own survival and reproduction, for example, not only gives us insight into their behavior but could also potentially help us to understand the underpinnings of our species' ideas of altruism and sacrifice. However, as photographer we need to keep in mind few basic things at the beginning.

Rest will get developed with experience and exposure.

As a thumb rule we need to remember the concept of safe zone (as drawn above) before getting into proximity of your subject. Remember, In Wildlife Photography, welfare of your subject is much more IMPORTANT than a Photograph of it.

Now, let’s get into understanding Photography Techniques. Three key components are - Understanding Exposure, Understanding Composition, and Understanding Post Processing.

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Understanding exposure again involves understanding of Aperture, Shutter Speed and ISO Speed.

Refer this exposure triangle below to clear the concept:

Understanding Composition depends upon Framing, Depth of Field and Color Tone.

Another important aspects of photography technique is Understanding Post Processing. Basic aspects of post processing are Digital Negative Processing, Understanding the Software and Basic Techniques.

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Story Room: Teesta’s Teachings

By Gauri Noolkar-Oak

If you are from prosperous Western Maharashtra, crossing the subcontinent all the way into North Bangladesh and traversing upwards into northern West Bengal and Sikkim can puzzle most people. But if you know just anything - even a bit - about the Teesta, you would not be so surprised.

The beautiful albeit ebbing river trips down the Himalayas of Sikkim, winds and unwinds through northern West Bengal and north Bangladesh and pours into the mighty Brahmaputra. Caught in a dispute between India and Bangladesh over sharing her waters, the Teesta suffers from intensive damming, sand mining, reduction in flow and quality, and climate change effects. Experts from various field research the Teesta extensively, and devise numerous solutions for restoring, maintaining and sharing the river in an efficient and sustainable manner. And yet, one important source of knowledge and solutions remains vastly untapped - the local riparians.

My trip along the entire length of the river, from the Teestamukh in Bangladesh to Tso Lamo in Sikkim, was not only for adventure, but also for learning, first-hand, from the locals. Needless to say, the lessons have been many, and deeply moving, in different ways. Here, I share three of them. …Situated on the banks of the Teesta, Khitab Khan is a small village in Kurigram district. It houses over 450, mostly agricultural families. The Teesta has not been kind to Khitab Khan; every year, they lose at least one crop to droughts, floods, or both.

“Last year, they lost about a third of their crop,” my Bangladeshi companion, Binoy, informs me.

I am shocked. “How did they cope with it?” I ask.

“They didn’t” he says bluntly. “They have no options. There isn’t much fish in the river, and the river is too ferocious in the monsoons, and too weak otherwise, so trade and navigation on the Teesta aren’t profitable activities either. And water scarcity, be it floods or droughts, is a constant problem.”

Lack of economic activities, vulnerability to disasters, and water scarcity - to me, the stage seems set for resourcebased conflicts. Binoy translates their answer for me.

“Here, farmers fish and fishermen farm,” he says, “and everyone gains or everyone suffers. When the Teesta is dry, there is less water, less fish, less food, and some of us go to the cities. This is a regular phenomenon, but in these days, whatever is available is shared equally by all. Sometimes, when all’s well, we get plenty of food and water, and there’s enough for all. We do not fight, we share everything, in good times as well as bad times, earnings as well as losses.”

I am dumbstruck. I stare at the people of Khitab Khan open-mouthed, while they stare back at me, with calm yet eager faces, waiting for my next question. But my mind is sprinting back many months, back to my office in Pune, where, under Professor Vijay Paranjpye, I first learnt the concept of ‘deficit sharing’ i.e. equitable distribution of the scarcity of water and food within the community. I must have used that term plenty of times since then, in research papers, notes, articles, and even while working on the Godavari River Basin Plan, but today, for the first time, I see it in action.

The idea of sharing losses along with gains seems intuitive, but my short experience in the sector has taught me how difficult it is to convince people and bring it into practice. To see a small, poor, rural community tucked away into the folds of the lower Teesta live this simple but profound concept is rather extraordinary. … A few days later, I am standing at the Gajaldoba barrage. The crumbly, overcrowded bus from Mainaguri drops me off at Kranti. The road from Kranti to Gajaldoba, verdant with trees and farms, hugs the eastern canal, which to my dismay, is utterly empty. I am determined to visit the barrage; after all, it is the single most controversial point in the Teesta sharing dispute between India and Bangladesh, the point where they say that Mamata Banerjee, the CM of Bengal and a strong protester against the Teesta treaty, holds back all the waters and reduces the Teesta to a mere trickle when entering Bangladesh.

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And indeed, the scene at the Gajaldoba View Point is telling; upstream, there is a sea of water, as far as one can see, and downstream, the river bed is half dry as dust, half covered with lifeless water. On the western bank, a huge board of the Tourism Department of Government of West Bengal declares an ambitious plan of developing a ‘Mega Tourism Park’ at Gajaldoba. And the western canal, much unlike the dry eastern canal, flows merrily with abundant water. I am perplexed, but Rahul, an upcoming entrepreneur from Siliguri, clears my doubts.

“Most of this water flows to the Mahananda River, and probably Siliguri too. Siliguri is an important trade and economic centre of northern West Bengal, and hence it is first priority.”

“What about the eastern canal? There’s no water there,” I persist.

He shrugs. “They probably use groundwater, I don’t know.”

I think of the passionate discourses on water diversion from Teesta to Mahananda in Bangladesh, and here is interbasin water transfer, right in front of my eyes. Then I think of Siliguri, the most urban town I have visited in the Teesta basin, with its markets, hotels and a multiplex or two, and its swathes of traders. Siliguri has a large Marwari community (of which Rahul is a member); many Marwaris originally trading in East Bengal fled to Siliguri when East Bengal became East Pakistan and eventually Bangladesh. Despite the Communist rule, they did quite well, and conditions became slightly favourable when Banerjee’s Trinamool Congress took over.

“Most of the trading community is rooting for BJP though,” Rahul explains. “Many are not happy with TMC’s rule and feel that BJP would improve the scene for trade and commerce.”

“What if they give more of the Teesta to Bangladesh?” I ask.

He shrugs again. “Doesn’t matter, as long as our needs are fulfilled and we have a pro-business atmosphere. That might stop the illegal migration too. You have no idea how many illegal Bangladeshis are pouring into West Bengal and altering society dynamics here.”

That a river can influence social and economic dynamics is generally understood. Nevertheless, a first-hand opinion such as this drives the point that rivers are much more than carriers of water.

From Gajaldoba, I proceed to Sikkim, and I finally reach Tso Lamo. It is a divine experience, but it is not the end of my journey. On my way back home, I meet Deoashish Mothey, an activist-cum-teacher at a small restaurant near Chitrey.

He founded the Varnamala Parivar to teach Nepali language and local cultural heritage to kids in his native town Rambi Bazar and was one of the first to protest against the dam which came up on the Teesta nearby.

“Nobody listened to me then,” he says, his dark eyes flashing painfully. “Everyone thought the dam will bring prosperity and employment to the locals. There was a public hearing where they could ideally voice their protests, but people were so fearful that nobody spoke against the dam at the hearing. The NHPC promised free electricity in a radius of 5 kilometres [from the dam], and it also did some philanthropic work such as putting up sign boards saying ‘Don’t cut trees’. But nobody addressed the real problems of the river and her people, and today we are poor, and the Teesta, without her flora and fauna, without her soul, is dying.”

Deoashish has written a song about the Teesta and I coax him to sing for me, but he shakes his head. “No, I can’t, it is too painful. The damage is done. There’s no point in singing it.” Deoashish is deeply attached to the river, and I can sense it in his voice. However, he has made peace with the dams, he says.

“I just want to work for the Teesta and save whatever I can.”

Later, when I am waiting to catch a vehicle to Darjeeling, he remarks, “I am very surprised you are travelling like this.”

I look at him, puzzled.

“Most researchers come here with foreign money and hold expensive conferences in heritage hotels,” he says. “They write extensive reports which get them name and fame. But nothing changes here. I do not have much faith in all this research. But I agreed to talk to you because you are doing this by choice, as a personal journey.”

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Before I can respond, a jeep arrives. Deoashish hails it, talks to the driver and asks me to climb in. I peep inside and see three men inside. Afternoon is transitioning into twilight and I need to get to Darjeeling, but I hesitate. Deoashish senses my hesitation and smiles.

“Don’t worry, we are children of the mountains. You can always trust us with your safety.”

His words are reassuring and I climb in. He waves me a solemn goodbye and we are off. Throughout the journey, Deoashish’s last words ring in my ears - I do not know whether to feel complimented or guilty. While it is true that my backpacking along the Teesta was more of a pilgrimage than field work, I cannot shed my researcher profile.

This journey eventually led to a paper on the geopolitics of water conflicts in the Teesta basin, the completion of a Dutch fellowship and various opportunities to write and start paving my way towards becoming an expert on transboundary water conflicts. And yet, I am acutely aware that all this while, the Teesta suffers, and her people suffer.

I remember the eyes of the people of Khitab Khan, the unabashed blocking of the Teesta at Gajaldoba, and the parting words of Deoashish. It makes me uncomfortable to remember that the Teesta and her people shared their hurt and hopes with me, and I have not yet helped them. Deep down, I realise how easy it is to live in the comforts of a rich and developed city such as Pune and write about what should or should not be done about the Teesta.

It is my journey, and all the locals of the Teesta basin who showed me the reality and taught me that humility is the numero uno requirement for studying the complex issues of the Teesta, or for that matter, any river basin.

For that, I am thankful.

The Solo Nature Voyager: Six Months in Four States (Part Two)

By Sutonuka Majumder

My nature voyage and escapade from cosmopolitan life of metro cities, started in July of 2017 and revolved around four major states of North and North-East part of India at the footfill of Himalayas.

I am Sutonuka, not a writer or a photographer. I am just a simple girl from a very small town called Jamshedpur with lots of dreams. That’s my full time job – ‘to dream’. Travelling keeps me alive, otherwise I work my ass off as an analyst at Bangalore with one of the multinational Banks, so that I can use all that I earn to see the world through my eyes.

I am here to tell my stories, on what I saw, what I learnt and what I felt – when, with proper planning and proper savings, I gave away my home, my belongings and took the road.

Here is how my journey looked like: Bangalore –—-Delhi —–Manali (Himachal Pradesh - HP)—–Spiti Valley (HP)—–Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir – J&K) —– Dharamshala/Mcleodganj (HP)—–Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)—–Lohajung (Uttara Khand - UK)—–Rishikesh (UK)—– Dehradun (UK)—– Sankri (UK)—–Mussorie (UK)—–Jammu (J&K)—–Meghalaya—– Bangalore.

In last edition of Holocene, I told my stories on Spiti, now I will tell stories on Ladakh and Markha valley.

Leh-Ladakh My Second Destination was Ladakh. After spending one whole month in Spiti, I spent next one whole month in Ladakh region. There, I did two treks one in Markha Valley and the another Stok Kangri, also visited other parts of Ladakh.

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Ladakh is beautiful, it lies at an altitude of 3505 m above Sea level. It’s part of Jammu & Kashmir region and attracts the highest number of Trekkers and tourists from across the globe. I had an amazing experience in ladakh, however today I am going to write about Markha Valley Trek.

After Kashmir great Lakes, I think Markha valley is the second best trek I have ever done so far in my life.

I love cross over treks over Summit treks as the change of landscape everyday fascinates me a lot. Markha Valley is one such Trek. This trek is very famous among the westerners, when I was trekking, apart from me there was only one more Indian in the whole trail. The trail is a river bed trail hence at times and at places the trail keeps shifting, the route keeps changing. If you are someone who is scared of stones and water together, this trek will completely remove that fear from you as most of the time one will be crossing rivers by jumping on these stones and I was one among those who feared it and this trek helped me get over it completely.

Markha Valley: This entire valley is stretched across 85-90km. There are shorter route as well, however I decided to do the complete trek and cover 85 kms in 6-7 days. A lot of group trekkers make this trek an 8-9 day trek however this trek can easily be done in 5-6 days. I completed this trek in 6 days while I met a lot of trekkers who completed it in 5 days. The trek route covers mostly trekking between villages in the valley and crossing two High Passes at an altitude of 4970 m and 5130m respectively. This trek gave me a feeling of fulfilment, as I could experience various cultures, village life, shared their hardships at the same time experienced crossing high passes.

The route: Leh --------Zingchen (in a jeep) --------Rumbak or Yurtse(7km)------Via Ganda La(4970m)---------------Skyu (30km)--------Markha Village (22km) or Shingo( 15km)--------Upper Hanker (10km)or Lower Hanker-------Nimaling-----via Kangmaru La(5130)---Chong Do or Shang Sumdo.(15-16km).

Day 1---2nd Aug—Zingshen to Rumbak We started our day early from Leh in a jeep to reach Zingchen, which is the starting point of the trek. There is a point till which the vehicle can reach and from there we start our trek till Rumbak.

In an easy day, one can cover only 6-7 kms. We spotted few Ibex (is a species of wild goat that lives in the mountains).

Rumbak has couple of homestays so it’s always better to stay in Rumbak than Yurtse, as Yurtse has only one lodge, where everyone stays, so if you are lucky to reach early may get a place there. A lot of trekkers choose this place for overnight stay, as the next day the route or trail towards Ganda La (High pass) is via this lodge.

However as I love village life I chose to walk further and stay in the village with the locals. Since we reached early by 12/1 pm, we had a lot of time to explore the village. Although, it was a rainy day, so we couldn’t explore a lot. However it was a good stay, the homestay was very cozy and pretty.

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Each village usually have a Yak, a cow and few mules. Mules are sources of income for them and cow provides fresh milk, butter and paneer (cottage cheese) for the household. Ladakhis have beautiful kitchen, they like to display all the utensils they get in their marriage in their kitchen, and so all ladakhi kitchen will have an open shelf displaying their best crafted and carved utensils.

Along with that, even if they have Gas and modern stove all ladakhi kitchen will have a fireplace with a chimney (like an ‘angethi’ in hindi). This fireplace is very useful, as these places are very cold so it provides warmth in the house and there is water always getting heated on it as it gets very cold there. I enjoyed my evening walk with one of the girls who goes to school in Leh and stays there. She was at home for vacation. She told me about their festivals, their beliefs, how and where they burn their dead body, how there is a person chosen by God as medium to convey their messages. It was very interesting at the same time it was fascinating. With this I retired quickly as next day was going to be a pretty long and we also had a high pass to cross.

Day 2 ----3rd August. ---Rumbak to Skyu via Ganda La We started around 7 am, had an amazing breakfast, packed our lunch and started our hike up towards Ganda La. Ganda la is at 4970 mts (17395 ft) above sea Level. The climb was very steep, and it was the longest walk for me, as I never had walked so many kilometers in one day prior to this. We reached the next Village Skyu around 5pm, so we walked for 10 hours, covering a distance of 30 km. The climb to Ganda la was pretty steep and also we could feel the altitude gain with every step, breathing was getting difficult. However like any other Summit or peak, the feeling of reaching the top with so much difficulty is amazing and unimaginable. The adrenaline rush one gets is amazing. We also saw few trekkers who got hit by the altitude and got the altitude sickness and fell sick on reaching the pass. After the pass it was just downhill. I was happy to get the downhill however downhills always take a toll on your knees.

However there is a Village on the way to Skyu, called Shingo and a lot of people chooses to stay here as well, as it has few homestays. We continued till Skyu, reached there around 5 pm and was dead tired. Skyu is a very Old village, not developed at all like Rumbak. It had few homestays and few very primitive stupas. After freshening up, and after having my evening tea, I didn’t want to walk around as I was tired so I went to the terrace of the homestay and got a nice view of the entire village and witnessed a beautiful sunset.

The Markha flows along this village so the sound of water could be heard throughout the evening and I also woke up with that sound. With this the second day of my trek got over successfully.

Day 3----4th August---Skyu to Markha 3rd day of the trek was also a long day. We covered 22 kms in 9 hours. We started early after having a good breakfast and packed our lunch and started our hike towards the next village which was my favorite village and the day was beautiful and picturesque. The soil formation and the creation of mother earth was fascinating to see. It amazed me throughout the trail. As mentioned earlier it’s a river trail, so the river trail starts from this village. The whole day we hopped jumped over million stones to cross the river flowing from high up.

Slowly the entire valley opened up with various soil formations, visible structures created due to soil erosions, and the Markha river flowing flawlessly in between the valley.

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It was beautiful, treat to our eyes and I fell in love with this trail. However I was a bit tiered so towards the end was getting a bit irritated as when I realized that I have been walking for the past 7-8 hours and still not reached the Markha village.

As soon as we reached the village, I kept my bag and went and dipped my feet in the gushing cold Markha river and let all my tiredness washed away with it. Felt so good in dipping my feet in and by washing my face, sat there as long as I could, washing away all my pain and tiredness. By now I had made friends with 3 other solo travelers and we became a group. We explored around the village and saw the most beautiful sunset that evening, went to the monastery and saw the evening prayer, meditated for some time. At night the sky was crystal clear showing us the Milky Way as clear as it could. It was tiring but a wonderful day.

Day 4 ---5th August. ----Markha to Hankar (Upper Hankar) I decided to have an easy day today as I was feeling tired. Therefore, I decided to stay back in Hankar (Upper Hankar). Those who carry their own tents, its beneficial for them as they can cover a lot of distance and camp however those who don’t and is dependent on the homestay have to decide either to stay in hanker or continue and have another long day till Nimaling which would be like covering another 20 kms.

I decided to break this 20 km in two days, hence it was an easy 5 hrs trek for me. There are options to stay either in Lower Hankar or Upper Hanker. Upper Hanker has only 1 homestay so if you reach early only then can get this homestay otherwise you have to stay in Lower Hankar which has a number of homestays. Another reason to start the trek early was to cross the ice cold Markha river, and the water level was increasing in last few days as the snow started melting so it was advisable to cross the river on the early part of the day. I reached the homestay around 12 noon so I almost had the whole day to myself, and it wasn’t a village to explore as there was only one homestay and an old abandoned erect Fort standing tall.

So most of the day I rested well and then around evening met some interesting people who were staying at the same homestay. With them we decided to climb the abandoned Fort, and I can’t thank enough for taking that decision, as that was the best decision. This fort was made by the Soldiers to keep a watch on every side from high up, later the king of Markha gave this fort to the indian Army, however it was not used since then. This fort had some weird energy, I felt the energy the moment I stepped in and it was so strong that it made me choke, it made another lady cry her lungs out.

One of traveler mentioned about it, that this place always does this, he had come here before on a full moon night and these energies become much stronger on full moon.

Couple of other people climbed further and reached up to place where there was a ventilator from where whole Markha valley’s 360 degree view could be seen. People who went up to there, said they found lot of geometrical diagrams engraved on the wall of the fort.

Anyway, we decided to climb down before sunset and I will never forget what I felt there and will always be a mystery to me. We watched the sky full of stars, played cards with other travelers, and had spiritual experience for the first time so went to bed with a peaceful and curious mind.

Day 5---6th August.----Hankar to Nimaling It was an easy day as well, as I had to cover only 10kms so enjoyed the trail thoroughly, didn’t rush through at all, enjoyed the valley to its fullest, took long breaks and enjoyed the water falls, the barren lands, and picturesque view and reached Nimaling. Nimaling is the base camp for Kang ytse 1 and 2 which are at 6400 mts, so people stay at Nimaling and get acclimatized. Nimaling doesn’t have any homestay, but one can rent tents and food is available in the dinning Tent. Across the camping area there were small stone houses where the nomads lived with their livestock, Sheep, Mules, and Yaks. We crossed the river in the evening, and saw how fresh paneer was made, Chang (Local Beer) was also available. It was a fascinating sight to see all the sheep and Mules returning to their respective houses in the evening before

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sunset. It was a full moon night so the sky was lit up. It was a great day too and I called it a day with a heavy heart as it was the last day of the trek.

Day 6----7th August –Nimaling to Chogdo/Shang Sumdo via Kangmaru La (5130mts) Next day I woke up with a bad cold, so went to the kitchen tent, drank some hot tea and sat beside the fire for some time, then felt better. We started our day, crossed the high pass, it was easier than Ganda La, what I felt. From the high pass we could see Kang Ytse 1 and 2 clearly. After the High Pass , it was just downhill, saw some deer running along our way in search of water. Slowly we could see the landscape change, as we were heading down, also the presence of a village around the corner could be felt. However downhill on gravel trail is tough as you tend to slip and fall down. We saw some beautiful soil Formation along the way.

Initial Plan was reach Shang Sumdo but we got a ride at Chogdo so took the ride to reach Leh and ended a beautiful trek.

Post the Markha Valley trek I went for another trek - which was a semi technical trek – The stok kangri Peak.

It is around the same regions of markha valley but the altitude gain there is quick as compared to markha valley and that makes it a difficult trek. It is a 5 day trek but it can be done in 2-4 days as well if you are well acclimatized.

The route taken by me was : Leh --- Stok Village (vehicle) --- Chang Ma --- Mankorma ---Stok Base camp --- Summit.

Stok Base Camp is at 16000ft and the Summit is 19000ft. The summit day was tough as within a short period of time I gained an altitude of 3000 ft. Till Stok base camp the trek was very similar to Markha valley from landscapes point of view and was a pretty easy valley to walk with not so much of a steep climb. However, I couldn’t reach suummit as I fell sick with water accumulation in my lungs causing wheezing and hence decided to quit and returned to the Stok Village and then took a shared cab up to Leh. Since it was a semi technical trek hence the sight of the base camp was unique and beautiful, I got to meet many other mountaineers, trekkers from all across the globe. The base camp was filled with colorful tents and it had one huge dinner tent which consists of all kind of food and beverages (including beer).

A lot of people after summiting the peak loves to celebrate their victory hence the shop owners do keep these. We also saw two evacuation done by the army as one fell off the south cliff and the other was hit by HAPE/HACE (High-Altitude

Pulmonary Edema / High-Altitude Cerebral Edemaad - advanced level of mountain sickness). Witnessing such evacuations definitely scares one, however it was an experience and I will definitely attempt to summit Stok Kangri soon.

Photography by Sutonuka Majumder

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Exploration Camp: Diary of a Highland Scout: (Part Four)

By Arnab Basu

11th October, 2017: The Cairngorm Valley

11th October at 9:00 AM, we started our journey towards Loch Insh and then headed towards Inchmarshes to Dalnihaitnich and then to Cnean Canbridge. The dawns with overnight rain was clearing to a fine, sunny but breezy day, and two Crested Tits were again seen calling near the steading before breakfast. Our first stop after breakfast was Loch Insh where we found some Goldeneye including a very smart drake out on the loch as well as Tufted Duck, a pair of Mute Swans and again there were lots of Goldcrest in the trees.

Then it was around to Insh Marshes RSPB Reserve where we scanned out from the viewing platform on top of the hide with great views out across the marshes. Three Redwing went over and a few late Swallows were moving through, and we also got good views of a Sparrowhawk hunting low over the ground. A few Buzzards were seen perched with three more Buzzards and a few Ravens soaring over the tops of the hills opposite, and a large flock of Mallards and Teal flew around flushed by a Grey Heron. Several Siskin flew over and there were Chaffinch,

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Great Tit and Coal Tits on the feeders just outside the hide and we got some great views of several Roe Deer which were grazing quietly below us from the viewpoint.

Moving on again, we made a stop near Ruthven Barracks where we got some lovely views of two Dippers on the river, before we headed towards Carrbridge and drove out onto an extensive open area which overlooks some moorland and hill as well as pine forest. It was a great mix of different habitats and we had only just pulled up when we spotted an adult White-tailed Eagle and two Golden Eagles soaring over the hills in the distance! Through the telescopes we got some good views, and could clearly see the size difference between the much larger Sea Eagle and Golden Eagle as they circled together.

The fine weather had also encouraged more raptors into the air as we saw no less than nine Common Buzzards soaring and also picked out a single Fieldfare perched in the top of a pine, which was the first this autumn.

After some lunch in the sunshine beside the River Nethy we took advantage of a small gap in the weather to make a dash up to Cairngorm and took the funicular railway up the mountain. From the Ptarmigan Centre we scanned out from the viewpoint, the weather was pretty cold up there with some nasty sleety showers rolling in at times, a Raven landed on the ground near the viewpoint and we managed to pick out two Red Grouse but sadly after much scanning Ptarmigan were to be seen and as another sleet shower come in we decided to head back down.

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Species spotted on Day Four: Birds: Cormorant, Grey Heron, Mute Swan, Greylag Goose, Mallard, Tufted Duck, Goldeneye, Whitetailed Sea Eagle, Sparrowhawk, Common Buzzard, Golden Eagle, Kestrel, Pheasant, Woodpegion, Collard Dove, Pied Wagtail, Northern Wheatear, Swallow, Dipper, Robin, Blackbird, Firldfare, Redwing, Mistle Thrush, Goldcrest, Crested Tit, Coal Tit, Blue Tit, Great Tit, Jackdaw, Rook, Carrion Crow, Hooded Crow, Raven, Starling, House Sparrow, Chaffinch, Goldfinch, Siskin, Jay. Mammals: Red Squirrel, Rabbit, Roe Deer, Rein Deer.

Photography by Arnab Basu

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Expert Speaks: Importance of Caves and Karst (Part Two)

By Vrusahbh Borkar Why are Caves and Karst Important?

Caves and karst make landscapes diverse, fascinating, and rich in resources, including the largest springs and most productive groundwater on Earth. A total of 175 different minerals occur in limestone caves, a few of which have only been found in caves (Moore and Sullivan 1997). Caves and karst provide a unique subsurface habitat for rare animals.

Caves preserve fragile archaeological and paleontological materials for millennia. Throughout history people have used caves for many purposes: from guano mining to tourism. The potential of caves as natural laboratories may be their most significant future use.

The many uses of caves and karst are a measure of their importance. Don't forget about their purely aesthetic value, however, and the sense of adventure and exploration they provide.

Select a topic to learn more about the importance of caves and karst: Water Resources Undoubtedly water is the most commonly used resource from karst. Although the lack of surface water is characteristic of karst, groundwater is bountiful in karstic regions. These areas contain some of the greatest-producing water wells in the world. In fact, most of the drinking water in the United States is stored naturally in cave-bearing rocks, such as limestone.

Historical narratives describe the vital role of groundwater in karst for human consumption; many of these accounts predate Biblical times in Europe and the Middle East. Communities were generally located along the margins of karst areas, downstream from large springs that provided water for domestic and agricultural uses. The development of welldrilling technology enabled more people to live in areas with karst. Prior to this people channeled water from springs toward towns and fields, pumped water by hand or with wind power, or simply collected and carried water in vessels.

These methods are still used today in parts of the world where drilling wells is not practical or affordable.

Cave Minerals and Mineral Resources Most mineral deposits in caves are made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The most common cave mineral is calcite; aragonite and gypsum are also common. Calcite is the constituent of most varieties of speleothems. Calcite lines cave walls in Jewel Cave, a national monument in South Dakota. Aragonite is the second most common cave mineral after calcite. It is a polymorph of calcite (which means both minerals have the same mineral composition, CaCO3, but have a different crystal structure). Aragonite is metastable relative to calcite, which means that its internal structure will change to that of calcite over time (Hill and Forti 1997). Speleothems made of aragonite are fairly uncommon.

Aragonite nearly always takes on a needle-like form in caves (Hill and Forti 1997). When it does occur, aragonite crystals can be blue, green, white, or brown. Gypsum is the third most common cave mineral. It is usually colorless (as selenite) or white (as alabaster), but it can be tinted yellow, tan, brown, blue, pink, gray, reddish-brown, or black.

Mammoth Cave is known for its gypsum, which was mined from the cave during prehistoric times (Hill and Forti 1997).

We don't know for sure why these people wanted gypsum; it may have been mined for the medicinal value of the sulfates it contains, similar to Epsom salts. Cave rims (shells or projections that usually form around the lips of holes in cave floors) made of gypsum are found in Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico.

The other 172 cave minerals are much less common than the primary three: calcite, aragonite, and gypsum.

Nevertheless, an interesting anecdote is that more than 40 of the known cave minerals contain phosphorus. The phosphorus in these minerals is derived from bat droppings called guano. Bat guano was the most highly rated fertilizer in the 19th and early-20th centuries. More recently, guano has been replaced by cheaper and more easily obtained chemical fertilizers. Minor guano-mining operations continue today, however, and you can still buy this product in small quantities to fertilize your cherished flowers and potted plants.

The most common mineral resources extracted from karst areas are quarried rock. Limestone, dolomite, marble, gypsum, travertine, and salt are all mined in large quantities throughout the world.

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Other Commercial Uses Because of their constant temperatures, people have used caves to store food, such as potatoes and apples. Caves have also served as subsurface farms for mushrooms, rhubarb, and celery. People have also used caves to store cheese during the aging process. Some of the stronger varieties of cheese must be cured as long as two years to produce their characteristic sharp flavors and crumbly, dry textures. Furthermore, the blue penicillin mold in Roquefort cheese develops only in a cool, wet atmosphere such as a cave. Not surprisingly, then, penicillin was originally developed in the caverns below Roquefort, France (Gee 1994).

In the 1700s, French immigrants were the first to use American caves for storing and aging wine. Later, German immigrants found caves especially suited for aging lager beers, which require storage at low temperatures for several months. The caverns beneath Saint Louis, Missouri, were largely responsible for attracting German brew masters to the city in the mid-1800s (Gee 1994).

Tourism and Recreation Tourism in cave and karst areas is big business. In the United State alone, more than 150 caves are open to the public, and several million visitors pass through each year (Moore and Sullivan 1997). Many of these caves are skillfully lighted and host well-maintained trails. For example, sections of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, the world's longest cave, have been developed and are popular tourist destinations. Carlsbad Cavern in New Mexico, which like Mammoth Cave is a national park and commonly visited, contains some of the world's largest rooms and passages. Developed caves, also known as show caves, offer ready opportunities to become familiar with many of the features presented in this knowledge center.

"Wild" caves remain in their natural state; they are located throughout the country on public and private land. For most people a visit to a wild cave is a once-in-a-lifetime adventure, but for thousands of cavers worldwide it is a regular pastime. Recreational activities in scenic, karstic areas also include car touring, boating, hiking, fishing, camping, swimming, backpacking, nature watching, and photography.

Archaeology Our present knowledge of the early development of human beings and their cultures is intimately associated with the exploration and study of caves. People have long used caves as dwelling places, burial sites, storehouses, and ceremonial places. Many skeletal remains of primitive relatives of Homo sapiens sapiens have been found in caves in Africa and Asia. Many artifacts are extremely well preserved in the constant environments of caves. Scientists date flowstone in caves using uranium-series techniques, which is handy for determining the ages of artifacts in relation to the flowstone.

Although the outer parts of caves and shallow sandstone caves were used for shelter, it is highly improbable that prehumans or humans ever dwelt for long periods deep in caves. The dark zone in most caves is too damp and cool for prolonged human habitation. In fact, during extensive archaeological excavations of numerous caves, archaeologists have failed to find major accumulations of occupational debris beyond the twilight zone (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Although it is unlikely that they lived there, this is not to say that prehumans or early humans did not travel deep into caves. Archaeologists have found charred remains of cane torches, carrying bags, and articles of clothing woven from plant fibers miles from the entrance of Mammoth Cave, for example. Scrapes and chips on walls coated with sulfate tell us that these early cavers were in search of crystals and mineral salts (Gee 1994). Also, cave drawings, many of which are deep in caves, demonstrate that humans lived at the same time as the species depicted and give insights into the artists eating and hunting habits.

Paleontology Caves house paleontological resources in two ways. First, fossils are preserved within cave-forming rock. Caves may provide the best or only exposure of subsurface bedrock, and fossils preserved within the cave-forming rock may become exposed through cave-forming processes. Second, fossils accumulate within cave and karst features. Openings in the ground surface - such as caves, sinkholes, and tubes - attract and trap animals. Rich deposits of fossil bone can accumulate as remains associated with organisms inhabiting the cave or can be transported there. Predators frequently transport prey into caves and generate accumulation of bones. In addition packrats are responsible for the redistribution of fossil material while building and dismantling their nests in shelters, such as caves. These accumulations of bone and plant material, called middens, are important sources of paleontological data for researchers.

Cave environments are conducive to the preservation of paleontological resources. The relatively constant temperature and humidity of caves aid long-term preservation of organic material. Moreover, the reduction or absence of sunlight

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limits the adverse effects of solar radiation on fossils. Also caves provide protection from the forces of weathering and erosion that can destroy paleontological resources. In a few rare cases, footprints and claw marks have been preserved in cave dust and sediments exposed on the cave floor for thousands of years (Santucci et al. 2001). Moreover, ancient remains may be transported into inaccessible cavities that provide refuge from trampling, scavenging, scattering, and other disturbances.

Within caves in arid regions, where humidity is usually very low, preservation can occur through desiccation or mummification. This scenario allows the preservation of animal remains, such as soft tissue, hair, and dung, that would decay rapidly under other conditions. In arid regions, caves may contain mineral-rich waters that aid in preservation of fossil material.

Fossils found in association with archaeological resources can provide archaeologists with valuable information.

Likewise, examination of prehistoric art is helpful to paleontologists who are studying Pleistocene vertebrates. It helps them to date the extinction of many animal species. Furthermore, the realistic pictures made by cave artists give information about the form and color of extinct animals that could not be obtained by merely examining skeletons (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Habitat for Cave Animals An obvious characteristic of caves is darkness. Beyond the twilight zone, which extends only a short distance in from the entrance, caves are completely absent of light. Cave animals called troglobites have adapted to total darkness and permanently live in the dark zone of caves. Their adaptations include extra long feelers for finding their way around in the dark.

The environment at the surface in which we live is very changeable. By contrast cave environments are quite stable; the climate within caves is almost completely uniform. The atmosphere in a deep cave rarely changes, except for slight variations in barometric pressure and carbon dioxide content (Moore and Sullivan 1997). The temperature remains virtually constant throughout the year, a feature especially beneficial to animals that cannot regulate their body temperatures.

In addition, many caves have high relative humidity that is nearly constant. In humid caves, water continually drips from ceilings and walls. Cave walls are sometimes so moist that aquatic organisms can readily crawl over them. Small crustaceans and flatworms, which normally live only in pools or streams outside of caves, are found on the ceilings of humid caves!

Humid caves are typical, but there are also very dry caves. Life in arid caves is rare. Nevertheless, such caves are of great interest to paleontologists and archaeologists because their environments are conducive to the preservation of artifacts and fossils - evidence of earlier habitation by humans or extinct species of animals.

Environmental History Caves contain dissolution features, sediments, and speleothems, all of which preserve a record of the geologic and climatic history of an area. Because subsurface voids and deposits are protected from surface weathering and disturbance, karst faithfully preserves a record of environmental change. Temperature, precipitation, the nature of soil and vegetation cover, glaciation, fluvial erosion and deposition, and patterns of groundwater flow can usually be read from cave patterns and deposits (Berger 1995).

In the upper levels of caves where most speleothems form, cave temperature represents the average surface temperature over the preceding few years. Therefore, as they form, speleothems record long-term surface climate change and can be determined using isotopic dating methods. For example, as climate cools, the abundance of the isotope oxygen-18 (18O) in the calcite at inland cave sites is reduced (the calcite is said to become lighter). This indicates that the dominant control on 18O/16O ratios is the lowering of air temperature. At coastal sites, the opposite trend may apply because of reduced evaporation of 18O at the sea surface (Ford 1997). Samples of dripstones can be dated by measuring radioactive decay, and their temperatures at the time of formation can be estimated using isotopic analysis. Annual climate from thousands of years ago can be determined in the case of certain fast-growing speleothems (Berger 1995).

Using radiometric methods (e.g., thorium 230) scientists have now dated thousands of speleothems in various climatic zones. They have performed closely spaced, sequential sampling along the vertical axes of stalagmites, which shows periods of growth alternating with periods of no growth, the latter usually representing droughts. As the body of data

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has grown, studying paleoclimates in this manner has become more and more feasible. Scientists have been able to separate local effects from regional ones and map changes in precipitation patterns during the last several glacial stages of the Pleistocene Epoch (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Studies of speleothems also give us information about past temperature. Analysis and interpretation of data from speleothems indicate that the average surface temperature in midlatitude caves reached a peak of 3°C above present about 8,000 years ago. From 15,000 to 80,000 years ago, it was as much as 10°C colder than now. It was warmer than present from 80,000 to 120, 000 years ago, colder from 120,000 to 170,000 years ago, and colder for an undetermined period before that (Moore and Sullivan 1997). Further studies should give us a detailed picture of climate change during the past 300,000 years (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Fossils recovered from stratified deposits in caves also yield information about past climate. For example, the changes from assemblages of boreal and temperate species in stratified cave deposits tell us about the succession of glacial advances and retreats (Santucci et al. 2001).

Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 Ratios One of the most useful of all climate indicators is the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio measured in organic sediments and in ice (Schmidt 1986). It is also significant in climate reconstructions from calcite precipitates (Ford 1997). Nearly all oxygen in our atmosphere has an atomic weight of 16 (that is, there are eight protons and eight neutrons in its nucleus). A small percentage (0.2%), however, has two extra neutrons, giving it an atomic weight of 18. Both kinds of oxygen behave the same chemically, combining with hydrogen to form water, for example. The only difference is that oxygen-18 is 12.5% heavier that oxygen-16. This mass difference influences the physical behavior of water. For instance, water molecules containing the heavier oxygen-18 do not evaporate as readily as those containing lighter oxygen-16, and this effect is more pronounced at lower temperatures. This fact may be used in reconstructing past climates in several ways.

One technique involves measuring how the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio varies in ice cores drilled from the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. Like sediments, these ice sheets are layered and stratified, with the youngest layers nearer the top of the ice sheet. In many cases annual layers can be counted like tree rings. Because the ice is formed from snow which in turn is derived from evaporation from the oceans, a higher oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio in the ice indicates warmer conditions, allowing a greater fraction of oxygen-18 to be evaporated. Thus, ice cores may provide important climatic records extending back 120,000 years or more (Schmidt 1986).

At the same time, growth of continental glaciers and ice sheets preferentially removes oxygen-16 from the oceans, leaving behind water that is slightly enriched in oxygen-18. This in turn finds its way into the skeletal and shell structures of sea creatures that contribute their hard parts to oceanic sediments. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the principal constituent of these fossil remains, and the oxygen in these molecules is drawn from the seawater in which they lived, recording the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio that prevailed during their lifetimes. In effect, the creatures of the sea unwittingly recorded climatic conditions around them for our later analysis.

The use of oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratios in calcium carbonate (limey) sediments is complicated by another effect: when creatures incorporate oxygen from seawater into their skeletal parts, the resulting oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio depends not only on that of the water but also on the water temperature, with a greater proportion of oxygen-18 being deposited at lower temperatures. Thus, the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio in limey fossils reflects two different climatic variables: the temperature of the ocean water and the amount of freshwater ice tied up in continental glaciers.

Separating these two effects can be difficult, especially since they are related: colder temperatures tend to result in more polar ice. Nevertheless, because of the great span of geologic ages represented in limestones from which oxygen18/oxygen-16 ratios may be derived, this method has proved to be a key element in deciphering the climate puzzle for the last 500 million years (Schmidt 1986).

In addition, the calcite of speleothems also records past changes in temperature. In calcite the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 ratio varies with the temperature of formation, because oxygen-18 concentrates in calcite relative to water, and the concentration becomes less with increasing cave temperature (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Oxygen-18 values in cave calcite, in addition to being related to the temperature of calcite formation, also are related to the oxygen-18 content of the original depositing water, which varies with other aspects of the climate besides temperature. To obtain the most accurate temperature values, speleologists analyze small quantities of the water that are almost always trapped and preserved in microscopic cavities in stalagmites. This trapped water has lost its original oxygen isotope record by exchange with the oxygen of the enclosing calcite, but hydrogen isotope analysis can be used

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from a well-known relationship between hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios to estimate its original oxygen-18 content.

When compared with the oxygen-18 content of samples enclosing calcite, these values give a precise measure of the ancient temperature of the cave and of the surface above it (Moore and Sullivan 1997).

Sinks and Sources of CO2 The formation of karst is part of the global carbon cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, surface and groundwater, and carbonate minerals. Reconciling all the sources and sinks in the carbon cycle is necessary to explain the process of global warming, for example. Scientists must be able to account for all the carbon in the global system, including carbon in karstic systems. Furthermore, they must be able to separate natural movements, or fluxes, of carbon from fluxes caused by human activities.

Karstic activity ties up carbon derived from rock and from dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) as aqueous bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Deposition of dissolved carbonate minerals is accompanied - and usually triggered - by release of some of the carbon as CO2. In many locations with karst, CO2 emission is associated with the deposition of calcareous sinter (e.g., tufa and travertine) at the outlet of cold or warm springs (Berger 1995).

The Global Carbon Cycle Carbon, an element that is essential to all forms of life, occurs in four reservoirs: (1) as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, (2) in organic compounds in the biosphere, (3) as dissolved carbon dioxide in the hydrosphere, and (4) in the calcium carbonate of rocks (e.g., limestone, dolomite, and aragonite) and in decaying and buried organic matter (e.g., peat, coal, and petroleum) in the lithosphere. Each reservoir is involved in the carbon cycle.

The key to the carbon cycle is the biosphere, where plants continuously extract CO2 from the atmosphere and then break the CO2 down by photosynthesis to form organic compounds. Animals consume plants and use these organic compounds in their metabolism. When plants and animals die, the organic compounds decay by combining with oxygen from the atmosphere to form CO2 again. The passage of material through the biosphere is so rapid that the entire content of CO2 in the atmosphere cycles every 4.5 years (Skinner and Porter 1995).

Not all dead plant and animal matter in the biosphere decays immediately back to CO2. A small fraction is transported and redeposited as sediment; some is then buried and incorporated in sedimentary rock where it locally forms deposits of coal and petroleum. The buried organic matter joins the atmosphere naturally only after uplift and erosion have exposed the rock in which it is trapped.

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere also is distributed in the waters of the hydrosphere. There it is used by aquatic plants in the same way that land plants use CO2 from the atmosphere. In addition, aquatic animals extract calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When the animals die, the shells accumulate on the seafloor, mixing with any CaCO3 that may have been precipitated as chemical sediment. When compacted and cemented, the CaCO3 forms limestone. In caves CaCO3 forms calcite, the most common cave mineral, which is the primary constituent of most speleothems. In this way too some carbon joins the rock cycle. Eventually, the rock cycle will bring the limestone back to the surface where weathering and erosion will break it down; the calcium returns in solution to the ocean, and the carbon escapes as CO2 to the atmosphere.

Natural Laboratories and Research The study of caves is an important means for understanding our world. It can broaden our grasp of the interaction of certain biologic and geologic processes that have been shaping our planet and its inhabitants for hundreds of millions of years. Vast subsurface areas provide unique, productive field sites for study because they allow direct observation and mapping of underground features. Furthermore, the origin, morphology, and distribution patterns of caves and karst are the dominant factors in controlling the nature of overlying land surface (e.g., distribution of sinkholes) and the directions of groundwater movement (Berger 1995). Karst systems provide answers to how water supplies can become contaminated or how disease can spread via underground connections between watercourses.

Concepts developed in the science of speleology have provided useful guidelines for environmental protection. For example, monitoring changes in an uncomplicated microenvironment such as a cave may have great utility in sounding a warning against potentially harmful broader changes at the surface that might be masked by other changes people have caused.

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For geologists, caves hold the keys to the solution of many puzzles: the formation of certain mineral deposits, the nature of soil cover, and the rate of water movement through rocks. Because the great variety of subsurface voids and deposits are protected from surface weathering and disturbance, karst preserves a record of environmental change more faithfully than most other geologic settings (Berger 1995). Therefore, cave mineral deposits (e.g., dripstones) and their isotopic properties have established a new line of evidence about past climates in continental areas.

For biologists, caves pose many interesting questions: how do cave animals adapt to total darkness? How do cave animals subsist on such a limited food supply? How does the food web in caves work without sunlight? How do organisms living underground differ from their surface relatives? What does the study of these related species teach us about evolution?

Caves also provide intriguing opportunities for medical research. Some early uses of cave materials as medicines have proven to be scientifically valid. In the 16th and 17th centuries, for example, European physicians used dried moonmilk from caves for dressing wounds. The moonmilk acted as a dehydrating agent and stopped bleeding; it was also thought to have curative qualities. Now we know that moonmilk contains actinomycetes, mold-like bacteria that have antibiotic properties. Scientists have also discovered that sulfur bacteria found in caves produce vitamins of the B group, an important area of research that could supply useful nutritional and metabolic products. Only continued research and time will tell what miracle drugs will be developed from cave resources, but great potential seems to exist.

Continued……..

Bio-Enterprising: Bats with Catharine Wuster

By Katrina Southerland Bangor University’s Zoological Society’s most recent talk was all about bats, and was given by Catherine Wüster PhD MCIEEM. She started the talk by looking at the evolutionary history of bats. It turns out the bat order (Chiroptera, or “handwings”) is over 50 million years old, and is very diverse. For example, there diets of bats range from nectar to blood.

Some are also important pollinators, and one species, the long-nosed bat, is essential for the production of tequila.

Catherine also talked about their skeletal structure and how bats organise themselves socially. One example that I found interesting was how vampire bats regurgitate blood for others that don’t manage to feed in a given night. In turn, the regurgitator can expect to receive similar benefits another night.

Catherine also talked about the bats of the UK, with a specific focus on North Wales. A total of 18 species of bat are found in the UK, many of which can be found in North Wales.

In her role as an ecological consultant, Catherine has been called out to Halls of Residence and even B&Q to recover bats which have been found roosting there. However, she explained that bats are more commonly found in places such as buildings, trees and bridges.

The talk ended with an explanation of the conservation issues bats face, and how to get involved in bat conservation.

I found this talk interesting and engaging. Catharine made good use of visual aids on the slides.

Although I am fond of bats, I realised during this talk that I have not been as involved in their conservation as I could be. I will start looking for affordable bat detectors, and feel that training to be a bat carer would be a rewarding experience.

Although Catharine’s career as an ecological consultant was not the main focus of the talk, she has inspired me to research that career option. Having volunteered on ecological surveys before, I feel it could be a rewarding career.

Overall, this talk reminded me of why I first became interested in bats, and has given me some ideas about my potential career after university.

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Theme Poster

By Kalyan Chakraborty

Eyes that reach into your soul speaking the unspoken words - Save me while you can still see me...

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Updates from Team Exploring Nature

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