Working Water Michael Ezban
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Working Water The Productive Tailwater Fishery as Landscape Architecture
Michael Ezban 2014 Maeder-York Fellow in Landscape Studies at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum
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Acknowledgements The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum was a tremendous place to live and work for three months thanks to the support of JoAnn Robinson and the hospitality of Tiffany York. I am grateful to Anne Hawley for conversation and perspective on how my work resonates with previous artists in residence at the museum. Thanks to all members of the museum staff who offered comments, questions, and support during the Working Water workshop in August. Thank you to Maeder-York Family Fellowship Committee members Anita Berrizbeitia, Alan Berger, Julia Czerniak, Teresa Gali-Izard, Charles Waldheim, and Richard Weller for seeing potential in the work. I am very fortunate and grateful to have a mentor in Charles Waldheim, whose critical analysis has helped me hone this project since its inception. I am indebted to several people who provided me with insight into the world of fish culture. My deep thanks to J. Miguel Medialdea, chief biologist of the Veta la Palma fish farm in Spain, for walking me across the productive landscape that has captured my imagination and explaining the intricate workings of that constructed ecology. I’m also grateful to Jim Hahn and John Williams, managers of the McLaughlin and Bitzer State Fish Hatcheries, who gave me an insider’s view of large scale rainbow trout production in Massachusetts. Finally, Jana, I could not have done this without your love and support. And thank you, Luiza, for helping to keep Peter and Anna safe and sound at home while I was hard at work.
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Contents Acknowledgements
05
Reinventing a Disparate Fish Culture
08
Ecological Aquaculture Veta la Palma, Donana National Park, Spain Piscifactoire, Huningue, France Trebon Basin Fishponds, Trebon, Czech Republic Dike Pond System, Pearl River Delta, China
22 26 30 34 38
Tailwater Landscapes Arkansas River at Pueblo Reservoir, CO Potomac River at Randolph Reservoir, MD Missouri River at Holter Lake, MT
44 48 50 52
Scaling Aquaponics
56
Quabbin Fishery Pump House Market Hydrocrop Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail Angling Camp A Network of Productive Tailwater Fisheries
66 80 84 88 92 96
Endnotes
99
Image Credits
101
About the Author
103
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Reinventing a Disparate Fish Culture
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Anglers are working the water at the Swift River. I am not surprised to find them casting fly rods here on a bright Tuesday morning in June. The Swift River is, after all, a renowned fishery in central Massachusetts that draws sport fishermen year-round. I suspect that several of these anglers, lured by the prospect of landing rainbow trout, have traveled two hours from Boston like me. The Swift River is my first stop in an investigation into freshwater fish culture in central Massachusetts.
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Winsor Dam, Quabbin Reservoir
Following a riverine trail used by anglers to access their favorite fishing spots, I walk through red oak and white pine on the east bank of the Swift River and imagine it would be easy to presume this landscape is largely untouched. However, I see signs that suggest otherwise. A first hint is found in the river. The water is unseasonably cold. In fact, it feels ice-cold. A second clue emerges as I continue up the trail and arrive at the river’s source. Chain link fencing
adorned with “No Trespassing” signs surrounds a low-pressure geyser bubbling at the center of the river. This peculiar surfacing of water is an artificial headwaters. From here I catch a glimpse of a looming landform that dashes any notion I might have had that this river is untamed. It is Winsor Dam, a massive earthen structure that holds back over 400 billion gallons of water and irrevocably changes the hydrology, topography, and ecology of the Swift River Valley.1
Quabbin Reservoir and Winsor Dam Anglers traveling west to the Swift River from Boston are moving “against the current” of drinking water that flows east from the Quabbin Reservoir through 60 miles of aqueducts, reservoirs, storage tanks and treatment facilities. The earthen Winsor Dam holds back 412 billion gallons of water and its top edge creates a half-mile long straight line against the sky.
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Low-flow Geyser A conspicuous surfacing of water—an artificial spring—where the water of the Quabbin Reservoir enters the Swift River. The area has been cordoned off by chainlink fencing and is inaccessible to the public.
Damming the Swift River in the 1930’s created Quabbin Reservoir, a lake constructed to be the primary source of Boston’s drinking water. The Swift River draws its water from the depths of the reservoir and is one of hundreds of reservoir-fed rivers in the United States called tailwaters. The Swift River and other tailwaters are characterized by a particular set of attributes in which trout thrive. The river runs at cold temperatures in the summer and warmer than usual temperatures
in the winter, is regulated to flow at consistent volumes throughout the year, and courses with nutrient-rich, lake-bottom reservoir water. One by-product of constructing the Quabbin Reservoir for human water consumption is the creation of an optimized trout habitat. Not only is the tailwater a calibrated fabrication, so too is the abundance of rainbow trout found in the water. Trout density in this fishery and dozens of other rivers in Massachusetts is not left to chance.
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McLaughlin State Fish Hatchery, Belcherstown
In spring and fall each year, at times dutifully announced to anglers, rivers across Massachusetts are stocked with four species of trout—rainbow, brown, brook and tiger trout. In spring of 2014, over 500,000 trout were stocked in the commonwealth, with rainbow trout accounting for more than half that number.2 It is possible that a rainbow trout on the end of an angler’s line on the Swift River lived the first years of its life in the concrete raceways of the
McLaughlin State Fish Hatchery, the largest hatchery in Massachusetts just two miles south of Winsor Dam. It is also possible that the trout was incubated in Montana, reared in a hatchery on Cape Cod, and then driven across the commonwealth to be placed in the Swift River. In 1871 the Fisheries Program of the US Fish and Wildlife Service helped initiate the construction of a network of National Fish Hatcheries that
McLaughlin State Fish Hatchery The McLaughlin hatchery is a tree-less asphalt lot incised with concrete troughs. This hard infrastructure enables the annual production of over 250,000 trout to restock the rivers of the commonwealth.
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The rainbow trout is prized for its fight, coloration, and taste and has become the premier stocked fish in the nation. In spring of 2014 over 250,000 rainbow trout were placed in Massachusetts rivers.
Oncorhynchus mykiss Today rainbow trout are found in every continent except Antarctica, though they are native only to the watersheds of the Pacific Rim. This fish was first exported en masse from the McCloud Hatchery in California at the end of the 19th century.
produced and distributed a variety of fish and eggs across the country. Over time the rainbow trout, prized for its fight, coloration, and taste, has become the premier stocked fish in the nation. The fish is heavily stocked in other nations as well, but the US Fish and Wildlife Service remains the world’s largest producer of rainbow trout.3 Anders Halverson’s history of the rainbow trout, An Entirely Synthetic Fish, claims that
approximately “100 million of them leave the hatcheries every year weighing about a quarter pound apiece—a total of 25 million pounds of rainbow trout dumped into America’s freshwaters.”4 ‘Dumped’ is an excellent choice of words, since stocking practices include unceremoniously shooting trout out of a pipe off the back of a tanker truck, or, at sites inaccessible by road, bombing fish into waterways from planes. In addition to the rainbow trout raised
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Stocking Oncorhynchus mykiss Practices of stocking rivers with hatchery-reared rainbow trout range from gentle hand placement of small batches to spraying high volumes of fish from transport trucks. At sites not easily accessible by road, fish are bombed into waterways from planes.
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Spring Creek NFH, WA 23.6 million fish
Garrision Dam NFH, ND
White River NFH, VT
13 million fish
7.4 million fish
Ennis NFH, MT 16.2 million eggs
Gavins Point NFH, SD 15.2 million eggs
Saratoga NFH, WY
Harrison Lake NFH, VA
6.3 million eggs
4.2 million fish
White Sulphur Springs NFH, WV 8.3 million eggs
Erwin NFH, TN 11.1 million eggs
Fish and Egg Trajectories Fish and egg distribution within Massachusetts is nested in a national-scale system of exchange. This map, adapted from a numeric spreadsheet, depicts a year in which the National Fish Hatchery system distributed 164.2 million fish (5.6 million pounds) and 121.5 millon eggs. Hatcheries with the highest distribution volumes have been highlighted.
in federal and state hatcheries, commercial farms rear over 34,000 pounds of trout for the purposes of conservation and recreation. This is far more than any other type of fish.5 Commercial aquaculture in the United States also makes a significant contribution to the production of trout for human consumption. Sales of rainbow trout bound for the table have been buoyed in recent years by a “Best
Choice� ranking according to the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, as well as by recent advancements in manufactured feed formulations that have led to far less use of marine resources.6 In 2013 the US Census of Aquaculture determined that sales of US farmed trout for human consumption reached over $93 million, ranked second only to farmed catfish. Trout sales far outpaced sales of tilapia, the third largest selling farmed fish.7
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Australis Aquaculture, Turners Falls
Commercial fish farming has a significant presence in central Massachusetts thanks in part to Australis Aquaculture, one of the largest commercial recirculating aquaculture operations in the world. Australis is located in Turners Falls just north of the Quabbin Reservoir on the banks of the Connecticut River. In the 18th century Turners Falls was the site of the Connecticut River’s first dam, the creation of which almost single-handedly contributed to collapse of the
once robust Atlantic salmon population.8 Today Turners Falls is the site of a surging population of a different fish—barramundi, an omnivorous fish native to Australia and Southeast Asia. Australis Aquaculture produces up to two million pounds of barramundi annually and distributes to national and international markets. It is far and away the largest commercial or public freshwater aquaculture operation in Massachusetts.9 Once
Warehouse Aquaculture Harvesting barramundi, a fish native to Australia and Southeast Asia, at one of the largest indoor aquaculture facilities in the world. Plastic Billabongs (next page) Thirty-six foot diameter plastic tanks that hold gently swirling water approximate the conditions of billabongs found in the rivers of Australia.
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a barramundi fingerling has been shipped from Australia to this anonymous industrial park warehouse, the fish will spend its entire life in the swirling waters of a thirty-six foot diameter plastic tank. The barramundi at Australis are placeless; they are divorced both from their native Australian ecology, as well as the flora, fauna, light, and water of their adopted home on the Connecticut River. The recirculating system of the farm in which it lives is a closed loop. Australis Aquaculture has been celebrated in the mainstream media as an example of profitable, sustainable aquaculture.10 The recirculating water system used to produce barramundi is part of a recent surge of high-tech aquaculture systems that include high-rise turbot farms in the Netherlands and roaming robotic sea cages under development at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.11 But laudatory magazine articles are the only way for curious citizens to glimpse this spectacle of aquaculture in Turners Falls. Visitors to the warehouse are turned away at the door. Freshwater fish culture in Massachusetts is fragmented. The spatial and material characteristics of aquaculture and angling environments around Quabbin Reservoir are disparate—a naturalistic river hides its infrastructural origins, a tree-less asphalt pad is striated with concrete raceways, and plastic billabongs are embedded in an anonymous industrial park. These environments can be characterized as isolated monocultures. The river optimized for angling, the hatchery that yields only trout, and the warehouse filled with exotic barramundi are all incongruous with local ecologies and resistant to diverse public experiences. Polyculture—a condition in which
aquaculture is in synergy with agriculture, waste management, recreation, and biodiverse habitat production—is not evident here. Landscape is the medium through which a legible and holistic fishery network for Massachusetts can be designed. Fishery landscapes have potential to transform the disconnected freshwater fish monocultures so pervasive in this region into a congruous system of cultivation, sport, and conservation. The design of productive landscapes has been a disciplinary topic in landscape architecture for centuries. Designers, historians, and theorists endeavor to broaden the function of the farm by exploring the synthesis of food cultivation with recreation, aesthetics, and rural and urban economies. The ferme ornée, or ornamental farm, described by Stephen Switzer in 1718 as a landscape where “Profit and Pleasure may be said to be agreeably mix’d together,” was elaborated upon by designers such as A.J. Downing, whose model for an ornamental farm interlaced recreational itineraries among productive fields.12 The deer parks of Baroque England married the pursuit of protein with aesthetic concerns while contributing to “the wider economy of England as locations for grazing, timber production, arable farming and industrial activity.” 13 Architects and landscape architects have also explored synergies between productive landscapes and urbanism. In his essay Notes Toward a History of Agrarian Urbanism, Charles Waldheim explores three influential, speculative projects “organized explicitly around the role of agriculture in determining the economic, ecological and spatial order of the city.”14 One
Designed Productive Landscapes (next page) Examples of designed productive landscapes include A.J. Downing’s ferme ornée, a hunting ground and productive fishponds at Dyrham Park in England, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City, and Kongjian Yu’s design for the campus at Shenyang University. (clockwise from the upper left)
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of these projects from the early 20th century, Frank Lloyd Wright’s design for Broadacre City, proposed that one-acre cultivated plots—smallscale sustenance farms—could form the spatial order of a boundless low-density urbanism. A more recent example of an urban productive landscape is Kongjian Yu’s campus of Shenyang Jianzhu University in China. Constructed in 2004, the floodable “rice paddy campus” integrates a working agricultural landscape with urban storm water management to create civic space. The campus design exemplifies Yu’s aspiration for urban agriculture; Yu claims that “high-yield farmlands should permeate into built-up areas” in order to beneficially impact “urban hydrology, air quality and humidity, and the diversity of species and landscape pattern.”15 Yu’s concern for the performative qualities of urban productive landscapes illustrates the sophistication with which landscape architects are imagining and actualizing productive landscapes. Working Water brings productive tailwater fisheries to the perennial discourse on designed productive landscapes in the discipline of landscape architecture. Productive tailwater fisheries are speculative landscapes for aquaculture and angling. These landscapes challenge convention and are informed by contemporary and historical models of ecological aquaculture in which recreation, conservation, waste management and cultivation are enmeshed, and where progressive public/private partnerships allow for sustainable and profitable enterprise. The following chapters outline the precedents, strategies, and technologies of this speculative landscape typology. The final chapter features a design proposal for Quabbin Fishery, a productive tailwater fishery on the Swift River.
In the chapter Ecological Aquaculture, landscapebased aquaculture is defined relative to 20th century industrial models of aquaculture. Four case studies are used to illustrate how historical and contemporary fish farms have been integrated with adjacent ecologies and economies to become legible, multi-functional landscapes. Tailwater Landscapes discusses the attributes of reservoir-fed rivers and casts these unique waterways as constructed landscapes at the nexus of infrastructure, ecology, and recreation. Three tailwater case studies highlight how these rivers respond and adapt to adjacent aquaculture operations, waste management systems, and field-based agriculture. Scaling Aquaponics examines the burgeoning phenomenon of aquaponics—a food production system based on symbiosis between aquaculture and agriculture—and proposes scaling up these typically small and mid-size systems so that they become spatial, multifunctional landscapes. Economies of freshwater aquaculture and greenhouse agriculture in Massachusetts are discussed as well-suited for the implementation of aquaponic landscapes in this region. Finally, Quabbin Fishery tests the productive tailwater fishery through speculative design. The aquaponic and tailwater landscape introduced in this chapter reinvents a disparate fish culture in Massachusetts and grounds it in a riverine ecology of farmers, anglers, citizens and fish. The productive tailwater fishery joins itself to the transcultural tradition of constructing ecological aquaculture landscapes that have enabled diverse human experiences with fish for millennia.
Productive tailwater fisheries are metabolic; they grow, digest, and flow in a way that reveals and enriches the curious cultural practices around the labor and sport of harvesting fish.
Quabbin Fishery (next page) A detail of the design proposal for Quabbin Fishery, a productive tailwater fishery that intensifies freshwater fish culture on the Swift River.
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Ecological Aquaculture
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More fish will be farmed on an annual basis than caught wild for the first time in history within the next several years.1 Unsustainable wild-catch fisheries, such as those based in New England, are seeing yields stagnate or decline.2 As fish harvest increasingly shifts from sea to land, and the global human population grows more urban and protein-hungry,3 strategies to integrate landscape-based aquaculture with local cultural networks, regional ecologies, and global economies become critical.
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140
MILLION TONNES OF FISH
120 100 80 60 40 20
Aquaculture is a practice that constructs landscapes. In its over 2000-year old history, the fish farm can be broadly described as a productive landscape typology in which constructed ecologies engage adjacent ecosystems and cultural networks. Today, aquaculture remains a largely terrestrial practice—70% of global aquaculture production comes from coastal and upland farms while only 30% of yields are produced by marine-based operations.4
Contemporary land-based fish farms take on a range of forms, from tank-based warehouses to landscape-based polycultures. Terrestrial fish farms began to take on industrial characteristics in the mid-to-late 20th century with the rise of large-scale food production practices and global food distribution networks. Australis Aquaculture is an exemplar of high-yield monoculture farms that cultivate dense fish populations in tank-based, indoor facilities.
2029
2026
2023
2020
2017
2014
2011
2008
2005
2002
1999
1996
1993
1990
1987
1984
0
Rise of the Farmed Fish The World Bank projects that more fish will be farmed on an annual basis than caught wild for the first time in history within the next several years.
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autonomous
integrated
high-density
low-density
monoculture
polyculture
tank-based
topographic
intensive
extensive
Spectrum of Aquaculture Characteristics The spectrum of characteristics of inland fish farms ranges from tank-based monocultures to landscape-based polycultures.
Industrial operations, however, have not fully eclipsed landscape-based farms. Many ecological aquaculture practices have adapted to changes in the market and serve sustainablyraised product to niche markets and high-end restaurants. These landscape-based farms are constructed polycultures that feature lower stocking densities and yields than their industrial counterparts but exhibit greater integration with local and regional ecologies,
urban infrastructure, and recreational networks. Thus they are supported by multiple revenue streams and a diversity of stakeholders. The four historical and contemporary ecological aquaculture case studies that follow are intended to uncover topographic, hydrologic, and vegetative strategies that could be utilized in the design of ecological aquaculture landscapes in Massachusetts.
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Donana National Park, Spain
Veta la Palma Veta la Palma is a 3,200 hectare commercial fishery that comingles aquaculture, ecological conservation, and eco-toursim. Located in southern Spain at the estuary of the Guadalquivir River, the farm is constructed on land leased from the adjacent Donana National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Veta la Palma was once an agricultural plot continuously drained to support a rice monoculture. In the 1980s,
the water flow through a 300km-long network of canals on the site was reversed—drainage canals became irrigation channels. Today daily river tidal flux innundates the channels and subsequently the mosaic of basins that serve as aqueous habitat and fishponds.5 In contrast to Donana National Park and its long dry seasons, Veta la Palma is managed as a wet landscape year round. The flooded site is an
Veta la Palma (left) Diked wetlands at Veta la Palma include smaller basins for semi-intensive fish production nested within larger basins that serve as aqueous habitat. Fish Harvest (above) Mullet is harvested in a two-week process that involves teams of fishermen with nets working in basins where water levels are slowly lowered.
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Over 250 bird species routinely visit Veta la Palma each year to nest in the habitat islands constructed within the floodable basins and to feed on fish, worms, and crustaceans.
Poaching Fish It is estimated that migratory birds poach at least 20% of the annual fish population from the farm, but economic losses are offset by revenue from bird watching enthusiasts and other eco-tourists.
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Guadalquiver River
Drainage Canal
Tidal Flux
Monoculture Hydrology
Guadalquiver River
Irrigation Canal
Tidal Flux
Polyculture Hydrology
attractive stop-over for migratory birds traveling from northern Europe to the African continent. Over 250 bird species routinely visit the site to nest in the variety of habitat islands constructed within the floodable basins and to feed on fish, worms, and crustaceans.6 Sea bass and mullet thrive in this biodiverse habitat, and shrimp and microalgae that the fish consume flow passively onto the site in brackish
tidal backwashes. Microalgae also play a role in cleansing the water of organic nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous that are present due to both high volumes of fish waste and fertilizer runoff from upriver agricultural practices.7
Hydrologic Diagram
Veta la Palma is a public/private partnership that demonstrates the transformation of public land into ecological infrastructure to support ecotourism and profitable aquaculture.
Ecological Infrastructure (next page)
Reversing the flow of water through Veta la Palma from drainage to irrigation enables a pivot from a rice monoculture to a fish polyculture.
Habitat islands are constructed within floodable basins to create nesting grounds for migratory birds. Netted fish ponds are visible beyond the island.
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Huningue, France
Piscifactoire The first hatchery recorded in western history was a landscape. The “Piscifactoire,� or fish factory, established in Huningue, France in the mid-19th century was state-sponsored aquaculture at a scale never before seen in the world.8 Professor M. Coste developed the plan for the Piscifactoire and the project was funded by the government of Napoleon III. The hatchery was designed for harvest and distribution of massive volumes of
trout and salmon eggs, which were shipped across the country to restock rivers blighted by industrialization. Fish eggs were ultimately exported beyond the borders of France to other European countries and even to the Americas.9 Construction of the 40-hectare hatchery landscape involved significant topographic and hydrologic manipulation. Water was redirected from local fresh springs, two rivers, and the
Piscifactoire (left) Detail of the site plan depicts a wooded landscape with a variety of basins, canals, streams and islands that were used to conduct experiments in fish rearing, egg harvest, and cross-breeding. Fish Egg Harvest (above) Harvest of eggs at an experimental fish pond at the Piscifactoire in the second half of the 19th century.
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“A stream of fresh water....divided into narrow drains... and extended in a meadow...could be easily turned into a vast breeding establishment...to stock all the streams of France.” 10 —M. Coste
Hatchery Landscape Aerial persepective of the wooded islands set in constructed basins that housed carp, with hatchery buildings beyond.
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wastewater discharge
aqueduct
Augraben River
Neugraben River
Rhine Canal experimental fish pond
hatchery buildings
natural spring
water turbine
adjacent Rhine Canal towards buildings and basins. Passive water flow was augmented by mechanized lifts and turbines that served the egg extraction and incubation processes. Fish culture techniques established at Huningue came to the United States just one year after the Piscifactoire began operations in 1852.11 The hatchery landscape was more than just a space of production; it was also a public
spectacle. Viewing galleries allowed for public observation of the working spaces of the building, and itineraries through wooded, experimental outdoor basins expanded public engagment with the site.12
Hydrologic Diagram
While the hatchery at Huningue continues to export fish eggs, it has also widened its program beyond aquaculture to serve as a wetland park for eco-tourism centered on bird-watching.
Landscape of Science and Spectacle (next page)
The Piscifactoire is a complex hydrologic system of natural springs, re-routed rivers, an industrial canal, sub-surface aqueducts, basins and turbines.
Since its construction in the 19th century, the hatchery landscape at Huningue has integrated eco-tourism with experimental aquaculture.
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Trebon, Czech Republic
Trebon Basin Fishponds Trebon Basin is a 70,000 hectare region of wooded wetland in southern Bohemia in the Czech Republic. The region is characterized by nearly 500 constructed fishponds that cover 7,500 hectares and were built between the 14th and 19th centuries.13 Changes to the landscape during this transformative era, which saw the creation of a sophisticated network of ponds, canals, and waterways, continues to shape ecologies and economies of the region.
The Trebon Basin Fishponds are an example of a public/private partnership: state-owned fishponds are leased to a private company that manages fish production. Though the number of ponds in the region has remained constant since the 19th century, fish output has greatly increased due to the shift from passive to intensive farming methods. Nearly 3,000 tons of carp are brought to market each year, making this region among the biggest suppliers of freshwater fish in Europe.14
Trebon Basin Fishponds (left) Detail of an 18th century map depicting an urbanized region pock-marked with fishponds created through earthen dam construction. Fish Harvest (above) The Trebon Basin Fishponds have been harvested annually since their construction between the 14th and 19th centuries.
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Trebon Basin is characterized by nearly 500 man-made fishponds that were constructed between the 14th and 19th centuries and cover a total surface area of 7,500 hectares. Nearly 3,000 tons of carp reared in these ponds are brought to market each year.
Fish Staging Grounds Centuries-old stone basins were constructed adjacent to the fishpond dams at three locations in the region. The basins serve as holding pens for fresh-caught fish prior to their distribution to local and regional markets.
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(Zlata stoka)
Golden Canal
Luznice River
Hydrologic Diagram
fish holding pens Luznice River
power plant mill
This diagram depicts the interrelationship between fishponds, canals, and rivers in one portion of Trebon Basin. The Golden Canal, a constructed waterway that redirects water of the Luznice River, is a hydrologic armature that feeds and drains dozens of the ponds in the region and enables fish production, electricity generation, mill operations, and water-based recreation.
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Multifunctional Earthworks The earthen dams of the region double function: they retain the water of the reservoir and also serve as recreational conduits. This infrastructure is conspicuous in the landscape, due to both the height of the landform and the rows of oak trees that were planted to strengthen the dam.
The landscape of Trebon Basin is shaped by distinct hydrologic, topographic, and vegetative strategies. A system of constructed canals conveys the water of local rivers to each of the ponds. The Golden Canal, a 45k waterway constructed in 1520, remains the lynchpin infrastructural element of this system.15 The shallow fishponds, only one meter deep on average, are equipped with valves that allow for periodic drainage and refilling. The historic
earthen dams that retain water in the ponds were often constructed with weak local soils. Planted rows of oak were used to strengthen these landforms, and today these tree lines are an iconic characteristic of the landscape. The Trebon Basin Fishponds support additional uses concurrent with fish farming, including electricity generation, mill operations, peat production, and water-based recreation.
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Pearl River Delta, China
Dike-Pond System The Dike-Pond System, an 80,000 hectare terrestrial and aquatic landscape in the Pearl River Delta in China, has been evolving since the 16th century. This landscape currently supports approximately 1.2 million people through international sales of diverse products that include 80% of the nation’s live fish exports.16 Here fishponds form the spatial order of an aqueous urbanism where housing,
transportation infrastructure and manufacturing industries are embedded in a constructed ecology of carp, silkworms, mulberry trees, and sugar cane. Initially constructed as a means of flood control to protect low-lying agriculture development, the Dike-Pond System is a corrugated matrix of productive earthen dikes and ponds. Four species of carp are cultivated, each occupying
Dike Pond System (left) The Dike-Pond System is an over 400-year old landscape strategy that has transformed over 80,000 hectares of the Pearl River Delta region into productive landscape. Fish Harvest (above) Harvest of a fish pond is a laborious activity requiring nets and hand tools.
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The Dike-Pond System landscape is so pervasive in the Pearl River Delta that the fishpond has become a building block and foundational condition for urban expansion in the region.
Aquaculture Matrix Fishponds form the spatial order of an aqueous urbanism in the Pearl River Delta. Housing, 21st century transportation infrastructure and manufacturing industries are co-located with a constructed ecology of carp, silkworms, mulberry trees, and sugar cane.
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fish processing facility
sugar refinery
waste as fish food silkworms
mud water to dike as manure
waste water to pond as manure
silk factory
waste as fish food cane husks
excrement
+03 m
mulberry leaves Grass Carp
Bighead Carp
pond sediment as fertilizer
Silver Carp
Black Carp
+02 m
+01 m
+00 m
pond sediment as fertilizer
Mulberry Dike
Sugar Cane Dike
Fish Pond
their own strata within the 2.5 meter deep ponds. Mud excavated annually from the bottom of the ponds is spread on top of adjacent dikes to serve as nutrient-rich fertilizer and support the growth of mulberry trees and sugar cane. Leaves of the mulberry trees are harvested as feed for silkworms. The worm excrement returns to the pond as food for the carp, and the silk is processed in local factories. Sugar cane husks are also returned to the pond as food, while the
cane itself is processed in refineries. Wastewater discharge from both silk and sugar processing factories is cycled back to the ponds.17 The Dike-Pond System is a constructed ecosystem that underpins a regional economy. This unique landscape is so pervasive in the region that the fishpond has become a foundational condition for urban expansion in one of the world’s most rapidly urbanizing areas.
Hydrologic Diagram The Dike-Pond System is a constructed ecology—a cycle of food and waste production that brings a diverse array of product to national and global markets. Traversing the System (next page) Dikes form continuous paths across the landscape and are scaled for crops, pedestrians, and vehicles.
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42 Working Water Donana National Park, Spain Veta la Palma
Cadiz, Spain esteros
Hawaii, USA kuapa
Baures, Bolivia savanna wiers
Kolkata, India
sewage-fed aquaculture
Dyrham, England
ornamental fishponds
Lake Nokoue, Benin brush parks
New Brunswick, Canada multi-trophic aquaculture
Huningue, France hatchery
Pearl River Delta, China dike-pond system
Longxian, China rice-fish culture
Po Marshes, Hong Kong gei wais
Comacchio, Italy valli
Western Italy piscinae
Trebon, Czech Republic fishponds
Ecological Aquaculture Futures Barry Costa-Pierce, a scholar of ecological approaches to aquaculture, writes that “management of the ‘ecotones’ between society, natural ecosystems, and sustainable environmental development” is the key to future ecological aquaculture.18 He rightly recognizes that the fish farm must be a space of integration—a transitional landscape where practices of production and conservation are
mutually beneficial and delineations between public and private zones erode. Beyond the four case studies described above are a larger set of historical and contemporary ecological aquaculture landscapes that span five continents and thousands of years. This rich heritage of productive landscapes forms the basis to imagine and construct future sustainable fish farm landscapes.
Tieling, China
filtration fishponds
Rice Paddy Campus, Shenyang, China rice paddy aquaculture
Ecological Aquaculture Geographic Distribution Eighteen sites of historical and contemporary ecological aquaculture span five continents and thousands of years. Ecological Aquaculture Transects (next page) A detail of a chart of transects through sites of ecological aquaculture reveals a diversity of topographic, vegetative, and hydrologic conditions.
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Baures, Bolivia savanna wiers
Po Marshes, Hong Kong gei wais
Western Italy piscinae
Lake Nokoue, Benin brush parks
Longxian, China rice-fish culture
Pearl River Delta, China dike-pond system
Comacchio, Italy valli
Huningue, France hatchery
Shenyang, China rice paddy campus
Kolkata, India sewage-fed aquaculture
Hawaii, USA kuapa
New Brunswick, Canada integrated multi-trophic aquacu
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Tailwater Landscapes
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Reservoir and dam construction alters waterways, transforms ecologies, and even, as in the case of the Quabbin Reservoir, erases towns. A by-product of this radical disturbance is the production of reservoir-fed rivers—tailwaters— that are among the world’s best trout fisheries. Tailwaters are more than unique waterways; they are managed and constructed fluvial landscapes where everything from water quality to fish densities to boat launches has been optimized for trout fishing.
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Tailwater landscapes are constructed ecologies where hydrology, topography, flora and fauna are shaped by and for public recreation, ecological conservation, and infrastructural utility. Tailwaters are prized for their predictability. Unlike freestone rivers, where temperature, flow, and flora and fauna populations fluctuate throughout the year, tailwaters feature relatively
consistent conditions that are ideal for yearround angling in waters stocked with trout. Drawing water from a reservoir has profound effects on tailwater temperature, nutrients, and flow. Tailwaters that draw from the bottom of a reservoir run cold in the summer and warm in the winter, with temperatures typically between 40-50ËšF throughout the year.1 These temperatures privilege cold-loving fish species
Renowned Tailwater Landscapes Geographic distribution of 50 renowned tailwater landscapes, depicted on a map of major American rivers and streams, reveals a clustering of sites in the West, Southeast, and Northeast. These landscapes support some of the best trout fishing in the world.
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Tailwater landscapes are constructed ecologies where hydrology, topography, flora and fauna are shaped by and for public recreation, ecological conservation, and infrastructural utility.
Tailwater Landscape Characteristics Tailwater landscapes are characterized by cold summer water temperatures, warm winter water temperatures, moderate flow, clarity, and nutrient abundance. While trout thrive in these conditions, the environment is unsuitable for warm-water fishes such as bass that may have inhabited the river prior to construction of the reservior.
such as trout and extend the typical angling season deep into winter months. Vegetal growth and decay at the reservoir, along with seasonal overturning of its waters, makes reservoir waters that course through tailwaters rich with nutrients and thus conducive to a rich aquatic life of weeds and protein-rich insects. Trout grow quickly and densely in these conditions, with 60 pounds of trout per acre of
tailwater considered commonplace.2 Tailwater flows are also regulated and moderated to reduce scour of banks and river bottom, and any higher than usual reservoir discharges are typically scheduled and announced to anglers. The result is clear water with less suspended sediment and reduced disturbance to river bank vegetation, which in turn supports the thriving insect populations on which trout feed.3
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Arkansas River at Pueblo Reservoir, CO Water Flow Rate: 75-2,000 cfs Water Temperature: 42-46ËšF
Arkansas River Tailwater Landscape In 2005, a major structural renovation of the first eight miles of the Arkansas River tailwater in Pueblo, Colorado was completed. New treatment regimes enhanced mid-stream trout habitat through geomorphologic change, such as elevating riffle substrates, excavating pools, and installing boulder spurs. Bank stabilization tactics to reduce erosion and provide winter trout habitat were also employed.4
The most dense population of trout in the tailwater is within the first two miles below the Pueblo Reservoir.5 The rainbow and brown trout here are stocked by the Pueblo State Fish Hatchery, a highly engineered landscape for fish production and distribution directly adjacent to the managed and constructed tailwater landscape for recreational fishing. Discharges from the hatchery are carefully monitored to prevent nutrient overload in the river.
Aquaculture and Angling (left and above) Vanes and spurs constructed of local rock are used to restore trout habitat and control erosion along the first eight miles of the tailwater, an area that includes outfall from the Pueblo State Fish Hatchery. Mapping the Tailwater Landscape (next page) Dam, hatchery, and recreational infrastructure along the Arkansas River.
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Potomac River at Randolph Reservoir, MD Water Flow Rate: 200-1,000 cfs Water Temperature: mid 40s-low 50sËšF
Potomac River Tailwater Landscape The tailwater of the North Branch of the Potomac River below the Jennings Randolph Reservior in Maryland intermixes waste infrastructure with recreational angling. The 19 miles of tailwater that holds trout was a dead river due to acid mine drainage (AMD) for over 100 years, but lime amendments upstream of the reservoir and the installation of AMD monitoring stations have raised the pH enough to sustain trout.6 Five miles
downstream of the reservoir, the Westernport wastewater treatment plant discharges into the river, raising the water temperature and adding nutrients to the river. Fish grow faster in this area and are more active in winter months, requiring anglers to adjust tactics to compensate.7 The river has been stocked with rainbow and brown trout since the 1980’s, and four whitewater releases from the reservoir occur each spring between mid-April and May.8
Wastewater Treatment Plant Discharge (above) Discharge from the Westerport wastewater treatment plant discolors the river water and raises its temperature, requiring anglers to adjust tactics. Mapping the Tailwater Landscape (next page) Acid mine drainage monitoring stations, wastewater treatment plant discharges, and recreational infrastructure along the Potomac River.
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Missouri River at Holter Lake, MT Water Flow Rate: 3,500-20,000 cfs Water Temperature: 40s-mid 50sËšF
Missouri River Tailwater Landscape The tailwater on the Missouri River below Holter Dam in Montana cuts through a landscape with a large amount of agricultural development. This is a unique context for a tailwater because the fertilizer runoff creates overloads of nutrients in the water. Private land adjoining the river limits boat launch opportunities to Holter Dam, and wade access
is allowed only in a few areas. The tailwater is capable of very high flows, up to 20,000 cubic feet per second. Because water spills from the top of the dam, the temperature of this tailwater exhibits a higher range of temperature than usual. The spillover also draws walleye from the reservoir to the river in numbers so high that anglers target them in the spring and fall. Walleye augment the already high rainbow and brown trout density of 4,000-6,000 fish per mile.9
Agriculture Adjacency (left) Private agricultural land adjacent to the river limits anglers’ access to boat launching and wading, and runoff from the cultivated fields adds nutrients to the water. Mapping the Tailwater Landscape (next page) Crop circles, irrigated agricultural fields, and recreational infrastructure along the Missouri River.
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Ashland Reservoir
Borden Brook Reservoir
Chicopee Reservoir
Cleveland Reservoir
Coes Reservoir
Farnham Reservoir
Granville Reservoir
Holden Reservoir
Hopkinton Reservoir
Kendall Reservoir
Lynde Brook Reservoir
Mare Meadow Reservoir
Mt. Williams Reservoir
Northhampton Reservoir
Notch Reservoir
Notown Reservoir
Perley Brook Reservoir
Pine Hill Reservoir
Plunkett Reservoir
Quabbin Reservoir
Quabbin Reservoir
Quinapoxet Reservoir
Sherman Reservoir
Springfield Reservoir
Sudbury Reservoir
Tighe Carmody Reservoir
Upper Reservoir
Wachusett Reservoir
Whitehall Reservoir
Massachusetts Tailwater Landscapes The three case studies above reveal that tailwater landscapes are amalgams of infrastructure, ecology, and recreation that respond and adapt to a range of adjacencies including aquaculture, wastewater management, and crop agriculture. In Massachusetts there are 29 diverse tailwater landscapes. The Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife stocks all of these rivers with
trout semi-annually, but the Swift River is the most reputable among anglers. Experiences of a community of Swift River anglers can be followed on the internet via blogs, videos and social media, where sport fishermen and women trade tips and tactics on working the water in all seasons.10 The heritage of angling at the Swift River make it an apt tailwater for testing synergies between sport fishing and aquaculture.
Massachusetts Tailwater Landscapes A catalog of 29 tailwater landscapes in Massachusetts reveals the spatial, material, and contextual variation of these waterways. Quabbin Reservoir and Swift River (next page) Aerial oblique looking south along the Swift River tailwater landscape.
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Scaling Aquaponics
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Aquaponics—a food production system based on symbiosis between aquaculture and agriculture—typically manifests as domestic-scaled, modest yield crops confined to indoor facilities. But aquaponics is synergy, and synergy is scalar. Geographies and economies of Massachusetts freshwater aquaculture and greenhouse agriculture signal the potential for an expansion of aquaponics to the scale of metabolic and catalytic landscapes in this region.
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Aquaponics has seen growth in the past decade, in part due to a burgeoning cultural interest in sustainable food production. An article in the New York Times estimates that around 1,000 small-scale domestic and commercial aquaponic systems are in operation in the United States, with another 1,000 in university research labs.1 Mainstream magazines and newspapers abound with articles on DIY aquaponic systems,2 and professional and academic aquaponic
conferences are routine. As the mechanics of system operations are honed, equipment for micro to mid-sized systems is streamlined, and efficacy increases, questions about the limits of system size emerge. What happens when this constructed ecology moves beyond the scale of aquariums and rooftop systems and becomes spatial? What are the characteristics of an aquaponic landscape? Are there beneficial ecological and economic effects to scaling up?
Aquaponic Characteristics Small and mid-sized aquaponic systems, like this one in Milwaukee operated by urban agriculture activist Will Allen, are typically ad hoc, indoor systems constructed using off the shelf parts.
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CROP CULTIVATION water treatment chemicals
fertilizer | feed
field-based agriculture
ORGANIC WASTE fish solid waste/ food remnants (2.5 tons/ 1 ton fish)
WATER TREATMENT purification processes
EUTROPHICATION ZONE algal blooms/ oxygen depletion
INORGANIC WASTE nitrogen (60kg/ 1 ton fish) phosphorous (10kg/ 1 ton fish) ammonia (.1kg/ 1 ton fish)
Field-Based Agriculture Model
CYCLED WATER
AGRICULTURE greenhouse production (1 sq. ft. per 1 gallon aquaculture)
AQUACULTURE raceways (800 sq ft., 20,000 gallons water = 1lb fish)
NITROGEN-RICH WATER AQUACULTURE EFFLUENT
TREATMENT WETLANDS biofiltration basins (1 sq. ft. per 2 gallons aquaculture)
Aquaponic Landscape Model
Metabolic Synergies An aquaponic system is a polyculture that uses only 10% of the water required for conventional field-based agriculture, requires no external fertilizer, and creates no waste discharges. When aquaponics is scaled up, each of the three aspects of the system—aquaculture, agriculture, and biofiltration—can correlate to familiar large-scale landscape elements and infrastructure.
Elements of an Aquaponic Landscape Aquaponics is a tripartite, closed-loop system that includes aquaculture, agriculture, and biofiltration. Wastewater freighted with ammonia and organic waste from fish cultivation is filtered through biophysical processes and converted into nitrogen-rich water. This liquid fertilizer is next utilized in rapid-growth soilless vegetable production and then cycled back into the system again for fish production.
When aquaponics is scaled up, each of the three aspects of the system—aquaculture, agriculture, and biofiltration—can correlate to largescale landscape elements and infrastructure. Fish tanks can scale up to fields of raceways. Hydroponic trays can scale up to greenhouse arrays. Biofiltration buckets can scale up to constructed wetlands. Raceways, greenhouses, and wetlands are ubiquitous elements that underpin spatial, aquaponic landscapes.
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Freshwater Aquaculture Economies
47% $3.4 million Trout sales
53% $3.8 million
other freshwater fish sales
Australis Aquaculture 1.1 million lbs./ year Barramundi
Four Star Farms
Gloucester Fish and Game
Australis
Wiining Aquaculture
Bitzer Hatchery
Total Freshwater Aquaculture Sales (2012)
Cronin Salmon Station Sunderland Hatchery
$455.4 million
Great Brook Trout Farm
Bioshelters
expenditures by anglers, 2011
>532,000 anglers statewide, 2011 Granby Bait Berkshire Hatchery
McLaughlin Hatchery
Angler Tourism Data
Roger Reed Hatchery
G & G Bait
North Attleboro Hatchery
McLaughlin Hatchery
Tom’s Wholesale Bait
250,000 lbs./ year Brown Trout, Brook Trout, Rainbow Trout
Gilbert Trout Hatchery
Raising the Barr Sandwich Hatchery E + T Farm Double M Cranberry
State Waterbodies: Lakes, Rivers, and Streams State Hatcheries: National Imports/ Statewide Distribution Commercial Aquaculture: Statewide/ National/ International Distribution
Blue Stream
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Agriculture Economies
Hampshire County 300% agritourism growth 1997-2008
Franklin County
47.8% $255.4 million Greenhouse, Vegetable, Floriculture
47.5% $213.6 million other
110% agritourism growth 1997-2008
4.7% $23.2 million Aquaculture
Total State Agriculture Sales (2012) $5.3 million
statewide economy, 2007
>400 farms statewide
Agritourism Data
Hampden County
75% agritourism growth 1997-2008
Worcester County 75% agritourism growth 1997-2008
State Waterbodies: Lakes, Rivers, and Streams Sites of Agritourism Area with High Relative Amounts of Prime Farmland
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MA 28.3% 4,053 tons/yr Sources: Agriculture, Urban, and WWTP
50
VT 21.5%
NH 16.0% Total N: 12,500 tons/yr
CT 34.2%
Total Nitrogen Loading to Long Island Sound via Connecticut River (2005) 100
150
Connecticut River
200
Quabbin Reservoir Swift River
250
Transforming Distant Ecologies
300
Long Island Sound
Long Island Sound Nitrogen Loading
Aquaponic agriculture within the watershed of the Connecticut River can reduce the volume of nitrogen that contributes to eutrophication in Long Island Sound.
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Casting a Wider Net Trout aquaculture and angling, constructed wetlands, and greenhouse agriculture can each receive support from a variety of public and private stakeholders and are eligible for monies earmarked to support sustainable food cultivation and habitat conservation efforts. The aquaponic landscape, entangled in a net of stakeholders and revenue streams, is an economically resilient polyculture.
Massachusetts Aquaponic Landscapes In Massachusetts, recent economic trends relating to fish and vegetable production, agritourism, angling, and bird watching support an exploration of aquaponic landscapes as a regional approach to food cultivation, urban development, and state revenue enhancement. This approach might follow the models of Veta la Palma in Spain and the Trebon Basin Fishponds in the Czech Republic, where public land optimal
for aquaculture is leased to a private entity for development with a mandate that public access and stringent environmental standards be maintained. Commercial aquaculture in Massachusetts is an economy with over $18 million in sales in 2013.3 Nearly half of the $7 million economy of freshwater aquaculture comes from the sale of trout.4 Freshwater aquaculture has existed in the
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commonwealth at a range of scales for over a century—from humble conversions of streams into trout farms to massive 21st century indoor recirculating systems. A labor force and business community that is literate about the science and economy of freshwater fish farming in Massachusetts stems from this heritage. Beyond commercial production, recreational fishing is also a significant economy in Massachusetts. In 2011, rivers stocked with trout by state-owned hatcheries encourgaged angler expenditures that totalled nearly $500 million.5 Cultivation and production of greenhouse vegetables in an aquaponic landscape can build on trends in Massachusetts agriculture as well. In 2012, greenhouse-based agricultural production accounted for nearly 50% of the $500 million in statewide agriculture sales.6 Agriculture revenues expanded in recent years for three reasons: farmers in western Massachusetts are experimenting with increased use of greenhouses to extend growing seasons,7 demand for local and organic food is increasing, and agri-tourism is flourishing. As of 2014 over 400 farms have opened their land to recreational activities.8 The third type of landscape produced by a scaled up aquaponic system, the constructed wetland, can also engage regional ecologies and economies. An aquaponic landscape is simultaneously a farm and a fertilizer factory— the system produces nitrogen in abundance but unlike field-based agriculture practices, it does not shed nitrogen to adjacent waterways via fertilizer runoff. The estuarine ecologies of the Connecticut River at Long Island Sound could benefit from an increase in aquaponic production upstream as a way to reduce the volume of nitrogen eutrophication.9 Constructed
wetlands associated with aquaponics can also contribute to regional ecologies and ecotourism by serving as habitat. Here again Veta la Palma, the wetland fish farm in Spain that acts as both a breeding ground and an annual feeding ground for thousands of migratory birds, can serve as a model. Blue heron in Massachusetts are known to inhabit many wetland community types, and they flock to hatcheries to poach thousands of trout from unprotected raceways.10 Nesting islands designed within the constructed wetlands of an aquaponic landscape increase the viable habitat of these birds in the region. Revenue from the expenditures of an avid community of birders eager to view herons nesting and feeding could be significant. Finally, in addition to profits from fish and vegetable sales, each element of an aquaponic landscape—trout aquaculture, greenhouse agriculture, and constructed wetlands—is eligible for aid from national and state-level programs, stakeholders and monies that support sustainable food cultivation and habitat conservation. Constructed wetlands, for instance, could benefit from the US Department of Agriculture’s Conservation Easement Program while trout aquaculture that augments angling environments could receive support from the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s Sport Fish Restoration Grant Program. Monetary support might also flow from non-profit organizations including Mass Audubon, Trout Unlimited, and the Northeast Organic Farming Association. An aquaponic landscape that builds on economic trends in agriculture and aquaculture and is supported by a variety of revenue streams is an economically resilient polyculture.
Aquaponic landscapes as a regional approach to food cultivation, urban development, and state revenue enhancement in Massachusetts is supported by economic trends in fish and vegetable production, agritourism, and angling.
Metabolic Synergies (next page) Detail of a diagram of hydrologic flow, material exchange, and interconnectivity between the productive zones of an aquaponic landscape.
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Quabbin Fishery
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Quabbin Fishery proposes an intensification of fish culture on the banks of the Swift River. This productive tailwater fishery is a speculative polyculture: an aquaponic landscape that entangles trout cultivation, greenhouse agriculture, and wetland habitat, and a tailwater landscape for angling and other recreational pursuits. This design proposal for Quabbin Fishery demonstrates scalable and flexible strategies for a regional network of productive tailwater fisheries.
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Perley Brook Mere Meadow
10 Mt. Williams Notch
Sherman
Northhampton
Quinapoxet Notown
Quabbin
Wachusett
Sudbury
20
30
40 Cleveland Brook Plunkett Farnham 50 Upper
60
70
80
Sugden Pine Hill
90
Borden Brook
Kendall
Whitehall
Granville Tighe Carmody
Springfield Lynde Brook Coes Chicopee
Hopkinton Ashland
100
State Waterbodies: Lakes, Rivers, and Streams Dammed Reservoirs with Tailwater Fisheries
Regional Suitability Map Quabbin Fishery is a 2-mile long, 240-acre productive tailwater fishery. The fishery is sited on the banks of the Swift River, one of 29 tailwaters in Massachusetts that draws from freshwater reservoirs.
Quabbin Fishery occupies portions of public lands that abut the Swift River, including Quabbin Park, Covey Wildlife Management Area, and easements of the Chickopee Aqueduct.
Notable infrastructural elements within the bounds of Quabbin Fishery include Winsor Dam, the Swift River Headwater Valve, the Chickopee Aqueduct, and McLaughlin State Fish Hatchery. Quabbin Fishery is characterized by the design of four intermittent riparian landscapes for aquaculture and angling that are set among meadows and forests of mixed hardwoods and conifers.
Massachusetts Tailwater Landscapes All tailwater landscapes in the commonwealth fall within a 50-mile radius of the Quabbin Reservoir and the Swift River. These tailwater landscapes are all stocked semi-annually by state hatcheries.
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1000
Quabbin Reservoir
Quabbin Park
Reservoir
2000
Quabbin Spillway 3000
Winsor Dam Quabbin Visitor Center
4000
Chickopee Aqueduct Quabbin Water Treatment Facility
5000
River
6000
Swift River Headwater Valve Swift River
7000
8000
Covey Wildlife Management Area
Hatchery McLaughlin State Fish Hatchery
9000
Swift River Existing Conditions 10000
11000
12000
13000
The Swift River is a tailwater that springs from the base of Winsor Dam and draws water from the bottom of the Quabbin Reservoir. Infrastructural elements arrayed within the first two miles of this tailwater landscape include a spillway, a sub-surface aqueduct, a water treatment facility, a pump house, and the largest fish hatchery in the state.
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Quabbin Reservoir
2000
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4000
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5000
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E
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Quabbin Fishery P
Quabbin Fishery is a 2-mile long, 240-acre productive tailwater fishery. The fishery occupies portions of public land directly adjacent to the Swift River that include Quabbin Park, Covey Wildlife Management Area, and easements of the Chickopee Aqueduct.
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1000
1
Quabbin Reservoir
Pump House Market
P Parking
Restrooms
Bait Shop
Vehicular Access
Picnic Area
i
2000
Information Center
E
Marketplace
3000
2
4000
P
Hydrocrop Hiking Trails
Birding Areas
Biking Trails
Fish Farming
Wetland Habitat
Greenhouses
5000
6000
P
E
E
7000
3
Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail
P Hiking Trails
Biking Trails
Wading
8000
4
9000
E 10000
P
Angling Camp
Boat Fishing
Camping
Wading
Parking
13000
RV Camping
Restrooms
Boat Launch
P
11000
12000
Picnic Area
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The four main areas of Quabbin Fishery are Pump House Market, Hydrocrop, Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail, and Angling Camp. A circulation network of trails, paths, and roads join these areas of the fishery. The Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail, a hiking trail and bike path that starts at the source of the Swift River and the Chickopee Aqueduct and follows these waterways south to the McLaughlin Hatchery and beyond, is a major connective armature for traversing the full
length of Quabbin Fishery.
Quabbin Fishery Areas (above and next page)
While each of Quabbin Fisheries’ four areas has distinct character, there are shared formal strategies and programmatic overlaps between all of these landscapes. All areas of Quabbin Fishery interrelate through a complex set of hydrologic flows and material exchanges that link raceway, wetland, tailwater, aqueduct, and reservoir.
The four main areas of Quabbin Fishery—Pump House Market, Hydrocrop, Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail, and Angling Camp—enable communal and solitary experiences in aquaponic and angling landscapes.
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Fishery Flows and Exchanges (next page) Diagram of the hydrologic flows and material exchanges that link raceway, wetland, tailwater, aqueduct, and reservoir at Quabbin Fishery. This diagram also tests a range of intensites of aquaculture, agriculture and wetland habitat at the aquaponic landscape of Hydrocrop.
Tailwater temperatures and greenhouse-based agriculture allow angling, trout rearing, and vegetable cultivation to occur at Quabbin Fishery in all seasons. Beyond the use of the landscape by anglers, eco-tourists, and farmers, a series of scheduled events draws visitors throughout the year. The spectacle of stocking the river with rainbow trout in the spring and fall is preceded by instructional angling workshops held at Angling Camp and followed by cooking classes
held in the pavilions of Pump House Market. Community harvest weekends encourage public experiences among the greenhouses and raceways of Hydrocrop. And kayak river tours and an annual 5K race along the Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail bring diverse recreational activities to the Swift River in the summer months. A description of each of the four areas of Quabbin Fishery is presented on the following pages.
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1
Pump House Market
2
Hydrocrop
3
Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail
4
Angling Camp
Route 9
4000
5000
Angling Camp
Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail
Cooking Classes
MAY Trout Stocking
APR Angling Classes
MAR
3000
FEB Community Harvest
JAN
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NOV
DEC
Cooking Classes
Trout Stocking
OCT Angling Classes
Community Harvest
SEP Kayak Tours
Community Harvest
AUG Kayak Tours
Aqueduct 5K
JUL Kayak Tours
JUN
Seasonal Market Bait Shop Raceways Greenhouses Wetlands
Winsor Dam
0 ft
Pump House Market + Hydrocrop
1000
2000
Powerline Easement
Quabbin Reservoir
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80 Working Water 0 ft
1
Pump House Market
1000
P Parking
Restrooms
Bait Shop
2000
i Vehicular Access
Information Center
E
Marketplace 3000
4000
P
5000
6000
P
E
E
7000
P
8000
9000
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Pump House Market The Pump House Market is sited at the base of Winsor Dam and the “headwaters” of the Swift River. It is simultaneously the major visitors’ point of arrival and the hydrologic point of origin of Quabbin Fishery. The Pump House Market is accessed both by vehicle as well as by foot and bike via new trails that scale the face of the Winsor Dam and connect to the Quabbin Park Visitor Center. This area of the site is designed
to be a space of community and commerce and is among the most intensely used areas of Quabbin Fishery. Programming includes a visitor’s center, bait shop, pump house, and seasonal market space. The Pump House Market celebrates the unconventional hydrology of the Swift River and Quabbin Fishery’s aquaponic landscape. The market frames and incorporates the
Pump House Market The Pump House Market is the major point of arrival at Quabbin Fishery. It is a space of commerce and communal activity that is expected to be among the most intensely used areas of the site. Alongside an outdoor seasonal market space, the Pump House Market features pavilions that house a visitor center, bait shop, and water pumping station.
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Hydrologic Point of Origin The Pump House Market is the hydrologic point of origin at Quabbin Fishery. Reservoir water is tapped from the adjacent “spring” that feeds the Swift River and pumped to this point on the site. The water is briefly held and revealed in a demonstration pond and cisterns, then is cycled through the trout raceways, aquaponic greenhouses, and wetland habitat areas of the adjacent Hydrocrop.
peculiar “artificial spring” of the Swift River—the dramatic surfacing of Quabbin Reservoir water which reveals the river to be a highly managed and regulated tailwater. The same cold, clear, and nutrient-rich water that supports trout populations in the Swift River is piped to the Pump House Market, where it is momentarily revealed in demonstration ponds and cisterns before being pushed through the trout raceways and greenhouses of the Hydrocrop.
Louvered pavilions at the Market are conceived of as contemporary fishing shacks; they borrow formal and material language from this rustic architecture typology. Wooden slats hung over glass recall separated and weathered wood siding while allowing visual transparency and light penetration. The adjacent open-air market space is defined by semi-transparent canopies stretched taut between racks of drying trout for sale.
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Wet and Dry A cross section reveals the cisterns and demonstration pond that mark entry to Quabbin Fishery, as well as drying racks in the market area where trout are displayed and sold. Buildings are conceived as contemporary fishing shacks— louvered pavilions that borrow formal and material language from this rustic architecture typology. In the background, the half mile long straight line of Winsor Dam registers against the sky.
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2
Hydrocrop
1000
Hiking Trails
Birding Areas
Biking Trails
Fish Farming
Wetland Habitat
Greenhouses
Picnic Area
2000
E 3000
4000
P
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P
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Hydrocrop Hydrocrop is an aquaponic landscape—a complex intercrop of aquaculture, agriculture, habitat and recreation. The landscape is characterized by interdigitated elements: rows of trout raceways incised in a meadow, a jagged pattern of linear greenhouses in parallel, intermitent sugar maple tree lines that shade winding trails and bike paths, and terraced basins for wastewater filtration and vermiculture.
The hydrologic logistics of an aquaponic system inform the adjacencies and interconnections between elements of Hydrocrop. Coursing through the system are minimal amounts of cold, clear water of the Quabbin Reservoir fed through the adjacent Pump House. The water first flows through trout raceways and is oxygenated by periodic cascades. Once the water is freighted with organic debris such as food particles and fecal matter, it is processed
Hydrocrop Hydrocrop is an aquaponic landscape at Quabbin Fishery where trout production sponsors greenhouse vegetable growth and the development of wetland habitat. Hydrocrop connects to the Pump House Market and the Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail via bike paths and walking trails.
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A Scalable Productive Landscape Hydrocrop is an adaptive landscape of production; it takes advantage of the efficiency and flexibility of linear and repeatable forms. Lengths of raceways and greenhouses, ubiquitous elements across Massachusetts, can expand or contract over time based on resource availability or market demand.
and filtered in biofiltration wetlands, portions of which double function as feeding and nesting habitat for populations of blue heron and other native species. The filtration areas are subdivided into basins where particles in the water settle out and are processed by worms, and nitrogenfixing bacteria grow and convert ammonia in the water to nitrates. Next, the nitrogen-rich water flows through greenhouses and acts as a super-fertilizer for the production of vegetables
and microgreens. Water then circulates back to the trout raceways to begin the cycle again. At the Hydrocrop, similar to the Dike Pond System in China, food production and waste management are scalable, self-reinforcing, cyclical processes. Scaled up to size of a public park, an aquaponic landscape enables varied recreational experiences to nest within metabolic processes.
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The Aquaponic Landscape The section reveals the three major landscape elements of Hycrocrop: trout raceways, linear greenhouses, and biofiltration basins. The wastewater from trout production is polished and treated in the biofiltration areas of Hydrocrop. The water is then cycled through troughs in the linear greenhouses where vegetables and microgreens are cultivated year round.
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Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail The Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail is a recreational corridor through a forested riparian landscape. The corridor highlights two kindred waterways at Quabbin Fishery: the Swift River and the Chickopee Aqueduct. Both waterways draw from the Quabbin Reservoir and are highly managed, though they take on quite different expressions in the landscape. The tailwater is daylighted, accessible, and easily mistaken for
a freestone river, while the aqueduct is a 48� diameter pipe buried in the ground. The 2-mile length of the 13-mile Chickopee Aqueduct running through Quabbin Fishery is cleared of brush, surfaced with gravel, and transformed into a recreational corridor that links major elements of Quabbin Fishery program and facilitates access to the river. Rocks culled from the Quabbin Reservoir spillway, a
Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail The Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail links the Swift River with the sub-surface Chickopee Aqueduct. The trail serves as a major recreational corridor and access route through Quabbin Fishery for joggers, bikers, and anglers.
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Angling Infrastructure The trail marks the heretofore hidden run of the sub-surface Chickopee Aqueduct. Intermittent low rock walls edge the aqueduct easement; they echo the form and materiality of the spurs that produce trout habitat and structure access to the Swift River.
ravine that periodically channels overflow to the river, are gathered to create spurs—angled walls protruding into the river that create trout habitat by changing water flow and river-bottom morphologies over time. The spurs extend up the bank of the river and are used intermittently to edge the trail. A visual and material connection is created between tailwater and aqueduct, and elements of the angling landscape structure experiences beyond the banks of the river.
This transformation of the Chickopee Aqueduct easement builds on an initiative enacted in 2013 by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority to convert over 40 miles of aqueducts in central Massachusetts into public recreational trails for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing.1 As part of a regional trail system, the Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail recalls the recreational corridors that connect 70,000 hectares of fishpond landscape in Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic.
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Working the Water The section reveals recreation at two highly managed and regulated waterways: the aqueduct and the tailwater. Anglers fish the excavated pool in the river downstream of a rock spur while joggers and bikers utilize the two-mile long trail along the aqueduct easement.
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Angling Camp The Angling Camp is designed for collective social experiences at Quabbin Fishery. It is a mixing ground for anglers, campers, ecotourists, and recreation enthusiasts. While picnic areas, campgrounds, and RV camping lots are common infrastructure found on the banks of many tailwater fisheries, the Angling Camp addresses the current deficit in communal gathering places along the Swift River.
The Angling Camp is sited on relatively flat ground in the Covey Wildlife Management Area, near the border that it shares with Quabbin Park. Similar to the Aqueduct / Tailwater Trail, the Angling Camp landscape draws on trout habitat infrastructure—spurs—to create formal and material ties to the adjacent river. Spurs at the river bank structure anglers’ approach and descent into the river. They frame kayak launches for wide-ranging river exploration and
Angling Camp The Angling Camp occupies relatively flat ground within the Covey Wildlife Management Area directly adjacent to the Swift River. The campground is accessible by car, RV, kayak, or bike and features a range of camping areas.
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Grounding the Camp Rock spurs used to create trout habitat in the river extend upland to structure paths and zones of the Angling Camp. Circular clearings are interspersed among lines of rock, allowing campers the choice to pitch tents within communal campsites or to set up camp between these gathering spaces.
piers for anglers to work the scoured pools on the leeward side of the spur from the river bank. They also serve as datums against which to read water level fluctuations during the Quabbin Reservoir’s scheduled water discharge events. Further upland, low rock walls alternate with walking trails, forming a pattern that resonates with the interdigitation of elements at Hydrocrop. Within this striated framework, circular zones create loosely enclosed spaces—sites for communal
experiences of camping, cooking, and trading angling stories. Sugar maple trees at the Angling Camp are planted and managed to augment these social spaces. Tree line fragments, the base unit of the planting strategy, are planted over time in and around the encircled spaces, creating groves that shade the space in summer and allow warming sunlight to penetrate in winter.
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Stringers and Spurs The linear rock spur and the curved wall of a communal firepit frame a kayak launch at the river’s edge. The firepit is a communal space for displaying the day’s catch on a stringer, trading stories, and cooking trout.
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A Network of Productive Tailwater Fisheries Flooding 38 square miles of the Swift River Valley to construct the Quabbin Reservoir, the lynchpin of the world’s largest domestic water supply system in the early 20th century, established it as a place of dramatic reinvention, for better or worse. Quabbin Reservoir is an example of change through erasure. Quabbin Fishery also claims the spirit of reinvention, but it proposes change through subtle realignments and intensification. To transform the isolated monocultures of Massachusetts’ disparate fish culture, Quabbin Fishery leverages potent and peculiar polycultures—aqueducts and raceways; ice-cold tailwater and nutrient-rich wastewater; anglers fly-fishing and heron fish-poaching; weekly harvests and weekend warriors; crops and camps. Massachusetts is in the midst of large-scale ecological and economic shifts in its food production systems, and more change is sure to come. Stagnation in the yields of wildcatch fisheries and rising demand for farmed fish, unparalleled growth of the organic food economy and increasing consumer desire for sustainably harvested fish, and uncertainty and variability in freshwater supply due to the effects of climate change are current and future challenges of aquaculture. In the celebrated book Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food, Paul Greenberg concludes his survey of rapid change in the wild-catch and farmed fish industries by promoting a resilient domestication strategy that “starts from a place of polyculture, where wastes are recycled....space is maximized for the growing of food, and where systems instead of individual species are mastered.”2 This call for alternative models of food production is echoed in public
discourse by other popular authors, activists, and farmers. Michael Pollan, Alice Waters, and Will Allen champion strategies that include perennial polyculture, edible schoolyards, and urban agriculture. These visionaries have been instrumental in increasing public literacy on sustainable food and instigating a groundswell of interest in agri-tourism, local food, and community-supported agriculture.3 The table is now set for designers to face sea change in the fish production industry and creatively connect citizens to aquaculture and angling through the design of landscape architecture. Productive tailwater fisheries are metabolic; they grow, digest, and flow in a way that reveals and enriches the curious cultural practices around the labor and sport of harvesting fish. Quabbin Fishery is just one iteration of the vegetative, topographic, and hydrologic strategies that constitute a productive tailwater fishery. These strategies are flexible. Productive tailwater fisheries can adapt to different fluvial conditions and ecological adjacencies and can expand and contract in response to volatile market fluctuations. A scalable network of productive tailwater fisheries is a strategy of resiliency and efficiency that draws upon some of the region’s greatest assets: its freshwater reservoirs. Productive tailwater fisheries demand more from the radical practice of damming rivers to hold back water—they put that water to work.
The table is now set for designers to face sea change in the fish production industry and creatively connect citizens to aquaculture and angling through the design of landscape architecture.
Toward a Network of Productive Tailwater Fisheries (next page) An expansive network of productive tailwater fisheries across central Massachusetts recalls the regional aquaculture landscape systems of Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic and the Pearl River Delta in China. Productive tailwater fisheries can align historical aquaculture practices with new habitats, extend existing and emerging practices of agriculture, and amplify a robust culture of tailwater angling.
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Endnotes Reinventing a Disparate Fish Culture
Sustainable Seabass. Web. 28 Nov 2014.
Ecological Aquaculture
1. “Quabbin Reservoir.” Energy and Environmental Affairs. Web. 28 Nov 2014.
10. Walsh, Bryan. “The End of the Line.” Time. 18 Jul. 2011: 28.; and Pierce, Charles. “The Next Big Fish.” The Boston Globe Magazine. 26 Nov 2013.
1. World Bank. Fish To 2030: Prospects for Fisheries and Aquaculture. World Bank Report Number 83177-GLB. Dec 2013. 39.
11. Max, Arthur. “High-rise Tank Is New Solution in Farming Fish.” CNS News. Associated Press, 1 Sept. 2011. Web. 28 Nov 2014.; Handwerk, Brian. “Giant Robotic Cages to Roam Seas as Future Fish Farms?” National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 18 Aug. 2009. Web. 28 Nov 2014.
2. Ibid. 1.
2. “MassWildlife Trout Stocking Schedule.” Energy and Environmental Affairs. Web. 28 Nov 2014. 3. Halverson, Anders. An Entirely Synthetic Fish: How Rainbow Trout Beguiled America and Overran the World. New Haven: Yale UP, 2010. 186. 4. Ibid., xvi 5. USDA. 2013 Census of Aquaculture. United States Department of Agriculture, 2014. 6. O’Neill, Brendan. Seafood Watch Seafood Report: Farmed Rainbow Trout. Rep. Monterey Bay Aquarium, 23 Jun 2006. 7. USDA. 2013 Census of Aquaculture. United States Department of Agriculture, 2014. 8. Reynolds, Joe. “Return of the Atlantic Salmon.” Field and Stream. Aug 1988. 78. 9. “Massachusetts Farm | Australis Barramundi.” Massachusetts Farm | Australis Barramundi - The
12. Switzer, Stephen. Ichnographia Rustica: or, the Nobleman, Gentleman, and Gardener’s Recreation. London. 1718. xviii.; Downing, Andrew Jackson. Landscape Gardening. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1921. 99. 13. Liddiard, Robert. The Medieval Park: New Perspectives. Macclesfield: Windgather, 2007. 1. 14. Waldheim, Charles. “Notes Toward a History of Agrarian Urbanism.” Places Journal, Nov 2010. 15. Saunders, William S., and Kongjian Yu. “The Big Foot Revolution.” Designed Ecologies: The Landscape Architecture of Kongjian Yu. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2012. 48.
3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Global Agriculture Toward 2050. Oct 2009. 4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 34. 5. Abend, Lisa. “Sustainable Aquaculture: Net Profits.” Time. 15 Jun 2009. 6. Medialdea, Miguel. “A New Approach to Sustainable Aquaculture.” Solutions Journal. Jun 2010. 7. United Nations Environment Programme. Ecosystem approach to aquaculture management and biodiversity conservation in a Mediterranean costal wetland. 24 May 2012. 11-12. 8. Kinsey, Darin. “Seeding the Water as the Earth:
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The Epicenter and Peripheries of a Western Aquaculture Revolution.” Environmental History, Vol. 11, No. 3. Jul 2006. 535-536.
Blackwell Science, 2002. xiv.
com.” Time. Time Inc. Web. 28 Nov 2014.
Tailwater Landscapes
3. USDA. 2013 Census of Aquaculture. United States Department of Agriculture, 2014.
9. Ibid. 536.
1. Dorsey, Pat. Fly Fishing Tailwaters: Tactics and Patterns for Year-round Waters. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2009. 6.
4. Ibid.
2. Ibid. 6.
5. USFWS. 2011 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation: Massachusetts. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 8.
10. Fry, W.H. A Complete Treatise on Artificial FishBreeding. New York, NY: Appleton & Co., 1854. 100. 11. Halverson, Anders. An Entirely Synthetic Fish: How Rainbow Trout Beguiled America and Overran the World. New Haven: Yale UP, 2010. 11. 12. Nash, Colin E. The History of Aquaculture. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. 57.
3. Ibid. 14. 4. Colorado Division of Wildlife. Upper Arkansas River Watershed Restoration Plan and Environmental Assessment. App. A. Apr 2010.
13. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Fishing for a Living: Ecology and Economics of Fishponds in Central Europe. Cambridge, UK: ICUN, 1997.10-15.
5. Gunn, Terry and Wendy Gunn. 50 Best Tailwaters to Fly Fish. Blooming, IN: Stonefly Press. 2013. 71.
14. Adamek, Zdenek and Jan Kouril. “A Long Aquaculture Tradition in the Czech Republic.” Aquaculture Europe. Vol 25, No. 1, 2000. 20-23.
7. Ibid. 209.
15. Lhotsky, Richard. “The Role of Historical Fishpond Systems During Recent Flood Events.” Journal of Water and Land Development. No. 14, 2012. 53.
9. Ibid. 131.
16. Ruddle, Kenneth and Gongfu Zhong. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture in South China: The dikepond system of the Zhujiang Delta. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. 4. 17. Gonfu, Zhong. “The Mulberry Dike-Fish Pond Complex: A Chinese Ecosystem of Land-Water Interaction in the Pearl River Delta.” Human Ecology. Col. 10, No. 2. Jun 1982. 197. 18. Costa-Pierce, Barry A. Ecological Aquaculture: The Evolution of the Blue Revolution. Oxford, UK:
6. Ibid. 207.
8. Ibid. 207
10. Nabreski, Andy. “Road Trip: Swift River Belchertown, MA.” On The Water. Web. 28 Nov 2014.; Blair, Marla. “Fishing the Swift River.” Fishing the Swift River. Web. 28 Nov 2014. Scaling Aquaponics 1. Tortorello, Michael. “The Spotless Garden.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 17 Feb 2010. Web. 28 Nov 2014. 2. Roberts, Genevieve. “Fish Farms, With a Side of Greens.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 27 Sep 2010. Web. 28 Nov 2014.; “Aquaponics: Using Fish Poop to Grow Vegetables - Video - TIME.
6. USDA. 2012 Census of Agriculture. United States Department of Agriculture. 7. Freeman, Stan. “Greenhouses Help Western Mass. Farmers Sell Crops Even in Winter.” Masslive. com. 20 Feb. 2010. Web. 29 Nov 2014. 8. “Massachusetts Grown...and Fresher!” Agritourism Farms. Web. 29 Nov 2014. 9. Evans, Barry. An Evaluation of Potential Nitrogen Load Reductions to Long Island Sound from the Connecticut River Basin. Penn State Institutes of Energy and the Environment. Mar 2008. 10. Williams, John, manager of the Bitzer State Hatchery. Personal Communication. 8 Jul 2014. Quabbin Fishery 1. Ishkanian, Ellen. “Unlocking a Secret Network.” BostonGlobe.com. 14 Jul 2013. Web. 29 Nov 2014. 2. Greenberg, Paul. Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food. New York: Penguin, 2010. 255. 3. Pollan, Michael. “Farmer in Chief.” New York Times Magazine. 12 Oct 2013. Web. 29 Nov 2014; “Our History.” The Edible Schoolyard Project. Web. 29 Nov 2014; “MacArthur Fellows Program.” Will Allen, Urban Farmer. 27 Jan 2008. Web. 29 Nov 2014.
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Image Credits All images and words copyright © 2014 Michael Ezban except the following:
www.turenscape.com/english/projects/project. php?id=324
Page 04: https://www.flickr.com/photosdnrfishing /3619122325/
Page 26: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Veta la Palma 36°57’45.66”N, 06°13’37.80”W, eye alt 3,000 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014]
Page 06: https://fishkennedybrothers.wordpressco m/category/sacramento-river-report/ Page 10: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Winsor Dam 42°17’01.37”N, 72°20’22.15”W, eye alt 6,000 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014]. Page 14: http://www.columbian.com/news/2014/ jun/05/hatchery-salmon-limit-faces-vote/; http:// glennairalaska.com/services/fishStocking.htm
Page 30: Munch, Paul-Bernard. Saint-Louis, Huningue. Paris: Alan Sutton, 2009. 104 Page 31: The Huningue Fish Hatcheries. The Illustrated London News. 20 Feb 1863. 196
07/09/tight-lines-in-the-tailwater/ Page 48: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Arkansas River 38°15’59.35”N, 104°42’42.80”W, eye alt 4,500 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014] Page 50: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Potomac River 39°26’02.11”N, 79°07’06.51”W, eye alt 4,500 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014] Page 52: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Missouri River 47°01’36.47”N, 112°00’28.25”W, eye alt 4,500 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014]
Page 33: Ibid. 194. Page 34: Pachmann, J.J.W. Mapa rybnicni soustavy trebonskeho panstvi z r.1779.
Page 55: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Winsor Dam 42°17’01.37”N, 72°20’22.15”W, eye alt 6,000 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014]
Page 38: http://insideflows.org/project/mulberryfish-pond-model/
Page 56: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/4196 2792
Page 39: Google Earth Pro 7.1.2.2041. 2013. Pearl River Delta 22°54’49.30”N, 113°31’13.79”E, eye alt 6,000 ft. [Accessed July 20 2014]
Page 58: http://en.wikipedia.org/Growing_Power
Page 16: http://jasonhouston.photoshelter.com/ Page 17: http://www.theglobalmail.org/feature/ fish-for-the-future-the-barramundi-swims-to-therescue/417/ Page 19: Downing, Andrew Jackson. Landscape Gardening. New York: John Wiley & Sons,1921. 99; Mitchell, Anthony.“The Park and Garden at Dyrham.” The National Trust Yearbook. Northamptonshire: The George Press,1977. 12.; https://www.flickr. com/photos/vinzcha/2811367277/;http://
Page 41: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18x yR8KWrgE Page 44: http://dongasaway.wordpress.com/2013/
Page 98: http://www.californiaflyshop.com/royalcoachman-trout-fly/ Page 102: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-amw4u2ZZU c8/T9D6uUTalMI/AAAAAAAAB-w/orE33KdktBc/ s1600/P6040737.JPG
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About the Author Michael Ezban, RA, is a landscape designer, registered architect, and educator. Michael is the 2014 Maeder-York Family Fellow in Landscape Studies at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, Massachusetts. His writing and speculative landscape works explore synergy between food systems and waste landscapes and have been published in various journals and books including Places, Landscape Architecture Frontiers, The History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, Scenarios Journal, Projective Ecologies, and the forthcoming Third Coast Atlas. Michael’s work has also been featured in national and international exhibitions, including the 2014 Rotterdam International Architecture Biennale. Michael holds a Master in Landscape Architecture with distinction from Harvard University, where he received the 2013 Charles Eliot Traveling Fellowship, the department of Landscape Architecture’s highest honor. He also holds a Master of Architecture with distinction from the University of Michigan, and a BS in Architecture from the University of Virginia. Michael is a founder and principal at Vandergoot Ezban Studio, a research and design practice that engages landscape architecture, building design, and urbanism. He is currently a Visiting Assistant Professor in Landscape Architecture at Virginia Tech, and he has also taught design at the University of Maryland, University of Michigan, and the Corcoran College of Art + Design. www.vandergootezbanstudio.com
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