Geospatial Analysis of Water Treatment Plant Vulnerability to Storm Surge-Induced Flooding and Proposed Adaptive Strategies in Port-au-Prince,

Haiti Violet

Massie-Vereker

Abstract

Climate change adaptation grows increasingly challenging for low-income, low-elevation island states in the Caribbean, with damages amounting to tens of billions of USD per natural disaster. Climate change-induced flooding specifically will become more severe as sea surface temperatures rise, increasing the intensity and frequency of tropical storms and the amount of rainfall. Port-au-Prince, Haiti, faces the brunt of these challenges, with high vulnerability due to political instability, population density, and economic fragility. Vulnerability nodes were identified throughout the city to target adaptation responses based on which storm surge damages would impact the city the most. Water treatment plants were chosen as the infrastructure to focus on, as they are units that cities require daily to service their needs. By combining coastal dynamic and geomorphological data with sociodemographic data, the southwestern region of the town emerged as the zone with the most significant storm surge flooding risk. After selecting a treatment plant, a decision tree was developed to determine which floodproofing methods would protect the facility’s machinery most effectively. Four methods were selected and classified for implementation in the plant. However, further research is required to determine their cost-effectiveness and funding eligibility. There is a tremendous opportunity for developing vulnerability node adaptation in infrastructure protection, especially in areas of low development with the potential for transformational adaptation.

Background

01 Climate change in the Caribbean

Regarding annual average natural disasters, the Caribbean is among the most vulnerable regions globally, second only to Asia.1 This vulnerability is due to the region’s location in an ocean corridor of cyclogenesis between western Africa and eastern Mexico, where tropical storms form.2 Moreover, global warming has led to higher sea surface temperatures and, thus, more frequent hurricanes. The correlation coefficient between sea surface temperatures and a rise in hurricane frequency for Category 5 hurricanes was 0.82 in 2018.3 Climatological changes have also caused 24-hour wind intensity in tropical storms to increase by 3.8 knots per decade.4

The compound effects of sea level rise (SLR) and these tropical cyclone changes add to wave heights and storm surge volumes. They will cause 1 in 100-year floods every 1 to 30 years in the late 21st century Caribbean under the worst-case scenario of climate forcing.5 Flooding was selected as the critical stressor for this study as it is the most common natural hazard facing the Caribbean. It causes more damage than any other severe, weather-related event.6,7

02 Socioeconomic vulnerability to climate change in the Caribbean

Urban areas were chosen for the study’s focus because 80% of all reported disasters in Latin America affect urban areas.8 Furthermore, 80% of the Caribbean population will live in cities by 2050.9 Caribbean cities also experience inadequate enforcement of development standards, deficits in governance and infrastructure, poverty, high reliance on tourism, and unregulated urbanization, all contributing to flooding vulnerability.10 A spatial clustering study identified hotspots of coastal risk, determining that 500,000 individuals in Latin America and the Caribbean live where coastal hazards, exposure, and poverty converge.11 Additionally, the Caribbean region is the most tourism dependent in the world, and 95% of all tourism infrastructure lies within 10km of the coastline, which could cripple the economy.12

Balaguru, Karthik, Gregory R. Foltz, and L. Ruby Leung. 2018. “Increasing Magnitude of Hurricane Rapid Intensification in the Central and Eastern Tropical Atlantic.” Geophysical Research Letters 45 (9): 4238–47. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl077597.

2 Shultz, James M., James P. Kossin, J. Marshall Shepherd, Justine M. Ransdell, Rory Walshe, Ilan Kelman, and Sandro Galea. 2018. “Risks, Health Consequences, and Response Challenges for Small-IslandBased Populations: Observations from the 2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 13 (1): 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2018.28

3 Hosseini, S. R., M. Scaioni, and M. Marani. 2018. “ON the INFLUENCE of GLOBAL WARMING on ATLANTIC HURRICANE FREQUENCY.” ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3 (April): 527–32. https://doi. org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-3-527-2018

4 Balaguru, Karthik, Gregory R. Foltz, and L. Ruby Leung. 2018. “Increasing Magnitude of Hurricane Rapid Intensification in the Central and Eastern Tropical Atlantic.” Geophysical Research Letters 45 (9): 4238–47. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl077597

5 Marsooli, Reza, Ning Lin, Kerry Emanuel, and Kairui Feng. 2019. “Climate Change Exacerbates Hurricane Flood Hazards along US Atlantic and Gulf Coasts in Spatially Varying Patterns.” Nature Communications 10 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11755-z.

6 Udika, Rudo. 2010. “Flood Management: An Examination of Mitigation Measures for Flooding in Urban Areas in Trinidad.” Isocarp.net. https:// www.isocarp.net/data/case_studies/1758.pdf

7 Chawaga, Peter. 2017. “How to Protect Your Water Supply against Flooding.”www.wateronline.com.November 10, 2017.https://www. wateronline.com/doc/how-to-protect-your-water-supply-againstflooding-0001.

8 Bloch, Robin, Nikolaos Papachristodoulou, Rawlings Miller, Jose Monroy, Tiguist Fisseha, Lorena Trejos, Melanie S. Kappes, and Beatriz Pozueta. 2014. “Lessons from Urban Risk Assessments in Latin American and Caribbean Cities.” Development in Practice 24 (4): 502–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2014.907773

9 Wilkinson, Emily, Michel Frojmovic, Garfield Young, Paul Sayers, Mairi Dupar, Margaux Granat, Carol Archer, et al. 2022. “The Caribbean: A Region of Excellence for Urban Climate Resilience Lifelong Learning for Urban Planners.” https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/ODI_Policy_ brief_Caribbean_urban_climate_resilience.pdf

10 Udika, Rudo. 2010. “Flood Management: An Examination of Mitigation Measures for Flooding in Urban Areas in Trinidad.” Isocarp. net. https://www.isocarp.net/data/case_studies/1758.pdf

11 Calil, Juliano, Borja G. Reguero, Ana R. Zamora, Iñigo J. Losada, and Fernando J. Méndez. 2017. “Comparative Coastal Risk Index (CCRI): A Multidisciplinary Risk Index for Latin America and the Caribbean.” Edited by Juan A. Añel. PLOS ONE 12 (11): e0187011. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187011

12 Udika, Rudo. 2010. “Flood Management: An Examination of Mitigation Measures for Flooding in Urban Areas in Trinidad.” Isocarp. net. https://www.isocarp.net/data/case_studies/1758.pdf

03 Threats to public infrastructure

A determining factor in a city’s vulnerability to coastal flooding is infrastructure. Without adequate infrastructural development, flooding interrupts vital urban processes such as transportation, power generation, water treatment, sanitation, agriculture, education, and trade, decreasing the quality of life. Latin American governments invested a mere 3% in infrastructure in 2018 due to the high debt burden, indicating regionwide vulnerability.13 However, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) nations would lose five times less to climate catastrophes if the relevant infrastructure was retrofitted.14

This study will focus on water treatment plants for several reasons. In 2014, 32 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean lacked improved water sources.15 Improved water sources means a “sufficient amount of water (20 L/person/day), at an affordable price (less than 10 % of total household income), available without being subject to extreme effort (less than one hour a day of walking time)”.16 SLR will disproportionately affect the water storage capacities of low-lying coastal zones, where the size of the land mass partly controls aquifer size.17 Water systems also need to be close to water sources, meaning that infrastructure components are often placed in floodplains and, thus, highly exposed to flood hazards. Moreover, Caribbean countries have seen a rise in water stress in recent decades due to warming in average temperatures and decreased rainfall periods, which lengthens the dry season and increases the frequency of drought conditions.18

Disabled water treatment allows for cross-contamination with wastewater, exposing the serviced population to waterborne infectious diseases such as pneumonia, cholera, leptospirosis, dysentery, E. coli, and typhoid, as well as chemicals and pollutants from hazardous waste sites.19,20 Unsafe water impacts children the most, as damage from childhood diseases and malnutrition can be irreversible. Anemia, for example, can inhibit cognitive development, and infectious diseases left untreated and proliferating in slums can raise child mortality rates.21

13 Watkins, Graham George. 2014. “Approaches to the Assessment and Implementation of Sustainable Infrastructure Projects in Latin American and the Caribbean.” Iadb.org. 2014. https://publications.iadb. org/en/approaches-assessment-and-implementation-sustainable-infrastructure-projects-latin-american-and

14 Mycoo, Michelle, and Michael G. Donovan. 2017. “A Blue Urban Agenda: Adapting to Climate Change in the Coastal Cities of Caribbean and Pacific Small Island Developing States,” May. https:// doi.org/10.18235/0000690

15 Watkins, Graham George. 2014. “Approaches to the Assessment and Implementation of Sustainable Infrastructure Projects in Latin American and the Caribbean.” Iadb.org. 2014. https://publications.iadb. org/en/approaches-assessment-and-implementation-sustainable-infrastructure-projects-latin-american-and

16 Jaitman, Laura. 2015. “Urban Infrastructure in Latin America and the Caribbean: Public Policy Priorities.” Latin American Economic Review 24 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40503-015-0027-5

17 Cashman, Adrian, Leonard Nurse, and Charlery John. 2009. “Climate Change in the Caribbean: The Water Management Implications.” The Journal of Environment & Development 19 (1): 42–67. https://doi. org/10.1177/1070496509347088

18 Ibid

19 Shultz, https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2018.28

20 Jaitman, Laura. 2015. “Urban Infrastructure in Latin America and the Caribbean: Public Policy Priorities.” Latin American Economic Review 24 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40503-015-0027-5

21 Ibid

04 The case of Port-au-Prince, Haiti

Port-au-Prince, Haiti, was systematically chosen as the case study city because Port-au-Prince has the third largest urban population in the Caribbean, with 1,234,742 residents. The city represents 90% of the nation’s investments and formal jobs.22 Haiti is also a UNESCO World Heritage Small Island Developing State (SIDS), a designation characterized by unstable economies, limited natural resources, growing populations, and risk for climate disaster, with 1 out of 5 residents living in low-elevation coastal zones (LECZs) less than 10 meters above sea level.23,24 Additionally, Haiti has the lowest GDP per capita in the region, at $1,821 USD.25

In 2004 and 2008 alone, 4,000 Haitians died, and 20,000 were left homeless after hurricanes, tropical storms, and flooding.26

The bathymetry around Hispaniola Island varies but is exceptionally shallow in the Port-au-Prince Bay in Haiti, hovering between

22 Forsman, Åsa. 2010. “A Situational Analysis of Metropolitan Port-AuPrince, Haiti.” Unhabitat.org. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2022/10/3021_alt.pdf.

23 UNESCO. 2023. “Small Island Developing States UNESCO.” www. unesco.org. 2023. https://www.unesco.org/en/sids.

24 Mycoo, Michelle, and Michael G. Donovan. 2017. “A Blue Urban Agenda: Adapting to Climate Change in the Coastal Cities of Caribbean and Pacific Small Island Developing States,” May. https:// doi.org/10.18235/0000690

25 countryeconomy.com. 2023. “CARICOM - Caribbean Community 2023 | Countryeconomy.com.” Countryeconomy.com. Summer 3, 2023. https://www.countryeconomy.com/countries/groups/ caribbean-community

26 Forsman, Åsa. 2010. “A Situational Analysis of Metropolitan Port-AuPrince, Haiti.” Unhabitat.org. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2022/10/3021_alt.pdf.

27 GEBCO. 2022. “GEBCO Data Download.” Download.gebco.net. 2022. https://download.gebco.net/

28 Jaitman, Laura. 2015. “Urban Infrastructure in Latin America and the Caribbean: Public Policy Priorities.” Latin American Economic Review 24 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40503-015-0027-5

29 Ibid

30 World Bank. 2018. “Looking beyond Government-Led Delivery of Water Supply and Sanitation Services: The Market Choices and Practices of Haiti’s Most Vulnerable People.” World Bank. WASH Poverty Diagnostic. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ en/764651513150057693/pdf/122047-REVISED.pdf

31 Bignami, Daniele Fabrizio, Renzo Rosso, and Umberto Sanfilippo. 2019. “Flood Proofing Methods.” Flood Proofing in Urban Areas, 69–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05934-7_7

0 and -200 meters, causing higher wave heights and storm surges.27 As such, Haiti’s climatic vulnerability rendered it a fitting hotspot for the study.

The capital city has faced rapid urbanization straining the resource management and provision of services, especially in informal slum settlements. Slum housing renders hundreds of communities impoverished, as tenure is a precursor to public investment; government agencies extend services such as water, drainage, and sewage networks to residents with regularized living situations.28 This rise in population needs to be addressed adequately by water utilities. In 2001, Haiti’s water services coverage in housing was 14.9% for the poorest 20% of the population and 23.2% for the population’s mean.29

Relative to the Caribbean community, Haiti had the lowest water access in 2006 of any nation despite not being the most water scarce island. The statewide failure of the water distribution network, particularly following the 2010 earthquake and a waterborne cholera epidemic, led to the demand for private water services. 30 While the privatization of water supplies expanded access, it rendered the water network more vulnerable to economic shocks and, thus, the population more vulnerable to economic instability.

05 Floodproofing vulnerability nodes

A solution that achieves the same goal of defense without externalities includes infrastructural alterations to floodproof individual assets. The Federal Emergency Management Agency defines floodproofing as “any combination of structural and non-structural additions, changes, or adjustments to structures which reduce or eliminate flood damage to real estate or improved real property, water and sanitary facilities, structures, and their contents.”31

The focus is to prevent exposure to flooding or make a building resistant to flood damage.

The paper focuses on assessing and identifying nodes or hotspots of vulnerability. A flood that threatens a hotspot that serves a broader region will have a high floodproofing priority because of the potential impact of its inundation. Hotspot buildings are essential nodes in critical infrastructure upon which urban areas depend for their functioning. Physical alterations to water treatment facilities were chosen as the adaptive measure to minimize the impact of flooding from storm surges and reduce the time the damage prohibits operational capacity. The objective is to evaluate a hotspot at a sufficient resolution that the facility at risk can use the data for local-scale analysis.

Results

01 Geospatial analysis

The geomorphological analysis required a buildup of analysis. To assess vulnerability, areas of low bathymetry, high wave height, and storm surge inundation under the worst-case scenario of a Category 5 hurricane were the coastal dynamic threats. A bathymetric analysis showed that Port-auPrince Bay fell in the 0 to -200m bathymetric range or a shallow range. After narrowing to the Bay, the wave height, storm surge, and elevation raster files were overlaid. This overlay highlighted the risk in the commune boundaries of Port-au-Prince. The sociodemographic data were then incorporated, narrowing the search for a relevant water treatment facility to more population-dense areas. This population density is visible in Figure 1, where the SDE shapefile and the raster overlay are visualized.

Finally, a water treatment facility was selected within the commune’s southwestern population-dense regions. The research identified the SOTRESA water facility, which met the criteria of being a vulnerability node: located next to a vital road connection of Boulevard Jean Jacques Dessalines, having an uneven vertical load due to the change in elevation, including vital functions on the ground level.32 The site was also selected for its proximity to dense housing, schools, businesses, and houses of worship and for sharing a lot with a hospital.33

02 SOTRESA water treatment plant

The plant is a private water supplier that delivers water to the city through direct orders, shops, wholesalers, and street sellers. The company delivers water daily to over 1 million people in the commune and employs 800 workers full-time and 15,000 indirectly, with over 100 trucks servicing 80% of the city (SOTRESA).

Although no floor plans or similar documents are accessible to analyze the technical schematics of the SOTRESA plant structures, approximations were made based on published visual materials. The company contracts ITT Water Equipment Technologies for their machinery, a leading international water purification equipment manufacturer.38 Based on available images of the equipment and comparing the images with listed ITT products, it was possible to use a decision analysis process to determine how to adapt these structures to flood risk.39

32 SOTRESA. 2013. “SOTRESA.” www.sotresa.com. 2013. https://www. sotresa.com

33 Ibid

38 Ibid

39 Schipper, Matthieu A.

2 (1): 70–84. https://doi. org/10.1038/s43017-020-00109-9

34 NOAA. 2022. “Historical Hurricane Tracks.” www.coast. noaa.gov. August 24, 2022. https://www.coast.noaa.gov/ hurricanes/#map=4/32/-80

35 HaitiData. 2021. “CNIGS Spatial Data Haiti Wave Height Zones Zones Hauteur Des Vagues 05/2010.” GeoNode. August 14, 2021. https://www. haitidata.org/layers/cnigsspatialdata_haiti_wave_height_zones_zones_ hauteur_des_vagues_05_2010:geonode:cnigsspatialdata_haiti_wave_ height_zones_zones_hauteur_des_vagues_05_2010

36 OpenTopography. 2010. “OpenTopography - Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM GL1) Global 30m.” Portal.opentopography.org. 2010. https://portal.opentopography.org/ raster?opentopoID=OTSRTM.082015.4326.1

37 Princeton University Library. 2003. “Population at the SDE (Section d’Énumération) Level Port Au-Prince Haiti 2003 - Digital Maps and Geospatial Data | Princeton University.” Maps.princeton. edu. January 1, 2003. https://maps.princeton.edu/catalog/ tufts-haitipopulationsde2003

41 SOTRESA. 2013. “SOTRESA.” www.sotresa.com. 2013. https://www. sotresa.com.

42 SOTRESA. 2014. “SOTRESA.” www.youtube.com. April 24, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2ASYRwaywE

43 Permabond. 2015. UL® Classification of Pipe Sealants (Thread Sealants). Permabond. https://www.permabond.com/wp-content/ uploads/2016/01/LH050.jpg

Plastic packaging pumps face the most significant threat in the form of corrosion due to prolonged exposure to water. This primary component at risk is the packaging mechanism itself a), at risk of extended exposure to moisture from ground floor flooding. The adaptation tool for this technology would be dry floodproofing, an anaerobic thread sealant c) to protect critical hinges and joints from corrosion.

44 SOTRESA. 2014. “SOTRESA.” www.youtube.com. April 24, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2ASYRwaywE

45 Agrico Plastics. 2023. “1050 US Gallons Close-Top Cone Bottom Tank. - Stand and 2” Outlet INCLUDED.” Agrico Plastics. March 28, 2023. https://agricoplastiques.com/ en/1050-gallons-cone-bottom-tank-closed-top-cbn40359

The following structure is the treated water storage tank. The primary threat visible in the available images a) concerns the legs of the structure, which fit into joints at the base of the tanks and are small in diameter, lacking sufficient bracings. These features could cause collapse under un-equalized water pressure or extreme surge flooding. The solution, in this case, would be wet floodproofing in the form of a polyethylene tank stand b), preventing the base from corrosion and providing adequate bracing against uneven impact.

46 Bukhary, Saria, Jacimaria Batista, and Sajjad Ahmad. 2020. “Design Aspects, Energy Consumption Evaluation, and Offset for Drinking Water Treatment Operation.” Water 12 (6): 1772. https://doi. org/10.3390/w12061772

47 SOTRESA. 2013. “SOTRESA.” www.sotresa.com. 2013. https://www. sotresa.com

48 Generac. 2022. “1000kW Diesel Generator.” Generac Industrial Power. 2022. https://www.generac.com/Industrial/products/ diesel-generators/configured/1000kw-diesel-generator

49 Yang, Jianxiang. 2014. “Goldwind Powers Desalination Plant with Onsite Turbine.” www.windpowermonthly.com. May 21, 2014. https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1295273/ goldwind-powers-desalination-plant-onsite-turbine

50 Ebrahimi-Nik, Mohammadali, Ava Heidari, Shamim Ramezani Azghandi, Fatemeh Asadi Mohammadi, and Habibollah Younesi. 2018. “Drinking Water Treatment Sludge as an Effective Additive for Biogas Production from Food Waste; Kinetic Evaluation and Biomethane Potential Test.” Bioresource Technology 260 (July): 421–26. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.biortech.2018.03.112

51 Solartron Energy. 2016. “Water Treatment | Reverse Osmosis System.” Solartron. 2016. https://www.solartronenergy.com/water-treatment/

52 FuturENVIRO. 2019. “Acciona Officially Opens the Saint John Drinking Water Treatment Plant in Canada | FuturENVIRO - Revista Técnica de Medio Ambiente.” FuturENVIRO. June 21, 2019. https:// futurenviro.es/en/acciona-officially-opens-the-saint-john-drinkingwater-treatment-plant-in-canada/

53 Casini, M. 2015. “Harvesting Energy from In-Pipe Hydro Systems at Urban and Building Scale.” International Journal of Smart Grid and Clean Energy. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Harvestingenergy-from-in-pipe-hydro-systems-at-and-Casini/5e604c633070f2 0366b868a7c8beeb835564dc43

54 Guzmán-Avalos, Pablo, Daniel Molinero-Hernández, Sergio GalvánGonzález, Nicolás Herrera-Sandoval, Gildardo Solorio-Díaz, and Carlos Rubio-Maya. 2023. “Numerical Design and Optimization of a Hydraulic Micro-Turbine Adapted to a Wastewater Treatment Plant.” Alexandria Engineering Journal 62 (January): 555–65. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.aej.2022.07.004

55 Wibowo, Arsanto Ishadi, and Keh-Chin Chang. 2020. “Solar EnergyBased Water Treatment System Applicable to the Remote Areas: Case of Indonesia.” Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 10 (2): 347–56. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2020.003

56 Bukhary, Saria, Jacimaria Batista, and Sajjad Ahmad. 2020. “Design Aspects, Energy Consumption Evaluation, and Offset for Drinking Water Treatment Operation.” Water 12 (6): 1772. https://doi. org/10.3390/w12061772

57 USGS. 2021. “How Many Homes Can an Average Wind Turbine Power? U.S. Geological Survey.” Www.usgs.gov. 2021. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/ how-many-homes-can-average-wind-turbine-power#:~:text=At%20 a%2042%25%20capacity%20factor

58 SOTRESA. 2013. “SOTRESA.” www.sotresa.com. 2013. https://www. sotresa.com

59 SOTRESA. 2014. “SOTRESA.” www.youtube.com. April 24, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2ASYRwaywE

The third piece of equipment is the polymer coagulation sediment filter and pump. The primary concern is losing power for this energy-intensive machine during flooding. As such, the most apt solution would be a backup power source. In estimating energy consumption, coagulant addition using a metering pump took 85.8 kWh day-1, polymer addition with a jet diffuser pump a) used 202.8 kWh day-1, and flash mixing with a static mixer b) took 275.2 kWh day-1, amounting to 664 kWh day-1.46 As pictured in Figure 5, a Diesel generator c) and on-site wind turbine d) could cover the power requirements, producing 1040 kWh day-1 and 6393 kWh day-1, respectively. A combination of the following sources could act as power adaptation in addition: in-line microturbine e) providing 213 kWh day-1, a solar panel f) providing 353 kWh day-1 or a biogas lean-burn engine g) yielding 491 kWh day-1.

The final adaptation solution focused on the pressurized filtration and centrifugal pump involved in the pre-treatment water purification. Because this mechanism involves multiple complex components close to the flood line, including micro-filtration tubes, a control panel, and a centrifugal pump, constructing a barrier is the best solution. A cost-effective, easily sourced, and waterproof material for a barrier would be concrete, supported by a footing platform, and backed by a waterproof membrane. At the floodwall’s base on the equipment’s side would be weeping stone drainage and a drain in the event of water penetration.

Discussion

01 Implications for climate change adaptation in the results

Although complete schematics are only possible to produce with specific measurements, the results of the adaptation decision tree provide a strong approximation of what it would take to floodproof the SOTRESA water treatment plant. Floodproofing a single water treatment facility may seem futile in the face of devastating storm surge flooding. However, the SOTRESA plant is a high-impact vulnerability node, serving packaged water daily to nearly the entire population of the Port-au-Prince commune.

A lack of mobilization around water infrastructure adaptation can lead to even further vulnerability. The financial losses regarding the impacts of infrastructure damages are estimated at $2,000,000 annually, meaning $460,000 is attributable to infrastructure.60 Moreover, if the plant were to shut down during a crisis, an already strained population would face further financial burden with the loss of wages or employment for almost 16,000 individuals indirectly.

Although the effects of floodproofing the SOTRESA plant would be monumental, local action is only limited to action at other levels that target underlying vulnerabilities. Climate change education campaigns must build on experiential knowledge, targeting engineering and planning professionals and engaging coastal communities through participatory mapping and 3D modeling to verify vulnerability analyses.61 Further water infrastructure adaptation could occur through regional development plans, addressing climate change impacts in employer-client mandates, instating regulations concerning rainwater harvesting, and mandating gray water recycling for tourism resorts.62

Limitations

There are several major limitations to this study, including the lack of cost assessment for the adaptation techniques, risk monitoring, and site-specific schematics. A formal way to structure the vulnerability node assessment and assessment of equipment vulnerable to flood inundation would have been a damage loss and needs assessment. This would have yielded cost-based quantitative results regarding the cost of damages in the case of inaction and the potential for savings in the case of adaptation application. The results could have been verified with a cost effectiveness analysis of the selected adaptation solutions, incorporating budget restrictions based on the probability of funding. This strategy could identify potential bundling of adaptation alterations which could qualify for a collective funding grant. Concerning risk monitoring, incorporating this into the proposed adaptation solutions would extend the longevity of all proposed floodproofing mechanisms. This is because a monitoring system would continuously gather data on flooding stressors in the facility, such that minor alterations could be implemented prior to infrastructural damage or collapse. Finally, site specific schematics would have allowed for precise adaptation suggestions, where measured floodproofing techniques could be applied specifically to the dimensions of the SOTRESA plant equipment.

Conclusion

Few regions are more vulnerable to climatic variability than the low-lying islands in the Caribbean. By targeting vulnerability nodes, climate change adaptation is well within reach of Small Island Developing States in the Caribbean. Instead of approaching adaptation through state governance or individual consumption, targeting through a sectoral lens with infrastructure protection allows for major impacts from small adaptive adjustments. In addition to the incremental planning in advance of worst-case scenarios like the high tide Category 5 storm surge used in this study, infrastructure adaptation has much more to accomplish. The CARICOM nations require stronger regional climate policy, and a transformational adaptation incorporating climate risk into all initial building design and spatial planning decisions.

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Agrico Plastics. 2023. “1050 US Gallons Close-Top Cone Bottom Tank. - Stand and 2” Outlet INCLUDED.” Agrico Plastics. March 28, 2023. https://agricoplastiques.com/ en/1050-gallons-cone-bottom-tank-closed-top-cbn40359.

Balaguru, Karthik, Gregory R. Foltz, and L. Ruby Leung. 2018. “Increasing Magnitude of Hurricane Rapid Intensification in the Central and Eastern Tropical Atlantic.” Geophysical Research Letters 45 (9): 4238–47. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018gl077597.

Bignami, Daniele Fabrizio, Renzo Rosso, and Umberto Sanfilippo. 2019. “Flood Proofing Methods.” Flood Proofing in Urban Areas, 69–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05934-7_7.

Bloch, Robin, Nikolaos Papachristodoulou, Rawlings Miller, Jose Monroy, Tiguist Fisseha, Lorena Trejos, Melanie S. Kappes, and Beatriz Pozueta. 2014. “Lessons from Urban Risk Assessments in Latin American and Caribbean Cities.” Development in Practice 24 (4): 502–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/096145 24.2014.907773.

Bukhary, Saria, Jacimaria Batista, and Sajjad Ahmad. 2020. “Design Aspects, Energy Consumption Evaluation, and Offset for Drinking Water Treatment Operation.” Water 12 (6): 1772. https://doi. org/10.3390/w12061772.

Calil, Juliano, Borja G. Reguero, Ana R. Zamora, Iñigo J. Losada, and Fernando J. Méndez. 2017. “Comparative Coastal Risk Index (CCRI): A Multidisciplinary Risk Index for Latin America and the Caribbean.” Edited by Juan A. Añel. PLOS ONE 12 (11): e0187011. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0187011.

Cashman, Adrian, Leonard Nurse, and Charlery John. 2009. “Climate Change in the Caribbean: The Water Management Implications.” The Journal of Environment & Development 19 (1): 42–67. https://doi. org/10.1177/1070496509347088.

Casini, M. 2015. “Harvesting Energy from In-Pipe Hydro Systems at Urban and Building Scale.” International Journal of Smart Grid and Clean Energy. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ Harvesting-energy-from-in-pipe-hydro-systems-at-and-Casini/5e604c633070f20366b868a7c8beeb83 5564dc43.

Chawaga, Peter. 2017. “How to Protect Your Water Supply against Flooding.” Www.wateronline.com. November 10, 2017. https://www.wateronline.com/doc/ how-to-protect-your-water-supply-against-flooding-0001.

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