fountain_72

NOVEMBER DECEMBER 2009

ISSUE 72

CANADA: $ 5.95 • TURKEY: 6. 00 TL • UK: £ 3.50 • USA : $ 5.50

A MAGAZINE OF SCIENTIFIC AND SPIRITUAL THOUGHT

raising new generations is dependent on a precise revision of education. this revision requires educators to free themselves from sticking to working hours, which are limited and insufficient, and to work without pause in the consciousness that they are building new human beings with all their faculties.

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Our World and Its Inherently Exquisite Mystery

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Al-Andalus and Religious Tolerance toward Jews

Mary

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EDITORIAL

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HOME

ome is special for everyone. For many, it is where they were born and raised. For others it is where they earn their living. For yet others it is a combination of both. Many emigrate to other lands in search of prosperity, or at least to attain modest standards of human life. Some of these emigrants would like to leave all that reminds them of their past in oblivion, while others survive with their memories and strive hard to suppress their longing. For Gülen, home means much more than this. The homeland is a mystical country for him, and his sense of belonging does not arise simply from its familiarity, or its being his place of birth: “We are bound to our homeland with a deeper connection and fascination—when we are home, it becomes as warm as our mothers’ embrace; when we are away, we think of it with a longing for the inner riches, the unique tastes and styles, and the magical expanses.” For more on his thoughts on what a homeland stands for, you are welcome to proceed to the lead article of this issue.

The Iberian Peninsula in Europe was such a home for many different nationalities and religions when centuries ago it was Al-Andalus. Quoting from Maria Rosa Menocal, Yukseldi notes that “Al-Andalus (711–1492) was a ‘utopian-like’ society in which Jews and Muslims lived side by side in peace and cooperation in what is now Spain.” There are others who object to this argument, and in this issue Yukseldi presents a panorama of Al-Andalus, discussing the differing views of the tolerant policies Muslims held during their sovereignty.

The atheistic world view nowadays is being propagated by authors like Dawkins and Hitchens. Bayram Yenikaya confronts several of Dawkins’s arguments that he has put forward in his book The God Delusion. Is religion evil?

Can we prove God’s existence and non-existence by scientific methods? Yenikaya’s article “Dawkins’ Delusion” is certainly something that must be read if these are questions that you are interested in.

Efforts devoted to exploring Fethullah Gülen’s thought and vision are gaining pace. The latest example of this is the conference in Cairo: Future of Reform in the Muslim World: Comparative Experiences with Fethullah Gülen’s Movement in Turkey. The Fountain was there to observe the three-day conference, and a report on this event is available in the following pages. For those of our readers who are interested in what is known as the Gülen Movement, this report is worth perusing, with its information on this conference that was a first in the Middle East.

Can you draw parallels between human behavior and cancer? Sebnem Unlu believes there are universally governing principles which apply in the human body as well as in our behavior. Unlu informs us that cancer cells are constantly being created, even in a healthy body, but in a healthy body they are destroyed by specialized immune cells. In a similar way, we have to correct our mistakes and sins as quickly as possible, without allowing them to grow like cancer, to destroy our moral integrity.

www.fountainmagazine.com

NOVEMBER • DECEMBER 2009 ISSUE 72 A MAGAZINE OF SCIENTIFIC AND SPIRITUAL THOUGHT

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Lead Article

Al-Andalus

arts & culture

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Lead Artıcle

Our World and Its Inherently Exquisite Mystery M. Fethullah Gülen

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poem /

The Heart of a Child

Jon Schuck A Moment for ReflectIon /

Qur'an and Epical Deeds

An Epic from the Epoch of

Adapted by Suat Erguvan

13

ART /

34

Culture & SocIety /

54

BOOK REVIEW /

PERSPECTIVES

Dawkins' Delusion Bayram Yenikaya

20

Murat Yukseldi

Musa Saracoglu

Honoring Our Parents

Fatih Harpci

Schooling Islam

Jeannette Okur

scıence

HISTORY

Al-Andalus

Ebru or Water Marbling

30

8 18

BIOLOGY /

Dynamic Programs in Cells

Hamza Aydin

SocIal Reform and Fethullah Gülen: the Cairo PerspectIve

CULTURE & SOCIETY /

Hakan Yesilova

46

MATHEMATICS /

39

physıcs /

43

phılosophy of scıence /

O. Faruk Gulderen

RelIgIon

Mary Ahmet Cetinkaya

Steadiness in the Language of Mathematics

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Nucleation

Cendel Tuna

the Sciences

The Islamic Conceptualization of

Ali Sebetci

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51

See-Thınk-Belıeve /

It’s me Peter, your Skin!

Irfan Yilmaz

HEALTH & MEDICINE

Physiological Prevention of Cancer Sebnem Unlu

Belief

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EMERALD HILLS OF THE HEART /

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Q&A /

M. Fethullah Gülen

Desire To Retreat

Hikmet Isik

Muraqaba

Lead Article

M. Fethullah Gülen

D

espite blurred realities, many fair-minded thinkers still regard our “world” as a center of attraction. Personally, it would not be an exaggeration to say that this “world,” with its four seasons, night and day, climate and habitat, people and rich culture, as well as its material and spiritual atmospheres is worth the entire universe.

No other place is blessed with the same charm of day turning into night, nor does it have a matching mystery. Seasons in other places are not as mild nor is nature as vivid and lenient as it is in this world.

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However, in the most fabulous corners of the earth there are times when daylight is blocked out, when the stars at night are drowned in darkness, and the days are obscured and monotonous. Yet, for those who can perceive and carry on their lives, following the path of the heart and spirit, nothing in our world loses its pleasure, nor do its attractions diminish. On the contrary, the springs in our world always cheer us with new life, the summers gently descend on the horizons of tenderness, autumn glimmer through the routine, reminding us of extinction followed by resurrection, winters elate our feelings of love and longing

The greatest love always blooms in direct relation to the refinement of the soul, as well as to the sensitivity and profundity of perception. Unrefined and insensitive souls may display some inclinations, but they can never truly love. Those with feelings that have been dulled can never be loyal, even if they incessantly speak of love. and inspire our spirits with new birth; thus, we are able to attain what our nature passionately seeks.

With the eye of the heart one can see that the arrivals and departures, the changes and transformations, the diversification and deformation in this land all have meanings that are different from those in other places. Life here exhibits eternal visions that are as expansive as a waterfall; flowing like a river that is fast and deep, racing along a sinuous course to reach its source. As the river bed narrows, it flows even faster and surmounts many seemingly impossible obstacles.

It flows foaming downstream along its own path, as pure as the day it first gushed forth from the source, perhaps even purer. It spreads life along every mile for those who have the capacity, and runs to reunion like a lover separated from the loved one. And with reunion comes eternal serenity. This is the color, texture, and accent of life in our hearts, but it is not possible for those who do not empathize with us to comprehend this; they cannot appreciate the roots that make us who we are, nor can they perceive what we feel or think, or our ideals or objectives.

As a matter of fact, it is a privilege and joy to be born into and raised in this world, to be able to perceive its spirit and meaning which are rooted deep in the past.

However, awareness of this privilege and bliss is only possible when our rich heritage, the spirit and meaning of this world, is duly appreciated and admired, as Majnun loved Layla. Love and yearning are commonly interpreted as ember or wood which easily flare up at the sight of good looks, a fine posture, and presence; this interpretation is correct, but not complete. The greatest love always blooms in direct relation to the refinement of the soul, as well as to the sensitivity and profundity of perception. Unrefined and insensitive souls may display some inclinations, but they can never truly love. Those with feelings that have been dulled can never be loyal, even if they incessantly speak of love. Loving something depends on knowing it well. Beauty may stir temporary interest, but if knowledge about the inner aspects is lacking, then there are no means for an everlasting connec-

tion. Such interest may generate passing fervor, but it cannot transform into a sparkle of love.

Those who do not know God have never been able to love Him; indeed, they cannot. Those who are not informed of the Prophet cannot show him due respect; indeed, they can not. And those who consider our lands to be mere geographical territory cannot be aware of the love for one’s homeland; this is not possible. Any territory is valuable according to the amount of riches found on the surface and underground. Likewise, a country rises upon its unique essence and values that have been inherited from the past; it is only in relation to these values that a country can be enthroned in the heart of the people. It becomes “my land” for those who love it as such, who shiver with the fever of longing.

Every one, no doubt, can feel a strong sense of belonging to the places they were born, from where they breathed and drank water, places with which they are more familiar, even if it were a desert. Yet, our love and desire for “our world” is not related to its being where we were born per se. We are bound to our homeland with a deeper connection and fascination—when we are home, it becomes as warm as our mothers’ embrace; when we are away, we think of it with a longing for the inner riches, the unique tastes and styles, and the magical expanses. Those with an unfamiliar perspective, who cannot discern its deeper qualities – in other words, those who have not been nourished from the same spring or nursed from the same breast – are unable to grasp the wonder; indeed, they never can.

Regardless of the feelings of others about our "world," this land of wonders offers beauties of all kinds to us; these are unattainable elsewhere, even in the most beautiful corners of the earth. We feel inundated by the affluence we possess, enchanted by the charm of our accent and in this land we witness so many deeper dimensions that go beyond the material veils of our simple daily chores. When surrounded with traces, signs, and symptoms that connote these for us, we then become more connected to the present day; we get a deeper sense of our expectations for the 5

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future, of our life philosophy and of our past merits.

Facing an architectural pattern that is designed in the taste and perceptions of the past, or a decoration that reflects our conception of belief and thought, sentiments and esthetics, or when we set sail to the mysterious realm of the places of worship, schools, retreat centers, inns, baths, or caravanserais of this land, each of which is an ineradicable signpost of a noble history, we feel showered with the spirit and meaning of our past as our horizons spread out even farther. Then we are overjoyed beyond our expectations; our spiritual faculties and imagination are set free of time-bound considerations. We reach a point of consciousness in which heavenly words and voices can be heard in a harmonious blend with ordinary sounds. We find ourselves in the middle of a fantastic world which seems to have been constructed from a mixture of yesterday, today, and tomorrow—yet which does not fit into any of these time frames, while carrying traits from each. This is followed by a transformation of every object, every color, pattern, and accent in this world into something new: the sun, which was thought to have set, starts to rise in our skies, the moon and stars roam above our heads as if on a celestial tour, and everywhere glows with a cascade of smiles pouring over us. Then the spell of a darkness that has lasted for decades is broken and the shadows are defeated one after another by the guards of the light. The spring cries out, exhibiting all its beauties.

Fountains that were thought to have dried up start running in abundance; clouds bow down to embrace the ground and converse with pastures and trees; rain strokes everywhere that has withered with mercy; the winds embrace us with a sweet breeze, as if celebrating a feast. In the present, but through the projection of the days of light from the past and those that are eagerly awaited in the future, mountains, rocks, singing birds all treat us with the best of sights and sounds, performing a fascinating music without lyric or composition, a tune of the spirit and meaning that does not belong to any one time, but indeed are the essence of all times.

Each time I think of this blessed land with thoughts filled with faith and hope, I say “here is a mystical country without borders, transcendent with a distinctive spiritual essence and an intrinsic beauty.” I consider myself fortunate if I am there; if I am away, I weep with yearning and to comfort myself, I NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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rush to the apertures of my imagination to picture it in my mind. For me, it is always more beautiful than any other place. Its beauties have always remained unique, without any change, even when it was invaded with filth that tarnished the entire globe. It has always been a place that is desired.

Nothing has stained its spiritual potential and no dirt has been able to blur its inner purity. There were times when resentment, hatred, and sectarian fights festered everywhere; democracy was crippled, free thought was slaughtered, belief, Islam, and the Qur’an conceded against the most ferocious onslaughts and the winds of fall destroyed the gardens, the crops, and discolored the flowers and the roses mourned and wept tears of blood. Young saplings broke, giant cypress trees collapsed, and leaves were scattered around. Nevertheless, this “world” has always remained colorful with its inner treasures, spiritual pattern, and power of spiritual dynamics. It has always smiled gently on its own children, comforting their cries with joyful treats, softening the painful and harsh storms of reality with its magical hope-inspiring essence, and even in the most hellish conditions, cooled down the heat of those who took shelter in it with a peaceful “bard al-salam.”1 Hostility, rancor, discord, hatred and other foreign notions that originate from unbelief and which have sought to penetrate this land, have never been able to take up permanent residence, nor have conflicts and discord attained their objectives. Rancor and hatred have been defeated by love and leniency; envy and obsession have devoured and consumed themselves; and the unfortunate ones who have made the existence and continuation of such things dependent on these notions have never attained glory. The filth and the soiled ones have been rebuffed and dispersed, and only true humans and human values have remained in this land.

Yet sometimes perhaps all of us have been troubled by some unexpected events; we wish that they never happened, and bemoan the heartless and senseless acts of the people of this land, a land which is acquiescent to the heart and spirit, despite its rich historical heritage. Thankfully, such thoughts and the situation that lay behind them did not last for long; when the time came, everything reverted to its former shape; the heart was set in motion, the spirit made itself heard, the callous mood was replaced with sensitivity, and everything reclaimed its essential nature. Excluding the temporal fog that darkened the horizons, this land is

indeed in possession of the treasures of pleasure, taste, and beauty from all times. We breathe in the spring in the mornings; we enjoy the colorful sceneries of the summer during the day, and at sunset we are filled with the pleasant sorrow of the fall. Days and nights, and the seasons that change reluctantly are so fresh, elegant, and soft that familiar hearts rise every morning as if invited to “resurrection,” waking up to a new day with the call for prayer and glorifications, finding themselves on a highway that leads to the heavens.

As it appears to our senses, everything in this world is seen as if through rose-colored glasses, through a mysterious veil that we cannot always perceive. The spiritual texture of this world which never fades, the pristine hearts of the people, the majority of the people being able to remain firm, with their behavior leaving indelible impressions; its marketplaces that feature noble characteristics inherited from the past; its porticos and fountains that have an impressive stance; the everlasting warmth in the sanctuaries of the places of worship; the glorifying of the Almighty by the believer singing “Hu, Hu” in chorus, accompanied by the bird song that soars up to the domes as well as into our hearts... it is not possible to witness these and many other magical scenes occurring in such a perfect way in other places. Nevertheless, not everyone is blessed with this testimony. Their inability to perceive is perhaps not a divine test or retribution upon them, but there is no doubt that it indicates a deprivation that has fallen to their share. It is most likely that these unfortunate ones were exposed to winds that blew a bit cold, or were hit by the autumn that passed a bit harshly, or were caught in an unseasonable hail, sleet or storm, and this is why they see this paradisiacal place as having the unpleasant face displayed by momentary events.

Nevertheless, such things do not last forever; they might cast our horizon in darkness for a time, but after a while they disappear, handing this world over to the brightest beauties that are inherently found there. Everywhere blossoms with its natural charm, and a peaceful spiritual expansion is felt throughout the land. Then the fog disperses and the sky is filled with the cotton-white clouds of the spring. Even if it does not rain, dew drops wash away the dust on the leaves. The dawn is followed by the sunrise, and the bright days that are celebrated in our hearts glow from a distance as every town and street, village and city assumes a spiritual transformation. This world

becomes a corridor to what is beyond. As perceptions intensify, the elegance, mercy, and the poem that this storm of feelings pours into us pass beyond the upper limits of our comprehension. The gaps between our desires–dreams and the realities are filled and life becomes the way we would like to live it. Our horizons of thought are imbued with the colors of the heavenly slopes. Our disheartened feelings, our withered and cracked hearts, and our spirits, which are bent double and look like discolored flowers, pull themselves together as if the Trumpet (Sur) is heard. Then, everything and every one changes position and shouts out cheers of revival.

While some “homeless” ones suffer from a longing, although they are in their homeland, I have always kept myself occupied enjoying the beauties of my country that well up through the windows of my heart; my readings of this land have always been different from theirs. Even in our days in which hope has lost ground against the darkest thoughts, I can still hear a superb internal tune, singing the secrets from the deepest dimensions of my soul and my belief. I strive to keep my soul bound to hope and faith and as I visualize my glorious past with sweet memories, I also keep my eyes fixed on future days of splendor, days which I do not doubt will come. I try to simultaneously feel the charming colors, the glaring lights from both wings of time. Despite the suffocating grip of the present, I feel that I am strolling across a field that is more spacious than anywhere else. I leave all that is unpleasant today to be interpreted in time and submit these to the considerations of illuminated generations, for those for whom we have high hopes. In the meantime, I find myself between the light, shade, and breezes of my belief, hope, and good will. A future time of happiness caresses my sensations, even though the windows opened by my faith in God and certainty in belief do not yet yield a crystal clear view.

I now witness a crude notion of darkness, which has tarnished the face of the earth in our recent past; I hear the groaning throes of agony on the deathbed on which our soul was sacrificed to our ruthlessness; I hear the requiems that are sung, for they resonate deep within, like history’s hymns of revival.

Note 1. See the Qur’an 21:69, “O fire,” We ordered, “Be cool and peaceful for Abraham!”

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BiOLOGY

Hamza aydin

when all These molecular engineering funcTions are Thoroughly analyzed,

T

he molecular and genetic diversity in the environmental adaptation mechanisms found in the cells of living beings establishes the ground for fundamental changes in our knowledge about the cell and the sustainability of life. Scientists are astonished by the replication and regulation of genomes in accordance with requirements, particularly the careful placement of active genetic elements in different genetic loci (the specific location on the chromosome) and the coordinated control of the same. That in-cell signal networks are administered during the reconstruction of the genome chain to enable responses to the necessities of adaptation, as if the cell had a mind, has been demonstrated. Since the system that regulates transcription, i.e. the transfer of coded information from the DNA to the RNA, is equipped with the ability to reach the appropriate loci of the genome at the right time, in the right place, and in the right measure, the genetic information can be decoded in a proper way.

In addition, the transcription control system plays a role in both the specific directing and random binding of the active genetic elements to their NOVeMBer / deceMBer 2009

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iT can be seen ThaT even The poinT muTaTions, which were ThoughT To have happened by chance, are noT coincidence.

The changeabiliTy and varieTy in dna sequences are shaped according To a planned, programmed geneTic schedule.

genome region. Increasing the variety of genetic information in this way leads to the production of new genetic information.

Decisions within the cell: mathematical and algorithmic character In order to enable Escherichia coli bacteria to use lactose (disaccharide), the genetic information of the enzymes that have role in transporting the lactose into the cell and converting it into glucose is coded in the bacteria’s genome. The binding and decoding structure which enables the genes to be transcribed at the right time in the appropriate amount is called the operon. The operons are model mechanisms which work on the synthesis or destruction of every chemical molecule (metabolite). One of these, lactose operon, is a good example that demonstrates how the decoding information contained in DNA is regulated and controlled in the bacteria. E. Coli is equipped with a system that distinguishes lactose and glucose when they are combined and this system functions perfectly. Primarily, all of the existing glucose is consumed before the start of the production of those enzymes that splits lactose into glucose and galactose. It has been discovered that this operation in the bacteria is followed by an interaction between DNA sequences located on the upper part of the lactose gene and various molecules. The DNA sequences on the upper part of the gene are the signals that format DNA for transcription. These signals cause the decoding of the genes that interact with the transcription factors. While some of the signals in the relevant region of the genes are common in most genes, some others are specific.

The most basic interaction system of the genome-proteome (all proteins in cell) is the suppression of the lactose operon that is observed in E. Coli. This process depends on DNA-protein interactions which are based on a mutual relationship and it requires the existence of repeated DNA sequences. Tetramer lac1 protein control the lac operon binds to four repeating binding regions on the DNA. Since one dimer can be connected to one operator sequence, two dimers are connected to two operator region units, and as a result the result is a loop formation in the DNA structure. Consequently, because of the access of RNA polymerase to the promoter region, the pre-coding process of genes is hindered. If the hindering protein is in the form of a monomer, the operator displays a weak interaction with half of the sequence. In the dimer form there is a stable binding. For this reason, many procedures in the cell occur by working together and making a union of molecules. Since the loop shape of DNA stabilizes the structure, it prevents the RNA polymerase from being connected to the promoter region. In order to eliminate the blockage on the lac operon, the mutual relationship must be prevented by stimulatory molecules, such as lactose.

There is metabolic information in cells that measure and control the physiological condition. The sequences on the regulatory region of the lactose operator and the data concerning the physiological condition of the lactose and glucose metabolisms are analyzed in the

The structure of the CRP protein.

Escherichia coli

cell which perceives the presence and the amount of glucose through the changes in the system that transports the glucose into the cell. The molecule that announces the presence of glucose in E.coli is cyclic-AMP and concentration of this molecule in the cell is inversely proportional to glucose. The level of this signal affects both the coding and regulation of genomic information. The protein that transports glucose into the cell contains a phosphate group; as it transports glucose into the cell, this carrier protein phosphorylates the glucose molecule thereby loosing its phosphate group. As a result, the proportion phosphorylated transport protein and those without phosphate provides information about the glucose level in the cell. The phosphorylated form of the carrier protein activates the adenosine cyclase enzyme. Through this 9

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enzyme, ATP is converted into cyclic-AMP. The cyclic-AMP level increases in the cell. Consequently, the situation that concerns the increasing concentration of the phosphorylated transfer protein and the cyclic-AMP is interpreted as non-existence of glucose in the cell. The CRP protein that binds to regulatory region of the lactose can only bind to this region in the presence of cyclic-AMP. The cyclic-AMPCRP complex which is tied to the promoter region of the lactose gene speeds up the transcription of the lactose operon. Transcription rarely happens when there is no lactose. This is because the lactose repressor protein lacI, hinders the RNA polymerase reaching the lactose promoter region by binding to the operator of regulating region. The cell can sense the existence of lactose in a circuitous manner. Low levels of coded Permease enzyme on the lacY region transfer some lactose into the cell. The coded beta galactosidase on the lac Z region alters them into a sugar called allolactose. The allolactose is bound to the lacI repressor protein and changes its conformation. The allolactose –lacI repressor complex can not bind to the operator region. The promoter region, called LacP, of Lactose operon is set free for transcription. In fact, every one of these molecular interactions is an incident of information being transferred. All these incidents demonstrate that an algorithm (If there is no glucose and only lactose exists, then transcribe the lacZYA enzyme) that is able to distinguish the difference between two sugars exists in bacteria cells and that it functions perfectly.

In short, the signal transfer in lactose operon occurs with the activation of chemical molecules that represent the experimental data pertaining to the physiological environment of the cells. For example, the levels of cyclic-AMP, allolactose and protein phosphorylation indicate the existence of glucose and lactose. The regulating network system, on the other hand, combines many aspects of cell activity (transport, enzymology, energy metabolism) in order to make the transcription decision. Briefly, it is impossible to show that arranging the order of the genome in any cell occurs independently from physiological or biochemical processes.

The principle of “using combinations in the arrangement of specific binding reNOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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gions� is commonly used in metabolic signal networks that control cell physiology and the differentiation of cell (morphogenesis) that are oriented towards tissue formation. Such an interaction takes place on these network paths between proteins and DNA sequences to ensure that the cell is allowed to process molecular information and to calculate whether it will transcribe a specific genetic sequence. The common binding regions on DNA have vital roles in the coordinated control of various genetic loci, and it is then that the decoding of genes in a harmonious (symphonic) manner becomes possible. Various combinations of these regions are also used in making more complex decisions. As an example, protein-binding regions that are involved in the lowest level of genomic indicators have a role in decoding genes. The proteins that bind to these DNA sequences can become active when they form a group that has an interaction with more than one protein molecule. For instance, each one of the lacO and CRP regions on the lactose operon shows a palindromic sequence structure (the DNA sequence remains the same when the sequence is read from either end). Similarly, the lacP region has two lower regions that are appropriate for the binding of RNA polymerase and are separated from each other by a 16–17 base pair. In all living beings, the proteins and DNA sequences interact with each other. For example, the LacI repressor, which is in charge of controlling the lactose operon,has separate regions for not only binding the DNA region, but also for creating protein-protein binding as well as the binding of allolactose stimulator. The unique combinations of this region on the genome sequence result in a unique protein synthesis.

The genetic engineering procedures in cells Some of the genetic engineering procedures that take place in the cells are as follows: Recombination systems (mutual material exchange) that are observed in homologous chromosomes (the chromosome pair derived from each parent), recombination specific to a particular region; separation of DNA sequences specific to those regions (fusion of gene pieces, VDJ recombination of genes as appointed in the immune system); the existence of systems that combine end points in non-homologous chromosomes (the binding of broken DNA parts, the formation of new genetic fusion, the formation of sequences that are open to hyper mutations); DNA transposons (DNA sequences that can insert themselves into different DNA sequences or can copy themselves there and leave a copy); the RNA sector that can control the transcription and signals that are responsible for the maturing transcription; the signal sequences that cause the rearrangement of neighboring DNA sequences (such as amplification, deletion, and inversion); and finally, controlling the transcription with micro RNAs. None of the above phenomena which cause in-cell changes are random. Each of the genetic engineering functions is planned in a way that makes specific changes and arrangements. In the processes of insertion, i.e. when a specific amount of DNA is added to a different region of the genome, or deletion, i.e. when a specific amount of DNA is severed, there should be arranging, cutting and coding sequences that will bind the cut part to its new place in an appropriate way. On the genome, special regions that are suitable to mutation are created in order to produce variety and to respond to adaptation. When all these molecular engineering functions are thoroughly analyzed, it can be seen that even the point mutations, which up until now were thought to have happened by chance, are not coincidence; rather, they occur through the divinely designed genetic engineering functions. Most of the muta11

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The signal network systems that are in charge of rearranging and controlling in-cell procedures not only control when the genome is rearranged, at the same time it decides where these rearrangements take place inside the genome. The selection of the target is planned, it is not random. tions that are thought to occur by chance in the cell have been removed by the repair systems and fault correction functions in the cell. Thus, the changeability and variety in DNA sequences are shaped by the power and will of God the Almighty according to a planned, programmed genetic schedule.

The R&D department of the genome Depending on the stimulation received, God-given genetic engineering functions are arranged in the cells and a decision is made about which parts of the genome should be changed. Some of the changes inside the cell appear on a large scale. Inside the genome, different and far removed regions can be rearranged.

The changes are related to one another and are in no way disconnected. One mechanism can produce more than one change. The reconstruction of changes in some organisms is a part of the normal life cycle. In the Cornelius protozoan, the embryonic genome is regularly decomposed to a thousand slices. Then, through processing and rearranging in the cells, a functional genome with a distinct system structure is created.

While the genome is reshaped, there is the production of new different sequences rather than the sequences that they regulate and which have the code for the continuity of existing phenotype features. The organization of the genome along the system base emerges with the functions of the genetic molecules, such as cut-paste-rearrange.

For example, in immune system cells, there is a planned disposition to mutation and the specific antibodies are rearranged to recognize an infinite number of different antigens. The life cycles of lymphocytes demonstrates both the control of the DNA rearrangement improvements and the specificity of mutations. It is estimated that the new sequences which do not change the existing structure operate like a research center for the genome.

The God-given genetic engineering systems imposed in the cells, when analyzed from the perspective of the population, are molecular mechanisms that carry out basic changes to ensure adaptation. The duty of reconstructing the genome during adaptation has been assigned to the divine genetic engineering functions imposed in the cell. The divine genetic engineering tools and mechanisms, which are placed in the cell with active nucleic acid elements that NOVEMBER september//DECEMBER october 2009 2009

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carry information, change the genome in parallel to the changes in both the inner and outer environment; this change occurs not only on one point of the genome, but rather on every point of genome. The functions of the DNA elements, which allow for the exchange of genetic information (both horizontally and vertically, in species and between species, between types and classes), are arranged by domestic cell signal transfer and data process networks. The signal network systems that are in charge of rearranging and controlling in-cell procedures not only control when the genome is rearranged, at the same time it decides where these rearrangements take place inside the genome. The selection of the target is planned, it is not random. For instance, R1 and R2 retrotransposons which are established in the DNA region that codes 28S ribosomal RNA have specific recognition regions and the information of endonuclease cutting DNA region on specific points that it had settled down. Eukaryotic cells have more complex decision making systems. The cells continuously create responses in response to DNA damage, cell physiology and outer-cell reproduction factors. One of the critical questions and answers is whether the damage will be repaired or whether programmed death will take place.

If the cell avoids giving an answer, then genetic indecisiveness appears and abnormal cell reproduction, i.e., cancer, begins. From this perspective, cancer is a result of pathology in the signal and information process in the cell. The changes in gene expression without any changes in the DNA sequence (epigenetic) as well as the divine genetic engineering functions are clear proof demonstrating that every single action in the cell occurs with a certain aim that is based on knowledge and calculations.

Hamza Aydin holds a PhD in biology.

References

Shapiro J. A.(2001). “Genome Formatting for Computation and Function: Genome Organization and Reorganization in Evolution: Formatting for Computation and Function.”

Presented at the “Contextualizing the Genome” symposium, Ghent University, Belgium, November 25–28, 2001 (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., in press).

——. (2005). “A 21st century view of evolution: genome system architecture, repetitive DNA, and natural genetic engineering.” Gene 345 (2005) pp. 91–100.

Shapiro J. A. and Sternberg R V (2005). “Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function.” Biol. Rev. (2005), 80, pp.

1–24. Cambridge Philosophical Society. DOI: 10.1017/ S1464793104006657.

PERSPECTIVES

Bayram Yenikaya

Many articles and books have been published to refute Dawkins’ opinions, but most of them focus merely on defending the author’s own religion or sect of religion. I would like to take a different approach: pass Dawkins’s claims through the test of reason without invoking any religious references, and see how they withstand critical scrutiny.

R

ichard Dawkins, the author of The Selfish Gene, has gained even more public prestige since his latest book, The God Delusion, became a best seller worldwide.

This book has become the most popular tract on atheism in recent times.

However, its popularity is due neither to its originality, nor its academic quality, but rather to the nature of its

Physicists calculate the age of universe to be approximately 14 billion years from the time of its formation ...

rhetoric. The God Delusion is written in a passionate, provocative, merciless and often bullying voice. The kind of writing he adopts creates fury in the hearts of many religious people and a joy among many atheists; and from this ability to arouse readers’ emotions comes the popularity of the book, at the cost of furthering division and hatred between believers and non-believers.

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Despite the media’s excitement, Dawkins’ claims are mostly repetition of very old arguments against religion and God’s existence, put in a different context, and supported with different examples. Many articles and books have been published to refute Dawkins’ opinions, but most of them focus merely on defending the author’s own religion or sect of religion. I would like to take a different approach: pass Dawkins’s claims through the test of reason without invoking any religious references, and see how they withstand critical scrutiny.

Dawkins’ claims in the book can be reduced to two thesis statements.

1. Religion is evil.

2. “There almost certainly is no God” (p. 137).

The logical reasoning he uses to prove his first thesis statement is poor and biased. He points to some Christian fanatics who burn down abortion clinics and concludes that Christianity is evil because it inspires individuals to perform such despicable acts of violence.

According to this same faulty logic, Islam is evil because some terrorists and suicide attackers who claim to be Muslims participated in the September 11 attacks. To Dawkins, it does not matter if there are billions of wellbehaved Christians and Muslims who are motivated by religion to become better human beings. By this logic, if billions of people drink water from the same water source for centuries and in that time just a few among them fall ill, then the source of illness must be the water. Had Dawkins approached the matter like a true scientist and carefully examined the scientific studies on violence, he would have learned that violence has almost nothing to do with faith, and that terrorists are rarely motivated by religious beliefs, but rather by political and nationalistic impulses. One such study was conducted by Professor Robert Pape of the University of Chicago. Pape has compiled the most comprehensive data on suicide bombings and attacks around the globe over the past twenty years. He published his broad study, which analyzed the root causes of such attacks, in a book called Dying to Win and summarized his findings as follows: “The data show that there is little connection between suicide terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism, or any one of the world’s religions.

In fact the leading instigators of suicide attacks are the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, a Marxist-Leninist group whose members are from Hindu families but who are adamantly opposed to religion. … Rather, what nearly NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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all suicide terrorist attacks have in common is a specific secular and strategic goal: to compel modern democracies to withdraw military forces from territory that the terrorists consider to be their homeland.”1 While scientific studies such as Pape’s prove that a it is a specific set of factors unconnected with religion that leads to violence, it is peculiar to see Dawkins make the unjustified claim that “Only religious faith is a strong enough force to motivate such utter madness” (p. 343).

The fact that the greatest atrocities in human history have been committed by non-religious leaders such as Hitler, Stalin, and Pol Pot, or by non-religious groups like the Tamil Tigers, does not alter his conviction. In claiming that “. . . atheists may do evil things but they don’t do evil things in the name of atheism” (p. 315), Dawkins may persuade himself of this double standard, but, the true, logical conclusion regarding evil is an obvious one. If non-religious people do as much evil as (if not more than) religious people, then we cannot blame religion for the actions of a few evildoers who happen to be, or claim to be religious, especially if billions of other people subscribing to the same religion condemn these acts.

This much suffices to demonstrate the fallacy of his first thesis statement and we now move to his next claim which is about the existence of God. Definition of God To be consistent in discussion we should adhere to a common definition. The concept of God used in this article is not the perception of God according to any particular religion. It is God as defined by Dawkins himself. Dawkins defines God as “a superhuman, supernatural intelligence who deliberately designed and created the universe and everything in it” (p.52).

Although the word “superhuman” is vague and undefined, I accept the rest of the definition as the basis for our discussion.

Dawkins starts with an attempt to reduce the question of the existence of God to a scientific problem and to show that the probability of God’s existence is far less than fifty percent.

What is the probability of God’s existence?

Can we prove God’s existence or non-existence by scientific methods? Dawkins’ definition makes the answer to this question an obvious “No!” How can one make conclusions about a “supernatural” being by using only physical methods? Many philosophers consider the “existence of God” to be neither prov-

able nor disprovable with scientific methods and mathematical certainty. Dawkins is not so naïve as to directly claim otherwise, but he dances around this generally accepted principle by introducing the concept of probability: “Even if God’s existence is never proved or disproved with certainty one way or the other, available evidence and reasoning may yield an estimate of probability far from 50 percent” (p. 73).

This is a statement that clearly demonstrates Dawkins’ lack of knowledge in the field of probability, as well as his desperate need to score some points in an otherwise losing argument.

How does one estimate a probability? If I toss a coin and ask you what the probability of tails is, you might be tempted to say fifty percent. But are you sure? How do you know the coin is not irregular? How do you know I cannot toss it with such skill that the outcome is always heads? In fact, you do not know. In mathematics, there are two ways of estimating probabilities.

One way is to set some assumptions, which may give you a good estimate if the assumptions are correct. In case of the coin, you may assume that it is a fair coin, with uniform weight distribution, entirely symmetrical, and that it is tossed in a completely random fashion.

But if these assumptions are incorrect, the estimate will not be accurate. The second way to estimate the probability is to repeat the experiment many times and record the outcome. You may toss the coin 1000 times.

If it lands tails up 300 times and heads up 700 times, then your estimate for the probability of tails would be 30 percent. This result would also show that the assumption about fairness is incorrect. To gain a true estimate would involve tossing the coin indefinitely and taking the limit of this ratio; but, such an experiment is impractical. When Dawkins tries to estimate the probability of God’s existence, he cannot use the second method, for it is not an experiment one can repeat many times. Therefore, he arrives at his conclusion by using the only remaining method: making assumptions. He makes some complicated, un-testable, and unverifiable assumptions (such as “God must have a complex structure”), and then concludes that the existence of God is highly improbable. But I could make my own assumptions and find a different probability.

In fact, I could assume that God exists, and with such an assumption my estimate of probability for the existence of God would be 100 percent. In the end, whose assumptions are correct?

Who created God? Dawkins has only one “strong” argument against God’s existence, which he repeats many times throughout the book: “Who made God?” (p. 136), “Who designed the designer?” (p. 147), “the designer himself immediately raises the bigger problem of his own origin”(p. 146).

This same question is invoked repeatedly on pages 138, 147 (twice), 151, 161, 169, 171, 176, 178, 183, 186, 187, and 188. It becomes annoying after the third or fourth repetition. One keeps reading in hopes of encountering some new and fresher ideas; but all hope is vanquished by the time one flips the last page. While pondering the possible reasons for so much repetition I came across the answer within the very same pages: “if you repeat something often enough you will succeed in convincing yourself of its truth” (p. 394).

Dawkins believes that this question is his ultimate argument against God’s existence. But, this question is far from being a new one. For instance, in Bukhari’s hadith collection (written in 846 ad), the Prophet Muhammad is quoted as having said, “A day will certainly come when some people will sit with their legs crossed and ask, ‘If God created everything, then who created God?’”2 Apparently, more than a millennium later, atheists still have not come up with a better argument; they are still holding onto this thin, old thread.

Is this really a strong argument against God’s existence? If, in one’s mind, God is just a complex being, such as “the ultimate Boeing 747”(p. 138) airplane in the sky, then this might be a meaningful question to ask. But when one defines God as the Being who created everything – as all Christians, Jews, Muslims, and many Hindus and Buddhists do – then, by definition He is not created; He would not be God if He had been. This idea is best demonstrated by a metaphor.3 In a moving train, each car is seemingly pulled by the one before. But the locomotive is not pulled by anything, and it pulls all the other cars. The question, “Who pulls the locomotive?” is meaningless because the locomotive does not need to be pulled. The concept of “being pulled” simply does not apply to the locomotive. Similarly, in the infinite regress of creation, God is the locomotive, which makes the question, “Who created God?” meaningless. As a result, Dawkins’ argument against the existence of God, the argument that according to him makes the existence of God highly improbable, is nothing but a meaningless, paradoxical question. One could respond by saying, “The fact that 15

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a question can be phrased in a grammatically correct English sentence doesn’t make it meaningful” (p. 56).

Of course, what atheists like Dawkins truly mean by this question is: “If every form of existence needs a cause, how can God exist without a cause? And if God can exist without a cause, then why can’t the universe exist without a cause?” A logical response would be that every existence does not need a cause, but that everything that has a beginning needs a cause. The universe has a beginning; therefore, it needs a cause.

According to the theory of relativity, time is a dimension of this universe. Therefore, time is also part of this nature (natural). Dawkins’ definition itself states that “God is supernatural,” which means He is beyond and above anything in this universe, including time. If that is so, then God is eternal (timeless); He has neither beginning nor end; hence, He does not need a cause.

A major portion of Dawkins’ book is devoted to addressing the anthropic principle, which is considered to be one of the strong arguments for God’s existence.

The Anthropic Principle One version of the anthropic principle, sometimes called the strong anthropic principle, states that the laws and constants of the universe have properties that make inevitable the existence of intelligent life.

Undoubtedly, we live on a life-friendly planet. Yet, the probability that a planet can be life-friendly is extremely small because a great many conditions and elements need to come together to form an environment suitable for life. For example, the planet needs to be at the right distance to the star (sun), and possess the right combination of elements, carbon, and water, the right atmospheric gases, and the right temperature. It is hard to assume all these conditions can co-exist by pure chance. This is one of the strong arguments for the existence of God. Dawkins does not answer this argument by pulling out his handy Swiss army knife, “Who created God?” but rather, by making the only other argument in his book that is worth discussing.

Namely, he explains the existence of complex life on earth by the theory of evolution, and, in invoking this theory, he tries to explain how the conditions for life were established, that is, how life started on earth in the first place, for admittedly, in order for something to evolve, it needs to start evolving in suitable conditions. Dawkins’ argument against the anthropic principle is to speculate about the large number of planets. Today scientists think there are approximately NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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one quintillion (a billion times a billion) planets in the universe, but, this number is just an approximation extrapolated from our solar system. It is not a verifiable number. “Suppose,” says Dawkins, the first life “was so improbable as to occur on only one in a billion planets. … even with such absurdly long odds, life will still have arisen on a billion planets, of which earth of course is one” (p. 138). Two major parts of this statement are flawed: the assumption involved, and the conclusion. His assumption that the probability of life starting on a planet is just one in a billion may very well be incorrect. Dawkins does not provide any justification for this assumption. Just because it sounds like a small probability does not mean we should accept it. Why one in a billion? Maybe that probability is one in a trillion times a trillion, in which case there would not even be enough planets to make the probability plausible. The second problem involves an even more profound mathematical error.

In calculating probabilities, one must correctly define the sample space of events. That is to say, when considering the probability of life beginning on any given planet, our sample space is not all the planets in the universe; rather, it is only earth-like, life-friendly planets. One cannot include Jupiter in the sample space because it is known that life cannot occur on Jupiter.

Hence, one would first have to estimate the number of life-friendly planets in the universe. If there are only one million life-friendly planets and the probability of occurrence of life is one in a billion, then the chance is not in favor of life. If that is so, then the occurrence of life (on earth) requires an explanation other than chance.

The inability to verify chance as a probable factor in the origin of life is, by the way, not the only weak link in evolutionary theory. Evolutionist Mark Ridley suggests in Mendel’s Demon that the origin of eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus, and other features, such as human and animal cells) is even a more difficult and statistically improbable step than the origin of life.4 Other similarly improbable steps, such as the origin of consciousness, have also been discussed by scientists.

Furthermore, it is evident – even to Dawkins – that we are not only living on a life-friendly planet, but also in a life-friendly universe: “the laws of physics must be friendly enough to allow life to arise. … physicists have calculated that, if the laws and con-

stants of physics had been even slightly different, the universe would have developed in such a way that life would have been impossible” (p. 169). To answer this challenge to his argument about chance, Dawkins invokes the multi-universe hypothesis: “There are many universes like bubbles of foam, in a ‘multiverse.’ The laws and constants of any one universe, such as our observable universe, are bylaws” (p.173–174). In short, he concludes that it is possible for one of these universes to be life-friendly, and hence solves the difficulty of explaining one universe by assuming that there are many. Yet, his multiverse hypothesis is clearly not scientific; it is a belief. It is no simpler than assuming God created the universe.

So, how did the universe (or multiverse) come into existence in the first place? Physicists calculate the age of universe to be approximately 14 billion years from the time of its formation (i.e., the Big Bang); we know, therefore, that it has not been here indefinitely. Since it had a beginning, its existence requires an explanation.

The majority of the arguments in Dawkins’ latest book are poor, and in many cases based on incorrect assumptions and flawed conclusions. The writer makes colossal mistakes while discussing subjects he is unfamiliar with, such as the theory of probability.

As an academic, he has no expertise in the field of sociology and yet makes grand claims about the role of religion in society. Dawkins must be seen as a popular science writer who uses his credentials as a scientist to give credibility to otherwise poor and often false theories, which are neither scientific nor objective.

Atheists of the world will be indebted to him forever for being such a fanatical advocate of their ‘faith’, but those who truly seek knowledge will be able to see the shortcomings of his work very clearly..

B. H. Yenikaya holds a PhD in Mathematics.

References 1. Pape , Robert. Dying to Win. Random House, New York, 2005. 4 2. Bukhari, Muhammad I. “I’tisam #3” Sahih Bukhari.

Kazi Publications, 1979 3. Gülen, M. F. Questions and Answers about Islam. The Light Inc., 2005.

4. Ridley, Mark. Mendel’s Demon. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Great Britain, 2000. 17 5. Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Bantam Press, Great Britain, 2008.

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CULTURE & SOCIETY

Hakan Yesilova

I

n Egypt the impression of Turkey in recent times has been shaped by the fantastic goal the soccer player Hasan Şaş scored against Brazil in the 2002 World Cup. “Yavaş yavaş Hasan Şaş” is the first thing an Egyptian says when meeting a Turk—at least those Egyptians who want to sell souvenirs in Giza and other popular tourist sites. This impression is bound to change. The conference entitled “Future of Reform in the Muslim World: Comparative Experiences with Fethullah Gülen’s Movement in Turkey” (October 19–21) was held at the Arab League headquarters in the very center of Cairo. Located on a scenic spot on the Nile coastline, a few hundred yards away from the world-famous museum where the mummies of the pharaohs are kept, this facility provides the stage for a great deal of political activity among member Arab states.

But this time it opened its gates to discuss a civil-society movement originating from outside the boundaries of the League: the Gülen Movement of Turkey.

Organized by Cairo University and Hira Magazine, the conference lasted three full days and featured many prominent social scientists, mainly from the Arab world: Dr. Ahmad El-Tayyeb, the rector of Al-Azhar University, Dr. Mohammad Emara (Egypt), Dr. Nadia Mostafa (Egypt), Dr. Ibrahim Elbayoumi Ghanem (Egypt), Dr. Abdel-Halim Oweis (Egypt), Tarek Albishri (Egypt), Dr. Ridwan Elsayed (Lebanon), Dr. Leonid Syukiyaynen (Russia), Dr. Samir Boudinar (Morocco), Dr. Fathi Malkawi (Jordan), Dr. Jill Carroll (USA), and Dr. Johann Hafner (Germany), to name a few. The grand hall of the NOVEMBER september//DECEMBER october 2009 2009

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Arab League headquarters was packed with an audience of 400 and more participants – seated or standing – from Egypt and neighboring countries. The huge roundtable in the middle of the hall hosted twenty scholars, either presenting a paper, observing or commenting on the topics. Aired live on the web, the conference explored islah, an Islamic concept that is often simply translated as “reform” in English but which in fact is loaded with a much deeper and wider frame of reference.

There was enormous media attention to the event: at least fifteen television networks and seventy-five reporters followed the conference and interviewed the participants. While dozens of requests to reserve seats had to be turned down, more than twenty-thousand viewers followed the event on the web. The conference drew an exceptional level of interest in the event, much higher than the average academic activity.

Throughout the conference there were occasional references to recent history, accompanied by expressions of regret or frustration. Yet, many scholars offered some insight with a vision of the future in line with the main theme, a focus on the nature of the Gülen Movement. They expressed their perception of the movement as a new and potentially wide field for research into islah.

How have reform trends appeared in the Muslim world in the last half century? How do we interpret the spread of Gülen’s call and his movement on a global scale inside and outside Islamic countries? How has this movement succeeded in positively communicating with western elites

with its scientific institutions, media and cultural entities in comparison to other reform movements? What are the prospects for future cooperation with this movement to take advantage of its successful experience in fighting problems and future challenges in the Muslim and the Arab world? How does this movement, which seems to act as a social movement organization rather than an NGO, develop successful relations with established systems in the countries where it works without conflict? These were the questions that were discussed on the floor.

Until recently, Turkish-Arab relations have been somewhat delicate. On both civil and official fronts over the last couple of years, firm steps have been taken by both sides to close the chasm that divided these nations; these are in fact nations that share many historical and cultural roots. This Turkish-Arab rapprochement is not an artificial one based on temporary mutual interests.

The “problem-free” policy adopted by the Turkish government vis-à-vis neighboring countries should be appreciated in a number of ways. Without hands-on support from the grassroots level, however, such policies have little chance of success, if they are not doomed to complete failure, particularly in the context of the Middle East, where international interests are extremely complex.

The frustrations voiced by Arab scholars and politicians at this conference and elsewhere are to be expected in the context of the political and economic tensions that have lasted for decades in the region.

There is no need to mention the international disputes which prevent the progress that has been long-awaited and desperately needed by millions. In this regard, this conference might serve as a new beginning, for participants strived to replace frustration and despair with hope and strong will and encouragement for islah. Despite some exposure to Gülen’s works and the literature produced about him, there is still much to be learned. First-hand experience and observation are certainly necessary, particularly to achieve an accurate analysis of a civil society movement that is as broad as the Gülen Movement and to understand what their contribution to the social reform and renewal of the Islamic world can be. Some of the testimonials expressed throughout the conference, specifically during the last panel, were of great use for many among the audience.

The Salahaldin International School, which opened in Cairo only a few weeks ago, with its well-equipped campus and high standards of education, and which draws on worldwide experience, will become a visible testing-ground for those who are willing to explore this initiative. In the message Fethullah Gülen sent to the

conference, he emphasized the importance of education and schools like Salahaldin in islah: “Education is pivotal in islah efforts, for it is directly linked to the human being in the person of the teacher and the student. A teacher who is dedicated to his or her mission in the spirit of worship can bring about a new human in his students, a new human who looks to the future filled with hope, whose heart beats with love and peace.

Raising new generations is dependent on a precise revision of education. This revision requires educators to free themselves from sticking to working hours, which are limited and insufficient, and to work without pause in the consciousness that they are building new human beings with all their faculties.”

More than five hundred questions were handed in to the panels throughout the conference. Many inquirers asked how they could become a member of the movement. The speakers explained several times that this movement—which is frequently called the “Gülen” Movement for the lack of a more concise term—is not an organization in which you become a member by simply having your name listed. Nor is it a school in which you can enroll by paying a certain fee. “The Gülen movement is similar to a well-conducted symphony as its basic aim is to unite people and bring about solutions to their problems,” Pakinam El Sharkawy from Cairo University said. A professor of political science at Cairo University, El Sharkawy, the commentator on the sixth panel, said that the movement does not seek to defeat others but to bring people together and to remove prejudices between them: “The movement tries to respond to strong winds by creating a soft and soothing atmosphere.” Professor Jill Carroll from Houston, Texas, underscored a similar theme about the movement and praised its contributions to the main concern of our times, how we can coexist in peace and respect while preserving our differences.

Cairo is a place that everyone should visit at least once in a lifetime. This was my second time in eight years. And this time, I saw a great deal more than on my last visit. The conference offered a great deal to the hundreds who attended, and there was much that encouraged us to be more hopeful for the future. The new terminal at Cairo International Airport, which also opened recently like Salahaldin International School, now welcomes its guests with great confidence and arrival there promises a lot more than sightseeing.

Hakan Yesilova is a staff editor at The Fountain magazine.

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Lead HISTORY Article

Murat Yukseldi

Al-Andalus and Religious Tolerance toward Jews

M

aria Rosa Menocal (2002) argues that Al-Andalus (711– 1492) was a “utopian-like” society in which Jews and Muslims lived side by side in peace and cooperation in what is now Spain. This view has been criticized by others, who claim that the Jewish population was in fact subject to persecution and religiously inspired violence. They argue that while the Islamic administration was relatively tolerant of its Jewish population, persecution of the Jewish population did occur at times, particularly after the Almoravids came to power.

The rule of Muslims represents a particular period in SpanNOVEMBER september//DECEMBER october 2009 2009

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ish history. It was at this time that a substantial part of Spain, known back then as Al-Andalus, came under the control of various Islamic groups. The entire period of Islamic rule lasted from the first conquest in 711 to 1492 when the Christian King Ferdinand reconquered Granada (La Reconquista), thereby extinguishing the rule of Muslims (Crow 1985, p.78).

The Umayyad prince, Abd-ar-Rahman I, established himself as Emir of

Cordoba in 756, after the Abbasids supplanted Umayyad rule in Syria (Fletcher 2000, p.64). The Umayyad dynasty first ruled as emirs (756–929), then as caliphs (929–1031), but eventually fell to the invading Berber tribes of North Africa, the Almoravids (1090–1147) and then the Almohads (1147–1248) (Fletcher 2000, p.64).

The Muslims of Spain ushered in a period of great creativity and scholarship, in which significant advances in poetry, art, music, calligraphy, botany, historiography, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy were made (Fletcher 2000, p. 65).

Maria Rosa Menocal argues that Al-Andalus was a peaceful society in which Jewish people were free to practice their religion with-

out being subject to the threat of forced conversion or persecution.

She further claims that the rulers of Al-Andalus not only gave the Jews the right to maintain their religious identity, they also offered them the opportunity to fully involve themselves in what was then a predominantly Muslim society.

Al-Andalus is, therefore, a truly unique example of religious toleration and cultural interaction, one which stands above all others in Medieval Europe.

Menocal claims that the Jews of Spain, that is the Sephardic Jews, enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy as they were considered to be people of a particular status. They were members of the

Dhimmi, or “pact,” whereby the Muslim rulers agree to protect and care for non-Muslims insofar as they accede to the laws and regulations of the state (Menocal 2002, p.29). Jews, like Christians, are particularly important to this contract as they are “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitâb), the book being the Torah or the Bible, both of which are considered to have been revealed by God in Islam (Lassner 1999, p.106).

As monotheistic religions of the Abrahamic tradition, Islam, Judaism and Christianity share common ground.That Spanish Jews were treated with respect by their Islamic rulers is evidenced by the way in which they were permit-

Menocal claims that the rulers of Al-Andalus not only gave the Jews the right to maintain their religious identity, they also offered them the opportunity to fully involve themselves in what was then a predominantly Muslim society.

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Shaprut, through his ted to be directly involved in the political process. Menocal refers to several Jewish people who rose to claim positions in the Umayyad dynasty, one such person being Hasdai Ibn Shaprut.

Shaprut served as vizier to Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III (911– 961), while also acting as the “prince” or nasi of his own religious community (Menocal 2002, p.79). Shaprut, through his skill and intellect, was able to secure a position of considerable influence and prestige, while retaining his role as a representative of the Jewish community. He served the Umayyad rulers in a variety of ways, including several stints as a foreign ambassador and general secretary (Glick 1979, p.172).

Menocal claims that this was not an unusual occurrence or isolated event as Al-Andalus was in fact a “world brightly lit for Jews,” in which they were free to participate

skill and intellect, was able to secure a position of considerable influence and prestige, while retaining his role as a representative of the Jewish community.

He served the Umayyad rulers in a variety of ways. in the politics of the state (Menocal 2002, p. 84).

Samuel Ibn Naghrela (Samuel the Nagid, or “prince”) also showed how a Jewish person was able to enjoy a position of power under Islamic rule. Born in 993, he pursued success in a number of fields including as a high-ranking official, poet, statesman and warrior.

At thirty-four he was chosen as the first Nagid, or head of the Jewish community, and was later appoint-

ed as a vizier and prime minister of Granada (Menocal 2002, p. 104).

Jewish people also served as viziers in Zaragoza, Seville, and Almeria during the Muslim rule (Perez 1993, p.10). They were also very active in the economy of Al-Andalus as they had “virtually unlimited opportunities in the booming commercial environment” (Menocal 2002, p. 85).

Jewish people were allowed to pursue their vocational interests, and, in time, they came to dominate the financial and mercantile activity of the region (Glick 1979, p. 176).

Menocal attributes the success of the Jewish people in Islamic Spain to their willingness to assimilate, or be “Arabized.” Arabization is the process whereby the Jewish people of Spain sought to understand and to engage with Arabic culture—its language, art, tradition, and values— while still retaining their own sense of identity as a separate community.

It is said that the potential for this

style of acculturation was great because much of Islamic Spain was highly secular (Glick 1979, p.175).

Therefore, the religious affiliation of the individual in Islamic Spain had far less importance, and thus far fewer consequences, than it did elsewhere.

The Jews of Spain excelled in many areas of their society, owing to the tolerance which they had been accorded by their Islamic rulers.

They ensured a climate in which Muslims and Jews could live in a state of peaceful cooperation. This happened not by the imposition of one culture on that of another, but a cultural exchange wherein Jews were “able to openly observe and eventually enrich their Judaic and Hebrew heritage and at the same time fully participate in the general cultural and intellectual scene” (Menocal 2002, p. 87). Therefore it can be said that Spain, under the rule of Muslims, was quite tolerant

of its Jewish population. The Jews, according to Menocal, did not have “to abandon their orthodoxy to be fully a part of the body politic and culture” (Menocal 2002, p. 86).

Maria Rosa Menocal offers a particular interpretation of this period, one that is certainly not shared by all. Bernard Lewis agrees that the Islamic rulers in Spain treated their Jewish counterparts with some degree of respect (Lewis 1984, p. 9).

The Jews of Spain excelled in many areas of their society, owing to the tolerance which they had been accorded by their Islamic rulers.

They ensured a climate in which Muslims and Jews could live in a state of peaceful

Lewis refers to the Qur’anic verse (11:62), “Those who believe [the Muslims], and those who profess Judaism, and the Christians and the Sabian, those who believe in God and the Last Day and act righteously, shall have their reward with their Lord,” as the injunction by which Muslims must treat Jews with tolerance (Lewis 1984, p. 13).

But Lewis also sees the seeds of hostility and intolerance in the way Muslims treated Jews.

In reality, however, Jews, like Christians, were still defined by their supposed inferiority to that of the Muslim. They were possessors of a religion that was based on authentic revelation, but that incomplete or distorted. They had failed to realize God’s truth in its most perfect form, as it is in Islam.

Bernard Lewis does not limit his perspective to “religious inferiority.” He argues that Muslims restricted Jews’ movement into the

cooperation.

Alhambra Palace, Spain.

wider community. According to him the poll tax, or jizya, a fixed tax that was to be paid by all nonMuslims to the Muslim rulers in return for certain immunities like not going to war, was a “symbolic expression of their (Jews) subordination” to the Muslims (Lewis 1984, p. 14). Restrictions, Lewis argues, were certainly not limited to fiscal servitude, but also applied to the way in which Jewish people conducted themselves in public and private life. A Jewish man could not enter into a marriage with a Muslim woman as that would make a Muslim subordinate to the will of a Dhimmi, though a Muslim man could marry a Jewish woman (Lewis 1984, p. 27).

Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject “were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character” (Lewis 1984, p.

26). That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.

Norman Roth claims, much like Menocal, that the Jewish population was quite prominent in Spain during the Muslim rule. According to Roth, rarely did “Jews reach such prominent positions of power as they did in Al-Andalus” (Roth 1994, p. 79). This was due, in part, to the fact that they were perceived by the Muslims and Christians of Spain as being “neutral,” that is, without allegiance to either side (Roth 1994, p.79).

While Al-Andalus was a society in which Jews enjoyed a certain degree of freedom, particularly after NOVeMBer / deceMBer 2009

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The rule of The moors is a unique period of spanish hisTory, one ThaT has received much aTTenTion from scholars and Theologians alike. iT was, according To maria rosa menocal, a Time in which Jews and muslims lived a relaTively peaceful exisTence. the advent of the Almohads, Roth claims, some restrictions in clothing were strictly enforced (Roth 1994, p. 167). For instance, the Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf Yaqub (1184–99) made it compulsory for Jews to dress in certain colors (Roth 1994, p. 167), perhaps to distinguish non-Muslim citizens from the Muslims. According to Joseph Perez, the Almohads also instituted religious persecution and forced Jews to convert (Perez 1993, p. 12).

In this way, Perez draws a parallel with this period and the one that was to follow, in which Jews were expelled from the newly reclaimed Christian Kingdom of Spain.

The rule of the Moors is a unique period of Spanish history, one that has received much attention from scholars and theologians alike. It was, according to Maria Rosa Menocal, a time in which Jews and Muslims lived a relatively peaceful existence.

While the evidence suggests that Jews and Muslims did integrate to an extent, there are also some scholars who suggest that Jews were subject to

persecution. Therefore, this period of history offers a lot to be learned for our modern times.

References Crow J, 1985, Spain: The Root and the Flower: an interpretation of Spain and the Spanish people, University of California Press, Berkley.

Fletcher R, 2000, “Islamic Spain,” in Carr R, Spain: A History, Oxford University Press, New York.

Glick T, 1979, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

Lassner J, 1999, “Abraham Geiger: A Nineteenth-Century Jewish Reformer on the Origins of Islam,” in Martin Kramer, The Jewish Discovery of Islam, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv.

Lewis B, 1984, The Jews of Islam, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Menocal MR, 2002, Ornament of the World, Little, Brown and Company, Boston.

Perez, J, 1993, History of a Tragedy, University of Illinois Press, Chicago.

Ray, J, 2006, The Sephardic Frontier: the Reconquista and the Jewish community in Medieval Iberia, Cornell University Press, New York.

Roth N, 1994, Jews, Visigoths, and Muslims In Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict, Leiden, New York.

The Heart of a Child Caught in a child’s hand, the seashell becomes treasure, a catalyst of daydreams. Tunes hummed by innocence reach the seagull nearby who gives up flight to breathe in this fresh air.

An air that only they can bare, that we forget through years of aging hearts.

The sand still has memory of us, although we forget. And that starfish under the stars waits our return, but we turn. Away from the past that gave us sight into a spark of the divine. To see creation in it’s purest form, it’s brightest shine.

Each grain of sand will be called to tell his story. Can you imagine?

When from the seen and unseen Worlds come Men and Jinn.

And to be asked from such an old age, why we could not stay like a child.

For a moment to see like a child.

To dream like a child.

To take into our heart, the Heart of the world, as a child does, with every blink of existence.

Jon Schuck

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A Moment for Reflection

Abdullah bin Mubarak

Adapted by Suat Erguvan

I

was on my journey to Hajj. Travelling through the lands of Iraq and Syria, I came across an old woman all on her own. I greeted her and she answered me with the verse, “Peace! is the word from the Lord All-Compassionate” (Ya Sin 36:58). “What are you doing here?” I asked her. She replied, “Whomever God leads astray there is no one to guide him; and He leaves them wandering blindly in their rebellion.” (A’raf 7:186). I realized that she was lost. Asked where she was travelling to, she answered me with the verse, “All-Glorified is He Who took His servant for a journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque the environs of which We have blessed, so that We might show him some of Our signs. Surely He is the One Who hears and sees” (Isra’ 17:1). I realized that she had fulfilled her duty of Hajj in the previous group and now was travelling to Quds (Jerusalem).

“How long have you been lost?” I asked her. “For three nights” (Maryam 19:10) was her Qur’anic rejoinder. I offered her food. She replied with, “Observe the Fast until night sets in” (Baqarah 2:187).

“Yes, but we are not in the month of Ramadan,” said I. “Whoever does a good work voluntarily, surely God is All-Responsive to thankfulness, All-Knowing” (Baqarah 2:158) was her response. “It is permissible to break fast on a journey,” I informed her. “Yet better it is for him who volunteers greater good, and that you should fast (when you are able to) is better for you, if you but knew (the worth of fasting)” (Baqarah 2:184) she responded.

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I asked her why she did not converse in the way I conversed. “Not a word does he/ she utter but there is a watcher by him/her, ever-present,” (Qaf 50:18) she recited.

I asked her why she did not converse in the way I conversed. “Not a word does he/she utter but there is a watcher by him/her, ever-present,” (Qaf 50:18) recited she. I put a question to her: “Where do you belong?”

“Do not follow that of which you have no knowledge, and refrain from groundless assertions and conjectures.

Surely the hearing, the sight, and the heart – each of these is subject to questioning about it” (Isra’ 17:35) was her Qur’anic response. “I sinned; please forgive me,” I pleaded. “No reproach this day shall be on you.

May God forgive you; indeed, He is the Most Merciful of the merciful” (Yusuf 12:92) said she. I offered to let her ride on my camel so as to deliver her swiftly to her convoy. “Whatever good you do, surely God has full knowledge of it” (Baqarah 2:215) she thanked me.

I brought my camel and as she was about to mount on the animal, she said, “Tell the believing men that they should restrain their gaze” (Nur 24:30). I cast my eyes down. Just as she was about to climb on the camel, the animal shied and moved forward, and her clothing was torn a little. “Whatever affliction befalls you, it is because of what your hands have earned,” (Shura 42:30) she murmured. “Be patient, let me hold the camel!” said I. Reciting the verse, “We made Solomon understand the case more clearly. We granted each of them sound, wise judgment and knowledge” (Anbiya 21:79) she said, implying that I was more successful at controlling the camel. She mounted the camel and recited the verses, “So that you sit secure on their backs, (and), then remember and reflect on the favor of your Lord when you settle securely on them, and say: AllGlorified is He Who has subjugated this to our use.

We were never capable (of accomplishing this by ourselves). And surely, to our Lord we are indeed bound to return’” (Zukhruf 13–14). “Come on!” said I, so as to urge the camel on. “Be modest in your bearing, and subdue your voice. For certain, the most repugnant of voices is the braying of donkeys,” (Luqman 31:19) she warned me. While walking, I began to recite poetry.

“Recite from the Qur’an what is easy for you!” (Muz-

zammil 73:20) was her advice. “But reciting poetry is not forbidden in Islam!” I protested. “He grants the Wisdom to whomever He wills, and whoever is granted the Wisdom has indeed been granted much good. Yet none except people of discernment reflect and are mindful” (Baqarah; 269) was her reply.

We travelled for a long while; later I asked her whether she was married. “O you who believe! Do not ask about things which, if made manifest to you, would give you trouble” (Maidah 5:101) she snapped back. Soon, we caught up with her convoy, and I asked her, “Do you know anybody in the caravan?” “Wealth and children are an adornment of the present, worldly life!” (Kahf 18:46) said she, and I realized that she had children. I asked her their names. “God accepted Ibrahim as a friend; spoke to Musa; O Yahya! Hold fast to the Book!” (Nisa 4:125, 164; Maryam 19:12) was the answer. I called towards the caravan, “O Ibrahim, O Musa, O Yahya!” Three saintly-faced youths quickly appeared. She gave them money, reciting the verse, “Send one of you to the city with this coin of yours: let him see what food is most pure there (and so lawful), and bring a supply from it. But let him behave with utmost care and guarded courtesy,” (Kahf 18:19). When her children brought the food, she recited the verse, “Eat and drink to your hearts’ content for all that you sent ahead in advance in days past” (Haqqah 69:24).

I told her children that if they would not tell me the reason why their mother talked in that way, I would not touch even the smallest part of the food. ‘Our mother,’ they said, ‘for fear that she might blurt out some foul words that would call down God’s wrath, has been speaking through the Holy Qur’an for the last forty years.’”

Abdullah bin Mubarak (d. 797 AH) was an important figure from the second generation after the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him.

Suat Erguvan is the Academic Coordinator of the Rumi Forum, Islamabad.

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Mathematics

O. Faruk Gulderen

Steadiness in the Language of Mathematics

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any people think that walking two meters is easy, as the interval between the start and the finish is so small.

Anyone who can walk half a meter with every step can cover this distance in four steps, and anyone who can walk a quarter of a meter can complete this in eight. However, it is possible that this distance could not be completed, as to do so is dependent on the steps taken. For example, if a living being moves one meter with its first step and half a meter in the following and then a quarter of a meter in the third‌ i.e., if with every step one only covers half the distance of the previous step, one will not be able to reach the final destination. As the steps taken in this way decrease by half with every step, it is not important how many steps this being takes. The distance can be covered only after infinite number of steps taken, for mathematics explains us that 1+1/2+1/4+1/8+....can only reach 2 if the series is summed to infinity.

A being that covers half the remaining distance with every step can reach its destination only if it can walk for infinity. When the ability to walk is limited, irrespective of the length of the steps taken, one will only be able to cover half the remaining distance, not the entire distance. In other words, there will always be a distance that remains to be covered. To cover more than half would be nothing less than attempting the impossible, because no be-

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ing lives long enough to do this. With every step that the being moves forward it can only cover half the distance between the location and the destination.

In the light of this mathematical perspective, we can analyze the deeds we carry out and the steps that we have already taken, and those that we will take in our journey through life that is to be carried out towards God. I wonder if the steps we have already taken are enough to acquire His love and consent at the end of the journey. Answering this question in a conclusive way is difficult, because in the end this situation depends on God’s will. Moreover, God informed us of what needs to be done when he sent the Prophets and Books. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, encouraged us to increase our steps in one of his hadith: “He whose two days are equal is at a loss.” As life passes by, we may be satisfied with our performance so far and we may be sure that we will reach our goal, but if our steps which we make for the sake of God are abating, then we are deceiving ourselves. After some time, our steps become so small as to disappear and it becomes impossible to attain our goals. There is no doubt that such a break in our actions creates a lack of progress, and this in turn induces us to take no further steps. In this saying the Prophet, peace be upon him, highlights this danger and advises us to take more steps than the day before.

In another hadith qudsi (a saying uttered by the Prophet but the meaning of which belongs to God) related to the subject, the Prophet describes how to acquire God’s love in the following manner: “My servant draws not near to Me with anything more loved by Me than the religious duties I have enjoined upon him, and My servant continues to draw near to Me with supererogatory works so that I shall love him. When I love him I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees, his hand with which he strikes and his foot with which he walks. (I protect her/him from hearing, looking at,

touching forbidden things and walking on the wrong path.” (Bukhari, Tawhid, 15) Certainly, there are occasions when we become so enthusiastic that we lose ourselves in the desire to gain the consent of God and to be reunited with God. On special days and nights and at holy times, we push ourselves; at such times we might perform supererogatory prayers. We hope that God the Almighty accepts these prayers; but if this worship is short-lived, it will not be enough to help us reach our goal. As we can understand from the above hadith, what is important is that prayers are constant. In another hadith, the narrator Abdullah bin Amr bin As reports that our Prophet, peace be upon him, told him “O Abdullah! Do not be like such and such a person who used to pray during the nights but gave up later” (Bukhari-Muslim). Again, according to a narration by Aisha, the Messenger of God, peace be upon him, carried out twelve cycles of prayer to compensate a night in which he had been unable to pray because of pain or some other reason (Muslim).

All of this shows us how important it is to be steadfast in prayer. Taking control of one’s carnal self, the believer should walk toward God with constant steps.

To attain the prosperity of the servant described in the above hadith qudsi, a person should make obligatory and supererogatory prayers a habit. Although sometimes the carnal self, nafs, and the Devil try to imprison one in hopelessness, the believer should do whatever they can in order not to lose their zeal and enthusiasm. Even if, from time to time, they stumble or fall, they should never fall into a whirlpool of despair and should not be overcome by pessimism. Thoughts about the brevity of their steps or the inadequacy of their worship should never slow the servant down nor should they be a reason for the servant turning back on the road to which they have devoted their lives. We should not forget that “our Lords’ most beloved worship is the one that is consistent, even if it is small.”

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art

Musa saracoglu

A

fter the “Sacred Word” was expressed in writing, it met with the refined taste in art. As a result of this meeting, some arts such as ebru, tezhip or illumination, and binding came into being.

Reaching maturity in the sixteenth century, when Ottoman civilization was in its brightest period, these arts paved the way for the introduction of unique works of art.

As one of Turkish national arts, ebru is carried out by transferring onto special paper a design which is formed by scattering dye on dense water. It is argued that the root of the word “ebru” is from “ebr” (cloud-like), “ab-rû” (water surface) in Persian, or “ebre” (moiréd) in Chagatai. Owing to its moiréd appearance, it is called “marmor papier,” “papier marbre,” or “marbled paper” in European languages, and “waraqu’l-mujazza” in Arabic.

The art of Ebru, which is believed to have origins in Bukhara (a city in Uzbekistan, Central Asia) in the eighth or ninth century, reached Anatolia and Istanbul via Iran along the Great Silk Road. Ebru, like other book arts, continued to develop in Istanbul, NOVeMBer / deceMBer 2009

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reached maturity in the sixteenth century, and experienced its brightest period of time in the seventeenth century. The Ebru that was produced in that period in Istanbul was enough to meet the demand from Europeans.

The oldest example of Ebru ever known is in Istanbul University Library. It is estimated that it was made before 1519. Another piece of Ebru, which is believed to have been made in 1539, is kept in Topkapı Palace, in Istanbul. It is impossible to know much about early Ebru artists, (except those from the last period of the Ottomans) because there was no tradition of adding the artist’s signature to the work in that period. Şebek Mehmet Efendi, Hatip Mehmet Efendi, Şeyh Sadık Efendi, Nafiz Efendi and Hezarfen Ethem Efendi were famous Ebru artists who lived in the Ottoman period. Names such as Necmettin Okyay, Sami Okyay, Sacit Okyay, Abdülkadir Kadri Efendi and Mustafa Düzgünman were famous Ebru artists who lived in the early Republican period.

Today, in Turkey, where the art of Ebru is becoming even more popular, there are a lot of contemporary Ebru artists.

the art of ebru, whIch Is belIeved to have orIGIns In bukhara (a cIty In uZbekIstan, central asIa) In the eIGhth or nInth century, reached anatolIa and Istanbul vIa iran along The greaT silk road. ebru, like oTher book arTs, conTinued To develop in isTanbul reached maTuriTy in The sixTeenTh cenTury, and experienced iTs brighTesT period of Time in The sevenTeenTh cenTury.

Early Ebru artists produced almost all the equipment that they used. The materials which are used are paper, kitre (a gum-like substance made of cow’s gall), a table, naphtha, an awl set, combs, dyes, and brushes.

The dye that is used in Ebru is water-proof. In traditional Ebru, soil pigments are used. The pigments are crushed on a marble base with a hand-carved stone called a “destezeng.” They are then put in a bowl, and mixed with water and gall. The mixture is left to stand for some time so that it reaches the right consistency.

The period of waiting may be from several weeks to several years according to the type and quality of the dye. Owing to the difficulty of its preparation, this technique has almost been completely replaced with using readymade products.

Ebru is categorized according to the design and the motif used. By manipulating the dye on the surface of the water, different styles of Ebru can be made such as “the tide,” “the shawl,” “the striped,” “bülbülyuvası,” (drawing spirals from outside to inside) “Hatip,” (drawing concentric circles with drops of colors) and “flowery.” Battal Ebru is made without manipulating the dye and transferred to the paper directly.

To judge the beauty of a piece of Ebru, three points should be taken into consideration. These are hav (the nap), the nimbus (hale), and the design. The nap is the height of the dye on the surface of the water. It feels velvet-like when it is touched with the fingers. The best nap can only be obtained with a soil dye. The nimbus is a white, glimmering circle around every drop of dye.

It is achieved with the gall which is added to the dye.

The design is the general appearance of the Ebru. It is composed of color distribution, coherence, form, and the location and size of motifs.

In the contemporary world, different schools of

Ebru can be distinguished. The Turkish art of Ebru is one of these styles or schools. Hundreds of Ebru artists perform Ebru in their own way.

Today, most Ebru artists practice it as an independent art. In addition, Ebru is also used with miniature, calligraphy, tezhip, and other arts such as painting.

The production of Ebru for book binding has declined in recent years.

There are different arguments about the relation between traditional and modern Ebru. While some artists are more sensitive about carrying on the traditional school, others are freer about the use of equipment and technique. It is useless to argue on which is better. There are already hundreds of Ebru artists around the world who deal with Ebru in the way they want.

Whether the work is admired or not depends on art lovers. It is probable that a technique or a school which does not attract any attention today will be demanded more in the future.

There are too few Ebru artists who have received education and license to teach from the early masters.

For that reason, the condition that every Ebru teacher should have a teaching license may restrict the art and artists. It can be understood whether one is really an Ebru artist or not, through one’s works, not just by looking at a person’s certificate. On the other hand, it would be beneficial if expert trainers could come together and determine some criteria.

The art of Ebru in today’s world has been experiencing a period of revival. Both in Turkey and in the rest of the world, there is increasing interest in Ebru. In tandem with the fact that many Ebru artists have been trained, there have arisen new techniques and schools.

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Lead Article Lead BELIEF Article

M. Fethullah Gülen Muraqaba (Self-Supervision)

One of the most important mechanisms of self-supervision is muhasaba (selfcriticism). As this method of self-control allows believers to become aware of personal faults and their causes, they can find the truth in their hearts and then display it in their conduct.

M

uraqaba has been defined as watching, supervising, controlling, and living in the consciousness of being controlled (by God). Sufis take this further, by defining it as setting one’s heart solely on God, abandoning any attachment to that which is other than Him, denying to one’s carnal self all that is forbidden, acting in the certainty that the Divine Knowledge encompasses all things, and living in accordance with Divine commandments.

We can also interpret muraqaba as trying to observe whatever God wills, and leading a life in unwavering sincerity and in the consciousness of His constant supervision. Such an attitude is possible when the servant knows that the Almighty is aware of all that he or she does, says, knows, and thinks, as stated in the Qur’an: In whatever state you may be, and whichever part of the Qur’an you recite, and whatever deed you do, We are witnesses over you when you are deeply engrossed therein (10:61).

If muraqaba means closing one’s heart to all that displeases Him and separates one from Him, and opening the spirit to receive the radiances, gifts, and favors coming from Him, then we must close what we must and open what we must. The first steps to muraqaba are to accept as great what God has decreed as great, to accept as worthless what He has decreed as worthless, and to prefer His Will and desires over our own. Thinking of the depth of God’s Mercy increases and strengthens one’s love of God and desire to worship Him, and fear and awe of Him causes one to lose any appetite for sin and to live a careful life. Muraqaba leads men and women to discard anything that harms their worship, and to maintain the purity of their thoughts, actions, and intentions even when they are alone, in the consciousness of His continual observation.

Muraqaba is one of the most important and direct ways of reaching God without a guide. It resembles the type of sainthood attained through succession to the Prophetic mission, which is conveying the Divine Message to people, without following a spiritual order. Such travelers can turn to God at any time or place in awareness of their helplessness and destitution, and be admitted to a “private meeting” with Him based on their need. They feel God’s constant supervision while they are watching nature, and so avoid whatever is other NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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than Him; they are deaf to all sounds and voices that are not related to Him; and they praise His Beauty and Grace, and regard it as useless to mention something that is not concerned with Him. As a matter of fact, if one’s eyes do not remind one of His Seeing, one’s ears of His Hearing, and one’s tongue of His Speech, how can these organs be used other than as pieces of flesh? Rumi says: God Almighty described Himself as the All-Seeing in order to warn you against evil, He described Himself as the All-Hearing to admonish you not to say anything bad, and He described Himself as the All-Knowing to inform you that He knows you and therefore to exhort you to be alert to corrupt thoughts and considerations.

Rumi regards self-supervision as a protecting screen from evil emotions, thoughts, passions, and acts, and considers it the safest way to be attentive to Divine rights.

The first step in self-supervision is voluntary submission to the Divine Will and wishes in the conviction that He is present everywhere and is aware of all our thoughts, intentions, and deeds: God is Watcher over all things (33:52). The second step is to turn to God with a heart at rest and patiently anticipate the flow of Divine gifts and blessings into one’s heart.

This does not require any physical or spiritual attachment to or relationship with a guide, or the regular

recitation of God’s Names. However, if one wishes to follow a guide and regularly recite His Names in accordance with the defined principles, it will certainly be much better. To the extent that an initiate, whether on the first or second step, can act according to the meaning of the Prophetic Tradition: “Perfect goodness is that you worship as if seeing God, for even if you do not see Him, He certainly sees you,”1 and that, always seeing himself or herself as helpless, destitute, and needy before God, believes Him to be the sole point of reliance and source of help, he or she may be traveling safely on the path of self-supervision and therefore be secure against deviation. Over time, those who follow such a path will acquire a peace of heart that will allow their conscience to remain open to Divine gifts and receive radiances from the One of Unity.

One of the most important mechanisms of self-supervision is muhasaba (self-criticism). As this method of self-control allows believers to become aware of personal faults and their causes, they can find the truth in their hearts and then display it in their conduct. In this spirit, the meaning and mystery of: Glory be to Him Who sees me, knows my place and hears my speech manifests itself. Such people know that the Divine Knowledge and Will always keep them under control and, regardless of location or action, seek only God’s pleasure by trying to act in accordance with His wishes.

Note 1. Al-Bukhari, Iman, 37; Muslim, Iman, 1.

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Culture & Society

Fatih Harpci

The Qur’an describes the miracle of baby Jesus speaking out to prove his

O

ur parents are the people who provide the most care for us in this world. Unfortunately, most of us often fail to show them the respect they deserve. There are many days set aside in societies to honor and appreciate parents; Father’s Day and Mother’s Day to name just two. Such days appear to be more an effort to make up for duties neglected.

In Monotheistic religions—when they are practiced— respecting, honoring and appreciating parents is not something that should be just one day a year, but rather on each and every day. In Islam, parents’ rights are the most venerable rights after those of God. There are many verses in the Qur’an urging Muslims to treat their parents with utmost kindness, to be grateful for the care they have provided, to obey them, and to care for them when they grow old.

Now (among the good deeds), We have enjoined on human is the best treatment towards his parents. His mother bore him in pain, and in pain did she give him birth.

The bearing of him and suckling of him (until weaned) is thirty months, When he has finally reached his full manhood and reached forty years of age, he says: “My Lord! Arouse me that I may be thankful for all Your favors (life, health, sustenance, faith, and submission, and more) that You have bestowed on me and on

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blessed mother’s chastity; when Jesus mentions God’s blessings on him, he also emphasizes the importance of being good to one’s parents: …And (God has made me) dutiful towards my mother...

(Maryam 19:32)

my parents, and that I may do good, righteous deeds with which You will be pleased, and grant me righteous offspring (so that they treat me righteously, as I treat my parents). I have turned to You, and I am one of those who have submitted to You.” Those are they from whom We will accept (their good deeds in a manner to reward them in accordance with) the best of what they ever did, and whose evil deeds We will overlook, (and include them) among the companions of Paradise. This is a true promise which they have been given (here in the world). (Ahqaf 46:15-16) One point that should be emphasized here is that while both parents are given importance, the mother ranks before the father in Islam as far as their children are concerned. Prophet Muhammad said: “Paradise lies under the feet of the mother.” However, fathers are never ignored: “The contentment of the father is the door to paradise.”

The teachings of Jesus are no different. The Qur’an describes the miracle of baby Jesus speaking out to prove his blessed mother’s chastity; when Jesus mentions God’s blessings on him, he also emphasizes the importance of being good to one’s parents: …And (God has made me) dutiful towards my mother, and He has not made me unruly, wicked. (Maryam 19:32). Also, one of the Ten Commandments says: “Honor your father and your mother” (Exodus 20:12). The word “honor” cannot only be de-

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fined as feeding parents, clothing them, and helping them get from A to B, because these are acts of charity usually reserved for homeless or poor people. “Honor” means to prize highly, show respect, glorify, or exalt.

From the very moment of conception, and as the child grows and develops it is a duty and responsibility for the parents. It is not possible to estimate the depth of attachment or compassion parents feel for their children nor to calculate the troubles or hardships they undergo as parents. For this reason, respecting the parent is not only a debt of human gratitude, it is also a religious obligation.

Those who can value their parents in the correct way and who regard them as a means for obtaining the mercy of God are the most prosperous in both worlds.

Those who, in contrast, regard their parents’ existence as a burden on themselves or who become wearied of them are unfortunate people who will inevitably suffer the severest hardships in life.

The more respectful you are to your parents, the greater the respect and awe you will feel before your Creator. Those who do not feel or show respect to their parents have no fear, awe, or respect of God. However, NOVeMBer / deceMBer 2009

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it is a curious thing that today that it is not only those who are disrespectful to God who fail to show respect to their parents, but also those who claim that they love God. As Martin Luther expressed, we must respect and love God so that we will neither look down upon our parents or superiors, nor irritate them, but rather we will honor them, serve them, obey them, love them, and value them.

The importance of respecting parents, however, extends beyond social welfare to the very welfare of society itself, as the family is the basic unit of society. Just as a body’s health is dependent on the health of the cells, so the vigor of a nation, the body politic, is directly related to the health of the families that make it up.

Families form the foundation of a society. Where there is reciprocal respect of rights and obligations within a family, the society will be healthy and strong. It is vain to look for compassion and respect in society once these have been lost.

Fethullah Gülen refers to this neglected value in the following words: How we treat our parents can be taken as an indication of how our children will learn to treat us.

Obviously, we too hope to become old. If we do not honor our parents, then in keeping with the maxim: “let the punishment fit the crime,” our children will not be dutiful towards us. If we treasure life in the Hereafter, this is an important treasure for us: let us be dutiful towards our parents and win their pleasure. However, if it is this world that we love, still let us try to please them, so that through them our life will be easy and our sustenance plentiful. If we want the mercy of the Most Merciful One, we should be merciful towards those in our house who He has entrusted to us.

There are different types of parents, but regardless of how they treat their children, they are still parents.

Parents make mistakes too, but that does not decrease their value. While we are still under parental guidance we have to follow what they want, even if it goes against our heart. When we are standing on our own two feet, then we have freedom, but we still have the responsibility to respect our parents. We have to examine the situation, rather than concentrating on our own satisfaction. We have to be kind to our parents, because most of the things they do are for us. Today it is likely that parents are more neglected than in any other period throughout history, even though modern life has provided us with more and more comforts.

Said Nursi drew attention to another aspect of the issue in his Gleams: There have been many experiences that have given me the certain conviction that, in the same way that infants are sent their sustenance in a wonderful fashion by Divine Mercy because of their impotence, flowing forth from the springs of their mothers’ breasts, so too the sustenance of the believing elderly, who have acquired innocence, is sent in the form of miraculous abundance. The part of a hadith which says, “Were it not for the elderly with their bent backs, calamities would descend on you in floods,” makes clear that a family’s source of abundance is the elderly among it, and it is the elderly who preserve the family from the visitation of calamities.

Since the weakness and powerlessness of old age are the means of attracting Divine mercy to this extent; since the wise Qur’an through the verses – Should one of them, or both, attain old age in your lifetime, do not say ‘Ugh!’ to them (as an indication of complaint or impatience), nor push them away;

and always address them in gracious words. Lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy, and say: “My Lord, have mercy on them even as they cared for me in childhood (Isra 17: 23–24),” calls children, in the most wonderfully eloquent fashion, in five ways to be kind and respectful towards their elderly parents; since the religion of Islam orders respect and compassion towards the elderly; since human nature also requires respect and compassion towards the elderly we elderly people certainly enjoy, in place of the temporary physical pleasures roused by appetites of youth, substantial, continual mercy and respect from Divine grace and human innate feelings of tenderness, and the contentment of spirit that arises from such respect and compassion. This being the case, we should not wish to exchange this old age of ours for a hundred youths.

I can tell you certainly that if they were to give me ten years of the Old Said’s youth, I would not give in exchange one year of the New Said’s old age. I am content with my old age, and you too should be content with yours.

(Twenty sixth Gleam, ninth hope) Elderly believers are more deeply aware that the true abode is the eternal one, and turn to God with sincere devotion. Therefore, they present an example to the younger generations with their piety, wisdom, and tolerance. In short, even though we respect our parents for the sake of God, observing their rights and caring for them not only leads to eternal happiness in the Hereafter, but it also provides us with such an inner peace no worldly pursuit can bring. To put it in religious terminology, abiding by the divine commands results in saadat al-darayn—happiness in both abodes.

References Adil, Furkan, Kudsi İki Varlık: Anne-Baba, İstanbul: Rehber Yayınları, 2008 Gönüllü, Ömer Said, “Ebeveyn Hukuku ve İnsan Olma,” Sızıntı, Issue: 298.

Gülen, Fethullah, Fasıldan Fasıla 3, İstanbul: Nil Yayınları, 1997.

Luther, Martin. Martin Luther’s Large and Small Catechism.

Translated by F. Benteand W.H.T. Dan. Sioux Falls, SD: Nuvision Publications, 2007.

Nursi Said, The Gleams, “Solace for the Elderly,” New Jersey: Tughra Books, 2008.

Taiwo, Niyi. Respect: Gaining It and Sustaining It. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris Corporation, 2007.

Unal, Ali, trans. The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, New Jersey: The Light, 2006.

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phys覺cs

Cendel Tuna

IF WE WANT TO COOL THE WATER, IT SHOULD BE PLACED IN THE REFRIGERATOR, BUT IF WE WANT TO TRANSFORM WATER INTO ICE, IT MUST BE PUT IN THE DEEP FREEZE. THE TEMPERATURE INSIDE THE REFRIGERATOR IS ABOVE ZERO, WHEREAS IN THE DEEP FREEZE COMPARTMENT IS BELOW ZERO. SO WHAT HAPPENS IF WE REDUCE THE TEMPERATURE OF WATER TO 0OC AND KEEP IT AT THIS TEMPERATURE?

NUCLEATION

E

very day we boil water in our homes for tea, cooking and various other reasons, and during the summer months we usually ensure that there is a constant supply of cold water in the fridge. While some of us can drink cold water direct from the refrigerator, others can only drink it lukewarm. In our daily lives, we continuously transform water, the substance that the Creator sends to provide life to everything on earth, from one form to another without even remembering the actual freezing or boiling processes; the only thing that we are aware of is the fact that if we want to cool the water, it should be placed in the refrigerator, but if we want to transform water into ice, it must be put in the deep freeze. The temperature inside the refrigerator is above zero, whereas in the deep freeze compartment is below zero. So what happens if we reduce the temperature of water to 0oC and keep it at this temperature?

If we try to fill a glass of soda without letting it overflow, we usually notice the bubbles or froth of the drink. As we fill the glass, bubbles form on the surface and these tiny bubbles grow. Reaching a certain size, the bubbles escape from the liquid surface, and vanish into the air. If we put 39

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Energy value

our finger, or a straw into the soda—as most of us did as children— we immediately notice Tendency to return that tiny bubbles of gas form Tendency to grow on the object immersed in the glass. Just like in the freezing of water or in the escape of gas from soda, a precise energy exchange occurs at the initial stage of any phase transformar r* tion. Completion of any phase transformation — freezing or Critical growth condensation (clouds transforming to rain)— is impossible without such precise energy exchange. The fact that all these For phase transformation, new phase nuclei have to phase transformation occur reach a certain level of growth. with precise energy calculations Figure-1 in the best possible temperature ranges to support life is a clear proof that nothing in the universe was created by mere coincidence, and that everything occurs by the command of the Almighty.

THERE IS AN AMAZING We know that everything in the universe obeys the minimum CALCULATION IN THE energy principle. If we want to freeze water, all we have to do is to cool it to a temperature below 0°C, and the transition from RELEASE OF ENERGY water to ice begins. Water molecules tend to gather together to OCCURRING AT form clusters. When five to ten of these molecules bond together, THE INITIAL PHASE however, a difficulty is encountered. The formation of solid-liqTRANSFORMATION. THE uid, solid-gas, or liquid-gas interfaces requires a specific amount FORMATION OF SUCH of energy. In the beginning, the surfaces of these clusters are quite CALCULATIONS, THE large as compared to their volumes such that the energy they reTRANSITION BETWEEN ceive to form an interface is much greater than the energy they release; therefore the state of minimum energy is not reached. To THE BALANCE OF BOTH explain this to you in another way: let us assume that we manufacTHE RELEASED AND ture beads for the production of costume jewelry and garments, ABSORBED ENERGY, AND and the surface of the beads requires treatment. If the beads we THE RELATION BETWEEN manufacture are smaller than the specific size, they will be more THESE OCCURRING AT expensive to treat, and therefore will not cover the costs, so only THE MOST APPROPRIATE producing beads exceeding the specific size will be profitable to the manufacturer. The main aspect here is actually the size of the beads, so if manufacturing beads which exceed the specific size is simpler and more profitable, rejecting the beads smaller than these specifications would be inevitable.

As in this example, because of their high energy value, the molecular clusters formed initially (embryos) return to a liquid form.

Then once again the particles begin to bond, but again the result is the same. An embryo must grow to a certain size for its surface area to decrease in comparison to its volume and thus reduce its energy.

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40

TEMPERATURES FOR LIFE IS CLEAR PROOF THAT NOTHING IN THE UNIVERSE WAS CREATED

BY MERE COINCIDENCE.

This is only feasible when many atoms bond, for only when a sufficient number of atoms join together does the embryo transform into a nucleus, and then begin to crystallize and eventually become solid.

Figure 1 shows the transition of homogeneous nucleation. The process called homogeneous nucleation is only possible under certain conditions: the liquid must be at a temperature of around –40 oC for both the transition in the balance of energy, and for the water molecules and atoms to become solid and bond to form a nucleus.

If we contain pure water totally motionless in the deepfreeze at approximately –8 oC, we will have supercooled water that has not yet transformed into ice; the temperature between the nucleation and the freezing points, is called supercooling. Supercooling is a metastable condition where liquid or gas remains supercooled without actually becoming frozen, but the slightest intervention or movement can cause the substance to transform into a solid. The tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide in soda is also in a metastable condition, for as soon as the bubbles have the opportunity, they escape from the liquid and vanish into the air. If we immerse a straw or finger into a glass of soda, this forms an added surface, which also facilitates a solid-gas interface, and if we add a teaspoon of sugar to the soda, this induces the drink to froth and bubble at great speed.

Water boiled in a saucepan actually nucleates on the wall of the container.

Supercooling is a metastable form of the substance.

Every substance or solution has a specific temperature value for cooling. For instance, liquid copper transforms into a solid at 1083 oC. Homogeneous nucleation requires the bonding of 310 atoms, and supercooling to approximately 236 oC. Under normal conditions, substances which have more than one type of molecule undergo phase transformation known as heterogeneous nucleation. In this case, the atoms form primarily on the walls of a container on particles of impurity, or minute solid particles in the liquid, and this significantly reduces the surface energy barrier for nucleation (Figure 2).

So for a moment let us return to the bead example.

We have discovered that instead of directly manufacturing smaller beads, it would reduce the costs of

Nucleus

Interface

Figure-2 An added surface facilitates a solid-gas interface.

decorating the surface of the beads to coat and treat larger beads, so the beads are being produced in this way, thus reducing losses.

Supercooling can occur at temperatures even as high as 2–3 oC, and this is very important. The condensation of water or supercooled water droplets in clouds must reach a specific size and weight in order to fall to the earth as raindrops. Here, the solid microscopic particles combine to form nuclei. Even if the clouds are much lower in temperature, rain cannot form without nuclei. Particles of salt which escape from the sea, sand that rises from the desert, the sulphate released from the ashes of volcanic activity or minute atoms of dimethyl sulphate emitted by certain planktons are driven into the atmosphere by the wind and form nuclei. As the Almighty, the Creator of the universe revealed in Al-Hijr, verse 22 of the Qur’an: “And We send the winds to fertilize, and so We send down water from the sky, and give it to you to drink (and use in other ways)” indicating that one of the duties of the wind is fertilization. Even the particles in smoke released irresponsibly by humans from industrial chimneys, or from car exhausts form nuclei that eventually transform into rain (Figure 3).

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Figure-3

nuclei for cloud condensation (Diameter: 2mm) 250 mm

water droplets (Diameter: 20 mm)

Typical Raindrop (Diameter: 2000 mm) The solid particles in the air serves as nuclei to form rain.

If we touched a wood frog in this condition, its cells too would freeze suddenly, and the frog would die. It is impossible for a frog to know how to cool to the point of freezing, and nucleate. It is also impossible for a frog to adapt to such a mechanism because this would require practice and experience, which would of course be deadly.

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42

During the foundry process, solid substances are added to liquid metals for certain purposes, such as enabling metal to set more rapidly, or increasing the metal’s durability. When liquid metal is cooled, its atoms form nuclei on microscopic solid impurities. These nuclei increase in size and assemble into groups called grains. The irregular zone between these groups is known as the grain boundary.

The grain boundary forces the compressed atoms to move and weld, thus increasing the durability of the metal. This method known as infusion or grain contraction ensures an increase in the formation of nuclei, and also in the durability of the metal. Cloud seeding, a topic which mainly comes to light when there is a lack of rain, is actually inducing the clouds to form artificial nuclei that will in turn produce rain.

Some creatures on earth protect themselves with mechanisms bestowed by their Creator, and one of these creatures is the wood frog.

As the water in its cells begins to freeze, the antigel protein found in its blood surrounds the formation of nuclei, and prevents the nuclei from increasing in size. The frog remains frozen and motionless until the temperature increases. If we touched a wood frog in this condition, its cells too would freeze suddenly, and the frog would die. It is impossible for a frog to know how to cool to the point of freezing, and nucleate. It is also impossible for a frog to adapt to such a mechanism because this would require practice and experience, which would of course be deadly. Therefore, is the frog’s ability to freeze, and its process of nucleation not a clear indication of the providence and blessing of God the Almighty?

ph覺losophy of sc覺ence

Ali Sebetci

the modern conceptualization OF THE SCIENCES implies that theories, doctrines, and principles concerning non-observable realities cannot be scientific. A natural consequence of this is to be skeptical about metaphysical realities in the belief that the absolute reality is the physical one.

W

e believe it is not emphasized today as much as it should be that traditional conceptualizations of sciences, whether Islamic or not, were very different from the way modern sciences are currently conceptualized. Most of us assume that humankind is continually improving in its knowledge of existence and thinking so as to understand reality as the ages pass. This may be true, especially when the detailed information of physical reality gathered and the level of technology reached with the help of the modern scientific method are considered. However, it is usually missed by modern minds that there is a crucial difference between the modern and tradi43

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tional conceptualization of sciences which veils the significance of traditional sciences in the contemplation of the Absolute Reality. In this article, we would like to try to cast some light on this difference from the Islamic point of view, which is the last manifestation of all the traditional ones.

Starting with the following classification of the sciences laid out in Shams al-Din Muhammed al-Amuli’s Nafa’is al-Funun (Precious Elements of the Sciences), a treatise written during the fifteenth century, may be helpful to reveal this point1: Sciences The theoretical aspects of what we call positive Non-philosophical Philosophical sciences today (physics, Non-religious Religious Practical Theoretical chemistry, biology, mediMetaphysical Individual Intellectual cine, geology, astronomy, Mathematics Ethics Transmitted cosmology, etc.) were all called natural philosophy Natural philosophy Collective not only by Islamic scholEconomics ars but also by the scienPolitics tists, philosophers, and theologians of other traditions up to the Age of Enlightenment, and that type of science was considered In the Islamic a lower science in the hierarchy of existence. The intermediate science was conceptualization mathematics, which included music, while metaphysics occupied the place of sciences, the of the highest science. Not only philosophy, ethics, economics, and politics but also intellectual and transmitted religious studies are covered by the Isnatural sciences lamic conceptualization of sciences. The classification of sciences was always possessed a place considered to be important in Islamic tradition and many Muslim scholars in the hierarchy have provided different classifications.2 The essential point here is that all the Islamic classifications of sciences, as in this specific one, were based on the of knowledge so Islamic doctrine that there is a hierarchy of existence (and therefore knowlthat there were no edge) from Unity to multiplicity, from the Divine Names and Qualities to contradictions each creature on a particular level of existence, and from the Meta-cosmic Reality to the cosmos consisting of the seven heavens and the earth which between them and is nothing but the manifestation of the Meta-cosmic Reality. Therefore, all religion. The history sciences, in the Islamic conceptualization, were means of gaining this kind of Islamic sciences of knowledge. is full of striking In contrast, the modern conceptualization of the sciences is subservient to the idea that reality can only be examined by its highly specific and reexamples of success stricted experimental method. Thus, the modern conceptualization implies, ın varıous scıences. due to this method, that theories, doctrines, and principles concerning nonobservable realities cannot be scientific. A natural consequence of this way of thinking is to be skeptical about metaphysical realities in the belief that the absolute reality is the physical one. From this point of view, therefore, neither religion nor metaphysics are accepted as scientific disciplines. Although there are some departments such as politics, economics, and ethics under the umbrella of humanities and arts, the traditional occult sciences such as astrology, alchemy, magic, and the interpretation of dreams cannot find a place in modern universities, in spite of the fact that their derivatives are still alive in both traditional and modern societies. At this point it may be illustraNOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

44

tive to remind the reader of the following verses of the Qur’an: “Thus, did We establish Joseph in the land (Egypt), that We would impart to him knowledge and understanding of the inner meaning of events, including dreams” (Yusuf 12:21), “Solomon never disbelieved. Rather, the satans disbelieved, teaching people sorcery and the (distorted form of the) knowledge that was sent down on Harut and Marut, the two angels in Babylon. And they (these two angels charged with teaching people some occult sciences such as breaking a spell and protection against sorcery) never taught them to anyone without first warning, ‘We are a trial, so do not disbelieve’” (AlBaqarah 2:102), which can be interpreted as evidence of the existence of such sciences, although the Qur’an itself condemns those And (yet) they learned from them (the two angels) that by which they might divide a man and his wife. But (though they wrongly attributed creative power to sorcery, in fact) they could not harm anyone thereby save by the leave of God. And they learned what would harm them, not what would profit them. Assuredly, they knew well that he who bought it (in exchange for God’s Book) will have no share in the Hereafter. How evil was that for which they sold their selves; and if only they had known. (2:102) In the Islamic conceptualization of sciences, the natural sciences possessed a place in the hierarchy of knowledge so that there were no contradictions between them and religion. The whole worldview was religious and this perspective provided sufficient space for the cultivation of positive sciences yet in the guidance of metaphysical principles from a higher level of knowledge. The history of Islamic sciences is full of striking examples of success, from the modern scientific perspective, in cosmology, geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, medicine, pharmacology, agriculture, and irrigation, any of which could be the topic of a future article. This is why, as people learn even more natural sciences, they believe more in those times. That is why most of the greatest Muslim scientists were distinguished philoso-

phers and theologians at the same time. They are those who the Qur’an identifies in the phrase, “Of all His servants, only those possessed of true knowledge stand in awe of God” (Fatir 35:28).

It is because of the modern conceptualization of sciences that religion and science are separated from each other and have become strangers on the assumption that they have their own realms to speak about.3 The roots of this way of thinking goes back to Descartes (1596–1650): “Descartes, who appeared with the thesis that ‘metaphysics cannot be a science,’ said that knowledge can only be obtained by the investigation of measurable and divisible things and he limited the question of science to only matter; since that time the followers of Cartesian philosophy have always talked in a similar way.”4 Yet, both religion and science try to find answers to the questions of who we are, what the meaning of life is, where we come from, and where we are going to. We cannot imagine any technological advancement which satisfies these eternal concerns of humanity which reflect its relation to eternity.

By definition, the modern sciences have bound themselves to the existence of a finite and relative reality. Their methodology is very effective and there is nothing wrong with it unless it is utilized for abusing natural sources or any other form of corruption. Those sciences may even provide some clues about the higher level of existence as in the case of quantum mechanics which has destroyed the deterministic worldview of classical (Newtonian) physics. However, to our mind, there is a problem with the modern conceptualization of sciences which does not accept any notion of the hierarchy of existence nor any means of studying and investigating those levels of reality.

Dr. Ali Sebetci is an Assistant Professor of Computational Chemical Physics, Zirve University Gaziantep, Turkey.

Notes 1. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Science, An Illustrated Study, World of Islam Festival Publishing Company Ltd, 1976.

2. Bakar, Osman. Classification of Knowledge in Islam, Islamic Texts Society, 1999.

3. Edis, Taner. An Illusion of Harmony: Science and Religion in Islam, Prometheus Books, 2007.

4. www.herkul.org, Kırık Testi, September 12, 2005.

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Religion

Ahmet Cetinkaya

M

aryam, or Mary, is the only woman mentioned by name in the Holy Qur’an. She is mentioned in twelve chapters of the Qur’an, a total of thirty-four times. But even more important than the number of times her name is used is the fact that she was mentioned in verses of the Qur’an from different periods of the revelation. Interestingly, she is mentioned by name only nineteen times in the New Testament.

Mary was given her name by her mother. Her name has been said to mean “the one who does not want, one who departs” or “the servant,” but the opinion that the name Mary means “one who worships” in the Aramaic language1 seems more suitable.

The guardianship of Zachariah Mary’s honorable family upbringing, the fact that she was a chosen person, and her many outstanding virtues are emphasized frequently in both the Qur’an and hadith.

However, the verses of the Qur’an alone are more than sufficient to explain her superiority as a woman. Firstly, she came from an honorable family, a father as noble as Imran and a mother so memorable and devoted that her prayers were accepted by God. Mary was the fruit of a NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

46

Whenever Zachariah went in to her in the Sanctuary, he found her provided with food. ‘Mary,’ he asked, ‘how does this come to you?’ ‘From God,’ she answered.

Truly God provides to whomever He wills without reckoning”(Al Imran 3:37). It is also known that after giving birth to baby Jesus, she was miraculously provided with the blessing of fresh dates and water.

devoted mother’s prayer and because of her oath she was entrusted to a holy sanctuary at a very young age.

When her father Imran died,2 Mary was still only a young girl and many asked for the honorable duty of her guardianship, but this duty was bestowed upon Prophet Zachariah3 in an event that was revealed in the Holy Qur’an: “(O Messenger:) that is of the tidings of the things of the unseen (the things that took place in the past and have remained hidden from people with all their truth), which We reveal to you, for you were not present with them when they drew lots with their pens about who should have charge of Mary; nor were you present with them when they were disputing (about the matter)” (Al Imran 3:44). The Qur’anic verse which describes how Mary’s sustenance comes to her is immediately followed by a supplication from Zachariah that clearly indicates that he was growing old and was slowly becoming incapable of looking after Mary adequately. This is the most likely reason for the weak reports claiming that the person who was blessed with her guardianship was a priest called Juraich4 or a member of her family called Joseph,5 but these reports have no authority, for God revealed in the Qur’an that Mary was living under the education and care of Zachariah.6 Mary was blessed with sustenance from God Zachariah made Mary a sanctuary7 in the temple so she could be more occupied with daily worship.8 During the period that Mary lived at the temple under the guidance of Zachariah, she was exceptionally blessed with sustenance from God. The Qur’an informs us that every time Zachariah went to see Mary, there would be lovely fruits in her room: “Whenever Zachariah went in to her in the Sanctuary, he found her provided with food. ‘Mary,’ he asked, ‘how does this come to you?’ ‘From God,’ she answered. Truly God provides to whomever He wills without reckoning”(Al Imran 3:37).9 It is also known that after giving birth to baby Jesus, she was miraculously provided with the blessing of fresh dates and water. A similar event is reported for Fatima, the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter.10 There is no information about Mary’s life before the angel came giving Mary the glad tidings of Jesus’s birth. But the books of Apocrypha (accounts rejected by the Church) convey the blessing of sustenance bestowed upon Mary. However, the Apocrypha give some information about the earlier period of Mary’s life, including predictions as to where she was born and even estimations regarding the date of 47

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And (in due time came the moment) when the angels said: “Mary, God has chosen you and made you pure, and exalted you above all the women in the world. “Mary, be devoutly obedient to your Lord, prostrate and bow (in the Prayer and devotion to Him) with those who bow!”(Al Imran 3:42–43) NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

48

her birth. The Protoevangelium, one of the books of Apocrypha, contains some additional information which is not found in the canonical scriptures (those accepted by the Church).

The Sanctuary and sense of servitude While she increased her worship with every day that passed, the period that Mary was under the care of Zachariah continued with God’s special protection and sustenance. This particular characteristic is mentioned in the Qur’an: “And (in due time came the moment) when the angels said: “Mary, God has chosen you and made you pure, and exalted you above all the women in the world. “Mary, be devoutly obedient to your Lord, prostrate and bow (in the Prayer and devotion to Him) with those who bow!”(Al Imran 3:42–43).11 The words of the Creator’s purification of Mary—“God’s purification”— have been interpreted in various ways as referring to spiritual, moral, or physical purification. Some said that this means “purification from disbelief and sin,” while others claim this means “purification from menses following birth, all kinds of physical defect and contact with males,” and most scholars say the words “chosen above women of all nations” refers to all the women of her era,12 and though the physical actions of worship are stressed in this verse, more important is the fact that Mary abided by both the command of worship, “be devoutly obedient to your Lord, prostrate and bow (in the Prayer and devotion to Him) with those who bow!” and the spirit of worship deep in her soul: “And also Mary, the daughter of ‘Imran, who kept herself chaste (body and soul), so We breathed into it out of Our Spirit, and who affirmed the truth of the words of her Lord, and His Books; and she was of those devoutly obedient to God” (At-Tahrim 66:12).

The Qur’an also bears witness to Mary being a woman of “truth”13 in many verses.

Mary’s superiority to all women The verse in the Qur’an about Mary being superior to all other women (Al Imran 3:42–43) has been referred to in most commentaries as well as various reports of hadith found in the Tisa Qutubi. About the many virtues of Mary, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said:

1. “The best of the women in the world is Mary (in her lifetime),14 and the best of the women in the world is Khadijah (in her lifetime).” (Bukhari, Muslim) 2. “Many among men attained perfection, but among women none attained perfection except Mary the daughter of Imran, and Asiya the wife of Pharaoh; and the superiority of Aisha to other women is like the superiority of Tharid (an Arabic dish) to other meals.”

(Bukhari, Muslim) 3. “There is no new-born except that (at the moment of birth) Satan disturbs him, so he begins to cry from Satan’s disturbance with the exception of the son of Mary and his mother.” (Bukhari, Muslim) 4. “Of all the women in the universe, four would suffice (as an example for others): Mary, Asiya, Khadija, and Fatima.” (Tirmidhi, Ahmad b. Hanbal) 5. “The best of the women of Paradise are Khadijah, Fatima, Asiya and Mary.” (Ahmad b. Hanbal) 6. “Fatima is the leader of the women of Paradise after Mary.” (Tirmidhi, Ahmad b. Hanbal) 7. “The best women among the camel riders, are the women of Quraish.” (Another narrator said) The Prophet said, “The righteous among the women of Quraish are those who are kind to their young ones and who look after their husband’s property,” (Bukhari, Muslim) and this hadith is followed up in many cases by a report from Abu Hurairah who said, “Mary the daughter of Imran never rode a camel,” stressing the virtues of Mary. According to Imam Nawawi and Ibn Hajar, Abu Hurairah’s aim was not actually to stress the fact that Mary never rode a camel but was just an expression of his praise of Mary’s virtues,15 or another explanation of these words could be, “It does not mean that a woman who rides a camel is righteous because Mary was a righteous woman even though she never rode a camel.”

As we see from these hadith the interpreters and scholars have varying opinions on the order of arrangement of the superiority of these women, but the most interesting aspect of these hadith is that although the other names may change, Mary is the only person who is mentioned in all the given examples of these hadith, and this should be sufficient to show her unmatched excellence.

Mary’s being among those named by the Prophet The narrations stated above have led some scholars to believe that there is a possibility of the existence of female prophets. There has been various opinions sup-

porting the idea that female prophets may have been sent and asking whether Mary the mother of Jesus was a Prophet or not. The opinion of scholars who believe Mary may have been a Prophet is based on the fact that Mary’s name is mentioned in the Qur’an among the Prophets: “Those were some of the Prophets on whom God did bestow his grace of the posterity of Adam and of those whom we carried (in the Ark) with Noah and of the posterity of Abraham and Israel—of those we guided and chose”(Mary 19:58), and also on the angel bringing the revelation of tidings and the benevolence provided to Mary from the creator, and the fact that she was a chosen person above all women purified through the grace of God as a “woman of perfection,” and “leader in Paradise”16 all led these scholars to believe that Mary could possibly be a messenger. However, the general opinion accepted by most scholars is that women were not sent to the world as prophets.17 There are some Christian theologians who claim that Mary was a prophet. The Christian opinion in general is that she was superior to other women and saints but not superior to Jesus. Mary has been widely praised in Christian literature for her obedience, patience, modesty, piety, faith, hope, compassion, dignity and many other virtues.

Mary: the monument of chastity The Qur’an clearly explains in this verse how Mary conceived Jesus: And (remember) when the angels said: “Mary, God gives you the glad tidings of a Word from Him, to be called the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary" highly honored in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those nearstationed to God. He will speak to people in the cradle and in manhood, and he is of the righteous. "Lord," said Mary, “how shall I have a son seeing no mortal has ever touched me?” “That is how it is,” he (the Spirit who appeared before her) said, (quoting God): “God creates whatever He wills; when He decrees a thing, He does but say to it ‘Be!’ and it is.”(Al Imran 3:45–47) The chapter Mary (19:16–33) of the Qur’an gives an extensive version of the conception, the birth and the events that followed the birth of baby Jesus. Furthermore, God the Almighty reveals how He located Mary and her son Jesus, whom He sent as an example to humans, in a prosperous place on high land with flowing streams and bestowed upon Jesus the divine benevolence He had bestowed upon his mother: “O Jesus son of Mary! O Jesus, son of Mary! Remember 49

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My favor upon you and upon your mother” (Al-Maeda 5:110).

There are various reports and comments specifically referring to Mary’s conception of Jesus and the miraculous birth in the interpretations and explanations of hadith which exceed the limits of this article.

The embryologic phase of Mary’s pregnancy was just like any other pregnant woman: she conceived, the baby grew in her womb, and when the contractions began she made her way to the vicinity of the date tree behind a flowing stream and then gave birth. But how did the pregnancy and this embryological process actually begin? This question resembles a parcel holding the mysteries of this miraculous event.

So in brief, Mary was a true monument of chastity and, even though she was a virgin, conceived in a miraculous way. The fact that Mary guarded both her dignity and chastity is emphasized in the following verses of the Qur’an: “And (mention) that blessed woman who set the best example in guarding her chastity. We breathed into her out of Our Spirit, and We made her and her son a miraculous sign (of Our Power and matchless way of doing things) for all the worlds.”

(Al-Anbiya 21–91), “And also Mary, the daughter of Imran, who kept herself chaste (body and soul), so We breathed into it out of Our Spirit, and who affirmed the truth of the words of her Lord, and His Books; and she was of those devoutly obedient to God.” (At-Tahrim 66:12).

As a matter of fact, the Qur’an tells us that great disaster and punishment await those who speak unfavorably about Mary, for whatever they say against her chastity and dignity is slander, and their hearts are sealed to faith.

Mary’s death and burial There is no account in the Qur’an or hadith of Mary’s death or burial, so details and information related to the topic are generally based on Christian sources or historical literature. Not included in the synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke), Mary’s attending the miracle of Cana (John 2:11) and the event of the crucifix (John 19:25–27) were only reported in the book of John; she prayed with Jesus and his disciples in the Acts (1:14) following his resurrection, but there is no mention of the remaining period of her life, her death, age, or appearance in any of the gospels.

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It is estimated that Mary must have been around fifty years old at the time of Jesus’ passing and there are varying reports regarding her own death; some say she was fifty-six, while there are other reports of her being seventy or even seventy-two. The questions of where and how she died have been topics of discussion and dispute for centuries, but the fact that she carried on throughout her life in sincere devotion and worship of God is much more suitable for her general profile.

Although there is no information on Mary’s place of burial in Christian sources, there are different views.

Some say she was buried in Jerusalem, whereas others say it could have been in Ephesus or Antioch. Although there is no specific grave associated with Mary in Ephesus, there are graves said to be that of Mary which are in churches, one in the Jehosaphat valley between the Mount of Olives and Mount Temple and another in Gethsemani. There are some claims that her grave is on the mountain of Sion, and a Syrian history writer claims that her grave is situated in Al-Faradis in Damascus.18 Notes 1. Zamahshari, I, 142; Bagawî, I, 295; Baydâwî, II, 31.

2. Hâkim, Mustadrak II, 646; Tabarî, III, 235; Zamahshari, I, 142.

3. See Al Imran 3:37, 44. Also Ibn Hisham, III, 121; Tabari, III, 242-244.

4. Ibn Hisham, III, 121.

5. Ibn Kathir, Bidayah II, 68; Alusi, III, 165, XVI, 80.

6. See Al Imran 3:37. Also see: Tabari, III, 242-244; Qurtubi, IV, 71-86.

7. Mihrab is the original Qur’anic word. A bit different than its meaning today, mihrab in this context refers to a place “where one lives and prays, a most honorable place, where one strives against the carnal self.”

8. Tabari, III, 245; Wahidi, I, 208; Baydawi, II, 34.

9. See also Tabari, III, 244-246; Baqawi, I, 297; Fahruddin ar-Razi, VI, 283.

10. Zamahshari, I, 143; Ibn Kathir, I, 361.

11. See also New Testament, Luke 1:26–28; 41–42.

12. Tabari, III, 262-264; Vahidi, I, 210.

13. Al- Maidah 5:75. The word “Truth” means trustworthy, of truthful speech pious in faith and religion. Ibn Manzur, “sd-k” (X, 193) 14. Scholars like Qadi Iyaz and Qurtubi understood the meaning of these words as “superior to all women on the earth.”

15. Navawi, XVI, 80; Ibn Hajar, VI, 473-474, IX, 125.

16. Navawi, XV, 198; Ayni, XV, 308.

17. Navawi, XV, 198; Baydawi, II, 38; Ibn Kathir, II, 82; Ayni, XV, 308. Those who support this view usually refer to this verse: “We did not send before you as Messengers any but men to whom We revealed, from amongst the people of the townships (where We raised them)” (Yusuf 12:109).

18. Ibn Asakir, Tarih al-Dimashk II, 337, 411.

HEALTH & MEDICINE

Sebnem Unlu

T

he fine balance and order seen in living beings provides us with clues and directions as to which behavior is most appropriate. Socially acceptable behavior may differ from one culture to another; however, there are universal principles and values which are part of a balanced behavior and attitude in any given situation.

We shall not dwell in detail on each of the great human virtues which distinguish human beings from all other creatures.

However, one can gain a great deal of insight from studying deviated or unbalanced behavior, specifically in the context of living entities. A field of biology that has recently been recognized as “Systems Biology” is the detailed study of how an entire system is accommodated and “corrected” when there are deviations from “the most beneficial state.” These deviations consist of either a loss or an excess of a functional element within that system.

Systems biology The universe around us is a place for exhibiting and training our skills and abilities; it is here that we are taught the lessons we need to learn during our journey through life. Looking at the mechanisms by which biological systems work

Just as all the parts of a tree are directed towards producing the fruit, every part of the universe is directed towards and subjugated for human kind. It is as if the human being lies at the nexus of all other systems in the universe, as if it is connected to and is being served by every other existing system.

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we can see that events occur at exactly the time they are required to and that there is a purposeful and meaningful logic in the exact sequence of events. In how events take place one can see perfect order and a great deal of knowledge and wisdom. In fact, the human mind is awestruck by the orchestra of events that simultaneously takes place with the utmost precision and accuracy. Hence, the perspective provided by “Systems Biology” is an alternative to the reductionist viewpoint that accepts causality as the basis of understanding and explaining living systems.

One can see that when an event takes place in space and time it is not isolated, nor is it a part of a simple cause-effect mechanism. The inter-relation and connection of each event with every other event that occurs within a cell is a perfect example of such a system. This aspect of living biological systems gives us insights into the far-reaching consequences of our daily actions. On the surface, our daily actions may seem to be unconnected, irrelevant, and perhaps even meaningless; however, in reality our actions have a global effect on this universe. Just as all the parts of a tree are directed towards producing the fruit, every part of the universe is directed towards and subjugated for human kind, the fruit of the universe. It is as if the human being lies at the nexus of all other systems in the universe, as if it is connected to and is being served by every other existing system. As a result, all other systems in the universe are somehow connected to us. This means that our actions will have much greater consequences than we ever imagined, thus placing on our shoulders duties and responsibilities far greater and above all other creatures. Therefore, we are accountable for all our actions.

Cancer as a distorted state of cellular behavior In systems biology, the changing of one component of the system, for example, an excess or a deficiency from the optimal (most balanced, most appropriate and the most beneficial) quantity, will lead to dramatic changes in all other components within that system. A disease can be defined as a state of affairs that has one or more components of the system that is being modified or changed in some manner. In this case, we shall take the example of cancer. The development of cancer in the human body is multi-stepped and it may take several years before the cancer is detected by modern technology. In fact, cancer begins when there is an error at the molecular level that is not put right, deep inside the cell. This error can be a single mutation in the reference manuals or “codes” called genes, or it can be another factor NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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that is either inadequate or excessive. This mutation can happen in many ways; but why does it happen? There certainly must be an important reason for it happening.

If we choose to understand the message then we will see that one of the purposes of this change could be to enable us to learn from the consequences of our actions.

How is this so? One only truly appreciates a system when it no longer functions properly. Hence, we can see that cancer may be the consequence of a single mistake that has not been corrected in one gene. This means that a single mistake can be amplified in such a way that it affects the entire being, and this is only because each event is connected to every other event.

Understanding this will enable us to become more aware of our actions and to think more about their consequences before we act.

The connection between faith, moral virtue and the biological entity In a healthy individual, cancer cells are always being created, however, they are immediately destroyed by specialized immune cells. The formation of full-blown cancerous tissue happens when the initial cancer cell is not destroyed. This clearly indicates that the health of the individual depends on the ability to destroy the cancer cell in the first instance. The tolerance or acceptance of the cancer cell as a healthy cell only occurs when the immune cells required for the destruction of the cancer cell are not activated or sensitized. In a similar manner, the moral and spiritual integrity of an individual depends on how aware they are of their mistakes, or indeed, whether they recognize their mistakes as mistakes. This is exactly the same process that is referred to as repentance in the three monotheistic religions. The one who repents feels remorse for their sins/mistakes and turns toward The One who will forgive sins. In an ideal society, this process is manifested as actively and strategically forbidding evil (or injustice) and advocating good, as without this process, without the application of good social justice will spread.

When the ability to recognize or sense a mistake is lost in an individual, then the person concerned will fail to regret any mistakes they make and begin to think all their actions are correct. Such a negative process is a delusion which leads the individual to think that they never commit any mistakes. The consequence of this process is a downward spiral in moral values and accountability of the individual and can be directly likened to a biological system that has allowed the growth of cancer. The individual who has committed many mistakes

and who is oblivious or neglectful in repairing or making up for these mistakes is like a cancer cell that disrupts the entire tissue in which they are found. Unaccounted for (or unrepaired or mis-repaired) mistakes that have not been regretted will have great repercussions not only on the individual but on the entire community in which they live. These mistakes become part of a vicious cycle of events that lead the individual to even more excessive or deficient behavior, such as ingratitude, disrespect or prejudice. The individual becomes unaware of other systems around them, and becomes oblivious of the rights and needs of others, eventually acquiring arrogance, avarice, insolence, and finally turning into a vicious but weak monster that not only hurts itself but also others.

In a similar vein, the cancer cell can be likened to an individual who feels no remorse and no sense of urgency when a mistake or a sin is committed. The genetic mutations or unrepaired error(s) in cancer cells lead to loss of sensitivity of the environment. Cancer cells have many defects in the specific DNA repair mechanisms, therefore there is a high degree of chromosome instability in these cells.1 Furthermore, they are not affected by the signals that affect healthy cells, because all the check points in these cells have become desensitized. They are extremely aggressive cells that invade the tissues in the surrounding areas around them and rob the tissues of their primary resources. The cancer cells also do not die in the same way that healthy cells are discharged from duty. Cancer cells explode and die, thereby disrupting the entire system even more, while death in healthy cells is very organized and does not disturb the system.2 The degree of sensitivity of an individual to the validity of their actions depends on their conscientious understanding of what is right or appropriate and what is not.

This is directly dependent on their reference point. If the reference point is from an all-seeing, all-knowing, and allhearing source (i.e. a source that has the ability to see all the systems at once), then they can be sure that their action will be appropriate. Any other reference point that does not have a connection to this source is bound to mislead or lead to inadequate action under given conditions.

Similarly, the behavior of healthy cells is such that it is appropriate (or, as biologists would say, optimal) for the rest of the systems it is connected with. Hence, the events that place in a given cell are complementary and productive for the specific condition or configuration in space and time. When there is an error in any of the events or processes, it can be repaired, but when there is no error,

growth continues. This indicates that the cell must have unity and a complementary nature with every other system in space and time in order to sustain health.

On the other hand, in a spiritually and biologically healthy individual, mistakes are repaired and are not long-lived, just like in the healthy cells that work unceasingly for the benefit of the being in which they are found. They respond to all their own needs as well as to those around them, they are not oblivious of others and they respect the individual rights of the people in their lives, especially the ones who have given the most to them, for example, parents, family, and friends. The balanced individual learns from the mistakes they commit, and they take care not to commit them again. In this way, as each action is connected to all the other actions of other entities, this individual becomes a means of an amplifying, productive cycle that has far-reaching consequences for the entire community.

The human being is brought into this world pure and with a perfect constitution. However, each individual's unrefined ego must be trained so it can acquire the ability to recognize the mistakes that will interrupt its connection with the rest of the universe. These mistakes can only be recognized through great virtues like faith and knowledge of the Creator, knowledge of the self, gratitude, honesty, trustworthiness, sincerity, and humility, as well as perseverance in the face of adversity. It as if one who has been given these values can take the correct precautions to prevent any possible spiritual contamination, just as in a healthy biological system.

Hence, faith enables a believer to behave in conjunction and in harmony with the myriad of systems in the visible and invisible universe with which it is connected. On the other hand, having unconscious faith or a lack of belief means all these connections have now been destroyed or are not strong enough. This isolates the individual from the multi-dimensional system of which it is part, finally leading to the self-destruction of the individual.

Sebnem Unlu, PhD, is a Research Faculty at University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, USA.

Note 1. R.A. Weinberg. The Biology of Cancer, Garland Science, 2006, p. 458., 2. In cancer cells, programmed cell death, which is the mode of cell death in all healthy cells, is prevented. This means the mode of cell death in these cells will be another type of cell death, such as "necrosis," where the cell explodes to release its contents, thereby disturbing the cells all around it.

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BOOK REVIEW

Jeannette Okur

Schooling Islam Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education edited by Robert W. Hefner and Muhammad Qasim Zaman

M

oroccan preschoolers acquiring the basics of reading, writing and Qur’an memorization in state-funded kuttabs… Turkish high school students meeting with mentors in private homes after school to prepare for science, math and tafsir (Qur’anic interpretation) competitions… Students at Indonesia’s State Islamic Institutes (IAIN), fulfilling divisional studies requirements in Islamic history and contextualizing methodologies for the study of Islam, as well as coursework on democracy, civil society, and human rights before teaching at one of the country’s 10,000 pesantrens (Islamic boarding schools) or 37,000 madrasas… Young adults of Muslim background “rediscovering” their religion (after varying levels of formal education) and recent converts attending informal and semi-structured programs of learning that have been organized around key religious authorities in Great Britain... According to Schooling Islam (2007), these are only four snapshots of the diverse types of Islamic education being pursued by Muslim citizens in the world today. Nonetheless, since the Taliban seized Kabul in 1996, the Western public has grappled not with the relationship of Islamic education to regional and global developments in economy, educational policy, instructional technology, or interfaith dialogue, but rather with its relationship to radical Islam. Media reports tend to paint madrasas – religious schools dedicated to Islamic learning (or, in Arabic, simply “places of learning”) – as medieval institutions opposed to all that is Western and as breeding grounds for terrorists. Others have claimed that without reforms, Islam and the West are doomed to a clash of civilizations.

Fortunately, the contributors to Schooling Islam (2007), eleven internationally renowned scholars brought together by Robert Hefner and Muhammad Qasim ZaNOVEMBER september//DECEMBER october 2009 2009

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man to examine the different modes of modern Muslim education and their implications for national and global politics, provide new insights into Muslim culture and politics in countries as different as Morocco, Egypt, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Mali, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Great Britain. The authors demonstrate that Islamic education is neither timelessly traditional nor “medieval,” but rather that it is complex, evolving, and diverse in its institutions and practices. Citing historical instances of pedagogical reform and attesting to a flexible list of texts and subjects used in religious instruction – (most notably, Arabic grammar and lexicography, rhetoric, logic, Islamic jurisprudence, the prophetic traditions (ahadith), Qur’anic interpretation (tafsir), theology (kalam), pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and Islamic history, economics, politics and sociology, and modern adaptations of “customs and common usages” – ‘urf and ‘adat - including world religions, European history and languages) – they convincingly challenge the hyperbolic assertion that Islamic education deadens all sense of inquiry. Moreover, they reveal the extent to which the struggle to capture hearts and minds occurred in Muslim lands before the Western media discovered the madrasas, as well as the degree to which Islamic schools remain on the frontline of regional and national debates surrounding culture and politics. Finally, they unanimously conclude that the present struggle, which is concerned with both the political functionalization and the internal dynamics of Islamic education, will shape a generation of young Muslims and their relations with the West.

In his introduction to the volume, Robert Hefner remarks that the reform of Islamic education was given momentum by the decline of Muslim political power: “In colonial settings, Islamic schools were function-

alized to sustain Muslim values and ‘ulama social standing, even in the absence of a Muslim-led state.

After the Second World War, national independence seemed at first to offer Muslim educators an opportunity to relax their guard. But postcolonial nationbuilding only ushered in new struggles to control the commanding heights of public ethics and culture. This was no more forcefully the case than [in debates] on the question of where Islam should figure in new programs of mass education” (p.32). Recalling the resurgence of personal piety and public observance which swept through many Muslim societies in the 1970’s and 1980’s, and citing contemporary examples, like the increased involvement of the Egyptian ‘ulama in politics in response to the regime’s efforts to co-opt alAzhar scholars, as well as the politicization of Pakistani madrasas, particularly during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, Hefner states that the primary question today as regards Islamic education “is not whether it should be drawn up into broader political projects (functionalized), but whose projects they should be and how they should engage the plurality of peoples, powers, and ideas that marks our age” (p.33).

According to Hefner, a second line of reflection that emerges in the chapters of Schooling Islam concerns the internal dynamics of Islamic education rather than its functionalization. Indeed, a number of authors discuss how the rise of modern Islamic education has brought about a shift in the distribution and style of Islamic knowledge. The earlier pattern of informality and, in Louis Brenner’s phrase, “initiatic transmission” gave way to classrooms, fixed curricula, examinations, and professional teachers. In these relatively depersonalized settings, many believers came to view their faith as “a subject which must be ‘explained’ and ‘understood”’ (Eickelman 1992, 650) on the basis of formal doctrinal canons. The transmission of Islamic knowledge was abstracted from intimate teacher-student relationships, with their habits of dress, bearing, and deference, and repositioned in classrooms and quick-read textbooks (see Berkey, chpt.2). More recently, as debates over Islamic knowledge have moved from elite circles into restless, mobile and ever-more technologically savvy mass societies, the authority base of teachers in live classrooms and that of print textbooks have begun to be challenged by participants in virtual chat rooms and producers of YouTube video clips, who argue an increasingly diverse set of views. Many of the latest shifts

in the internal dynamics of Islamic education – such as Muslims’ increasing reliance on electronic Qur’anic devices, online sermons, and instructional hajj videos, the integration of nasheed, “Islamic rap,” religious cartoons and children’s books in Islamic weekend school curricula, the emergence of international dawah conferences and online fatwa resources, and the recent (2004) establishment of the International Alliance of the ‘Ulama – have not yet been sufficiently examined by scholars of Islamic and social sciences.

The lack of evidence suggesting that the agonistic pluralism of Muslim politics and learning will diminish in the near future leads Hefner to make a third and final conclusion as regards the cultures and politics of contemporary Islamic education. Rather than viewing the ferment surrounding religious schooling as proof that the modern Muslim world dances to the beat of a different drummer than that of the West, East Asia, and Latin America, he reminds us that mass education of a moralistic temper has been the hallmark of nation-making and societal reform since the late nineteenth century’s “Age of Education” (Zeldin 1977); ie. that a moral agenda of one sort or another lay at the heart of state educational projects that unfolded in disparate parts of the late nineteenth-century globe (Fortna 2000, 35). Hence, Hefner argues, “[We] in the West would be truer to our own moral history were we to recognize that our schools and politics, too, bear the imprint of struggles over how children and citizens should ethicalize and behave. Current debates over Islamic education, then, do not represent Muslim civilization’s regression to some pre-modern past. They are a civilizationally specific response to the challenges of pluralism, knowledge, and ethics faced by all citizens in the late-modern world” (p.35).

Schooling Islam has been described as the most comprehensive work available in any language on madrasas and Islamic education. Because it gives a broad, comparative overview of educational developments in the Muslim world, and because each chapter’s bibliography directs the reader to more detailed sources of information, it can, indeed, be called “essential reading” for scholars and policymakers who are interested in the multifaceted cultures and politics of Islam and the future of the Muslim world.

Dr. Jeannette Okur is the translator of Tales from Rumi, a selection of Mathnawi stories adapted for young readers. She is currently conducting research on the portrayal of MuslimAmerican teens’ lives in a new literary genre called Islamic youth fiction.

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SEE-THINK-BELIEVE

Irfan Yilmaz

P

eter! For some time now you have been hearing from the organs in your body who have been telling you about themselves, their importance, and about how miraculously they have been created. However, their main goal, in addition to telling you about themselves, was to draw your attention to God Almighty, His boundless knowledge and the infinite meaning in everything He does. Now, it is time to open a window from within your body to the outside world.

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I am the barrier between your body and the outer world and I am responsible for this area. I can sense every change in the outer world, including heat, cold, humidity, pressure, various radiations, and the effects of many harmful chemicals and physical phenomena.

When I become aware of the presence of something that is harmful, I warn your organs to act according to these changing conditions. That is why everybody knows me primarily as a sense organ.

in addition to being a sense organ, I have many other important duties; however, if I were to list them here, this article would take up the entire magazine. In order to ensure your good health I have to carry out my duties, be they aesthetic, protective or metabolic, perfectly. Even if you only examine my appearance, you will see how beautiful I am.

However, in addition to being a sense organ, I have many other important duties; however, if I were to list them here, this article would take up the entire magazine. In order to ensure your good health I have to carry out my duties, be they aesthetic, protective or metabolic, perfectly. Even if you only examine my appearance, you will see how beautiful I am. You should visit an anatomy laboratory one day and watch the medical students performing an autopsy. Examine the cadaver whose skin has been pulled back to allow the students to study the internal organs. Look, if you can! Although the body is miracle, if the skin is not present, it would lose its splendor and become ugly and horrible. The beauty and meaningful existence of all the other organs are only complete with me. Our Lord God Almighty has created me and dressed you with me as a garment that fits each part of your body.

He has lined your palms and soles with a thick outer lining made of keratin; this enables you to walk and use some hand tools easily. If on the foot or hand I were as thin as I am in the lip area, then I would easily get punctured and injured while walking or using a tool. God has created special joints where your fingers and toes join the feet and hands. These joints allow your fingers, hands and feet to move in many different ways. In order to protect your head from the sun and cold God has changed some of my cells into hair and has given it the ability to grow constantly. God also protects your eyes with special hairs that we call eyelashes and eyebrows. With these He also completes the beauty of your face.

However, these do not grow constantly like the hair on our heads. Just think, otherwise you would have to trim both your eyebrows and eyelashes everyday in order to see. The special hairs in your nose and ears help prevent the entry of harmful particles, like dust or harmful

microorganisms. You may think “How important is that? Just a few strands of hair?� Of course, hair is not the most important thing of all, but is life nothing more than staying alive? Of course not! There is also an aesthetic aspect to life. We can understand this if we look at a person who has no eyebrows or eyelashes! Certainly, God has made human beings beautiful creations and the hair is an important part of this beauty.

As with everything He does, the significance of the hair is much more meaningful than when first seen.

In addition to my aesthetic beauty, I should also tell you about my protective functions. My first and most vital job is to balance the level of liquid in your body and to prevent its loss. The liquid level and the amount of minerals inside your body are very important. If it were not for me your kidneys would not be able to regulate the level of these liquids.

It is for this reason that people who have burns that take up two-thirds of their skin or more cannot live; the water loss in their bodies is too great. In burn care centers, they try to control the loss of liquids using very sensitive devices; however, with serious burns this is usually unsuccessful. My protective functions are not limited to liquids; I also protect your

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body from all kinds of bacteria, funguses and viruses. As you know, your skin can get inflamed and infected from even a thorn. If the skin becomes damaged or broken over a large area you could face serious infections.

This is because if I am not present many microorganisms will invade your body and make you ill.

Your body is very sensitive to heat and cold. The temperature of your inner body normally should be between 370C and 38 0C (96.8 0F and 98.6 0F); if it increases above this temperature, then you are unwell. If you remain for a long time in cold conditions and your inner body temperature falls off, many of your organs, especially the lungs, stomach, and kidneys are damaged and cannot work properly.

You could die if the temperature is too low for too long. And in contrast, if you stay too long in the heat and your inner body temperature increases, your nervous system can be damaged, as the NOVEMBER september//DECEMBER october 2009 2009

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brain is very sensitive. Then your heart and other organs will start to fail, which eventually results in death. Indeed, human beings live everywhere, from the deserts to the poles and everywhere people are able to maintain an inner core temperature that is constant between 96.8 0F and 98.6 0F. I play a very important part in this system. Although the main control center is the brain, it acts according to stimuli that I send and I carry out important functions when the brain responds to these stimuli. Later, I will tell you how I can both warm and cool you.

Before telling you about my other functions, I would also like to tell you about my structure, which appears quite basic from the outside. Of course, I am not simply a cover that wraps your flesh. First of all, I am a living or-

you will be surprised To see whaT greaT biological acTiviTies Take place in The epidermis. even when a person dies, This layer does noT die righT away. afTer deaTh The nails and beard conTinue To grow. This occurs because of The acTiviTies in The germinaTive epiThelium, which makes up The basal layer of The epidermis. gan that is being nourished, that grows, that is repaired and which is very flexible. As I get rid of dead cells, I replace them with new ones; I am aware of everything that happens in my surroundings and I allow you to feel the world around you. I consist of two major layers: the epidermis (outmost layer) and the dermis (the inner level). The visible layer, the epidermis, consists of cells that gradually die off and stiffen. Those cells are toughened with a protein called keratin which is absorbed inside their structure; everyday I shed dead skin cells. This is part of the “dirt” that is removed from your body with every shower. This outer layer contains bacteria, funguses or other parasites that have been transmitted from the outside world and which may cause diseases. These parasites are removed as the dead skin cells are shed. The innermost layer (stratum germinativum) of the epidermis has a great capacity for cell division and it constantly produces new cells from the bottom to the outermost level. These cells start out life as cylinders, but as they move towards the outer surface they become cubical and then flatten out. At the same time keratin is being produced in those cells, and as a result they stiffen and start to die off. When the cells arrive at the outermost level, they are already dead. Some of those dead cells do not fall off. They accumulate and combine to make up the structures that we call nails and calluses. In this way the cells protect those areas that are most sensitive or most often used.

You will be surprised to see what great biological activities take place in the epidermis. Even when a person dies, this layer does not die right away. After death the nails and beard continue to grow. This occurs because of the activities in the germinative epithelium, which makes up the basal layer of the epidermis.

Beneath the epidermis is the dermis, a relatively thick layer. This is the layer which keeps the skin lively and firm and which produces the color. Many works of arts are present in this layer to complete my splendid structure. This layer consists of connective tissue with fiber bundles that is made of collagen protein. As

people get older, their skin dries up and starts to lose its collagen proteins. Once the fibers start to decrease, I lose my firmness, and then I start to wrinkle. Although people are not happy with wrinkles, which are inevitable, I don’t think this is something to worry about; wrinkles are also a sign of maturity and experience. In the structure of my dermis there are other parts that have very important functions: The sweat glands, which are in the shape of coiled tubes, spread throughout the body act as ventilators; in addition, the hair follicles, the sebaceous gland, which helps to nourish and moisturize the hair, the chromatophores (pigmentcontaining cells) that determine the skin color, the hair muscles that give your hair flexibility and the blood vessels that nourish me are all important. I also have special receptor cells that can sense temperature, pressure and pain and there are nerve endings scattered among these cells.

In different parts of the body I am more sensitive to particular sensations. My sense receptors (corpuscles) vary in shape and you human beings have named them after the scientists who discovered them. There is Pacini’s corpuscle, Meissner’s corpuscle, Ruffini’s corpuscle and Krause’s corpuscle. Each of those receptors is thought to be receiving independent stimuli, but this has not been proven by experiment yet.

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These cells darken your skin color during The summer and lighTen iT during The winTer. buT, why is This necessary?

Do you ever wonder why you and your friends have so many different skin tones? This is the result of the work of the chromatophores (cells that contain pigment) which are located in the dermis, at the point closest to the epidermis. These cells, which have a number of branches, move in relation to the intensity of the light, and their branches can stretch and shrink back. These movements cause the pigment granules (melanin granules) to disperse within the cell or aggregate towards the center. This is how they can lighten or darken the skin color, causing you to get a “tan.�

The seasons, the length of the day and the intensity and duration of the sunlight all affect the movement of these cells. These cells darken your skin color during the summer and lighten it during the winter. But, why is this necessary? This is a wonderful physiologic mechanism that has so many amazing purposes and meanings. I am sure you have noticed that people who live in Northern Europe and North America have a lighter complexion than those who live in the more southerly regions of the earth. This is because the countries in these northern regions are exposed to a less intense NOVeMBer / deceMBer 2009

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sunlight for a shorter time. The further north you go the more rainy and cloudy it is. However, sunlight also plays a very important role in the synthesizing of vitamin D in your body. The molecule known as 7-dehydrocholesterol can be converted into vitamin D only with sunlight. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is highly important for calcium absorption and bone metabolism. If you do not have enough exposure to the sun, then vitamin D cannot be produced; this could result in disorders like rickets (most common), as well as several other bone diseases and skeletal complications.

However, it is interesting that sunlight is a two-edged sword. Neither too much nor too little sunlight is good for you. Too much exposure to the sunlight damages my health, causing such diseases as skin cancer and eye disorders. Our Lord God Almighty has made all parts of the earth suitable for human life. He knows well, of course, what people need in order to be able to live in places that have less sunlight and in other places that have a great deal of sunlight. In order to allow people to benefit from the sunlight everywhere, He has given the necessary qualities to my chromotaphores and the

melanin granules that they contain. In places that have less sunlight, my chromotaphores synthesize less melanin. The melanin disperses throughout the cells or the cells move downwards, and my color lightens. This allows more sun absorption and this sunlight is used for vitamin D production. In sunny places, however, people are more exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun as well as other forms of radiation. This is why the risk of my cells becoming mutant and cancerous is greatly increased. In order to avoid such a situation, more melanin is synthesized in people who live in sunny places. The melanin in the chrotaphores gathers towards the center of the cell and my color darkens.

Thus, excess sunlight is absorbed by my melanin pigments thanks to their special structure and function.

This prevents other sensitive cells from becoming damaged and cancerous.

During hot weather, in order to balance your inner body temperature, the blood vessels that pass through the skin expand and more blood is carried through the skin. I give off the water in my blood through my sweat glands. While this warm water called “sweat” spreads over my surface and evaporates, an important amount of heat is released into the air. Thus, your inner body temperature does not increase and you remain cool inside. Thanks to the work of my sweat glands, I can also get rid of some nitrogenous waste and thus support your kidneys. During cold weather, however, the activities of my sweat glands decrease, and this helps you to stay warm. The blood vessels narrow so that the blood in me is reduced. More warm blood is channeled into your body so that your important inner organs do not become cold. The muscles of my hairs contract and the hairs straighten, thickening the layer of hair that covers me. It feels like you are covered with a blanket.

If your body temperature falls off significantly, my receptors stimulate the muscles that lie under me and these muscles produce heat by vibrating. That is why you shiver from cold! Women have fewer hairs on their body. Do you think this is unfair? Of course not! Unlike men, women’s bodies are created in such a way that they can store a greater percentage of fat among the tissues under the skin. This hypodermic fatty tissue not only protects women from cold, but it is also used as extra storage for nutrients that they use when breastfeeding. It also helps protect women’s muscles and bones against bumps and shocks from the outside.

So, this tissue works both as a temperature isolator and

as a “shock absorber.” There is nothing unfair about this. And, it proves that God gives each of His creation exactly what they need and deserve.

Some people say that the skin is a mirror of the body’s health; this is true. The fact that I am visible and can be examined easily makes me the first organ to display symptoms of many diseases that lie below.

Abnormalities that appear on me are usually a sign of metabolism disorders, ulcers and other glandular disorders in the body. For example, if your liver is being affected by a poisonous substance, this shows up as red spots on the hands. But not only physical ailments affect, me; I am also affected by your spiritual condition. Of course, the opposite can happen, too. That is, diseases on the skin can affect your inner organs.

I have mentioned before that my ability to renew and repair myself is very great. God willing, I can repair mild burns, bruises and cuts easily under normal circumstances. However, if the bruise goes as deep as my basal layer, there might be a scare there to remind you in the future and to give thanks to God for your health.

In addition, in diseases like diabetes, my ability to renew and repair myself is weakened and I cannot easily heal. In such cases, you have to take the utmost care to keep me clean so that I do not get infected.

Well Peter, I think that I have said enough about myself. I will not continue to go on about the many symptoms of diseases that can be seen on me, including, allergies, itchiness, and infections. However, it is important for you to know that I can demonstrate hundreds of different conditions that are caused by a great range of factors, such as genetically transmitted diseases, immune system disorders, and bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. But don’t worry! As you can see, the majority of people live a healthy life despite these risks. The Creator has provided your body with a protective mechanism and has taught you how to take care of yourself. My job here is to indicate the Creator and how He has made me a flawless work of art that demonstrates deep meanings behind its complexity. Rather than continuing to give you a lecture on dermatology, it would be better if you were to live according to God’s consent. If you do so, you will be protected from diseases; even if you do become ill, you will have greater patience and moral strength. You will also be more thankful to God for your health.

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.

This transient material world attracts us greatly with the kind of life it imposes upon us, the many opportunities it presents, and its overwhelming daily engagements. As a reaction to these attractions, one may feel inclined to become isolated from society; a desire to retreat may surface. What should a person do in this situation?

Answer: Human nature and certain feelings that are ingrained in it are closely related and are in compliance with the attractions of the world. This is an undeniable reality. Thus, there are truly so many different things which invite one to the world, to its tempting presence that is centered around fancies and desires.

If we remember Nursi’s remarks on this same issue as he protested the way in which Muslims were attracted to the world, he writes in the seventh note of the Seventeenth Gleam: [M]any factors invite people to the world: one’s carnal soul, needs, passions, desires, Satan, the superficial sweetness of the world, bad friends, and the like, while those inviting to the Hereafter and eternal life are few. Patriotic feelings and efforts will increase this number. If you act otherwise and silence them, and help the many, you will be a companion of Satan.

The attractions of this world constantly appeal to human beings, to certain sensory faculties ingrained in their nature, to their inner and external feelings and keep inviting them. In addition, as this aspect of the world and the reward of the Hereafter are opposites, we can also say that those attractions which invite people to the world are also factors that divert us from the eternal beauties of the Hereafter.

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DESIRE TO RETREAT being among oThers wiTh The inTenTion of expressing The TruTh is The way of The propheTs, parTicularly ThaT of The messenger of god.

Etymology of the word dunya (world) In fact, when the etymologic structure of the word dunya is studied, it can be seen that there is a serious relation with the structure of the word and its attractions. According to scholars, this word is either derived from the root dunuw, which means “being near,” or danaeh, which means being low, mean, or vile. If we accept that the word comes from the root dunuw, then the word dunya means “the nearest one,” whereas the next life to follow after this near one is called the akhirah (Hereafter). The word ukhra, which means “the other,” is also used for the Hereafter, as opposed to this world. Accordingly, the world is the immediate realm, the one near to us, and the Hereafter is the next one beyond. Therefore, something people find in their immediate surroundings has a greater effect on them and takes them under influence; it bewitches and attracts them. Thus, people are close enough to the world to be enchanted and come under its spell. Therefore, we call this dunya, meaning the nearest realm. When we examine the word dunya as a derivation from danaeh, then akhirah means that which is higher and dunya means lowly, or vile. When both meanings are combined, dunya means “a lowly thing that is near to people.”

Three facets of the world On the other hand, it would not be correct to solely consider and evaluate the world according to its material aspect that appeals to our physical nature and fancies. At this point, it is useful to remember Said Nursi’s wise perspective. He states that the world has three facets. Accordingly, the first facet is concerned with the Names of Almighty God and demonstrates their inscriptions and functions as mirrors. In this respect, we can view the world as an exhibition for the Divine art, a book of reflection composed by the laws of creation, a huge vehicle, a port that opens on the knowledge and love of God. As a consequence of all these, the world can be viewed as a bay that allows us to contemplate Creator deeply. As far as this facet is concerned, the world serves as a stage that reveals the infinite beauties of God and their manifestations, and is a means for love for Him to flourish. In this respect, the world is not contemptible, but rather is worthy of love.

The second facet is concerned with the Hereafter.

As stated by Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, the world is an arable field for the Hereafter. It is the ground that is to be prepared for the Hereafter through good deeds; it is the tillage of Paradise through which we can attain eternal happiness.

The world is worthy of love from the perspective of both of these facets. It is with these facets that the world becomes a heavenly stairway by which believers ascend toward the Divine.

As for the third, it is concerned with the passing fancies of people. This facet of the world is material, and it is transient and deceptive. Loving this facet of the world diverts people from God and from the purpose for which they have been created, taking them to perdition. Thus, this third facet of the world is closely interrelated with human nature, their desires and fancies. If people do not use their free will against this facet of the world, if they do not satisfy the feelings in their nature within the limits allowed by their Creator, but rather give in to the heedless atmosphere of their desires, they then face the great danger of failing the test in this world.

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In two of the three conditions it is more likely that we may go astray. One can find the truth, walk toward it and then embrace it. In other words, if a person does not use their free will correctly, does not meet the requirements of guidance, but act heedlessly, it is certain that they will go astray.

Secondly, idling one’s life away can also lead to misguidance. The third possibility is that one good use of the free will entrusted to us, exerting oneself in this direction and being rewarded with divine guidance. As can be seen, there is only one way for deliverance. However, if one does not use this opportunity well, there are two different ways by which they can fall into misguidance. Thus, a person’s finding the truth and maintaining the straight path require serious efforts. This difficult task can be compared to rising through the layers of the atmosphere and reaching outer space by freeing oneself from the gravitational pull of the earth. Without a doubt, this requires a certain amount of energy.

On the other hand, one does not need to make any effort to stay on the ground; even the dead are able to do that. Instead of hurling bodies away as it revolves, the earth attracts them toward itself. And in the long run, as the laws of creation operate, the earth makes these bodies resemble itself by having them decompose and becoming earth. In a similar way, we need to be equipped with the necessary spirituality to help us overcome the pull of the world so that we can complete our spiritual journey in the realm of the heart and spirit. A person should acknowledge, from the very beginning, the interrelation between this third facet of the world and human desires and fancies, thus becoming aware that this is the dominant aspect Only then can an individual carry out what is required of human free will, only then can they see the beautiful facets of the world that declare God and the Hereafter, and only then can they exert a continuous effort. Otherwise, it is all too easy to be overcome by the pull of the world and to plummet to earth.

Seclusion and living for others In order to be saved from the danger we mentioned above, many people choose to seclude themselves from others; such a choice can be a means for salvation for one’s personal life. However, it should be realized that this is not an absolute and it may not always be a means to salvation. For example, Said Nursi once retreated to a cave to worship on Mount Erek; but they did not leave him alone, not even there. Now try to imagine: NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2009

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had this blessed personage not oriented his life with a pure and upright perspective and disciplined himself to live according to modest standards, as if he is living his life in a cave, how could he have maintained his supreme spirituality when exiled and forced to live a non-secluded life? However, the life he led outside was purer and nobler than one that was led in a cave. As an expression of Nursi’s gratitude, he remarked that divine Mercy had made the exile town Barla a means to attain the spirituality he had sought in the cave, without making his feeble body bear the difficult conditions of the cave. In spite of going through an ordeal that included prison, surveillance, and endless trials, Nursi led a saintly life, together with his students, publishing his works of Qur’anic exegesis and on the truths of faith in inner peace.

It should also be realized that those who choose seclusion and seek spiritual comfort in retreat eliminate the conditions for spiritual struggle and thereby destroy a dynamic that could be a basis for their spiritual progress. Just as our immune system cannot develop unless it meets certain viruses, leaving it so undefended as to be able to be destroyed by the slightest germs, a person who is not engaged in a spiritual struggle is just as vulnerable to the virus of sin.

The following parable demonstrates this point very well: once upon a time there were two devout brothers.

One of them lived as a hermit on the side of a mountain, and the other lived among people and tried to convey them the truths of faith. The hermitic brother had a bag made of cloth which he used to hang his food and drink near the entrance of his cave. One day he realized that God Almighty had granted him an extraordinary blessing; the cloth bag held liquids like a glass, with no seepage. He visited his brother in the city and witnessed the same blessing there. As the hermit spent some time near his brother the worldly life of the city had an effect on his spirituality and the water in his bag in the cave began to seep out. However, there was no change to his brother’s bag. Then it dawned on the hermit that while his brother was trying to save others he had gained a strong defense mechanism against sins; he used his willpower to maintain his spirituality in the life of the city.

The ideas above should not be taken to mean that worship in retreat is of no use. The point being made is that seclusion is not an objective method that can help everybody to salvation in any absolute sense. Neverthe-

less, it is an undeniable fact that throughout history there have been men of God who advanced toward perfection on the horizons of knowledge and love of God by withdrawing into seclusion and ceasing to busy their ears, tongues, and lips with anything not related to Him. Later on, those making such journeys gradually came into contact with the world and they learned to maintain their spirituality in these conditions as well.

Try to save others so that you can be saved However, it is a truth that one who constantly leads a hermitic life cannot usually tell others about the truth.

Even though they can find personal salvation, they cannot save another. A true believer is one who strives for the guidance of others as well; this is an obligation for those who have sincere faith. It is possible to say that in our philosophy the way to salvation is related to our intention and efforts to save others. And this can only be realized by being with God while socializing with people; to express this in Sufi terminology, this perspective can be realized by preferring the Jalwati way over the Halwati one.

Another important matter to be considered at this point is that an inclination for seclusion may generate from a wish to escape responsibility and seek personal comfort. When I was working in Edirne I saw a few lines on the wall inscribed inside the mosque by a follower of the Halwati order. These lines exemplify this point well and read as follows: “O my brothers, my comfort is in my retreat. Whoever I made friends with found my shortcomings and revealed my faults. Indeed, I have met no one who is truly faithful. Therefore I, found comfort and inner and mental peace in solitude.”

I think this approach is an escape, since a believer cannot be a person who only thinks about and lives for themselves, only seeking personal comfort. Instead, they consider both their own progress and the salvation of the faith and spirituality of others. Therefore, we can say that being among others with the intention of expressing the truth is the way of the prophets, particularly that of the Messenger of God. Had seclusion been more pleasing to God Almighty, the noble Prophet would have spent his life in the cave on Mount Hira and have led his life in retreat. Nobody would have disturbed him; but then who would have carried out the duty of conveying the message to others? At the very beginning of his mission, Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, received the following command: “O you cloaked one (who has

preferred solitude)! Arise and warn! And declare your Lord’s greatness!” (Muddathir 74:1–3). With these verses, God Almighty declared that he should go and be with people and give them a hand to guide them to the truth; this was the mission of Prophethood. There is a similar statement in another verse (Maeda 5:67) reading: “O Messenger! Convey and make known in the clearest way all that has been sent down to you from your Lord.

For, if you do not, you have not conveyed His Message and fulfilled the task of His Messengership.” Actually, this verse implies: “you will be dismissed from your position if you do not fulfill your mission.” In this respect, if one retreats into a corner, God Almighty might renege on the favors that He blessed that person with. This is why we are underlining the point that what should be sent to a cave is our wish for solitude, nothing else. Instead, we should arise with the motive of mingling with people for the sake of God, exerting ourselves in the way of faith and serving humanity, hand in hand with our friends. At this point, one cannot help but remember what the poet Mehmed Akif said: “One should rely on God, keep striving, and obey what wisdom requires. If there is a way, it should be this one; we do not know any other way out!”

Nevertheless, God Almighty protects those who serve on His path when they mix with people. Is this not what He has done so far? Many of us have had such experiences. As has been previously mentioned, the temptations of the world have a very powerful appeal for human nature. This tendency for ungodliness, the rebellious urge of our carnal self, is so overwhelming. A fair evaluation of this picture might lead to the conclusion that “because a person’s fancies, desires, and the rebellious urges of the carnal self constantly call him to the world, one can give into the temptations of the world any moment.” In my opinion, the surprising thing at this point is that although some may expect that the people who are trying to serve in the way of God will fall headfirst into the swamp of sins, thanks be to God this is not actually the situation. Because there are so many pitfalls awaiting us, one can just lose control and go astray. However, Providence does not let us deviate from our path. Those who serve the righteous cause are devoted and seem to come under divine protection. What befalls us is to be aware of this blessing and keep praying: “O God, we pray for Your protection and care; we implore You for deliverance under Your Providence.”

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Even if it does not rain, dew drops wash away the dust on the leaves.

The dawn is followed by the sunrise, and the bright days that are celebrated in our hearts glow from a distance as every town and street, village and city assumes a spiritual transformation.

This world becomes a corridor to what is beyond.

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