NUS Arch Masters Thesis - Part 1 by Gabrielle Liew

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Fo o d p r i n t Farm Framework Vol. 1 : Research Report

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Foodprint Farm Framework

by Gabrielle Liew A0160344N

Architectural Design Research submitted to the Department of Architecture in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE at the National University of Singapore Academic Year 2019/2020 Semester 1

Under the supervision of Professor Oscar Carracedo

Image Source: Kolenko, Eva.

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Image Source: Rogers, Megan. 00 03

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ABSTRACT

The thesis theme revolves around architecture going beyond sustainable to be regenerative or climate positive as theorised by Daniel Christian Wahl. In line with the Paris Agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) signed in 2016, the goal is to halve global emissions by 2030 and to reach net 0 emissions by 2050.

Due to global warming, we are starting to see life-threatening impacts of climate change on health, economies, and risks to food security. Our agricultural economy is both one of the leading victims of climate change as well as a great culprit - being one of the largest contributors of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, yet, food is one of the basic human necessities.

use efficiency. Based on the context of Singapore, it will then envisage how the framework could generate architectural systems and strategies inherent to the topic of a climate positive food system and how this could be reconstructed to recover our planet’s health and attain food self sufficiency when this framework is applied. This topic expresses the urge and potential to reverse climate change through a global food production model that synchronously addresses food insecurity.

The thesis preparation report aims to further define these prevailing issues of climate change in relation to the food crisis as well as to explore the ‘foodprint framework’ that could transform the carbon footprint of the food system through various GHG reduction and absorption strategies, mainly through land

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THE PRESENT The burning of fossil fuel & the rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The kind of trees we are creating

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, professor Oscar Carracedo for his continuous support of my progress this semester. His passion, encouragement and immense knowledge has guided me and helped me in all the time of research and designing this thesis project. From taking time out to meet me for consultations and discussions, to his enthusiasm on the topic that I am studying, he has shaped me to become more environmentally conscious not only as a designer but also as an individual. Along with Professor Oscar I would like to thank our neighbouring studio and their thesis advisor Tan Shee Tiong for providing insightful comments and encouragements during the midway interim critiques. Their fruitful discussions and sharing of their insightful projects pushed me to open my mind to new perspectives. In addition, special thanks to my family and friends, in particular my thesis group for their company, support and listening ears. This thesis would not have been possible without their feedback and endless support. Lastly, thanks to Him, without whom I would not have been given this opportunity.

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Fig. 1: Regenerative Design, Source: Craft, W, L Ding, D Prasad, L Partridge, and D Else, 2017 (Developed from Bill Reed, 2007)

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PREFACE Daniel Christian Wahl is an international educator, activist and consultant who specialises in whole systems design and transformative innovation for regenerative cultures.1 Designing Regenerative Cultures is his first book and was published in May 2016. In the book he explores the reframing of the crises we currently face globally and how we can shift our patterns of thinking into the practice of educating, designing and planning to pave a way for life of the future.2 The theories that he advocates are based on regenerative and restorative cultures with a mindset of coexistence for human and planetary health. In his book, Daniel Wahl speaks about how ‘sustainability alone is not an adequate goal’ as it does not inform us of what it is we are intending to sustain. For those who are involved in environmental sciences or approaches of studies regarding climate change, they are trying to sustain the underlying pattern of the planet’s health, resilience and adaptability that maintains its condition where life as a whole can flourish.3 But what is the underlying pattern when the planet is constantly evolving and fluctuating? What does it mean to be sustainable when these patterns change all the time? As we move into the ‘planetary era’, a regenerative mindset encourages constant learning and development in a world that is guided by its constant flux. When we switch out of our linear mindset and turn to this new regenerative mindset. This is where a new culture is created, where we can start to innovate in the face of the multiple crises we are currently facing such as climate change by collectively forming a regenerative civilisation filled with regenerative systems, design, leadership, education and development.4 A regenerative culture is the ability to recover basic vital functions and bounce back from any kind of temporary breakdown or crisis.5 It is healthy, but most importantly resilient and adaptable as it cares for the planet and human life by always creating effective ways for a thriving future for both. The evolutionary framework for regenerative design, created by Bill Reed includes restorative approaches that help in the journey to be regenerative. This includes transforming humanity’s impact on Earth from being predominantly destructive to being regenerative, to create a future for human beings and for all of life by reversing our destructive effects and start to heal communities, ecosystems and the Earth.6 This however, cannot be done with the perspective that humans and the planet are two separate entities. The two have to be seen as a connected component where coexistence cannot be disregarded. To design for regeneration and restoration is to design for both human and planetary health, the coexistence of both where individual, the community and the planet benefits from one another, reinforcing the balanced relationship through integrative close-loop systems, and constantly giving back to the environment in a positive way. Our interventions should be cooperative with nature and the ecosystem to be integrated into the system rather than creating an exclusive system without taking the nature’s ecosystems into consideration. This studio aims to adopt these theories through four approaches in designing climate positive and regenerative systems of different scales, from building systems to city planning. At the same time, we aim to address other environmental issues such as carbon emissions, water shortage, food security and future climate positive city. These topics are used as an opportunity and strategy to create a regenerative and restorative culture within the urban context. Carbon absorption is capitalised through integrating CO2 absorbing strategies as a building system to create a carbon sink city in Singapore. Through the agricultural landscape of Singapore, carbon absorption is also maximised in from the reconstruction of the food system into a climate positive framework while simultaneously enabling the city to be food secure. Water shortage issues in Shenzhen are tackled by cultivating a water positive community through interfering with the natural water circulation steps and using bionic construction to develop new water sources. The climate positive city is based on the summary of urban genealogy, reshaping our way of life through the design of future urban components. The principles could be applied in a number of other cities to represent a further attempt in the pursuit of sustainable development.

1 Daniel Christian Wahl, "Designing Regenerative Cultures", Permaculture Magazine, 2016, https://www.permaculture.co.uk/articles/ designing-regenerative-cultures.

"Designing Regenerative Cultures", Triarchy Press, 2016, https://www.triarchypress.net/drc.html. Daniel Christian Wahl, Designing Regenerative Cultures (UK: Triarchy Press, 2016). 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 Wahl, “Designing” , Permaculture, 2016 2 3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgments 6

Preface: Regenerative Cultures Table of Contents List of Illustrations

01 Background: Issues on Climate Change & the Global Food Crisis

1.1 Climate Change 1.2 Global Food Crisis: Food Security, Diet & Consumption Demands, Finite Resources 1.3 Climate Change + Food Crisis: The Food System’s Carbon Footprint

02 Hypothesis, Research Questions & Goals

Can architecture create an agricultural production framework that will make the food system climate positive? Can this enable countries to be food secure and self sufficient?

03 Discourse & Analysis: Transforming the Food System’s Carbon Foodprint

3.1 Emissions Reductions 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.2

Land Use Changes: Reducing Deforestation Food Cultivation: Diet Changes, Soilless Farming, Waste Recycling & Clean Energy Processing & Packaging: Clean Energy Imports and Transportation: Centralised System Consumption: Clean Energy Waste Management: Waste to Energy Recycling

Emissions Absorption 3.2.1 3.2.1

Land Use Changes: Reducing Deforestation & Increasing Productivity Food Cultivation: Afforestation & Algae

04 Parameters: Foodprint Framework 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Diet Changes & Land Use: Land Required for Food Cultivation Food System: System Emissions & Absorption Supporting Programs: Centralised Food System Cultivation Intensity: Area x Layers Cultivation Layers: Design & Additional Height Additional Algae: Area & Design

05 Site & Proposal: Singapore 5.1

Challenges that Singapore Faces 3.2.1 3.2.1 3.2.1

Climate Change Land Scarcity & Rising Urban Population Food Insecurity

5.2

Current Food Landscape

5.3

Proposed Food Landscape 3.2.1 3.2.1

The City Crop The Neighbourhood Nursery

Conclusion and Limitations

Bibliography Appendices

99 10

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Image Source: M, Carol. 11

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BACKGROUND Issues on Climate Change & the Global Food Crisis

01 12

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Fig. 2: Drivers and Impacts of Climate Change. Adapted by author, source: Met Office, 2019

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Thesis Statement:

“Efficient land use is able to reverse the GHG emissions of the food production system.” Can architecture design an agricultural production framework that makes the food system climate positive?

Following the global industrial revolution, advancements in technology and the demands of the human population has put a strain on our earths natural resources and ability to thrive. As a consequence, the impacts of climate change and global warming are being experienced everywhere6 as we are starting to see the life-threatening impacts of climate change on human health, economies, and risks to food security. (fig.2)

the global temperature rise this century well below 2 to 1.5 degrees celsius.7 Our agricultural economy is both one of the leading victims of climate change as well as a great culprit - being one of the largest contributors of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, yet, food is one of the basic human necessities that we need to survive. Through tackling climate change in relation to food, not only is there great potential to improve the production and food security for people but also to contribute to the reversal of climate change.

The Paris Agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) was signed by over 200 countries in 2016, where the goal is to halve emissions by 2030 and reach net 0 emissions by mid 21st century, keeping

6 "UN

Climate Change Summit 2019", United Nations, 2019, https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/un-climate-summit-2019.shtml. "The Paris Agreement | UNFCCC", United Nations Climate Change, accessed 7 November 2019, https://unfccc.int/process-andmeetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement.

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Fig. 3: Impacts of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere. Adapted by author, source: Mass Audubon

Fig. 4: Net Anthropogenic GHGs in the Atmosphere. Adapted by author, source: IPCC

Fig. 5: Percentage of Anthropogenic GHGs in the Atmosphere by Sector. Adapted by author, source: IPCC 15

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1.1 Climate Change Global Warming & Greenhouse Gases

Human Activities & their Carbon Footprint

Climate change refers to a change in global climatic patterns attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced by human activities.8 This pattern coined ‘global warming’ is due to the expansion of the greenhouse effect (fig.3), which is the warming of the surface temperature of the earth as a result of gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. These gases consists largely of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Each of these GHGs impact on climate change depends on how much of it is in the atmosphere, how long they stay in the atmosphere for and how strongly do they impact the atmosphere.9 During the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United Nations concluded that it is due to human activities specifically over the past 50 years that has warmed our planet. The industrial processes that our civilisation depends on today have raised atmospheric CO2 levels from 280 parts per million (ppm) to 400ppm in the last 150 years10 and at the present the global anthropogenic emissions is at 49 GTCO2eq (fig.4). Such activities include the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, transportation and agricultural emissions (fig. 5). The emissions released per sector, organisation, product and person11 is referred to as a ‘carbon footprint’ which is the amount of CO2 equivalent GHGs released by the subject. This allows people to examine the size of the carbon footprint and assess the consequences something has on the environment. These consequences ripple from changes in the environment where the warmer temperatures cause the melting of ice caps resulting in floods, droughts, heat waves, rising sea levels and eventually endangering lives, economies and countries by limiting their resources such the ability to grow food.

"Definition Of Climate Change By Lexico", Lexico Dictionary, accessed 8 November 2019, https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ climate_change.

9 "Overview Of Greenhouse Gases", US EPA, accessed 8 November 2019, https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhousegases. 10 "The Causes Of Climate Change", NASA Science, accessed 8 November 2019, https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/. 11 "Definition Of Carbon Footprint By Lexico", Lexico Dictionary, accessed 8 November 2019, https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/ carbon_footprint.

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Fig. 6: Progression of Population & Food Demand. Adapted by author, source:IPCC

Fig. 7: Increase in Calories Consumed in Vietnam and Hong Kong. Adapted by author, source: National Geographic

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1.2 The Global Food Crisis

The food economy is very complex yet crucial to the livelihoods of people and jobs. Some of the issues that are prevalent today have been labels the global food crisis where food security is endangered due to diets & over consumption demands and limitation of our finite resources. Food Security

Food Security refers to when all people at all times have access to sufficient and safe food for a healthy life.12 This is threatened by our reliance on modern transport and trades between countries. During events such as fuel shortages, economic instability, war or environmental crisis, our modern food system will collapse.13 Furthermore, land has increasingly become unable to yield food due to ecological changes caused by global warming and erratic and extreme weather patterns which affects crop growth, further threatening agricultural productivity and the stability of the global food supply.

Diet & Consumption Demands

Livestock agriculture is a huge contributor to greenhouse gas emissions as compared to vegetable crops. However, the global meat consumption patterns have increased over the past 50 years, where people in developing countries have increased their meat intake because it is seen as a status symbol of progression, power and wealth.14 (fig.7) This is further exacerbated due to the population quadrupling in the last century from 1.8 billion people in 1915 to 7.3 billion today, projecting to further increase to 9.7 billion by 2050.15 This growth along with rising incomes in developing countries are driving up the global food demand (fig.6), causing the increase in meat production to be five times higher than in the early 1960s.16 Not only does this pose serious problems for human health but also the planet’s health.

Finite Resources

Pressure on the earths natural resource base due to environmental stress has also increased dramatically17 as agriculture has a large impact on our earths finite resources such as land, energy and water. More resources would be required due to the volume of people we need to accommodate, however there is only a limited amount that the earth can provide.

Climate Change And Food Security, ebook (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2008), http:// www.fao.org/3/k2595e/k2595e00.pdf.

Geoff Boeing, How Our Neighborhoods Lost Food, And How They Can Get It Back, 2016 "The Link Between Meat And Social Status", Phys Org, 2018, https://m.phys.org/news/2018-09-link-meat-social-status.html. 15 Maarten Elferink and Florian Schierhorn, "Global Demand For Food Is Rising. Can We Meet It?", Harvard Business Review, 2016, https://hbr.org/2016/04/global-demand-for-food-is-rising-can-we-meet-it. 16 Hannah Ritchie, "Which Countries Eat The Most Meat?", BBC News, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/health-47057341. 17 "Food Production And Resource Management", FAO, accessed 8 November 2019, http://www.fao.org/3/u7260e/u7260e04.htm. 13 14

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Fig. 8: Percentage of Global Emissions from Agriculture. Adapted by author, source: Eurostat

Fig. 9: Emissions Up to Farm Gate and Beyond Farm Gate. Adapted by author, source: FCRN, 2009

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1.3 The Food System's Carbon Footprint Global Food Emissions

Climate change has affected the global food supply from many aspects within the food system. Large amounts of GHGs are emitted during the different stages of production, accounting for around 13% of CO2, 44% of CH4, and 82% of N2O emissions, representing 24% of the total net anthropogenic emissions of GHGs.18 CH4 and N2O are much more harmful gases that have a more potent effect on global warming than CO2 (fig.12). When pre- and post-production activities are included, the total emissions are even higher, estimated to be about 37% of total net anthropogenic GHG emissions (fig.8).

Stages of the Food System

The pre- and post productions stages of the food system starts from land use changes, food cultivation, processing and packaging, imports and transportation, consumption and finally waste management (fig.9). Out of these six stages, the main culprits of emissions derive from deforestation, enteric fermentation, manure management, the use of synthetic fertilisers and using fossil fuels for energy. These GHG emissions from the entire food system expresses its enormous carbon footprint, making it a powerful sector that could transform our global emissions. Minor changes to the global food model could have a large impact on the overall system, influencing shifts in mitigation efforts to combat climate change and food insecurity.

Climate Change And Land (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/08/4.SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf.

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The report aims to uncover these prevailing issues of climate change in relation to the food production system as well as aims to develop a climate positive food system framework to reduce and reverse its carbon food-print and emissions. Finally in the following chapters, it will study a chosen site to explore how this framework could generate architectural systems and strategies and how this could be reconstructed to address the issues identified in order to recover our planet’s health and attain food self sufficiency and security.

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Image Source: Lang, Bernhard 23

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Hypothesis, Research Questions & Goals

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Hypothesis

“ Efficient land use in the agricultural production framework is able to assemble a climate positive food system. ”

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Research Questions

Can architecture create an agricultural production framework that will make the food system climate positive? Can architecture enable cities to be food secure and self sufficient?

Research Goal

Firstly, to create an architectural framework of a transformed food system that will be climate positive. Secondly, to enhance and increase food production for the growing volume of consumers.

This can be done by first measuring the amount of emissions the current food system produces followed by reducing these emissions as much as possible to create a proposed system. Next, measures to capture more than 100% of its emissions should be studied and the framework should be based on these improvements and discoveries.

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Image Source: Kolenko, Eva. 00

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Discourse & Analysis Transforming the Food System's Carbon Footprint

3 0 28

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Fig. 10: Staying Below 2 Deg of Global Warming Through Mitigation and Removal. Adapted by author, source: WRI

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With the goal of keeping global warming under 2°C, being sustainable is not enough, we need to be climate positive through not only reducing GHG emissions but also removing what has already been 19 emitted. (fig.10) Specific measures inherent to the food system can be taken to reduce and absorb emissions, illustrating the potential for the food system to be carbon sequester or sink, instead of a source for GHG emissions. Reduction through: 1. Land Use Changes 2. Food Cultivation 3. Processing & Packaging 4. Imports & Transportation 5. Consumption 6. Waste Management

19 "How

Absorption through: 1. Land Use Changes 2. Food Cultivation

Climate Positive Works", Clipop, accessed 9 November 2019, https://www.clipop.org/. 30

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Fig. 11: Average Annual GHG Emissions from Agricultural Sector. Adapted by author, source: IPCC

Fig. 12: Comparison of GHG Gases. Adapted by author, source: EPA

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3.1 Emissions Reduction

Emission reductions can be managed throughout the pre- and post productions stages of the food system by various strategies and technologies. The six stages of the food system are as follows:

3.1.1 Land Use Changes

Land is both a source and sink of GHGs and plays a key role in balancing this exchange. Emissions from land use changes can be reduced through limiting deforestation which frees up land for reforestation, essentially capturing CO2. This will be further explored under ‘Emissions Absorption’.

3.1.2 Food Cultivation

The cultivation of rice, livestock and other crops are big contributors to the global non-CO2 emissions. CH4 emissions come from enteric fermentation in livestock ruminants, flooded rice paddies, untreated manure and deposits on soil and anaerobic decomposition of biowaste from crop residues during disposal (fig.11). N2O emissions come from synthetic fertilisers that are applied to crops to kill pests, promote resilience and strength. These two gases are 86 and 268 times more potent than CO2 respectively (fig.12). CO2 emissions come from tilling practices that release the carbon dioxide that was stored in the soil20 as well as from the burning of fossil fuels for energy for electricity, lighting and machinery. It is during this cultivation stage that a significant amount of emissions can be greatly reduced through: • • • •

Diet Changes and Chicken Livestock Rearing Waste to Nutrients and Energy Recycling No Soil or Fertiliser Farming Using Clean Energy

Morgan McFall-Johnsen and Aylin Woodward, "Our Food System Accounts For A Whopping 37% Of Greenhouse-Gas Emissions, A UN Report Found. But It Could Also Offer A Solution To The Climate Crisis.", Business Insider Singapore, 2019, https:// www.businessinsider.sg/food-system-role-in-climate-crisis-possible-solutions-2019-8/?r=US&IR=T.

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Fig. 13: Total Calories & Meat Consumed Per Capita Per Day for Different Countries. Adapted by author, source: National Geographic

Fig. 14: Percentage of Emissions from Livestock Supply Chain. Adapted by author, source: Food Source UK

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3.1 Emissions Reduction a.

Diet Changes & Chicken Livestock Rearing As countries develop and incomes rise, peoples diets have evolved to consume more calories and more animal-based foods such as beef, pork, eggs and fish. Demand for these foods are expected to rise by 80 percent between 2006 and 2050. 21 Much of this growth is driven by overconsumption where people eat about 2900 kcal per day (fig.13), whereas a regular diet consists of an optimal caloric intake of 1600 - 2000 kcal a day and comprises largely of a diversity of plant-based foods, low amounts of animal-based foods and smaller amounts of refined grains.22 Furthermore, emission levels are higher due to increased production as a result of a heavier and more animal based diets as livestock production emissions are higher than vegetable production emissions (fig.14). This originates from the amount of resources the animals require as well as their digestive system and excretion of waste. Beef is the most harmful of livestock produce as compared to chicken as the amount of CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation from cows as one cow emits 271 pounds of methane a year as compared to a chicken at 0.57 pounds per year (fig.15). Firstly, by adopting a healthier plant based diet, there would be less wastage emissions and more efficient food production and consumption patterns as the demand for more food would not keep increasing. Secondly, as it is unlikely that people will omit animal protein from their diets in the near future, rather than consuming beef, chickens would be a better alternative. By changing consumption patterns to a healthy diet or a ‘planetary health diet’ with a lower caloric intake, more plant-based foods such as beans and seaweed and planet friendly alternatives such as chicken,23 the amount of emissions from the total amount of food and livestock being produced would be reduced. This new approach can already be observed in some of the developed countries where people once consumed large portions of meat proteins but have started to become more educated on environmental issues, thus initiating diet trends that move away from animal-based protein diets to plant-based diets such as veganism, vegetarianism and a Mediterranean diet.24 (fig.16)

Janet Ranganathan and Richard Waite, "Sustainable Diets: What You Need To Know In 12 Charts", World Resources Institute, 2016, https://www.wri.org/blog/2016/04/sustainable-diets-what-you-need-know-12-charts. 21

Healthy Diets From Sustainable Food Systems, Food Planet Health (EAT-Lancet Commission, 2019), https://eatforum.org/content/ uploads/2019/07/EAT-Lancet_Commission_Summary_Report.pdf. 23 Healthy Diets From Sustainable Food Systems, Food Planet Health (EAT-Lancet Commission, 2019), https://eatforum.org/content/ uploads/2019/07/EAT-Lancet_Commission_Summary_Report.pdf. 24 Emily Laurence, "There's Never Been A Better Time To Go Plant-Based", Well And Good, 2019, https://www.wellandgood.com/goodfood/plant-based-food-trend/. 22

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"This is urgent," he said. Without global adaptation of the reference diet, the world "will not succeed with the Paris Climate Agreement.”25 Johan Rockström Professor of environmental science at the Stockholm Resilience Centre Stockholm University, in Sweden

25 "Nina Avramova, "This Diet Could Help Save Lives, And The Planet", CNN, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/01/16/health/new-dietto-save-lives-and-planet-health-study-intl/index.html.

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Fig. 15: Livestock Emissions by Species. Adapted by author, source: FAO

Fig. 16: GHG Mitigation Potential of Different Diets. Adapted by author, source: IPCC

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Fig. 17: Process During Rice Cultivation of Methane Emissions. Adapted by author, source: Research Gate

Fig. 18: Nitrogen Emissions from Synthetic Fertilisers. Adapted by author, source: PNAS

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3.1 Emissions Reduction b.

No Soil or Fertilisers Farming Rice is a climate threat due to it being an essential staple in peoples diets. This originates from the process of anaerobic decomposition of the organic material that is deprived of oxygen in the flooded rice field's soil that produces CH4 which escapes into the atmosphere26 and emits the CO2 that was stored in the soil (fig.17). As for vegetable crops, there is a direct correlation between N2O emissions and the amount of nitrogen fertiliser applied to agricultural land. Synthetic fertilisers are consumed in large amounts as they are applied to soil or irrigation waters to supply plants with nutrients that are essential for their growth. These fertilisers are energy intensive to produce, create vast amounts of waste, and include harmful chemicals which contribute to GHG emissions.27 (fig.18) Rice fields which are not flooded do produce less CH4, however to completely eradicate these emissions, soilless farming methods are the modern alternatives. Using new agri-technology soilless farming and cultivation systems such as aeroponics, aquaponics and hydroponics are the best solution as they are less resource intensive, the health and nutritional value of the produce is of better quality28 and they do not require synthetic fertilisers due to the nutrient rich solution applied. The environmental impact of these farming methods is thus eradicated with the elimination of CH4 and N2O emissions. Some examples of soilless farming systems: - Aeroponics - Aquaponics - Hydroponics

26 Methane Emissions From Rice Cultivation: Flooded Rice Fields, Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines For National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Reference Manual (IPCC, 1996), https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/guidelin/ch4ref5.pdf. 27 Global Database Of GHG Emissions Related To Feed Crops: Methodology (Rome: FAO, 2017), http://www.fao.org/3/a-i8276e.pdf. 28 “6 Advantages Of Soilless Agriculture", Powerhouse Hydroponics, 2018, https://www.powerhousehydroponics.com/6-advantages-ofsoilless-agriculture/.

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Fig. 19: % of Food Lost or Wasted. Adapted by author, source: Edible Startups

Fig. 20:Diagram of an Aquaponic System. Adapted by author, source: Jena, Alok Kumar

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3.1 Emissions Reduction c.

Waste to Nutrients and Energy Recycling Animal manure that is left to decompose naturally emits CH4 that is released into the atmosphere. Furthermore, about one-third of the food produced is lost or wasted during the process of the food system during cultivation, transportation and consumption due to spillage, breakage, degradation and waste.29 (fig.19) This includes crop residues and produce that are not suitable for the market. Grown but uneaten food are wasted emissions produced for nothing. The wasted food that is sent to landfills along with the manure from livestock animals that are not properly managed are left to decompose through a process called anaerobic digestion where the untreated bio-waste would emit harmful CH4 gases into the atmosphere.30 By recycling this waste, a closed nutrient cycle is established, losses are minimised and GHG emissions are reduced. The waste excreted by fish could be recycled as nutrient water for plants, such as in an aquaponic system (fig.20) and crop residues could be recycled for animal feed31 or used along with chicken manure as organic material for anaerobic digestion (fig.21) where the decomposed digestate is used as fertiliser for crops,. The CH4 that is emitted is then easily captured and used as biogas for renewable energy rather than released into the atmosphere.

Using Clean Energy Burning fossil fuels for energy and electricity emits staggering amounts of CO2 at 909 grams of CO2/kWh. In comparison, natural gases such as CH4 from the decomposition of waste emits 465 grams of CO2/kWh. These emissions could be reduced even further by generating energy from ‘clean’ sources such as hydroelectric power (4 grams of CO2/kWh) and solar power (109 grams of CO2/kWh).32 (fig.22)

During this cultivation stage, GHG emissions can be greatly reduced through these various measures. Concepts such as using clean energy, and waste recycling can also be repeatedly used in other stages throughout food system.

Food Wastage Footprint: Impacts On Natural Resources (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2013), http:// www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf. 29

Paul Jun, Michael Gibbs and Kathryn Gaffney, CH4 And N2O Emissions From Livestock Manure (IPCC), accessed 9 November 2019, https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/4_2_CH4_and_N2O_Livestock_Manure.pdf. 31 Crop Residues For Animal Feeding, PDF (Agricultural and Rural Development: Province of Kwazulu-Natal), accessed 9 November 2019, https://www.kzndard.gov.za/images/Documents/RESOURCE_CENTRE/GUIDELINE_DOCUMENTS/PRODUCTION_GUIDELINES/ Beef_Production/Crop%20Residues%20for%20Animal%20Feeding.pdf. 32 Jack Clayton, "1 Kilowatt-Hour", Blue Sky Model, accessed 10 November 2019, https://blueskymodel.org/kilowatt-hour. 30

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Waste to Energy “Trash to Cash”

The only electric generating technology that reduces GHG emissions as it makes power.

Megawatts up, GHGs down

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Fig. 21: Waste to Energy Process via Anaerobic Digestion. Adapted by author, source: Bio Gas Info

Fig. 22: CO2 Outputs of the various Energy Generation Sources. Adapted by author, source: Blue Sky Model

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Fig. 23: Percentage of Post Production Emissions. Adapted by author, source: Food Security and Food Justice

Fig. 24: Emissions from Different Modes of Transport. Adapted by author, source: Solar Feeds & PCA

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3.1 Emissions Reduction

3.1.3 Processing & Packaging

In comparison to food cultivation, post production GHGs such as processing and packaging contribute much less to the food systems emissions.33 (fig.23) The main emissions are CO2 from the energy required to process farm produce into marketable products as well as to produce packaging materials that keep the food fresh for an extended period of time. This can be lessened by retailing fresh produce instead of processed foods so that there is no need for post cultivation processing, minimal packaging, and less refrigeration.

3.1.4 Imports & Transportation

Post industrial transport allows food to be easily exported and imported across long distances as some countries have no option but to import food products as they do not self-produce food due to multiple reasons. Transport is also required to distribute the imported food to supermarkets and retail stores and finally to consumers. The amount of GHG emissions from food miles differs depending on the mode of transport, ranging from water, rail, truck and air freight.34 (fig.24) Airfreighting is the most often used mode between countries, yet it is the most GHG intensive mode of transport as it emits CO2 into the atmosphere through the burning or fossil fuels for engine power.

Through localisation of the food system, we can reduce the stages of production by supporting growing locally and minimising transport.35 Because transport is so integral to the food system, it cannot be fully omitted. Instead of using fossil fuels, the vehicles could be powered by clean energy, which emits much less GHGs.

Tara Garnett, Chapter 3: Food Systems And Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Food Climate Research Network (University of Oxford, 2016) Wayne Wakeland, Susan Cholette and Kumar Venkat, Food Transportation Issues And Reducing Carbon Footprint, 2012. 35 Tara Garnett, Chapter 3: Food Systems And Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Food Climate Research Network (University of Oxford, 2016) 33 34

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Fig. 25: Percentage of Food in Landfills. Adapted by author, source: MacDonalds

Fig. 26: Food Decomposition Process in Landfill Sites. Adapted by author, source: Gazasia

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3.1 Emissions Reduction 3.1.5 Consumption

Cooking is the main source of emissions during the consumption stage. CO2 emissions are indirectly emitted through the burning of fossil fuels for electricity for cooking and refrigeration.36 This amount is far less as compared to the other stages of the food system. Similar measures to reduce emissions as stated in ‘Using Clean Energy’ could be applied to reduce emissions at this stage.

3.1.6 Waste Management

After consumption, food wastage from the consumers are transported to be disposed of in landfills (fig.25) where large quantities of CH4 is formed37 and released into the atmosphere through the natural process of anaerobic digestion.(fig.26) These wastes should instead be directed to be recycled for biogas and fertilisers as mentioned in ‘Waste to Nutrients and Energy Recycling’. This is made much more efficient through the closed loop food system where the waste produced is used back as nutrients or fertilisers for the cultivated food. This can be managed by efficiently capturing the emissions of CH4 before it is released into the atmosphere while producing byproducts that would supplement the food system.

Ulf Sonesson, Jennifer Davis and Friederike Ziegler, Food Production And Emissions Of Greenhouse Gases (FCRN, 2009), https:// www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/Food_production_and_GHGs.pdf. 37 Ulf Sonesson, Jennifer Davis and Friederike Ziegler, Food Production And Emissions Of Greenhouse Gases (FCRN, 2009), https:// www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/Food_production_and_GHGs.pdf. 36

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Fig. 27: Closed Loop Circular Food System. Adapted by author, source: Local Food Alliance

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Each stage and concept is crucial in minimising the release of GHG emissions so that the system can be one step closer to achieving climate positivity. It is through these various measures in which emissions within the food system can be reduced and eliminated. Nonetheless, emissions reduction is not enough, emissions absorption is essential to realising this goal.

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Fig. 28: Global Land Use. Adapted by author, source: IPCC

Fig. 29: Deforestation Emits CO2. Adapted by author, source: Flickr

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3.2 Emissions Absorption

Emission capture and absorption through the food system is attributed to the ability of plants and forests being able to absorb CO2 during photosynthesis for growth. This can be executed in the first two stages of the food system - land use changes and food cultivation. Through methods such as increasing land productivity which reduces deforestation and methodically cultivate crops that absorb more CO2, land-based climate solutions not only reduce emissions but also remove carbon from the atmosphere.38

3.2.1 Land Use Changes

Rapid and intense land use changes are due to the increase in production of food by 240% since 1960.39 71% of these changes are caused by deforestation of forest area for agricultural use that requires a great expanse of land for all types of crop and produce. (fig.28) The net emissions of 5.2 GtCO2 yr are mostly due to deforestation40 which not only releases CO2 that was stored in the trees but also depletes our largest global carbon sink. (fig.29) By farming extensively, the amount of land needed for cultivation is increased, essentially pushing agricultural growth further and further away from urban areas into rural areas where there is more area, thus resulting in the need for extensive transportation measures and increasing emissions. Through intensive instead of extensive farming methods such as vertical farms, the amount of land required for cultivation is reduced and CO2 emissions from deforestation are lessened. By increasing productivity per area, the amount of CO2 absorbed per area is also increased. (fig. 30) This is due to the same amount of crops absorbing the same amount of CO2 despite the smaller area of land. As a result of intensive farming, trees could be reforested on the land that would have been deforested but was not, which further increases the potential for absorption of CO2 emissions via reforestation and afforestation efforts. (fig.31) However, despite intensive production and reforestation efforts, the crops and trees still do not absorb more CO2 than the cultivation of food emits.

Kelly Levin and Sarah Parsons, "7 Things To Know About The IPCC’S Special Report On Climate Change And Land", World Resources Institute, 2019, https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/08/7-things-know-about-ipcc-special-report-land-and-climate. 39 Climate Change And Land (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019) 40 Climate Change And Land (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019) 38

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“We ought to recognise that we have profound limits on the amount of land available, and we have to be careful about how we utilise it”41 Chris Field Head of environmental services Stanford University

Isabel Togoh, "Less Meat, More Plants: The Food We Eat Is Driving Global Warming, UN Report Finds", Forbes, 2019, https:// www.forbes.com/sites/isabeltogoh/2019/08/08/less-meat-more-plants-the-food-we-eat-is-driving-global-warming-un-report-finds/ #35afc90172c5.

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Fig. 30: Cultivation Intensity Emissions. Source: author.

Fig. 31: Reforestation absorbs CO2. Adapted by author, source: Flickr

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Fig. 32: CO2 Absorption Rates of Different Crops. Source: author.

Fig. 33: Design of Algae Panel. Adapted by author, source: Energy Tips

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3.2 Emissions Absorption 3.2.2 Food Cultivation

The crops that are cultivated indirectly emit GHGs released during their production but they also absorb CO2 during photosynthesis for growth. Despite reduction and land use changes absorption methods, the amount of GHGs emitted is still more than what the crops can absorb. To further increase this absorption, additional measures such as strategically cultivating crops that absorb CO2 should be taken. Recently algae has been found have to higher photosynthetic efficiency42 than other plants and can absorb the most CO2 at 22kg of CO2/sqm whereas trees absorb much less at 1.35kg of CO2/year/sqm and plants absorb the least at about 0.7kg of CO2/year/sqm. (fig.32) Algae cultivation uses land much more efficiently than plants and trees as a CO2 captor and they need not be cultivated horizontally on land but could be grown on facades, roofs and other spaces. (fig.33) It is a valuable addition to the food system as it does not require much additional resources for cultivation and can also double up as a food source for people, possibly replacing a portion of livestock or beans protein.43

With intensive cultivation methods and additional areas of algae cultivation, the entire food system is conclusively transformed into a climate positive process and possibly a carbon sequester and sink instead of a source for GHG emissions. This is achieved through the potential of capturing more than 100% of its emissions and being 100% food self sufficient.

Vetrivel Anguselvi et al., CO2 Capture For Industries By Algae, ebook (Intech Open, 2019), http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen. 81800. 43 Brian Kateman, "Yes, Algae Is Green And Slimy – But It Could Also Be The Future Of Food", The Guardian, 2019, https:// www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/aug/13/algae-spirulina-e3-blue-majik-health-benefits. 42

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Image Source: An, Hyunseok, 2019

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Parameters Foodprint Framework

4 0 56

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Having studied the background issues of climate change, the global food crisis and the discourse on how to reduce and absorb GHG emissions in the food system through integral processes, this chapter aims to set up a basic groundwork to provide a couple of parameters. These parameters would act as guidelines to assemble an architectural system generated by a self sufficient and climate positive food system. The foodprint framework is derived from the previous studies, specifically the measures on how to reduce and absorb GHG emissions. The architectural system should employ this schema to ensure that it is a climate positive food system. Calculations are based on a one household of 4 per year: 1. Diet Changes & Land Use 2. Food System 3. Supporting Programs 4. Cultivation Intensity 5. Cultivation Layers 6. Additional Algae

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4.1 Diet Changes & Land Use Land Required for Food Cultivation Based on an achievable planetary health diet, we can estimate the amount of food a household of 4 consumes per day and subsequently per year. (fig.34) This is then translated into area by estimating the amount of land that is needed to grow the crops, accounting for land turnover depending on the harvest rates. In obtaining this area of 653sqm per household of 4 per year to be fully food self sufficient (fig.35), we are provided with a base number to calculate how much land is needed for a larger number of people to be fully food self sufficient. Furthermore we are able to estimate how much CO2 this amount of land will emit from deforestation when it is converted to land for cultivation.

653sqm of land

household of 4 100% food self sufficient

Fig. 34: Planetary Health Diet. Source: author.

Fig. 35: Area of Land Required to Grow Food for a Household. Source: author.

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4.2 Food System System Emissions & Absorption Comprehensively, the food systems’s six stages are accounted for in this calculation, excluding deforestation emissions which are accounted for separately. Various measures have been taken to reduce the GHG emissions to as little as possible for the proposed system framework. This includes the absorption rate of the cultivated crops which is fixed according to the area of crops required to be cultivated. The proposed system nonetheless still emits almost 2000kg of CO2eq per year to fully provide a household of 4 with food. (fig.36 & 37)

1,853kg CO2eq

household of 4 /year closed loop system

Fig. 36: Percentage of Emissions in the Food System. Source: author.

Fig. 37: Breakdown of Food System Emissions. Source: author.

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4.3 Supporting Programs Centralised Food System To arrive at the above reduced system emissions, secondary programs are required to support the food system. These include a waste management space and hydroelectric power plant, optionally, it could also include solar power plants, retail programs and residential spaces. In addition to these programs, by planning where they would be located would extend control over the centralisation of the food system to reduce transportation emissions.

Fig. 38 Anaerobic Digestor tank: Title. Adapted by author, source: Greener Ideal

Fig. 39: Closed Loop Hydroelectric Power Plant. Adapted by author, source: Diyora Pratik 61

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4.4 Cultivation Intensity: Area & Layers More measures such as varying cultivation intensities need to be taken to reduce even more GHG emissions. By increasing the intensity of the area require to cultivate crops for a household of 4, it reduces the total footprint of land occupied and deforested, thus reducing deforestation emissions. The optimum intensities fall within the range of 4 to18, giving fixed numbers of vertically stacked ‘layers’ to design with.

Fig. 40: Deforestation Emissions and Intensity. Source: Author.

Fig. 41: Cultivation Intensity Area and Emissions. Source: author.

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4.5 Cultivation Layers Design & Height In addition to the number of ‘layers’, the height requirements that each crop or produce requires between the layers varies and can be adjusted in countless ways. The main consideration is accessibility for the farmer to cultivate the crop, therefore needing additional space to navigate between them. The number of ‘layers’ and their distance between one another would affect how high it could go. This would also differ depending on the program of the building if it is a single crop cultivation or a multi crop cultivation program. This does not affect the reduction of GHG emissions but the vertical intensity of how high the system might grow.

Fig. 42: Aeroponic System. Source: Scissors Tail Farms

Fig. 43: Aeroponic System. Source: D’ambrosi, Ilaria.

Fig. 44: Hydroponic System. Source: New Food Economy. 63

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4.6 Additional Algae Area & Design Lastly, to fully offset the GHG emissions to become a climate positive food system, algae cultivation is essential as it absorbs much more CO2/sqm/year than plants or trees. The amount of area required for algae cultivation varies according to land intensity - the higher the intensity, the smaller the area of algae is needed. This is flexible and could be designed to be a facade system, a roof system and more.

Fig. 45: Area of Algae and Amount of CO2 Absorbed. Source: author.

Fig. 46: Additional Area of Algae to Cultivation Area. Source: author. 64

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Foodprint System

Fig. 47: Foodprint System Inputs & Outputs. Source: author. 65

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These six components that make up the foodprint framework is what establishes the climate positivity of the proposed foodprint system. They were devised to allow flexibility in scale, assembly and design while supporting the generation of an architectural system. Considering all the efforts to reduce emissions and increase CO2 absorption and based on the calculations, it will take 5 years for the system to recover from initial emissions. From the 6th year of operation onwards, the food system will begin to absorb approximately 882kg of CO2 a year and be climate regenerative.

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Image Source: Author 00

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Site & Proposal Singapore

5 0 68

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Fig. 48: Singapore’s Land Growth by reclamation Over the Years. Adapted by author, source: Straits Times

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Along with the foodprint framework, the site also acts as a contextual parameter due to the limitations that it encompasses such as land area and population size. This includes the challenges that Singapore faces as they echo the same challenges that this thesis topic aims to tackle. By studying this together with the current food landscape of Singapore, a proposed landscape can be developed as an initial idea.

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Fig. 49: Singapore & Climate Change. Adapted by author, source: Straits Times

Fig. 50: Singapore’s Population Density. Adapted by author, source: Straits Times

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5.1 Challenges Singapore Faces

The examination of the prevalent issues that Singapore faces lends itself as a guide on how the foodprint framework could be applied to the subsequent architecture system.

5.1.1 Climate Change

Being located near the equator, Singapore is more vulnerable to climate change than the world average projections suggests (fig.49). Between 1993 and 2009, the increase in mean sea level around Singapore was almost 2x that of the increase in global sea level.44 The temperature is expected to rise by 1.3 degrees celsius by 2050 and the island will subsequently experience intense dry seasons, severe droughts and intense monsoon seasons with severe flooding. As one of the participating countries in the Paris Agreement, it is essential for the island to halve GHG emissions by 2030 and be net 0 by 2050. As of 2019, even though Singapore is 20th smallest country in the world, they contribute to about 0.11 % of the global GHG emissions.45

5.1.2 Land Scarcity & Rising Urban Population

Singapore is known as the “Little Red Dot” and has a total land area of 721.5km2 which houses a population of 5.8 million as of 2019. As one of the most densely populated cities in the world, the city-state is a tiny island whose population is projected to increase to 6.9 million by 2030 (fig.50), putting pressure on finding more space for homes, working environments, green space and more.46 Despite efforts to reclaim land from the sea (fig.48), land is scarce yet the demand is growing. It is during this cultivation stage that a significant amount of emissions can be greatly reduced through: • • • •

Diet Changes and Chicken Livestock Rearing Waste to Nutrients and Energy Recycling No Soil or Fertiliser Farming Using Clean Energy

Aqil Haziq Mahmud, "Climate Research Centre To Study How Sea Level Rise Could Impact Singapore", CNA, 2019, https:// www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/climate-research-centre-study-sea-level-rise-impact-singapore-11320804. 45 Navene Elangovan, "How Much Time Does Singapore Have To Build Up Its Response To Climate Change?", TODAY Online, 2019, https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/explainer-how-much-time-does-singapore-have-build-its-response-climate-change. 46 Jason Pomeroy, "Overcome Land Scarcity By Building Water-Borne Communities", TODAY Online, 2016, https:// www.todayonline.com/singapore/overcome-land-scarcity-building-water-borne-communities. 44

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Fig. 51: Countries that Singapore Imports Food From. Adapted by author, source: Today Online

Fig. 52: Amount of Food Singapore Imports and Produced a Day. Adapted by author, source: Asia One

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5.1 Challenges Singapore Faces 5.1.3 Food Insecurity

With little land allocated for farming food crops, Singapore imports approximately 91% of their food.47 (fig.50) They are heavily dependent on food supplies from other countries (fig.51), meaning that ensuring a steady supply of food for their growing population is a challenge. This also means that Singapore’s food supply would be threatened and is subject to price changes set by their food suppliers and any shifts in the global food supply such as crop productivity affected by climatic changes or war.

Through this we can observe how global issues are manifested on a smaller scale, specifically in Singapore where climate change mitigation strategies are urgently needed to avoid further issues. With the rising population ceiling as well as the importance for food security but limited in terms of land usage, Singapore presents a suitable testbed for the proposed climate positive foodprint system.

"The Food We Eat", SFA, accessed 13 November 2019, https://www.sfa.gov.sg/food-farming/singapore-food-supply. 74

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Image Source: Ehrhardt, Regis, 2017 75

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“Although Singapore may not be able to stop climate change by ourselves, we can contribute to solutions, and we must do our fair share”48 Lee Hsien Long Prime Minister of Singapore 2019 National Day Rally Speech

Matthew Mohan, "NDR 2019: Climate Change One Of The 'Gravest Challenges Facing Mankind', Impact On Singapore To Worsen, Says PM Lee", CNA, 2019, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/ndr-2019-climate-change-impact-singapore-greatest-threatsea-11819382.

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Fig. 53: Decline of Agricultural Land in Singapore. Source: Index Mundi

Fig. 54: Singapore As An Agrarian Economy in the Past. Source: CLC GOV

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5.2 Current Food Landscape

Agrarian to Industrial

Singapore was once an agrarian economy that produced nearly all its own food on pig farms, durian orchards, vegetable gardens and chickens in the kampongs. (fig.54) However, after the industrialisation period, these farms were shut down to make way for the development of the city.49 Today, agriculture takes up only about 1% of Singapore’s area (fig.53 &55)) and 91% of Singapore’s food is imported from external sources.

Local Farms

The local farms are located in agro-technology parks and produce only 9% of food that the country consumes. Even though they were allocated 1500 hectares of land, over 200 farms occupy about only 600 hectares for the production of mostly vegetables, fish, some eggs and milk. These are situated in the northern ‘countryside’ of Singapore at Lim Chu Kang, Murai, Sungei Tengah, Mandai, Nee Soon and Loyang. After the 2007 food crisis where the world food prices increased dramatically, Singapore capitalised the importance of food security and currently strives to be 30% food self sufficient by 2030. Better use of space is key where urban agriculture offers benefits from increased food security and improved nutrition to greening of spaces.50 Despite the importance of food and being limited to land constraints, it has seldom been a part of urban planning. With this opportunity, perhaps testing a new food system in this context would enable fruitful developments of ideas and explorations, raising important questions for awareness of these topics that occur worldwide.

"Singapore Gets Serious About Food Security", The Business Times, 2019, https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/consumer/singaporegets-serious-about-food-security. 50 "Singapore Gets Serious About Food Security", The Business Times, 2019, https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/consumer/singaporegets-serious-about-food-security. 49

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Fig. 55: Decline in Agricultural Land in Singapore. Source: CLC GOV

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We need to maximise the efficiency of the land allocated to agriculture as much as possible. Is it possible for Singapore to be 100% food slef sufficient?

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape Based on the current food landscape of Singapore and keeping in mind the potential of the foodprint framework, the following proposed urban food landscape aims to showcase the beginnings of how the framework might be applied to Singapore at an urban scale, setting the stage for further developments on architectural ideas and strategies. By bringing the cultivation and production into the island of Singapore, reliance on imported produce is reduced and the country is one step closer to achieving food security as well as reducing GHG emissions from transportation. As a benchmark, out of the allocated 1500 hectares of agricultural land, only 600 hectares of land provides food for about 9% of the total population which is about 505,000 people. With the intensity of the proposed foodprint framework, the full 1500 hectares could be used to cultivate food for 6.6 times the amount of people, enabling about 51% of Singapore to be food self sufficient on about 2% of their land. Furthermore, as the basis of the framework is to be climate positive, this system would be able to absorb CO2 after the initial 5 years of operation, thus working to going beyond net 0 by becoming climate positive and remove CO2 from the atmosphere.

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

Fig. 56: Urban Proposal to be 100% Food Self Sufficient. Source: Author 84

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

5.3.1 The City Crop

What

Proposed development of an extensive yet vertically intensive food production district, including supporting programs such as waste management and hydroelectric power source.

Where

Singapore’s current land that is being occupied for agrotechnology farms, pending removal for military training grounds.

Who

Fresh produce to be distributed islandwide to all the consumers within Singapore.

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

Fig. 57: The City Crop. Source: Author 86

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

5.3.2 The Neighbourhood Nursery

What

Where

What: Proposed development of several integrated intensive neighbourhood farms, perhaps including supporting programs such as waste management and hydroelectric or solar power source.

Where: Atop selected large scale supermarkets, community centres or on undeveloped or abandoned land.

Who Who: Fresh produce for consumers within close proximity or within the neighbourhood.

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5.3 Proposed Food Landscape

Fig. 58: The Neighbourhood Nursery. Source: Author 88

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Conclusion & Limitations

It is through this present-day topic that the urgency to reverse climate change through a global food production model and synchronously address food insecurity is imperative, especially through the urban and architectural perspective. Perhaps with more exposure to theories of a regenerative culture as coined by Daniel Christian Wahl adapted through design, a fresh approach to future urban and architectural projects can be extended beyond basic sustainability.

This report aims at providing an overview of the background of climate change and the global food crisis, explaining how food production could impact climate change in a negative and positive way. With the research goal to attain climate positivity, it also thoroughly analyses various methods that could transform the carbon footprint of the food system through various GHG reduction and absorption strategies. The second half of the report explores and defines the ‘foodprint framework’ based on the analysis done and envisions how a potential proposal could adopt this in the context of Singapore to potentially generate an architectural system or strategy that embodies the nuances of a complex climate positive food system with

the goal of recovering our planet’s health and attaining food self sufficiency. This research, however, is subject to several limitations. The estimates in the calculations and the model are based on cross referenced information found during the short course of the study. Although they are simulations of real life scenarios, due to the limited resources, they may not fully reflect the accuracy of reality today due to knowledge gaps in the complete lifecycle emissions of various processes. Nonetheless these results embody the essence of the research intentions as closely as possible.

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S. Dunkley, Claudia. Global Warming: How Does It Relate To Poultry?. Ebook. The University of Georgia, 2014. https://secure.caes.uga.edu/extension/publications/files/pdf/B%201382_4.PDF.

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"Singapore Gets Serious About Food Security". The Business Times, 2019. https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/consumer/singapore-gets-serious-about-food-security.

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Sonesson, Ulf, Jennifer Davis, and Friederike Ziegler. Food Production And Emissions Of Greenhouse Gases. FCRN, 2009. https://www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/Food_production_and_GHGs.pdf.

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"The Causes Of Climate Change". NASA Science. Accessed 8 November 2019. https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/.

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“The Food We Eat". SFA. Accessed 13 November 2019. https://www.sfa.gov.sg/food-farming/singapore-food-supply.

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"The Link Between Meat And Social Status". Phys Org, 2018. https://m.phys.org/news/2018-09-link-meat-social-status.html.

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"The Paris Agreement | UNFCCC". United Nations Climate Change. Accessed 7 November 2019. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement.

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Togoh, Isabel. "Less Meat, More Plants: The Food We Eat Is Driving Global Warming, UN Report Finds". Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/isabeltogoh/2019/08/08/less-meat-more-plants-the-food-we-eat-is-drivingglobal-warming-un-report-finds/#35afc90172c5.

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"UN Climate Change Summit 2019". United Nations, 2019. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/un-climate-summit-2019.shtml.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 1: Craft, W, L Ding, D Prasad, L Partridge, and D Else. Development Of A Regenerative Design Model For Building Retrofits. Ebook. Sydney: Elsevier Ltd, 2017. Fig. 2: "Impacts Of Climate Change". Met Office. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/ weather/learn-about/climate-and-climate-change/climate-change/impacts/index. Fig. 3: "The Impact Of Greenhouse Gases". Mass Audubon. Accessed 20 November 2019. https:// www.massaudubon.org/our-conservation-work/climate-change/why-we-care/greenhouse-gases. Fig. 4: Smith, Pete, and Mercedes Bustamante. Agriculture, Forestry And Other Land Use (AFOLU). Ebook. IPCC. Accessed 20 November 2019. Fig. 5: Smith, Pete, and Mercedes Bustamante. Agriculture, Forestry And Other Land Use (AFOLU). Ebook. IPCC. Accessed 20 November 2019. Fig. 6: Climate Change And Land. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/ uploads/2019/08/4.-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf. Fig. 7: "What The World Eats". National Geographic. Accessed 20 November 2019. https:// www.nationalgeographic.com/what-the-world-eats/. Fig. 8: "Agriculture - Greenhouse Gas Emission Statistics". Eurostat- Statistics Explained. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Archive:Agriculture__greenhouse_gas_emission_statistics. Fig. 9: Sonesson, Ulf, Jennifer Davis, and Friederike Ziegler. Food Production And Emissions Of Greenhouse Gases. FCRN, 2009. https://www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/Food_production_and_GHGs.pdf. Fig. 10: Mulligan, James. "6 Ways To Remove Carbon Pollution From The Sky". World Resources Institute, 2018. https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/09/6-ways-remove-carbon-pollution-sky. Fig. 11: Climate Change And Land. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/ assets/uploads/2019/08/4.-SPM_Approved_Microsite_FINAL.pdf. Fig. 12: "Understanding Global Warming Potentials". EPA, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understandingglobal-warming-potentials. Fig. 13: "What The World Eats". National Geographic. Accessed 20 November 2019. https:// www.nationalgeographic.com/what-the-world-eats/. Fig. 14: "Food Systems And Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Food Source. Accessed 20 November 2019. https:// www.foodsource.org.uk/chapters/3-food-systems-greenhouse-gas-emissions. Fig. 15: "Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model". FAO. Accessed 20 November 2019. http://www.fao.org/ gleam/results/en/. Fig. 16: "Climate Change And Land". IPCC. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl/. Fig. 17: "Methane Emission From Rice Cultivation". Research Gate, 1996. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/ Methane-emission-from-rice-cultivation-After-Van-der-Gon-and-Neue-1996_fig3_262879307. Fig. 18: "Emission Factors Along The N Fertilizer Chain". PNAS. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.pnas.org/ content/110/21/8375. Fig. 19: Paratore, Michelle. "Rising To The Food Waste Challenge". Edible Startups, 2014. https://ediblestartups.com/ 2014/02/18/rising-to-the-food-waste-challenge-panel-recap/. Fig. 20: Jena, Alok Kumar. "Flow Diagrammatic Representation Of Aquaponics System In Aquaponics System". Research Gate. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Flow-diagrammatic-representationof-Aquaponics-system-In-Aquaponics-system-Fig4_fig1_316191741. 96

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Fig. 20: Jena, Alok Kumar. "Flow Diagrammatic Representation Of Aquaponics System In Aquaponics System". Research Gate. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Flow-diagrammatic-representationof-Aquaponics-system-In-Aquaponics-system-Fig4_fig1_316191741. Fig. 21: "Anaerobic Digestion". Http://Www.Biogas-Info.Co.Uk. Accessed 20 November 2019. http://www.biogasinfo.co.uk/about/. Fig. 22: Clayton, Jack. "Generation Methods". Blueskymodel.Org. https://blueskymodel.org/kilowatt-hour. Fig. 23: "Does Eating Local Food And Reducing ‘Food Miles’ Really Make A Difference To The Environment?". Food Security And Food Justice, 2018. https://foodsecurityfoodjustice.com/2018/01/25/does-eating-local-food-andreducing-food-miles-really-make-a-difference-to-the-environment/. Fig. 24: Team, SolarFeeds. "Rio+20 Sustainable Transport Agreement Reached | Solarfeeds Magazine". Solarfeeds Magazine, 2012. https://solarfeeds.com/rio20-sustainable-transport-agreement-reached/. and “Electric Vehicles". Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Accessed 21 November 2019. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/air/electric-vehicles. Fig. 25: "Environmental Impact - Food Waste In American Fast Food Restaurants". Sites.Google.Com. Accessed 21 November 2019. https://sites.google.com/site/foodwasteatmcdonalds/home/environmental-impact. Fig. 26: "Landfill Sites". Gazasia.Com. Accessed 21 November 2019. http://gazasia.com/biogas-source/landfillsites-2/. Fig. 27: "About Us". Localfoodalliance.Org. Accessed 21 November 2019. https://www.localfoodalliance.org/aboutus. Fig. 28: "Climate Change And Land — IPCC". Ipcc.Ch. Accessed 21 November 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ srccl/. Fig. 29: "Forests Capture CO2, Deforestation Releases". Flickr, 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/noraddir/ 26716845110. Fig. 30: Author Fig. 31: "Forests Capture CO2, Deforestation Releases". Flickr, 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/noraddir/ 26716845110. Fig. 32: Author Fig. 33: "Energy Tips - Alternative Energy". Energy Tips. Accessed 21 November 2019. http:// alternativeengeryss.com/. Fig. 34 -37: Author Fig. 38: Green, Jordan. "Anaerobic Digestion Turns Dung Into Renewable Energy | Greener Ideal". Greenerideal.Com, 2014. https://greenerideal.com/news/energy/0124-anaerobic-digestion-turns-dung-into-renewable-energy/. Fig. 39: Diyora, Pratik. "Hydro Power Plant Presentation Project". Slideshare.Net, 2012. https://www.slideshare.net/ pcdiyora/hydro-power-plant-presentation-project-by-pratik-diyora-100420106008. Fig. 40, 41: Author Fig. 42: "How It Works". Scissortailfarms.Com. Accessed 21 November 2019. http://scissortailfarms.com/how-it-works/. Fig. 43: D’AMBROSI, ILARIA. "Vertical Farms, The Greenhouses Teaching Healthy Eating - Lifegate". Lifegate, 2015. https://www.lifegate.com/people/news/vertical-farms.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 44: Adams, Paul. "What Will It Really Take For Vertical Farms To Succeed? | New Food Economy". New Food Economy, 2017. https://newfoodeconomy.org/vertical-farms-scale-profit/. Fig. 45 - 47: Author Fig. 48: SEOW, JOANNA. "Dip In Population Density, But Not In Crowded Feeling". The Straits Times, 2018. https:// www.straitstimes.com/singapore/dip-in-population-density-but-not-in-crowded-feeling. Fig. 49: "Singapore Climate Change - Google Search". Google.Com. Accessed 21 November 2019. https:// www.google.com/search?q=singapore+climate+change&rlz=1C5CHFA_enSG782SG782&sxsrf=ACYBGNTRRcGrwhVw3SfiHVhi0DBFaAoSA: 1573833328402&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwilhuaDyuzlAhVgILcAHUeWBRQQ_AUIEigB&biw=1440 &bih=644#imgrc=lp2N6dNhnAJVFM:. Fig. 50: SEOW, JOANNA. "Dip In Population Density, But Not In Crowded Feeling". The Straits Times, 2018. https:// www.straitstimes.com/singapore/dip-in-population-density-but-not-in-crowded-feeling. Fig. 51: SIAU, MING EN. "The Big Read: Far From People’S Minds, But Food Security A Looming Issue". Todayonline, 2017. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/big-read-far-peoples-minds-food-security-looming-issue. Fig. 52: "Where Does Singapore Source Its Food From?". Asiaone. Accessed 21 November 2019. https:// www.asiaone.com/health/where-does-singapore-source-its-food. Fig. 53: "Singapore - Agricultural Land (% Of Land Area)". Indexmundi.Com. Accessed 21 November 2019. https:// www.indexmundi.com/facts/singapore/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS. Fig. 54: Ludher, Elyssa, and Thinesh Kumar. Urban Systems Studies: Food And The City: Overcoming Challenges For Food Security. Ebook. 1st ed. Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, 2018. Fig. 55: Ludher, Elyssa, and Thinesh Kumar. Urban Systems Studies: Food And The City: Overcoming Challenges For Food Security. Ebook. 1st ed. Singapore: Centre for Liveable Cities, 2018. Fig. 56 - 58: Author Images Sources: Kolenko, Eva. Evakolenko. Accessed 20 November 2019. http://www.evakolenko.com/. Rogers, Megan. "Saguaro Cactus In The Mojave Desert". Rawpixel. Accessed 20 November 2019. https:// www.rawpixel.com/image/434723/free-photo-image-desert-cactus-america. M, Carol. "Cattle Feedlot In Fort Worth, Texas". Rawpixel. Accessed 20 November 2019. https://www.rawpixel.com/ image/421891/free-photo-image-cattle-cow-feedlot. Lang, Bernhard. "Mar Del Plastico". Behance, 2015. https://www.behance.net/bernhardlang. An, Hyunseok. "The Coral: Home Algae Farming". Ulr.Im, 2019. http://ulr.im/pages/thecoral.html. Ehrhardt, Regis. "MRT Lightning Incident: Did You Know Singapore Is Known As The ‘Lightning Capital’?". The Straits Times, 2017. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/mrt-train-on-east-west-line-struck-by-lightning-did-you-knowsingapore-is-also-known-as.

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APPENDIX Information Supporting Chapters 1 & 3

Source: FAO

Source: PCA

Source: Author 99

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Information Supporting Chapters 4

Calories to Kg: (per household of 4 per year) Beef: 1 Cow at slaughter - 600kg (42% edible) Edible meat - 252kg - 430,000kcal 116,800kcal ~ 68kg of Beef (1/4 a cow)

Rice: 1kg Rice - 1200 kcal 233,600kcal ~ 194kg of Rice Potatoes: 1kg Potatoes - 770kcal 350,400kcal ~ 455kg of Potatoes

Chicken: 1 Chicken - 1.5kg (50% edible) edible meat - 0.75kg - 1500 kcal 116,800kcal ~ 58kg of Chicken (77 chickens)

Vegetables: 1kg Kai Lan - 250kcal 467,200kcal ~ 1860kg of Kailan

Fish: 1 Fish - 0.7kg - 900kcal 116,800kcal ~ 90kg of Fish (129 fish)

Carrots: 1kg Carrots (14 carrots) - 500kcal 116,800kcal ~ 934kg of Carrots (13,076 carrots)

Beans: 1kg Soybeans - 1800kcal 175,200kcal ~ 97kg of Beans

Fruits: 15g - 1 Strawberry - 5kcal 233,600kcal ~ 701kg of Strawberries (46,720 strawberries)

Algae: 1kg algae - 2870kcal 175,200kcal ~ 61kg of Algae Source: Author

Trees Deforestation: 1 Mature tree (30 years) Absorbs 27kg CO2/yr Releases 810kg CO2 when deforested/burnt/decayed 1 Acre (4050m2) - 200 trees Absorbs 5,400kgCO2/yr Releases 162,000kgCO2 1m2: Absorbs ~ 1.35kgCO2/yr Releases ~ 40.5kgCO2 Source: Author

100

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Information Supporting Chapters 4 Kg to M2: (per household of 4 per year) Chicken: Harvest every: 2 months 1m2 - 12 broilers (max 15) 1 year, 1m2 - 72 broilers 77 broilers - 1.1m2

Potatoes: Harvest every: 3 months 4000m2 - 5000kg potatoes 1 year, 4000m2 - 20,000kg potatoes 1 year, 4m2 - 20kg potatoes 455kg potatoes ~ 91m2

Beef: Harvest every: 1.5 years 1 cow - feed 4 households/yr (16 ppl) 1 cow - 10m2 1/4 cow ~ 2.5m2

Kai Lan Vegetable: Harvest every: 1 month 15m2 - 10kg kailan 1 year, 15m2 - 120kg kailan 1860kg kailan ~ 232.5m2

Fish: Tilapia harvest every: 6 months 1m3 - 50 fish 1 year, 1m2 - 100 fish 129 fish ~ 1.3m2

Carrots: Harvest every: 3 months 0.1m2 - 12 carrots 1m2 - 120 carrots 1 year, 1m2 - 480 carrots 13,076 carrots - 27m2

Soybeans: Harvest every: 3 months 400m2 - 180kg soybeans 1 year, 400m2 - 720kg 97kg soybeans ~ 54m2

Strawberries: Harvest every: 1 month 1 plant - 300g strawberries 4000m2 - 14520 plants - 4350kg berries 400m2 - 435kg berries 100m2 - 110kg berries 1 year, 100m2 - 1320kg berries 701kg berries ~ 53m2

Algae: 1m2 - 4.7kg 61kg algae ~ 13m2 Rice: Harvest every: 3 months 400m2 - 100kg rice 1 year, 400m2 - 400kg rice 194kg rice ~ 194m2

Source: Author

Source: Author 101

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Information Supporting Chapters 4

Source: Author

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Information Supporting Chapter 4 Current System Emissions: 3.1.2 Food Cultivation: Crops Absorption: Total area - 653m2 Plants - absorb ~ 0.7kgCO2/yr 653m2 - absorb - 457kgCO2/yr a. Diet Changes and Chicken Livestock Rearing: - CH4 from enteric fermentation 1 Cow - emit 2300kg CO2eq/year 1/4 cow - 575kgCO2/yr Total: 575kgCO2/yr b. No soil or fertiliser farming - CH4 from rice cultivation 1kg of paddy - 1.9kg CO2eq 75kg paddy - 55kg rice 194kg rice - 264kg paddy 264kg paddy - 311.6kgCO2eq - N2O from synthetic fertilisers 1 kg fertiliser - 5.6kgCO2eq 200kg fertiliser - 4050m2 653sqm - 32kg fertiliser sprayed on every month (x12) - 384kg fertiliser 384kg fertiliser - 2,150kg CO2eq/yr c. Waste to nutrients and energy recycling - CH4 from crop residue 10% of the food grown is wasted at cultivation 4518kg x 10% = 451.8kg crop residue/ waste 22kg waste produces 1kg methane 452kg waste - 20kg methane Methane GWP potential (100 yrs) x 34 20kg methane - 680kgCO2eq/yr - CH4 from manure 1 cow - 52kg manure/day 1 cow - 18,980kg manure/yr 1/4 cow - 4,745kg/year 22kg manure - 1kg methane (through anaerobic digestion) 4,745kg manure - 216kg methane 216kg methane - 7,344kgCO2eq/yr

d. Using Clean Energy - CO2 from fossil fuel for heating, lighting Traditional farming energy use - 25% of vertical farms Traditional farm - 653sqm - 489,750 kWh x 25% = 122,437kWh 1kWh coal - 0.909kg CO2 122,437kWh - 111,295 kg CO2 3.1.3 Processing & Packaging: - CO2 from fossil fuel energy for processing, refrigeration 19% of 8.1 tonnes = 1,539kg CO2/yr 3.1.4 Imports & Transportation: - CO2 from transport: Avg 12% CO2 emissions is transport Total emissions/household - 8.1 tonnes/ year Transport emissions ~ about 972kg CO2/yr 3.1.5 Consumption - CO2 from fossil fuel for cooking 1 household - 2kWh/day 1 household - 730kWh/year 1kWh coal - 1 kg CO2 730kWh coal - 730kg CO2 3.1.6 Waste management - CH4 from Anaerobic digestion Aboutl 20% of the food grown is wasted during consumption 4518 x 20% = 903kg food waste 903kg food waste - 41kg methane 41 kg methane x 34 (GWP) = 1394kg CO2eq/yr

Source: Author

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Information Supporting Chapter 4 Proposed System Emissions: 3.1.2 Food Cultivation: Crops Absorption: Total area - 653m2 640m2 (plants), 13m2 (algae) Plants - absorb ~ 0.7kgCO2/yr Algae - absorb ~22kgCO2/yr 653m2 - absorb - 448 + 286 = 734kgCO2/yr a. Diet Changes and Chicken Livestock Rearing: - CH4 from enteric fermentation 1 Chicken - emit 0.25kg CO2eq/year 77 chickens - 19.25kgCO2/yr Total: 19.25kgCO2/yr b. No soil or fertiliser farming - CH4 from rice cultivation - 0 - N2O from synthetic fertilisers - 0 c. Waste to nutrients and energy recycling - CH4 from crop residue 10% of the food grown is wasted at cultivation 4518kg x 10% = 451.8kg crop residue/ waste 1 chicken - feed 0.1kg a day (281kg a year) 281kg of biowaste used as feed for chickens 22kg waste produces 1kg methane Remaining 170.8kg biowaste - 7.8kg methane 1kg Methane > 1kg CO2 + Energy + digestate (combustion) 171kg biowaste - 7.8kgCO2eq - CH4 from manure 1 chicken - 0.15kg manure/day 1 chicken - 54.75kg manure/yr 77 chickens - 4,215kg/year 22kg manure - 1kg methane (through anaerobic digestion) 4215kg manure - 191kg methane 1kg Methane > 1kg CO2 + Energy + digestate (combustion) 191kg methane - 191kgCO2eq/yr

d. Using Clean Energy - CO2 from fossil fuel for heating, lighting 1 year - 3,000kWh - 1sqm of growing area (reduce 50%) 1 year - 1 household - 653sqm 979,500kWh 979,500kWh / 2 = 489,750 489,750kWh (hydro) x 0.004 = 1959kgCO2/yr 3.1.3 Processing & Packaging: - CO2 from fossil fuel energy for processing, refrigeration 19% of 8.1 tonnes = 1,539kg CO2/yr Reduced 90% - 154kgCO2/yr 3.1.4 Imports & Transportation: - CO2 from transport: Avg 12% CO2 emissions is transport Total emissions/household - 8.1 tonnes/ year Transport emissions ~ about 972kg CO2/yr Using Renewable energy and reducing the distance by at least 75% Reduce 90% - 97.2kgCO2eq/yr 3.1.5 Consumption - CO2 from fossil fuel for cooking 1 household - 2kWh/day 1 household - 730kWh/year Natural gas - 0.465 kg CO2/kwh 730kWh - 340kg CO2eq/yr 3.1.6 Waste management - CH4 from Anaerobic digestion Aboutl 20% of the food grown is wasted during consumption 4518 x 20% = 903kg food waste 903kg food waste - 41kg methane 1kg Methane > 1kg CO2 + Energy + digestate (combustion) 41 kg methane > 41kg CO2eq/yr

Source: Author

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Information Supporting Chapter 4

Source: Author

105

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Information Supporting Chapter 5 Singapore Land & Food Sufficiency: 2019 Singapore Total Land Area: 721.5km2 Singapore Total Population: 5.612 million people Allocated to Agriculture: 15km2 (1500 hectares) (2% of total land) Operational Agriculture Area: 6km2 (600 hectares) (1% of total land) Proposed System: Household of 4 x6 Intensity: 109sqm Stacked 6 floors Area: 109sqm Number of people: 24 1 person ~ 4.5sqm Scenarios: Scenario 1 - With the remaining unoccupied agriculture land: 900 hectares: provide food for 1.98 million ppl 35% sufficient with 1.2% of Singapore’s land Scenario 2 - With the remaining unoccupied agriculture land for new system + existing one the same 900 hectares: provide food for 1.98 million ppl 500 hecatares: (existing) provide food for 0.5 million people Total number of people 1500 hectares can feed: 2.48million people 44% sufficient with 2% of Singapore’s land Scenario 3 - With the allocated land fully using the new system 1500 hectares: provide food for 3.3 million ppl 58% sufficient with 2% of Singapore’s land Scenario 4 - How much land To be 100% Self sufficient 5.6 million people: 2540 hectares 100% sufficient with 3.5% of Singapore’s land Scenario 5 - With the allocated land fully using the new system + Additional Land in the city Allocated land - 1500 hectares: provide food for 3.3 million ppl (58% sufficient) Additional City land - to feed remaining 2.3 million ppl: need 1000 hectares Total: 2500 hectares for 5.6 million ppl 100% sufficient with 3.5% of Singapore’s land Source: Author

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10005

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Foodprint: Farm Framework The theme of this thesis began from challenging the role of architects today. Aside from good governance and policies, appropriate climate action through designs and planned systems could contribute significantly to tackling the climate change disaster. The studio theme revolves around architecture going beyond sustainable to be regenerative or climate positive as theorised by Daniel Christian Wahl. In line with the Paris Agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) signed in 2016, the goal is to halve global emissions by 2030 and to reach net 0 emissions by 2050. Due to global warming, we are starting to see life-threatening impacts of climate change on health, economies, and risks to food security. Our agricultural economy is both one of the leading victims of climate change as well as a great culprit - being one of the largest contributors of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, yet, food is one of the basic human necessities. The thesis preparation report aims to further define these prevailing issues of climate change in relation to the food crisis as well as to explore the ‘foodprint framework’ that could transform the carbon footprint of the food system through various GHG reduction and absorption strategies, mainly through land use efficiency. Based on the context of Singapore, it will then envisage how the framework could generate architectural systems and strategies inherent to the topic of a climate positive food system and how this could be reconstructed to recover our planet’s health and attain food self sufficiency when this framework is applied. This topic expresses the urge and potential to reverse climate change through a global food production model that synchronously addresses food insecurity