Linear Elevated Landscapes in urban development by Galit Rolbin

Linear Elevated Landscapes in urban development Revealing exciting oppor tunities of eleva ted pedestrian mobility infrastructur e

Student Name: Galit Rolbin Student Number: 19046233 Programme of Study: Advanced Architectural Research PG Cert (BARC0014) Programme code: TCPARCSAAR12 Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL, London

Submission date: September 2021

Acknowledgements

Creative research is a long term process of the evolution of its writer. It is a challenging journey, an adventure, like climbing Everest, that cannot be completed solo. I feel lucky and grateful to have an incredible expedition team who took part in this process with me, to whom I want to express my genuine gratitude. Prof. Stephen Gage, my personal tutor, who right at the beginning introduced me to the idea of ‘exciting opportunities’ which I have been exploring through this work and which I take with me further to other fields of my life. The deep, focused insights of Prof. Gage sharpened my thinking process, leading me through the creative process of independent research. Landscape architect Amir Mueller, who has generously given his time to discuss and analyse ideas introduced in this work. These brainstorming sessions played an essential part in my research process. They gave me the confidence to keep going and have become part of my professional and intellectual growth, as well as the growth of our deep long term friendship. Sara Gerbi, English teacher, who has explored with me the Art of thinking through writing. This process has deepened my understanding of the meaning of words and their organisation, so they express and highlight the essence of an idea. The practice of fine-tuning the text has become a tool for crystallising the core of the message I want to deliver in any writing. Maayan Israel, Constanze Sixt and Maayan Elgabi, my dear friends and peers, who were my circle of support in this long term journey, with its multiple peaks and valleys. These bonds have become my true inspiration, and deepened the joy of mutual development. Finally, the core inspirational personalities that made this journey possible are my parents Leonid and Nellie Rolbin, who are my bedrock and my pristine fountain of energy that moves me every single day to aspire to be the best version of myself.

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Abstract

In view of rapidly growing urban densification, governments all over the world are expected to face much higher costs for building and maintaining a high-quality public realm in the very near future. This research recognizes the potential of infrastructure for multilevel pedestrian mobility in densely populated cities, or Linear Elevated Landscapes (LELs), as an essential public good, where some, or even most, of the costs of building and maintenance can be borne by the private sector. This potential collaboration with the private sector is crucial here, since similar projects designed to improve pedestrian mobility have proved very costly. Good collaboration demands awareness of mutual interests. What are they in LELs? The public sector is concerned with providing public goods such as high-quality mobility and public space, whereas the private sector interest is based on the indirect economic benefit created by augmented pedestrian flow, and a consequent high Return on Investment (ROI). Therefore, to attract private investment to such projects, and to raise awareness of the opportunities, it is crucial to build a solid business case speaking in the language of the entrepreneur. The result of my work has been to produce a simple Evaluation Model for future LEL projects, which enables all sides to quickly identify exciting opportunities for high quality and high ROI projects, to the benefit of both the public and private realms. The participation of the private sector means that far more resources will become available to build and maintain a high-quality, self-sustaining urban environment, which in turn creates a high quality of life for all citizens, current and new.

Key words: elevated pedestrian mobility infrastructure, urban density, public private collaboration in urban planning, evaluation model

Contents Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................................................................III Abstract........................................................................................................................................................................................ V 1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................2 1.1 Research background 1.2 Research rationale 1.3 Research question 1.4 Research structure 2. Defining Linear Elevated Landscapes........................................................................................................................................6 2.1 Evolution of LELs in urban development 2.2 Public good characteristics of LELs 2.3 Business Characteristics of LELs 2.4 Possible economic impacts created by LELs 3. Success and Failure of LELs.....................................................................................................................................................12 3.1 Dramatic failures of LELs – what can we learn from them? 3.2 The successful LELs – what can we learn from them? 3.3 Defining success and failure by learning from the examples 4. Research thesis development..................................................................................................................................................20 4.1 Inspirational ideas 4.2 Application of the inspirational ideas in this research 4.3 Development of a research methodology 5. Analysis of four Case Studies.................................................................................................................................................26 5.1 Context 5.2 Planning strategy 5.3 Design 5.4 Visible evidence of economic activity 5.5 Case Studies Analysis Summary

6. Revealing the Pattern...............................................................................................................................................................62 6.1 Revealing the Success Pattern 6.2 Revealing the Failure Pattern 7. Creating an Evaluation Model.................................................................................................................................................66 8. LELs in times of COVID19........................................................................................................................................................68 8.1 Dealing with pandemics in the history of city planning 8.2 Overview of several LELs showing how their function was affected by Covid19 8.3 Two questions concerning LELs in future [post]Covid reality 9. General conclusions and insights............................................................................................................................................74 9.1 The role of population density for the integration of successful public good/successful business in LELs 9.2 The case for a business case 9.3 Possible uses of the Evaluation Model 10. Positioning this research in a personal professional discourse...................................................................................................80 10.1 Setting the basis for thinking 10.2 Developing new perspectives References ..................................................................................................................................................................................82

VII

List of figures Fig. 1.1A: Scheme of interconnections of potential interests leading to the creation of an LEL......................................................................................................... 3 Fig. 2: List of significant LELs ..................................................................................... 6 Fig. 2.4: Sales in new developments along First and Second Sections of the High Line compared to new development sales in neighbouring areas (2016). [Source: image by StreetEasy as appears in Quintana, 2016]......................... 10

Fig. 5.1.3.1: Cincinnati Bell Connector line and stations and attractive public destinations within the CBD Cincinnati. .................................................................. 32 Fig. 5.1.3.2: MTR stations and attractive public destinations within the ’Central’ part of the CBD Hong Kong..................................................................... 33

Fig. 4.3: The four Case Studies chosen for revealing the success pattern....... 23

Fig. 5.1.3.3: Metro stations and attractive public destinations within the adjacent area of Viaduc des Arts and Promenade plantee. East Paris schematic diagram shows Promenade plantee walking route from the Bastille area (11th arrondissement) to the Bois de Vincennes (12th arrondissement) with the Viaduc des Arts segment highlighted in yellow..................................... 34

Fig. 5.1-1: Downtown Cincinnati, CBD, looking due south from above Central Parkway. [Image by Glenn Hartong as appears in Hartong, 2019]............... 26

Fig. 5.1.3.4: Subway stations and attractive public destinations within adjacent area of High Line walking rout in West Chelsea................................. 35

Fig. 5.1-3: Paris, 12th arrondissement, residential buildings [Image by Daniele Schneider, image code 1167760373, source: Getty Images, 2019].26

Fig. 5.2.1: Cincinnati Skywalk design (1958). Design prepared by Garber, Tweddell and Wheeler, architects. From Cincinnati CBD Plan: Cost Studies (Cincinnati, 1958). Gift of Young and Klein, Incorporated. [Image source as cited at https://www.flickr.com/photos/matthunterross/11408886763: Cincinnati: The Queen City, Bicentennial Edition (1988) by The Cincinnati Historical SocietyChapter: ”My Neighborhood and Our City, 1945-1988” .36

Fig. 4.1: Lichtman’s prediction of the 2020 American elections results [graphic adaptation based on sources: Lichtman, 2010; Lichtman, 2020]..................... 21

Fig. 5.1-2: ’Central’ part of CBD Hong Kong, aerial overview [Image by Benoy as appears in Li, 2020]................................................................................. 26 Fig. 5.1-4: Aerial view of Midtown Manhattan, NYC [Image by Eloi Omella, image code 946085532, source: Getty Images, 2019].................................... 26 Fig. 5.1.2.1A: Cincinnati CBD population and population density rates between 1940-2020................................................................................................. 28 Fig. 5.1.2.1B: Graph presenting the population density changes in CBD Cincinnati between the years 1940 and 2020, compared with the major stages of Sky-walk network development............................................................. 28 Fig. 5.1.2.2A: Hong Kong CBD population and population density rates between 1941-2020................................................................................................. 29 Fig. 5.1.2.2B: Graph presenting the population density changes in Central and Western Districts of Hong Kong (area where the CBD of Hong Kong is located) between the years 1941 and 2020, compared with the major stages of Sky-walk network development ............................................................ 29 Fig. 5.1.2.3A: 12th arrondissement, Paris population and population density rates between 1940-2020....................................................................................... 30 Fig. 5.1.2.3B: Graph presenting the population density changes in 12th arrondissement, Paris, France, between the years 1954 and 2021, compared with the major stages of the Promenade Plantee and Viaduc des Arts project development................................................................................................................ 30 Fig. 5.1.2.4A: Chelsea, New York, NY, population and population density rates between 1941-2020....................................................................................... 31 Fig. 5.1.2.4B: Graph presenting the population density changes in Chelsea, New York, NY, US between the years 1960 and 2019, compared with the

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major stages of the High Line project development............................................ 31

Fig. 5.2.2: Example of diagrams for urban design guidelines from Colony Outline Plan (COP) for Hong Kong (1969) [Source: Tan and Xue, 2015, p. 692, name of image as appears in the origin: Figure 1. Diagram (left) of the “New Urban Form” introduced in the Colony Outline Plan, 1969]................... 37 Fig. 5.2.3: ZAC Reuilly, Masterplan including green walkway Promenade Plantee and its elevated part – Viaduc des Arts (1985) [Source: Becker and Peter Cachola Schmal, 2010, p.45]........................................................................ 38 Fig. 5.2.4: Special West Chelsea District (SWCD) rezoning plan 2005 [Source: Special West Chelsea District, NYC, Manhattan Community Board 4, plan approval meeting report, available at https://cbmanhattan.cityofnewyork. us/cb4/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2019/08/1_cpp_wch_resolutions. pdf]................................................................................................................................ 39 Fig. 5.3: ’Design code’ created by de-construction of design components found in the four chosen Case Studies.................................................................... 41 Fig. 5.3.1A: CBD Cincinnati - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of typical views represented by photographs (1-8).42 Fig. 5.3.1B: CBD Cincinnati - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views....................................................................................................................... 43 Fig. 5.3.2A: CBD Honk Kong - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8).............................................................................................................................. 44 Fig. 5.3.2B: CBD Hong Kong - typical cross sections of the structure related

to the views.................................................................................................................. 45 Fig. 5.3.3A: Viaduc des Arts - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8).............................................................................................................................. 46 Fig. 5.3.3B: Viaduc des Arts - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views....................................................................................................................... 47 Fig. 5.3.4A: High Line - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8).............................................................................................................................. 48 Fig. 5.3.4B: High Line - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views.............................................................................................................................. 49 Fig. 5.4: Actual Economic Facilities mapped for each Case Study within its adjacent area.............................................................................................................. 51 Fig. 5.4.1.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]........................................................................................ 52 Fig. 5.4.1.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)....................................................................... 53 Fig. 5.4.1.C: Relation between public and private facilities.............................. 53 Fig. 5.4.1.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets......................................... 53 Fig. 5.4.2.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]........................................................................................ 54 Fig. 5.4.2.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)....................................................................... 55

Fig. 5.4.4.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]........................................................................................ 58 Fig. 5.4.4.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)....................................................................... 59 Fig. 5.4.4.C: Relation between public and private facilities.............................. 59 Fig. 5.4.4.D:Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets......................................... 59 Fig. 6: Recognition of the Success Pattern and the Failure Pattern through analysis summary........................................................................................................ 64 Fig. 7: Evaluation Model based on the recognised Success and Failure Patterns......................................................................................................................... 66 Fig. 8.1A: Typical air flow patterns in urban canyons (a) cross-canyon vortex, (b) multiple stacked vortices in a deep canyon, (c) helical flow along a canyon, and (d) along channelling and jetting along a canyon [Source Oke:2017, p.89]......................................................................................................... 69 Fig. 8.1B: Average weekday mixing ratios of Benzene in ppb (bold numbers) measured at different locations and heights in a regular street canyon [Source Oke:2017, p.309].......................................................................... 69 Fig. 8.2: High Line - environmental graphics created for social distancing by Pentagram [Image source: https://www.pentagram.com/work/high-linereopening/story]......................................................................................................... 70 Fig. 9A: The three pillars of a potential LEL: potential benefits....................... 74 Fig. 9B: The three pillars of a potential LEL: potential costs covering............. 74 Fig. 9C: LELs efficiency in relation to population density - general tendency graph created by the author.................................................................................... 75

Fig. 5.4.2.C: Relation between public and private facilities.............................. 55 Fig. 5.4.2.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets......................................... 55 Fig. 5.4.3.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]........................................................................................ 56 Fig. 5.4.3.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)....................................................................... 57 Fig. 5.4.3.C: Relation between public and private facilities.............................. 57 Fig. 5.4.3.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets......................................... 57

Abbreviations: LEL - Linear Elevated Landscape AEF - Actual Economic Activity ROI - Return on Investment CBD - Central Business District PRM - Pattern Recognition Modelling

1. Introduction 1.1 Research background

1.2 Research rationale

1.3 Research question

1.1 Research background “As the global population becomes increasingly urbanised, cities have emerged as the dominant arenas to address the grand challenges facing humanity. [...] the burgeoning realisation that ’business as usual’ will no longer do has prompted a search for alternative ways to organise, plan, manage, and live in cities.” (Evans, Karvonen and

Raven, 2018, p.1)

Why is the issue of multilevel pedestrian mobility infrastructure and its adequate financing urgent in current urban planning? The majority of today’s cities will face enormous challenges of population density growth in the near future (Evans, Karvonen and Raven, 2018, p.1). The by-product of this rapidly increasing urbanisation is a decrease in sustainability and the well-being of citizens. Lack of consideration of these issues today is very likely to lead tomorrow’s large and intermediate cities, not to mention current mega-cities, to inefficient utilisation of resources, creating extreme congestion. That would seriously damage people’s quality of life, or create urban spread, which humanity cannot afford anymore (Lehmann, 2016; OECD, 2018). Another challenge, consequent to the above, is the price (Hanley, 2004, p.79). According to World Bank estimation from 2019, the costs of achieving Sustainable Development Goals defined by the United Nations (United Nations, 2015) will be around three times more than the available budgets (Muggah, Geray and Eik, 2019, para 5). It seems like a colossal shortfall, but on the other hand, this challenge could be viewed as a trigger for a paradigm shift, opening new funding opportunities by applying a more entrepreneurial approach. Here arises the question: “Can government undertake the financing of essential projects within a contractual relationship that shifts risk away from the taxpayer while preserving the public interest in the long term?” (Hanley, 2004, p.79). General agendas promoted for urban development call for resilience: “[…] economic development in its broadest sense means a sustained

1.4 Research structure

increase in the socioeconomic welfare of a population.” (Weeks, 1992, p.383). However, to do so, planning systems need tools to combine

and balance contradicting issues, such as high population density and a high quality environment, market-oriented economic growth and human-centred management (Evans, Karvonen and Raven, 2018, p.32). The authors of ’Innovative urban financing can make our cities stronger’ point out that: “it is time to start thinking about a more coherent urban finance ecosystem in order to channel more predictable funding to large and secondary cities” (Muggah, Geray and Eik, 2019, para 6). They also emphasize the importance of finding new ways for preliminary analysis as a necessary stage of a ‘free-market’ approach creating ‘businesscases’ for urban planning: “Cities also need to experiment with new ways to bridge the financing gap, including pre-investment feasibility analyses and due diligence and business case creation. Novel mechanisms need to be designed in such a way that they match the potential supply of finances with the demand from city-based projects.” (Muggah, Geray and Eik, 2019, para 10). This research suggests Linear Elevated Landscapes (LELs) - elevated pedestrian mobility infrastructure - as a form of infrastructure that can both address the issue of population density and potentially create business cases for private investment via a ‘pre-investment feasibility analysis’, as cited above by Muggah et al, by using the Evaluation Model which was developed as a result of this research and presented in Part 7 - Creating an Evaluation Model.

1.2 Research rationale “[…] if there is a market for the product, then it may be worth investing in that product.” (Weeks, 1992, p.490)

The name of the research, “Linear Elevated Landscapes in urban development. Revealing exciting opportunities of elevated pedestrian mobility infrastructure”, aims to signify a potential meeting point of the

Growing urban density Public sector interest

Need for efficient pedestrian circulation Multi-level pedestrian infrastructure

Creation of LELs

[public good]

Private sector interest

More financial opportunities [business]

Fig. 1.1A: Scheme of interconnections of potential interests leading to the creation of an LEL

acute issues found in a multi-levelled pedestrian mobility infrastructure. One of the prime conditions for a vital, densely populated city with high quality of life is a well-balanced circulation of pedestrians and vehicles. The great advantage of LELs is that they can augment the volume of pedestrian mobility and, in some cases, even expand the amount of public open spaces. In contrast, the challenge is to channel this growth sustainably in a way that is also financially feasible. The research highlights two possible qualities inherent in LELs. First, the public good, as LELs provide pedestrian circulation by expanding it to a multi-levelled city network - a high-demand product consumed by citizens. Second, the business, since pedestrian circulation itself is a much-needed facility for businesses and investors, creating revenues in the form of increased sales, rent ratio and property values. In this case, LELs become a ‘currency’ between the public and private sectors and therefore, cost of this public good infrastructure can be transferred from governmental subsidies to the private sector in exchange for the multiple benefits it creates in entrepreneurial ROI.

Based on that assumption, the need to address population density growth and the need for new ways for preliminary analysis to reveal the pre-investment feasibility of these projects, this research explores new ways of evaluating the potential success of LELs as both public good and economic activity generator. It also highlights the necessity for planners to take a practical financial approach, such as building business cases and identifying risk.

1.3 Research question Previous experiences of creating LELs of different kinds, such as skywalk systems and elevated linear parks, show that they can be highly successful or a complete failure (see Part 3 - Success and Failure of LELs). The successful projects become catalysts for economic growth and significantly leverage the value of the areas they pass through. On the other hand, the failed ones become a tremendous waste of public funds and, in a worst-case scenario, also an eyesore in the cityscape. Based on

the above, the following question arises: How can we recognize a high potential for successful LEL projects and avoid promoting those highly likely to fail?

Part 6 - Revealing the Pattern structurally summarises the analysis, showing the common attributes of the successful cases and the outstanding characteristics of the failed.

In light of the above question, this research sets three main objectives:

Part 7 - Creating an Evaluation Model introduces the evaluation tool for LEL projects created according to the recognized Success Pattern.

1. to define the essential elements of the successfully functioning LELs 2. to explore the leading causes for the failure of LELs to avoid them in the future 3. to create a simple evaluation tool for a potential LEL project, aimed at indicating whether all the essential ingredients are in place to support its success and hence make it attractive for private investment

1.4 Research structure Part 1 - Introduction presents the main issues involved in this research: the problem of rapidly growing urban density, the need to provide better pedestrian mobility and solution to its high cost funding by the involvement of the private sector. Part 2 - Defining Linear Elevated Landscapes presents the evolution of LELs through the history of urban development as a built typology and shows some of their public good and business characteristics. Part 3 - Success and Failure of LELs discusses several examples of successful and failed LEL projects, resulting in definitions of the essential attributes of success and failure of LELs. Part 4 - Research thesis development presents pattern analysis and describes the creative process of its application as a background for the analysis of the following chosen Case Studies. Part 5 - Analysis of four Case Studies reflects the differences in performance between three successful and one failed project.

Part 8 - LELs in times of Covid 19 overviews a number of issues related to the pandemic and urban planning relevant to LELs. Part 9 - General conclusions and insights describes the relationship between urban density, elevated pedestrian mobility and investment opportunities for the private sector. Part 10 - Positioning this research in a personal professional discourse discusses some broader insights concerning urban densification, mobility infrastructure and involvement of the private sector in urban developments.

2. Defining Linear Elevated Landscapes 2.1 Evolution of LELs in urban development

2.2 Public good characteristics of LELs

2.3 Business Characteristics of LELs

2.4 Possible economic impacts created by LELs

In this work, I relate to two types of Linear Elevated Landscapes in central urban cores. One is Sky-walk networks – a series of mostly top covered or climate controlled pedestrian bridges which provide pedestrian circulation through city by linking the buildings on the elevated level, such as networks in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Calgary, Alberta and Hong Kong. Another type is a relatively new typology of Linear Elevated Parks – long narrow green public spaces functioning as pedestrian

Sky-walk networks

Linear Elevated Parks

Fig. 2: List of significant LELs

promenades by linking several city blocks (Sinha, 2013), such as Viaduc des Arts in Paris, High Line in New York and Seoullo in Seoul. The above mentioned and additional examples of both categories can be found in Fig.2, and the following part represents the evolutionary process of the development of these urban typologies.

Location

Name

Total walking length (km)

Year of opening

Minneapolis, Minnesota, US

Minneapolis Skyway

15.3

1962

Saint Paul, Minnesota, US

Saint Paul Skyway

1967

Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Plus 15 (or +15) Skyway

1970

Hong Kong, China

Central Elevated

1971

12th arrondissemant, Paris, France

Viaduc des Arts and Promenade Plantée (or Coulée verte René-Dumont)

1.5 km - Viaduc des Arts length (4.5 km total Promenade Plantée length)

1994

West Chelsea, New York, NY, US

High Line

2.33

2009

Chicago, Illinoise, US

Bloomingdale Trail

4.3

2015

Sants neighbourhood, Barcelona, Spain

Rambla de Sants

0.8 (will be exapnaded to 5 km)

2016

Seoul, Korea

Seoullo 7017 (Seoul Skygarden)

2017

2.1 Evolution of LELs in urban development Elevated pedestrian systems had various forms in the different stages of their evolution. However, they have one thing in common – they caused a radical alteration of the urban spatial logic that existed beforehand. Tracking back the milestones of their development may shed light on some interesting insights about the reasons they continued to appear through the history of urban settlement, each time being “radical experiments in urban design and planning” (Yoos and James, 2016).

Ancient times – first multi-levelled pedestrian structures Before elevated pedestrian tracks entered the core of the cities, they appeared at their borders. Fortifications, thick circumference walls designed to protect settlements from external attacks, were created as far back as the 6th millennium BC. These vast ancient structures1 included wall walks and functioned as elevated patrol paths high above the city level, enabling long views inside and outside. In the context of this research, these structures are interesting for two main reasons. First, by making the cities more secure, these walls revolutionised human society, freeing the citizens from a state of constant survival and developing other skills rather than warfare (FernándezArmesto, 2018). Secondly – as the city density increased within limited space, it stimulated the search for multi-levelled solutions for the innercity’s denser and more effective development. Multi-levelled pedestrian commercial structures, such as Trajan’s Market, believed to be the World’s oldest known public shopping mall and administrative centre (d‫׳‬Aquino, 2015, p. 83-4), were another upgrade for the pedestrian circulation system supporting the city’s economic development and optimizing its commercial and administrative activity.

The width of the Great wall of China for example is 4-5 m

Medieval age – first elevated city network The first actual elevated pedestrian city network is believed to have been built during the 13th century in Chester, England. Historians are unsure of the exact reasons these elevated sidewalks, the ROWS, were built at first, but according to Brown (Brown et al., 1999, summary), whereas the factors may include physical and topographical issues, the commercial advantages of the system probably played the crucial role in the fact that the network continuously developed over the four main streets of the city and still functions in the same way (Boeschenstein, 1985).

Twentieth-century – elevated pedestrian systems in modern architectural agendas After a long time gap, the circulation of ideas concerning gradeseparated pedestrian mobility continued to develop in many cities over the world through the 20th century. However, they all seemed to have their origins in the 20th century avant-garde with the background of the growing popularity of the car and its mass production. Appearing in CIAM2 conferences and ”occasionally filtered through the 1939 World’s Fair in New York and the World Expos of the 1950s and 1960s”, the threedimensional pedestrian network strategies created by architects such as Le Corbusier, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Josep Lluís Sert penetrated the minds of the planners and soon started to appear in city planning practice worldwide (Eric Mumford in Yoos and James, 2016). In ‘Plan of New York and Its Environs’ (1931) by Thomas Adams for example, elevated walkways separating pedestrians from cars were considered as part of the solution for the congested Manhattan. (Hebbert, 1993). In London, the promotion of the idea of elevated pedestrian walkways started after the massive destructions of World War II. Then, the need for a redesign of the badly bomb-damaged area of the Square Mile and London Wall offered an opportunity to plan the first 2 1959)

Congrès internationaux d’architecture moderne (11 conferences from 1928 to

large-scale prototype for segregated pedestrian infrastructure, named the ‘Ped-way network’ first proposed by the architects William Holford and Charles Holden in 1947 (Wainwright, 2018; Tsubaki, 2012). *3 Meanwhile, in the USA, these ideas had been moving in parallel with the acceleration of Gruen’s idea for the pedestrian mall, which incorporated multilevel pedestrian circulation within a large indoor shopping centre resulting from the increased popularity and availability of the automobile. Reacting to a ‘decentralization’ of functions that once were limited to the downtown areas of cities and now were declining, many American towns started creating elevated pedestrian networks to compete with the climate-controlled all year-round bliss of the shopping malls (Robertson, 1993a; Robertson, 1993b; Abbott, 1993, p. 10-1). More than 30 American cities adopted this idea over the 30 years since the building of the first one in Minneapolis (1961). The idea of multi-levelled pedestrian circulation also migrated to Asian countries, especially as many of them were, or had been European colonies. In Hong Kong, for example, the planning agendas of British architects mentioned earlier were very influential, especially when landing on the reality of an extreme population densification. Between 1945-1965 Hong Kong almost tripled its population, and with minimal opportunity to expand due to its geographical location, the city was practically forced to find a vertical solution to its pedestrian circulation. Connecting businesses, community facilities and residential buildings since the 1960s, Hong Kong’s skywalk network had become “a lubricant for Hong Kong’s day-to-day economic operation” (Tan and Q.L. Xue, 2014). *

End of 20th and beginning of 21st centuries – development of Linear Elevated Parks Another category of segregated pedestrian facilities - Linear Elevated Parks has developed during the post-industrial age. Viaducts once raised for elevated railways had become abandoned linear structures cutting through the cities, after the freight trains carriage stopped functioning, 3 * This example is discussed in Part 3 - Success and Failure of LELs

creating floating useless corridors hovering above the streets. The existence of these historic but derelict viaducts created a dilemma for the planners: knocking them down would be a very costly operation (not to mention the waste of already invested funds for the creation of this infrastructure); keeping them, on the other hand, demanded an unprecedented creative approach for their reuse (Heathcott, 2013). ‘Promenade Plantée and Viaduc des arts’ created in Paris* set a precedent for the creation of linear elevated parks on their disused over-grounds, which continues today in many other cities. One of the most renowned successors of Viaduc des Arts is the acclaimed High Line in NYC*. In the last decade, the idea of the Linear Elevated Park has moved even further. If once it had been associated mostly with the reuse of abandoned transit infrastructure, today urban planners consider Linear Elevated Parks from scratch as a legitimate form of urban green public space. Good examples of Linear Elevated Parks “from scratch” could be ’The Tide’ in London and ’Jardins de la Rambla de Sants’ in Barcelona. Some more projects are currently in their planning or construction stages, for example: Elevated Park in Chapultepec, Mexico (proposed in 2015), ‘Urban Living room’ in Quin Shenzhen, China (2018, under construction) and the Green Corridor in Bukit Timah, Singapore (first phase of construction expected to begin in 2021). Summary: Through this historical overview, it can be seen that the creation of LELs throughout history was a reaction to at least one of the three factors: the essential need for cities’ physical development, recognition of economic advantages created by more concentrated, augmented commercial activity and/or reaction to the intensive growth of population density. ’Plan of New York and Its Environs’ (1931) and ‘Ped-way network’ (1947) for London - arose as a solution for the growing popularity of cars and their danger for pedestrian mobility. The idea of Linear Elevated Parks, such as Viaduc des Arts in Paris and High Line in NYC came as a solution to the need to reuse of the derelict elevated industrial infrastructure. The

mediaeval city of Chester, on the other hand, recognized the potential of commercial development via elevated pedestrian paths additional to the street level circulation – an idea that American down-towns developed on a much bigger scale. The city of Hong Kong combined the same concept with the need to expand the capacity of its pedestrian infrastructure due to an enormous rise of population density within limited space.

2.2 Public good characteristics of LELs ”Samuelson defined the public consumption good as the good that all enjoy in common in the sense that each individual’s consumption of such a good leads to no subtraction from any other individual’s consumption of that good...” (Sungno Niggol Seo, 2020, p.38)

Being mainly pedestrian mobility infrastructure, from the economic perspective LELs meet the traditional public good definition – they are open to the public, and their ability to serve pedestrians does not diminish with an increase in the number of their users. Apart from this main service there are two other important advantages this infrastructure is able to provide: firstly, higher air quality for pedestrians by elevating them above the highly polluted roads and secondly, their inherent potential as a public open space. According to the study by Bethan Tuckett-Jones and Tom Reade (TuckettJones and Reade, 2017), the air quality improves with height up to the fourth floor of typical buildings at roadside locations. The pollution concentration profile created by this research showed that between 1.513.5m (the ground and the fourth floor), the greatest reduction (~40%) of car emissions concentration occurs. Beyond this height the pollution increases again. Since LELs appear mostly within this range of heights – pedestrians may seem them an attractive alternative to roadside pavements. If developed as a Linear Elevated Parks, LELs create even more benefits providing opportunities for additional greenery, physical activities, social interaction and unique city views.

2.3 Business Characteristics of LELs ”The free rider problem is at the essence of the societal problem of public goods: owing to the non-availability of individual consumptions, people will free ride and expect to enjoy the benefits of a public good once others pay the cost and provide the public good.” (Sungno Niggol Seo, 2020, p.40)

The other side of the coin of a public good is usually seen as the ‘free rider problem’ when the consumers cannot be forced to pay for its service, thus causing its under-supply. Thus, according to the conventional approach, LELs managed by the ‘free market’ should fail to develop as efficient, continuous, high-quality networks. Whereas some of LELs were publicly planned, others have been privately initiated in both their inception and development, with many intermediate cases. City policies for managing these systems vary as well - from detailed regulation and full financial support to only general guidelines and part- or nonparticipation in their funding. According to the publication ’Market Failure, Government Failure, and the Private Supply of Public Goods: The Case of Climate-Controlled Walkway Networks’ (Montgomery and Bean, 1999), the sky-walk networks supplied by the private sector in ‘free-market’ conditions did not result in the expected ‘market failure’. In fact, the opposite happened – they seemed to be quite effective. Among the 5 major networks in 55 surveyed American cities, the first three were privately built. The same result occurred in Hong Kong, where the privately initiated phenomenon of creating additional levels for pedestrian circulation only needed to be guided and supported by the government. Furthermore, Linear Elevated Parks also demonstrate a successful collaboration between public and private resources. It is not surprising, if to take into consideration that privately initiated High Line, NYC for example is expected to generate more than $1.4B in tax revenue within a decade since its opening in 2017 (Plunz and Moskalenko, 2017, p.9). The above examples show that private arrangements can be very successful in their supply of the LELs with minimal government intervention.

So where does the private benefit come from? Interestingly, LELs produce other side effects that can be beneficial for their owners and investors, not only despite free pedestrian mobility, but because of it.

2.4 Possible economic impacts created by LELs

Yet going back to the starting point of this research, the truly exciting thing about High Line Is the economic development it created in the area, combining social benefits together with the enormous real estate boom. As Michael Chapman, real estate broker at then Stribling & Associates expressed that, “The High Line changed the dynamic of the neighbourhood making it more accessible to more people.“ (Chapman quoted in Barbanel, 2016).

In dense cities, pedestrian circulation on additional levels extends the public flow through more activities within the buildings, which has tremendous business advantages. Sky-walks for example, are usually provided by multiple private stakeholders owning the buildings. Therefore, when new owners link to the network, they ‘reap a free windfall’ in the form of the flow of potential customers on the additional commerce level, higher rents on the elevated pathway level and raises in property and land values in the surrounding area. In the case of Linear Elevated Parks, the investors benefit from the property and land enhancement within adjacent areas of these projects, as described in the example of the High Line below. High Line’s economic ‘Halo Effect’ on its surroundings is widely discussed (Lindner and Rosa, 2017 p. 61-2; Littke, Locke and Haas, 2015 p. 358-9; Barbanel, 2016). This aerial park has become a catalyst for real-estate values to soar in the surrounding blocks. According to a report by realestate platform ‘StreetEasy’ in 2016 (Quintana, 2016) apartment prices received a significant boost from their proximity to the High Line. This report compares apartment sales between the area directly linked to the High Line and the neighbouring block to the east (see Fig. 2.4). The analysis showed an increase in real estate resale prices by 8.9% in homes bordering the first section and by 12.8% in homes bordering the second section of the project. This effect surprised even experienced real estate professionals. For example, Stephen Kliegerman, president of one of the leading brokerage firms in New York area specialising in residential real estate said that in High Line surrounding “Pricing exceeded a lot of people’s expectations” (Kliegerman quoted in Barbanel, 2016).

Fig. 2.4: Sales in new developments along First and Second Sections of the High Line compared to new development sales in neighbouring areas (2016). [Source: image by StreetEasy as appears in Quintana, 2016]

3. Success and Failure of LELs 3.1 Dramatic failures of LELs – what can we learn from them?

3.2 The successful LELs – what can we learn from them?

3.3 Defining success and failure by learning from the examples

The following two sections (3.1 and 3.2) present six examples illustrating the ways failure and success have appeared in LEL projects on a large scale. Each example is presented through three aspects: the original idea, the result and the ‘lessons to be learned’, emphasizing some significant insights extracted from them.

Owner: The Garden Bridge Trust (private limited company directed by Lord Davies of Abersoch, the chairman of the trust)

Design: Heatherwick Studio Cost: £53 million (including £43 million of public funds) Timeline: 2012 - initial idea // 2014 - investigation reports // 2017 project cancelled // [2019 - planned opening]

3.1 Dramatic failures of LELs – what can we learn from them? “Why on earth would anyone speak for failure? Particularly, why would a management scientist? The answer lies in the latter question. As it is an incontestable fact that project failures occur, it would be unscientific – and illogical – not to study them.” (Lindahl and Rehn,

2007, p.247)

Projects fail. We can see this fact either as a pathological state to avoid or as a part of a logical “reverse exercise” to define success. Every unsuccessful project has its individual complex of problems that cumulatively result in failure and in the history of urban planning there are a number of examples of LELs which were built, but ended up as disasters (Montgomery and Bean, 1999; Martin, 2015). LELs, in addition to their direct purpose as public good in the form of pedestrian mobility and/or public open space, also have to involve a strong ‘business case’ to justify their existence. Pedestrians need a strong reason to choose walking along LELs (in addition to the fact that getting to the elevated level is easy, and that they feel safe). Investors (public or private) need a strong reason to invest in LELs i.e. a strong business case that proves that elevated pedestrian activity would significantly benefit them.

3.1.1 The Garden Bridge, London, UK Location: London, UK Project type: Pedestrian Bridge with integrated gardens between the Thames banks

Length: 366 m

“This was the tiara on the Thames that lost its shine and then died. The project promised a lot but delivered nothing, swallowing £43m of public money in the process.” (Edwards, 2019)

The original idea: The Garden Bridge was a privately initiated picturesque pedestrian bridge over the River Thames to link the Borough of Lambeth on the south bank to Victoria Embankment on the north. The structure was intended to carry pedestrians only and include green space, thus making it unique amongst other Thames bridges. First suggested by actress Joanna Lumley in the 1990’s, the proposal struggled to gain traction, even though, in 2012 it piqued the interest of Boris Johnson, then mayor of London, as he saw in it a unique proposal that would contribute to the fabric of the city symbolizing London’s advance amongst the World’s first cities (Neate and Addley, 2019). Although it was a nice idea, the proposal from the beginning struggled to define a clear purpose leading to a ‘dead end’ result. Thomas Heatherwick, the designer of the bridge, describes the reasons and the architectural idea of the project as an extension of London green public areas and improving the pedestrian links across the river (Heatherwick, 2016). However, according to the report by Dame Margaret Hodge MP, who was appointed to investigate the Garden Bridge planning process, there was a confusion about the purpose of the project and lack of a grounded business case: “It is my view that there was no agreement among those to whom I talked about the purpose of the Garden Bridge. The absence of clarity created confusion which undermined value for the taxpayers’ money’” (Hodge, 2017, p.7).

The result: The project was supposed to be funded by approximately 1/3 public and 2/3 private money; however, during the planning process, the future owner of the structure - the Garden Bridge Trust, realized that the actual costs of the development seemed to exceed the original tremendously. Thus, Boris Johnson’s successor Sabiq Khan started an investigation process to reveal whether the project justified further investment. The investigation revealed that there wasn’t any significant reason for building the bridge, nor was there clear evidence of anyone’s ability to bear the maintenance costs of the structure or get any return on the invested capital. On the contrary, it was found that there was no basis to continue the project, and subsequently, after running for seven years and achieving nothing, the project was cancelled. The media widely criticized the Garden Bridge for causing a loss of around £53m, £43m of which was public money (Edwards, 2019).

Lessons to be learned: The lack of a solid business case, no transparent financial model for the construction, and no clear plan for subsequent maintenance were crucial factors that led to the downfall of this project. An additional stumbling block was the legal land ownership. The preparatory development works at the areas where the proposed bridge was supposed to touch the banks had started before the legal rights to the land were secured.

3.1.2 The City of London Pedway Scheme, London, UK

“They were planned after the Second World War to whisk people above car-choked streets in the financial district, but remained unpopular and half-built.” (Wainwright, 2018)

The original idea: Planners had already imagined vertically segregated pedestrian circulation in cities back in the 1930s, but it took time until these ideas started arriving in concrete form. In London, the experimentation with these ideas had become consequential to the need to redevelop the city’s financial centre seriously damaged by the WWII bombings. The massive destruction created an opportunity for new architectural experiments to be implemented and the idea of “a parallel pedestrian universe” that would separate people from the cars below seemed very appropriate. The Ped-way Scheme was first proposed in 1947 by William Holford and Charles Holden, and had become part of the Square Mile area plan provided by the City Corporation and the London County Council (LCC), intended to encourage private developments (Wainwright, 2018; Minkjan and Lee, 2013; Tsubaki, 2012). Becoming enthusiastic about pioneering this idea, the Corporation imposed the Scheme on developers within the Square Mile - London’s central business district. However, increasing traffic mobility rather than pedestrian circulation was apparently the main reason behind the Ped-way Scheme: “It wasn’t driven by some great feeling of compassion towards pedestrians; it was simply about getting people out of the way in order to speed up traffic flow” (Peter Rees quoted in Wainwright, 2018).

Location: London, UK

The result: The documentary named “The Pedway: Elevating London”

Project type: Network of elevated pedways

(Chris Bevan Lee, 2013; Minkjan and Lee, 2013) is probably one of the

Length: 48 km (proposed) Owner: City of London Corporation Design: Charles Holden (architect) and William Holford (planner) Cost: Timeline: 1950s – 60s - put into effect // 1980s - mostly abandoned // 2017 - partly revived

best sources for visual illustrations of the results of the once-ambitious plan and exploring why the Ped-way Scheme was unsuccessful. There were not enough attractive facilities for the public on the elevated level. So, from the pedestrian point of view, to climb the stairs with no strong reason that could justify this effort – proved unattractive. From the developer’s point of view, one of the difficulties of building the sky-walks was that the connective segments needed synchronization with the developer on the other side, which could take a long time.

Thus, the developers who were waiting for their neighbours were frequently permitted to temporarily use the elevated platforms already built on their side as extensions for offices. That provided them with additional revenue and, in many cases, stayed as a permanent condition, as the expected connection would fail to arrive. Budget cuts and modified plans were additional problems in this failure chain and last but not least was the conservation movement that had a substantial impact on disabling the continuity of the network in many areas. As a result, some walkways were built but were not able to join up to a network. Most of the created segments remained unused, physically decaying over time and leading to dead ends (Hebbert, 1993). Recently several surviving parts of the system have been creatively reinterpreted by current architects.

Lessons to be learned: In the case of London Ped-way Scheme, the two biggest problems seem to be the lack of deep enough consideration of its stakeholders - pedestrians and developers - needs before creating the system, and the lack of clear implementation strategy of the plan: “It was never really conceived as a system […] They didn’t even have a drawing of the network as a whole. It had to be constructed from the separate planning consents for individual office blocks.” (Michael Hebbert in Chris Bevan Lee, 2013). In the created reality, there was no strong reason for the pedestrians to go up and walk on elevated levels and there was no strong enough reason for the developers to make these connection attractive for pedestrian movement, since they did not benefit from it. Beyond these significant problems, there were also many other obstacles such as maintenance policies, synchronization of development’s time-lines, unsuitability for fire brigade’s equipment etc. Still, the main problem was that people did not want to use them. Again, it can clearly be seen that lack of overall coordination from the start, and lack of real consideration for the needs of all stakeholders lay at the bottom of the failure of the London Ped-way Scheme.

3.1.3 Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Location: Ohio, USA Project type: Network of elevated pedestrian walkways connecting between buildings

Length: 2.1 km Owner: The City of Cincinnati + private developers Design: Herbert W. Stevens, Cincinnati Director of Planning Cost: $16 million Timeline: 1957 - original idea is proposed by Cincinnati Director of Planning Herbert W. Stevens // 1964 - plan development started // 1971 - the first link opened connecting the Cincinnati Convention Centre to the Fountain Square // 1997 - the system officially finished // 2002 - pieces of the skywalk started to be demolished// 2020 - last part of the network was demolished

“Like many failed ideas, the skywalks in Cincinnati were built with only the best intentions.” (Healy, 2005)

The original idea: The public Sky-walk system of Cincinnati was conceived by Cincinnati Director of Planning Herbert W. Stevens in 1957 challenged by the popularity of malls, which were popping up in the 1950s around many cities in the US. The developers sought to regenerate the once-popular city centre by linking retail and office buildings using covered pedways to compete with the appeal of indoor shopping offered by malls in the suburbs (Abbott, 1993). In addition to that, the system was supposed to protect pedestrians from bad weather and auto traffic below. Inspired by its ‘role model’ - Minneapolis Skyway, which expanded to become a success example of sky-walk network development, as one of the largest in the world (Cui, Allan and Lin, 2013), Cincinnati was expected to have a similar result (Bhalla and Pant, 1985, p.103). Unfortunately, it turned to be the exact opposite.

The result: Even though some citizens used Cincinnati’s sky-walks and saw them positively, some - blamed it for its poor orientation and maintenance. On the other hand, the city authorities blamed the skywalks for discouraging the street level economic activity (Healy, 2005). As a result, the ‘2002 Centre City Plan’ proposed to remove the network.

This decision was based on the survey conducted as a preliminary step for the plan, which revealed sky-walks as the main reason pedestrians avoided walking on Cincinnati streets, thus making them empty. The survey recommended expanding economic vibrancy on the street level by increasing street-level pedestrian flow, for which knocking the skywalks down was found as the right solution (Yung, 2012; Armstrong, 2017). ”It only took five years after its completion for the city to have a change of heart, leading to the gradual dismantling of portions of the $16 million infrastructure” (LaFleur, 2018). Starting in the 70s it took Cincinnati 30 years to complete the system and 15 years to destroy it - the last section of Cincinnati sky-walks system came down in October 2020 (Schell and Goffinet, 2020).

3.2 The successful LELs – what can we learn from them? “I know how innovation and smart thinking can rescue a city. We completely rethought the way New York used its assets, especially land, to dramatically strengthen the city’s physical and fiscal base” (Dan

Doctoroff in Forward to Dag Detter and Fölster, 2017)

3.2.1 ‘Central Elevated’, Central Business District, Hong Kong Location: Hong Kong, China Project type: Network of pedestrian footbridges

Lessons to be learned: The example of Cincinnati shows that the public good role of this kind of pedestrian infrastructure is not enough for its successful long term functioning. This infrastructure has two categories of direct stakeholders (not including the investors) - pedestrians and business owners, and to flourish, both groups must clearly benefit from the system. The sky-walk network should have augmented the city’s already existing economic activity at the street level, but not to compete with it. It must be able to play an economically viable role in the city. The final result of the Cincinnati system - its complete dismantling - proves how crucial the last factor is, when considering the creation of LELs.

Length: Around 4.4 km Owner: Mostly privately owned with some publicly added segments Design: According to the individual owners Cost: According to the individual owners Timeline: 1948 - Hong Kong Preliminary Report by Sir Patrick Abercombie observed that the crowded shops on the ground floor of Central’s offices had started encroaching on the second floors // 1961 - Central Area Redevelopment - first planning document to propose an elevated pedestrian network across Central and Admiralty // 1969 - Colony Outline Plan introduced by Crown Lands and Survey Office recommending “greater degree of vertical integration of urban functions” // 1970s - Hongkong Land (private owner) built the first sky-walk over Connaught Road which within a short time was extended into a pedestrian network

“These networks, though built piecemeal, owned by different public and private stakeholders, and adjacent to different programs and uses, form a continuous space of variegated environments that serves as a fundamental public resource for the city.” (Solomon, Wong and

Frampton, 2017, para 2)

The original idea: The Central Elevated system in the Central Business District (CBD) of Hong Kong was initiated at a time of enormous population growth, a growth which almost tripled between 1945 -1965, resulting in serious, even hazardous congestion of the city. It was noted first by Sir Patrick Abercrombie that overcrowded shops and offices in

the CBD were expanding upwards, as it was the only direction they could go in. Then, the ‘Central Area Redevelopment’ policy (1961) promoted a purpose-built elevated pedestrian network as a development of this phenomenon (Tan and Q.L. Xue, 2014). Colony Outline Plan (COP) (1969) provided a more concrete expression of this idea by promoting integrated multilevel pedestrian circulation connected with public transport and other city facilities. The plan emphasized private sector involvement as a necessary condition for its future implementation.

The result: Although the COP intended to provide general development guidelines, it profoundly impacted the creation of followed standards for sky-walk network development. The original plan provided general schemes illustrating the idea of the city as a multilevel integrated megastructure combining transit, retail and public facilities. Later, the design criteria set in these guidelines have evolved into a set of regulations, which were flexible enough to suit various site-specific conditions. Taking advantage of the newly approved plan, in 1971 ‘Hong Kong Land’, a private company, created the first network between several of their buildings. Connections to the second levels of luxury hotels and shopping malls created a constant flow of potential customers, raising the rents on the elevated level. The system has been expanding successfully since then throughout the whole area of the CBD connecting both private and public spaces.

result of the development of this ‘multilevel city’ ideas conceived in the 1960s. It shows how far the reinterpretation of the concept of ‘ground’ was taken by this impossibly dense city and demonstrates what today makes up ‘pedestrian Hong Kong’.

Lessons to be learned: The significance of the LEL network in Hong Kong is that it originated out of a real need for the city to enlarge its capacity for pedestrian mobility. The network connects important public transport nodes as well as most of the landmark buildings in CBD of Hong Kong and even extends into its residential areas. The flexibility of the guidelines for the expansion of the system made it a genuine ‘free market’ product, based on a the benefits that arose from multilevel circulation. The system has been thriving ever since the completion of its first part and it seems that the benefit from being part of the network is so obvious that private owners and public administration are mutually interested in finding a consensus to enable its organic growth in ‘real time’.

3.2.2 Promenade plantée and Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris Location: Paris, France Project type: reuse of the abandoned train viaduct

Due to very flexible regulations, the system lacks a consistent visual identity. It penetrates spaces greatly varying in their function and physical conditions – from corporate lobbies to transit stations, making it possible to circulate through almost the whole city without getting down to the street level. As mentioned in the article ’The Evolution of an Urban Vision: The Multilevel Pedestrian Networks in Hong Kong’: “Public space has not been shaped by a prescriptive design code but rather by a consensus reached by a variety of stakeholders” (Tan and Xue, 2015). The publication ‘Cities without ground: a Hong Kong guidebook’(Frampton, Wong and Solomon, 2018) published in 2012 is a great review of the

Length: 1,5 km (elevated part on viaduct) Owner: The city of Paris Design: landscape architect Jacques Vergely and architect Philippe Mathieux + architect Patrick Berger were chosen for the reconversion of the arcades

Cost: €61 million Timeline: 1979 – APUR (Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme) was commissioned to rethink the derelict train viaduct in 12th arrondissement // 1983 – It was decided to convert the railroad into a promenade, and to make use of the space under the vaults as well as that of the dilapidated plots neighbouring the viaduct // 1988 - The proposition of the architect Patrick Berger was chosen for the conversion of the arcades into a strip of art galleries // - 1994 1997 - Inauguration of the vaults

“[…] the Promenade Plantée, also known as the Coulée Verte, has become a beloved green walkway for nature-starved Parisians.”

Since then, it has become a successful precedent followed by many other cities worldwide (Gastil, 2013, p.282).

(Iverson, 2017, para 3)

Lessons to be learned: The original idea: In the middle of the 19th century today’s Viaduc des Arts was an inner city train line - Bastille–Vincennes. A century later, when the elevated train was replaced with an underground train line, the Paris authorities had two alternatives regarding the disused train viaduct: one – to (expensively) demolish it, and the second – to integrate it creatively into the new urban development. Wishing to preserve in the structure a trace of Paris’ urban railway history they chose the second option. In the 1980s, Parisian planners concerned by the need for renovation in many neighbourhoods, started identifying redevelopment zones in the city called Zones d’Aménagement Concert (ZACs). They carried out massive publicly funded pre-operational works such as demolition, utilities and infrastructure, specifically in order to attract private investors to these areas. In addition to that, planning policies were revised in 1983 to enable the establishment of new entities - Societes d’Economie Mixte (SEMs), which would carry out these plans. One of these entities, responsible for the long term transformation plan of the Eastern Paris, embraced the idea to transform the Bastille–Vincennes rail line including its elevated part on the viaduct, into the ’Promenade Plantée’ – linear park, despite the already existing plans to rebuild this area (Heathcott, 2013). Consequentially, the elevated railway structure was redeveloped as a pedestrian promenade with its vaults converted into artisan’s workshops. Hence, once abandoned 19th-century infrastructure had become “an amenity for adjacent residents, a destination for Parisians, a draw for tourists, and a laboratory for horticulturalists and students of landscape.” (Heathcott, 2013, p. 287).

The creation of a much broader redevelopment plan than the promenade itself, seems to play the key role in the successful long term outcome of this project. Without an appropriate context in which to integrate the elevated park including residential developments and attractive destinations such as the new opera building - Opera Bastille, a new park - Jardin de Reuilly and the redevelopment of the old station - Gare de Reuilly, the park would probably not be viable and as constantly used.

3.2.3 High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA Location: Chelsea, Manhattan, NYC, NY Project type: Reuse of a derelict train viaduct Length: 2.33 km Owner: New York City Department of Parks and Recreation + Friends of High Line (FHL)

Design: Designed in collaboration among Diller, Scofidio + Renfro, James Corner Field Operations and Piet Oudolf

Cost: Around $200 million Timeline: 1933 - first train ran on the High Line viaduct as part of New York Central’s West Side Line // 1980 - the viaduct was shut down as a result of the increasing growth of interstate trucking since the 1950s // 1999 - Friends of High Line non-profit organisation was created by Joshua David and Robert Hammond and a repurposing proposal for the viaduct was submitted // 2003 - plans for the High Line park were announced // 2005 - master plan for West Chelsea Rezoning was approved // 2006 - construction began // 2019 - final part (the spur) was completed

“... the vast majority of initial commentary on the High Line has been celebratory in tone, treating the park as an unmitigated success in terms of producing new public space, raising surrounding property values,

The result: Viaduc des Art and Promenade Plantée is usually described

and increasing property tax revenue for the city” (Lever quoted in

as ‘remarkably successful’. Not only has this project created a liveable green public space, but it has also become proof of the catalytic effect of a creative reuse of abandoned linear infrastructure on its surrounding.

Lindner and Rosa, 2017 p.2)

The original idea: Inspired by its precedent – Promenade Plantée and VIaduc des Arts, the High Line project aimed to reuse a train viaduct in Western Manhattan, and convert it into a thriving linear park. 17

The increasing development of interstate trucking in the 1950s made the freight rail system more redundant, thus in the 1980s the viaduct was abandoned (Plunz and Moskalenko, 2017, p.2). After a decade of disuse High Line had become an eyesore in the neighbourhood and was considered for demolition by the city authorities. Although at the beginning of 1990s few saw in High Line the potential for a vibrant public space, in 1999 Joshua David and Robert Hammond - two New Yorkers with no background in planning, but inspired by the Parisian example, founded a non-profit conservancy group to advocate for the preservation of High Line and its conversion into a linear park as part of a broader redevelopment plan for the area - Special West Chelsea District (SWCD) plan (City Planning Commission N 050161(A) ZRM, 2005, West Chelsea Zoning Proposal - Approved, 2005).

The result: Even before the High Line project initiative, West Chelsea has already shown a notable shift towards the art-related area, leading to the re-purposing of many of its industrial buildings. The linear park not only had become one of the most attractive destinations in NYC but generated a significant rise in real estate values in its adjacent area, significantly outweighing the expected (Burnley, 2015; Matthews, 2019). In tandem with these evolutionary processes, other points of attraction, such as restaurants, bars, cares and clubs appeared, resulting in a significant increase in pedestrian movement in the area (New York City Department of City Planning Manhattan Office, 2013).

Lessons to be learned: As in the Parisian example, SWCD rezoning plan supported by an uncompromising approach to quality and originality of design, played a highly significant role. The first - ensured a long term vision that generated conditions for the site to become selfsustaining and to attract different groups of users to its surrounding. The second - made the site an attractive destination boosting compatible development along this new open space. Together with its widely praised social, cultural and environmental contributions this “unique ribbon of parkland and civic amenities winding through a densely populated city” succeeded in generating benefit from

the perspective of both the public good and business, bringing “an enormous boost to New York’s economy.” (Olive, 2014, para 2).

3.3 Defining success and failure by learning from the examples Based on lessons learned from the above examples LEL failure can be defined as a project that either failed to be fully implemented, or was built, but was not intensively used by pedestrians, did not leverage economic growth in its area or even worse - damaged it. In any scenario a failed LEL became a tremendous waste of funds. Following a logical ’reverse exercise’, the LEL’s success can be defined as a project which was successfully built, functions as an intensively used pedestrian infrastructure and leverages economic activity in its area. In light of the above definitions and before taking this research a step further, I would like to return to my main research question: How can we recognize a high potential for successful LEL projects and avoid promoting those highly likely to fail? If we could do that, it would increase the chances of making attractive business cases for private investment in LELs, and by reducing the cost to the public purse, make the valuable, but very expensive pedestrian infrastructure much more feasible for urban authorities. To answer this question, I decided to look for a strategy to find out what the necessary components for successful LELs are, so they can be converted into factors of success predictability for new LEL development.

4. Research thesis development 4.1 Inspirational ideas

4.2 Application of the inspirational ideas in this research

4.3 Development of a research methodology

4.1 Inspirational ideas “As strategic forecasting may be seen as more than the sum of its parts (i.e. methods, models, theories, techniques), it follows that focus should be on cultivating a specific mindset or way of thinking that directs more attention to the long-run, the macro and the meso as well as the strategic and the creative aspects of strategy making” (Duus, 2016),

p.1006)

Large scale, long term functioning urban networks need a balanced combination of factors for their successful performance. Of course, every project has its individual complex of characteristics that cumulatively results in a positive or negative outcome, yet often there are also unexpected connections to some more general but crucial factors that can lead to success or failure. Therefore, I was looking for an analysis strategy that would enable me to identify the repeating characteristics in successful projects as well those under-performing in the failed projects, so a recognizable sequence of factors or ‘pattern’ could be revealed. The pattern then could be used in a simple preliminary analysis of potential LEL projects to indicate their likelihood of success. During my research process I came across Pattern Recognition - a data analysis strategy which emerged as a consequence of computer science development and nowadays is used for predictions in a wide range of fields. This idea and precedents for its use in science became an important inspiration for this work and will be discussed in the following sections of this part.

Pattern Recognition Modelling (PRM) and predicting the future Pattern in computer-aided diagnosis systems is defined as a frequently repeating combination of characteristics, which is utilized to gain new perspectives and give new meanings to the original data. The main challenge of this field is not to make sense of the pattern, but uncover it in the first place. This strategy could be described as a process of classifying the data into ‘clusters’ of factors that, when found together, are likely to produce a specific type of information. If the pattern can be recognized - the more likely it is that the result can be predicted (Jain, Duin and Jianchang Mao, 2000). Pattern recognition has already proved to be applicable to various fields from medicine to sales due to its ability to pick out a particular phenomenon, as part of a ’not easy to track’ sequence. This issue has also been explored by the European Central Bank in its economic bulletin from February 2020 (Ferrari and Le Mezo, 2019). In the following paragraphs, two examples are presented to illustrate different applications of this approach used by two current scientists Allan Lichtman and Kira Radinsky.

Allan Lichtman: elections prediction model Sometimes ideas come to us by a stroke of serendipity. As I was following the American Elections in 2020, I came across an interview with Allan Lichtman who described the near miraculous success of his theory for predicting the outcomes of American elections. As the concept of prediction was of particular interest to me at the time, given that I was in the middle of this research, I decided to experiment with his approach. Allan Lichtman is an American historian who graduated from Harvard and has been teaching at the American University in Washington, D.C.

Yes

Score 1

Score 0 Incumbent (Trump)

The 13 Keys to the White House

Challenger (Biden)

KEY 1 (Party Mandate): After the midterm elections, the incumbent party holds more seats in the U.S. House of Representatives than it did after the previous midterm elections.

Yes

KEY 2 (Contest): There is no serious contest for the incumbent‑party nomination.

Yes

KEY 3 (Incumbency): The incumbent‑party candidate is the sitting president.

Yes

KEY 4 (Third party): There is no significant third‑party or independent campaign.

Yes

KEY 5 (Short‑term economy): The economy is not in recession during the election campaign.

Yes

KEY 6 (Long‑term economy): Real per‑capita economic growth during the term equals or exceeds mean growth during the previous two terms.

Yes

KEY 7 (Policy change): The incumbent administration effects major changes in national policy.

Yes

KEY 8 (Social unrest): There is no sustained social unrest during the term.

Yes

KEY 9 (Scandal): The incumbent administration is untainted by major scandal.

Yes

KEY 10 (Foreign/military failure): The incumbent administration suffers no major failure in foreign or military affairs.

Yes

KEY 11 (Foreign/military success): The incumbent administration achieves a major success in foreign or military affairs.

Yes

KEY 12 (Incumbent charisma): The incumbent‑party candidate is charismatic or a national hero.

Yes

KEY 13 (Challenger charisma): The challenging‑party candidate is not charismatic or a national hero.

Yes

Predicted Winner

Fig. 4.1: Lichtman’s prediction of the 2020 American elections results [graphic adaptation based on sources: Lichtman, 2010; Lichtman, 2020]

since 1973, and is best known for his ’13 Keys to the White House’ model used to correctly predict the result of every American elections over the last forty years. Lichtman developed his forecasting model being inspired by collaboration with seismologist Vladimir Keilis-Borok. The two scientists developed the ’13 Keys’ by analysing American presidential elections over 120 years and combining the data with earthquake prediction models. The ’13 Keys’ then were used by Lichtman to successfully predict the outcomes of American elections since 1984. The only case when the prediction was not hundred per cent correct was in 2000 when George W. Bush won the presidency despite Gore winning the popular vote (Lichtman, 2008; Pomper, 2001).

Lichtman’s Keys indicate the strength of the party currently holding the White House by its performance in 13 different issues presented as statements, which can have a positive or a negative answer. Positive response – earns one point for the incumbent, negative – for its opponent. If the opponent earns six points or more – the current party is predicted to lose the elections. For example, here is Lichtman prediction for the failure of Donald Trump and victory of Joe Biden by using the ’13 keys’ (Lichtman, 2020) (see Fig. 4.1).

Kira Radinsky: future prediction modelling Kira Radinsky is a young Israeli computer scientist specializing in predictive data mining. She recently gained international recognition for her development of algorithms able to recognize the early warning signs of influential global events. As part of her PhD at Technion (Israel’s leading Science and Technology Institute), Radinsky created a software able to forecast different major worldwide events, be it disease outbreaks, violence or natural catastrophes, by analysing and spotting clues found in digitized newspapers and other online sources dating many years back. For example, the software correctly predicted the first outbreak of cholera in Cuba in 130 years, which occurred in 2012, by finding the following ‘pattern’: the disease outbreaks in the past were found related to droughts in countries with low GDP (Karlin, 2015). By using this approach Radinsky was also able to improve the functioning of big corporations such as Israel Security Authorities and HSBC bank. Currently her approach is also used in ‘Diagnostic Robotics’ – a data-driven prediction platform aimed to make the healthcare system more efficient, which has become so necessary in the Covid days.

4.2 Application of the inspirational ideas in this research Although I did not come across the use of PRM in architectural analysis, the above examples inspired me to experiment with this approach in my research. I found it interesting since Lichtman’s and Radinsky’s examples themselves prove that pattern recognition can be transferred from one discipline and be successfully implemented in completely different fields. Lichtman, created his ’13 Keys’ by applying earthquake prediction theory to historical analysis for prediction in politics; Radinsky, successfully used her model in a very diverse range of fields from banking to healthcare.

It is important to mention though, that since processing a large amount of data was not possible within the scope of this work, I adopted the approach of Pattern Recognition Modelling (PRM), but applied it to a very small sample - four Case Studies, presented in the following section, superimposing PRM with a Heuristic approach, usually used for quick evaluations. Considering the fact that most of the time urban projects are developed in the dynamic reality of constantly changing variables, working with a small sample has its own advantage, since it displays what can be achieved with the immediately available data for a quick ’go’ - ’no-go’ decision.

4.3 Development of a research methodology Based on the above ideas, a sample of four Case Studies (CS) was chosen to reveal the pattern of necessary conditions for a potentially successful LEL: •

CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati Central Business District (CBD), Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

•

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District (CBD), Hong Kong, China

•

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France

•

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, NYC, NY, USA

The projects were selected from those already discussed in ’Part 3 Success and Failure of LELs’ which, despite the small number, represent diverse LEL characteristics. There are successful and failed outcomes of two Skywalk Networks and two Linear Elevated Parks, where one was publicly and one was privately developed in each duo (see Fig. 4.3). The other important criterion was that they were all built, long-term, functioning projects.

Case Study no. 1

Case Study no. 2

Case Study no. 3

Case Study no. 4

Sky-walk network

Linear Elevated Park

Skywalk in Cincinnati Central Business District, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China

Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondisement, Paris, France

High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA

public

private

public

private

FAILED

SUCCESSFUL

Fig. 4.3: The four Case Studies chosen for revealing the success pattern

Applying the idea of Pattern Recognition, the comparative analysis has been done by examining the following categories: [1] Context, [2] Planning Strategy, [3] Design and [4] Visible evidence of economic activity. (The analysis is presented in ’Part 5 - Analysis of four Case Studies.) 1. Context: City development and the planning decisions which shape it, are determined by a complex set of forces. Aiming to understand what factors should be in place for a successful outcome before the LEL development is considered, I chose to look at three factors: cultural background, population density and proximity to public transport stations and significant public facilities. Cultural background and population density - seemed to play a crucial role, since LELs aim to increase public circulation volume and hence relevant only in busy urban environments; proximity to public transport stations and significant public facilities (cultural, commercial, governmental) within the LEL area are important since these are destination points creating constant pedestrian circulation. Cultural/urban background Type of analysis: examination of essential factors about the cultural/urban history of the area where the LEL was created

Sources: written sources found online

Population density in the local LEL area before and through the period of project development Type of analysis: statistical graphs of population fluctuations within the LEL project area through the relevant years. These are superimposed on time-line of the major stages of project development

Sources: statistical data found online about population growth, censuses, written sources found online

Integration of LEL with public transport and significant public facilities Type of analysis: examination of essential factors concerning public transport and public facilities found in the area + lists and illustrative schemes of locations of transit stations and significant public facilities in the area where the LEL was created

Sources: interactive Google maps, written sources found online

2. Planning strategy: The examples in ’Part 3 - Success and Failure of LELs’ show that LEL projects had a broad impact on the development of their areas. Another factor that these examples demonstrate is that the involvement of the private sector had a significant effect on the outcome of both - LELs and the development of their adjacent areas. By exploring more deeply the strategic vision that was created for the four chosen Case Studies, I intended to discover the best ’planning approach pattern’ for a successful LEL.

Type of analysis: examination of essential factors concerning urban

Type of analysis: mapping of distribution of actual economic activities

planning issues and policies created as part of the LEL project

as they appear in current dynamic Google maps + creation of charts representing the proportional distribution of different economic categories

Sources: written sources found online

Sources: dynamic Google maps

3. Design: To reveal how likely the design of the structure itself was to influence the success of the LEL development I analysed the visual appearance of each structure. This visual analysis aimed to reveal the ’architectural design pattern’ by which the Case Studies can be described and compared. Type of analysis: visual analysis by photographs, creation of schematic diagrams, typical cross sections

Sources: images taken from dynamic Google maps

4. Visible evidence of economic activity: As mentioned in `Part 2.3 - Business Characteristics of LELs` LEL projects are able to leverage a significant transformation in real estate values in their surroundings. Since I did not have access to relevant statistical data concerning the periods prior to the buildings of the LEL, I chose to compare the economic impact of the current LELs by looking at the presence of current businesses and other economically active facilities in each Case Study. I chose to do so, since economically active facilities and their density are also recognizable manifestations of the development of economic life and the rise in real estate and land values.

For demographic analysis in the scope of this work, available online sources were used to discover general tendencies of population density fluctuations within the investigation areas of the four Case Studies. Future research may involve an in-depth analysis based on statistical and demographic data provided by official agencies. In this year of Covid, it has been challenging to access new primary sources. For example, in the absence of opportunity to visit the projects chosen as Case Studies, I sent questionnaires to many business owners within their investigation areas to understand the economic benefits of LELs to them, or otherwise. However, disappointingly the response was so low as to be statistically insignificant and therefore could not be included in my work.

The summary of the analysis was created as a matrix of repeated and outstanding characteristics of basic data, so that Patterns for success and failure could be recognized (Part 6 - Revealing the Pattern). Based on this Pattern, an Evaluation Model for a potential LEL was proposed (Part 7 - Evaluation Model).

5. Analysis of four Case Studies 5.1 Context

5.2 Planning strategy

5.3 Design

5.4 Visible evidence of economic activity

5.5 Case Studies Analysis Summary

5.1 Context LELs are infrastructure integrated within an already existing urban context. In this research I chose to focus on three factors that seemed to be crucial as a background environment for a successful LEL: cultural/ urban background , population density and integration of the LEL with public transport and significant public facilities. Since LELs aim to increase

Case Study no. 1

Case Study no. 2

Sky-walk network

Skywalk in Cincinnati Central Business District, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China

public

private

FAILED

SUCCESSFUL

Fig. 5.1-1: Downtown Cincinnati, CBD, looking due south from above Central Parkway. [Image by Glenn Hartong as appears in Hartong, 2019]

Fig. 5.1-2: ’Central’ part of CBD Hong Kong, aerial overview [Image by Benoy as appears in Li, 2020]

Case Study no. 3

Case Study no. 4

Linear Elevated Park

Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondisement, Paris, France

High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA

public

private

SUCCESSFUL

Fig. 5.1-3: Paris, 12th arrondissement, residential buildings [Image by Daniele Schneider, image code 1167760373, source: Getty Images, 2019]

public circulation volume, population density (and its associated cultural background) is the generator of busy urban environments. Significant public facilities (cultural, commercial, governmental) are destination points creating constant pedestrian circulation as well as public transport hubs, and thus underpinning for any successful LEL.

Fig. 5.1-4: Aerial view of Midtown Manhattan, NYC [Image by Eloi Omella, image code 946085532, source: Getty Images, 2019]

5.1.1 Cultural/urban background CS no. 1 – Skywalk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Cincinnati was established as a town in 1802 and gained its nickname “Queen of the West’’ due to the fact that its early economy was mainly based on steel, iron, and meatpacking industries (Lindenmeyer, 1996; Fairbanks, 1987 p. 238). Later however, this city became part of the American ‘Rust Belt’ area, where industrial decline caused tremendous population loss, typically starting in the 1950s (Yoon, 2017, p.473-474; Manning, 2015, p. 302). At this period many businesses and residents moved from Cincinnati CBD, once the heart of the city, to the suburbs. Nevertheless, CBD is still perceived as Cincinnait’s cultural centre with some important city cultural facilities. CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China: Central Business District (CBD) in Hong Kong is actually the place where the story of Hong Kong begins. It started as a colony by the British establishment of a small port and a settlement in the 1840s. Initially known as Victoria City, the area soon became an attractive trading point for Westerners and Chinese and the once small community quickly grew into one of the most important hubs for business, administration and finance in Asia. British colonial rule remained very dominant during the first decades of the establishment of Hong Kong CBD and left its strong cultural mark also after the sovereignty of the area was transferred to China in 1997 (Steve Yui-Sang Tsang, 2019; Zacharias and Yang, 2016). Today it continues to be a multicultural area, where the western and local population are mixed and it provides a wide range of restaurants, bars and cafes to cater to multicultural white-collar workers, as well as places with traditional Chinese food, outdoor markets and local familyrun businesses.

Saint-Antoine (close to where Viaduc des arts is situated) from the 12th century onwards. The district was exempt from taxation, and hence became largely populated by tradesmen and craftsmen, transforming it into one of the principal artisan areas in Paris (Paris tourist office Official website, 2019). These days, these busy streets are lined with cabinet makers and shops of every description leading to the Viaduc des Arts with its numerous art studios within the vaults, preserving the artistic atmosphere of this part of the city. CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA: West Chelsea began its development as an industrial zone in the middle of the 19th century. In these years it was the location of numerous distilleries and the huge Manhattan Gas Works complex. This was the era when the freight railroad was developed to distribute manufactured products. However, as trains stopped functioning, the manufacturing era of West Chelsea started to decline and its landscape went through a significant transformation. In the 1980s galleries, studios and nightclubs started to occupy the former warehouses, drawn to their “well-lit, loft-style open floor spaces” (New York City Department of City Planning, 2016, p.13-4; City Planning Commission N 050161(A) ZRM, 2005 p. 1-4). To create a true “art ecosystem” other businesses such as art supplies stores, arthandlers, logistics providers and art storage facilities soon appeared in these gallery blocks to support the day-to-day needs of the vital creative community, as well as multiple cafés, bars and restaurants. This trend has continued till today making art the trademark of Chelsea.

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France: The area of the 12th arrondissement historically has been known as a hub for traditional trades and crafts (especially furniture) (Scott, 2000 p.573). Its numerous joinery and carpentry workshops began to pop up in the courtyards and passageways leading off Rue du Faubourg

5.1.2 Population density in the local LEL area before and through the period of project development CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA (Fig. 5.1.2.1A/B): The population in Cincinnati changed its tendency from constant growth of around 45,000 persons per year over almost 100 years (1840-1950) to the complete opposite – steady decline through the next 60 years (1950-2010), accompanied by ”... an urban fiscal crisis as the steady loss of population and tax base eroded the revenues of the city.” (Short and Mussman, 2013, p.116) At its peak in 1950 the

Year

Population in CBD Cincinnati

Population density in CBD Cincinnati person/1sqkm

2020

3,073

1,229

2010

2,969

1,188

2000

3,313

1,325

1990

3,640

1,456

1980

3,855

1,542

1970

4,525

1,810

1960

5,026

2,010

1950

5,040

2,016

1940

4,556

1,822

population in Cincinnati stood at around 504,000, and at its lowest point in 2010 - it reached 297,000 (World Population Review, 2021). A complex combination of factors underpinned this phenomenon, however, it is also worth mentioning that this city was part of the American ‘Rust Belt’, where industrial decline in the 1950s caused tremendous population loss (as was mentioned in Part 5.1.1 - Cultural/ urban background). What is interesting though, is that the implementation of the sky-walk network in Cincinnati’s downtown had already seen the signs of population decline in its early stages and nevertheless continued to build for over 30 years.

* There can be inaccuracy in numbers of population in the Cincinnati CBD area, since they were created as relative ratio (1%) of the overall Cincinnati population, as published by Census as appears in the source: Cincinnati, Wikipedia. The ratio was calculated as a relation between the CBD area - 2.5 km² and the overall Cincinnati area - 206.1 km² (2.5/206.1=0.01)

Fig. 5.1.2.1A: Cincinnati CBD population and population density rates between 1940-2020

1,822

1940

2,016

1950

2,010

1960

1,810

1970

1,542

1980

1,456

1990

1,325

1,188

1,229

2000

2010

2020

1957

1964

1971

1997

2002

2020

Original idea is proposed by Cincinnati Director of Planning Herbert W. Stevens

Plan for Downtown Cincinnati 1964 approved including idea of skywalk network development

First Skywalk link was opened

The network was officially completed

Gradual process of network removal began as part of the ‘2002 Center City Plan’

Last segment of the Skywalk network was removed

Fig. 5.1.2.1B: Graph presenting the population density changes in CBD Cincinnati between the years 1940 and 2020, compared with the major stages of Sky-walk network development

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China (Fig. 5.1.2.2 A/B): The development of the elevated walkway network in Hong Kong was a direct reaction to the extremely rapid increase in population within a limited urban area, as Hong Kong’s geographical conditions do not allow urban sprawl. This growth occurred Year

Population in CBD Hong Kong

Population density in CBD Hong Kong person/1sqkm

2020

248,503

19,848

2016

242,121

19,339

2011

233,363

18,639

2001

221,572

17,697

1991

189,816

15,161

1981

171,052

13,662

1971

129,909

10,376

1961

103,245

8,246

1951

68,310

5,456

1945

19,800

1,581

in Hong Kong for several decades since from the 1940s, as can be seen in the chart. (The information was taken from the online platform ‘Macro Trends’ (2010-2021 Macrotrends LLC, n.d.)) where data was referenced to the United Nations as a source). The chart presents the changes in population density in CBD Hong Kong between 1950-2021, the years when the elevated walkways were developed. In these years the population more than tripled from about 2 million (1950) to 7.5 million (2021), dramatically increasing population density in the city.

* There can be an inaccuracy in numbers of population in the Hong Kong CBD area, since they were created as a relative ratio (3.3%) of the overall Hong Kong population, as published on online platform 'Macro Trends' (2010-2021 Macrotrends LLC, n.d.). The ratio was calculated as a relation between the known Hong Kong CBD population rate in a specific year and overall Hong Kong population. In 2016 in Hong Kong CBD the population was 243,266 (source: Central and Western Districts, Wikipedia) and the overall Hong Kong population in this year was 7,337,000, therefore the calculated ratio is 3.3% (243,266/7,337,000=0.033).

Fig. 5.1.2.2A: Hong Kong CBD population and population density rates between 1941-2020

13,662 5,456

8,246

15,161

17,697

18,639

19,339

19,848

2001

2011

2016

2020

10,376

1,581 1945

1951

1961

1948

1961

Hong Kong Preliminary Report by Sir Patrick Abercombie observed that the crowded shops at the ground floor of Central’s offices started encroaching on the second floors

Central Area Redevelopment - first planning document to propose an elevated pedestrian network across Central and Admiralty

1971

1991

1980s government built a footbridge to connect new Urban Plaza, the Exchange Square, to Hong Kong Land’s network 1980s government built a footbridge to connect new Urban Plaza, the Exchange Square, to Hong Kong Land’s network

1969 ‘Colony Outline Plan’ introduced by Crown Lands and Survey Office recommending “greater degree of vertical integration of urban functions” and explicitly suggested private–public participation for future urban development.

1981

1970 Hong Kong Land (private owner) built a first elevated network connecting several buildings

2000

February 2021

Connection between World Wide House and Exchange Square (government initiative)

Hong Kong government announced of the plan of a new Sky-walk connecting new acute hospital in the Kai Tak Development area

1998 Connection of the network to newly completed International Finance Center and Airport Express Hong Kong station 1993 Connection to the Hang Seng Bank Building and newly completed Central-Mid-Levels escalator

Fig. 5.1.2.2B: Graph presenting the population density changes in Central and Western Districts of Hong Kong (area where the CBD of Hong Kong is located) between the years 1941 and 2020, compared with the major stages of Sky-walk network development

area brought about by the new approach to the renovation of many Parisian neighbourhoods, which started in the 1980s, as described in Part 5.2 - Planning Strategy. Viaduc des Arts being part of a larger Promenade Plantée project, played an important role as a catalyst for the 12th arrondissement renovation.

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France (Fig. 5.1.2.3 A/B): The population in the 12th arrondissement in Paris has been declining for several decades since the early 1960s, however in the mid1990s it started increasing again (Population of Paris 12e Arrondissement, number of inhabitants 2021, n.d.; 12e Arrondissement, 2021). The change in trend is thought to be a result of the redevelopment plans for this Year

Population in 12th arrondissement, Paris

Population density in 12th arrondissement, Paris person/1sqkm

2021

142,554

22,344

2018

139,665

21,891

2009

142,897

22,408

1999

136,591

21,419

1990

130,257

20,426

1982

138,015

21,643

1975

140,900

22,095

1968

155,982

24,460

1962

161,574

25,337

1954

158,437

24,845

* The population and the population density rates between the years 1954 – 2018 were taken from – ‘12th arrondissement of Paris’ by Wikipedia. The population in 2021 was taken from the webpage ‘Population du 12e Arrondissement de Paris, nombre d’habitants 2021’ and the population density in this year was calculated as a relative number to the area of the neighbourhood – 6.38 km²

Fig. 5.1.2.3A: 12th arrondissement, Paris population and population density rates between 1940-2020

24,845

25,337

1954

1962

24,460

22,095

21,643

20,426

21,416

22,408

21,891

22,344

1968

1975

1982

1990

1999

2009

2018

2021

1969

1979

1985

1996

The Paris-Vincennes line ceased to function and was abandoned

A new planning entity - Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme (APUR) was established to create plans for specifically defined redevelopment zones, one of which was the area of abundant Bastille-Vincent rail line

The master plan for the area adjacent to the line was approved (ZAC Reuilly)

Project completed

1983 Paris planning authorities decided to redevelop the line as a public promenade and the spaces under the vaults as artisan workshops

Fig. 5.1.2.3B: Graph presenting the population density changes in 12th arrondissement, Paris, France, between the years 1954 and 2021, compared with the major stages of the Promenade Plantee and Viaduc des Arts project development

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York City, NY, USA (Fig. 5.1.2.4 A/B): The population density in Chelsea had been steadily declining from the time that the freight trains on the High Line viaduct started operating in 1933. This trend started to change slightly after the train was shut down in 1980 but turned into the complete opposite – steady growth, from the point that the ideas of the High Line redevelopment started being promoted. This re-zoning plan for the High Line approved

Year

Population in 12th arrondissement, Paris

Population density in 12th arrondissement, Paris person/1sqkm

2019

61,857

30,929

2010

70,150

35,075

2000

55,841

27,921

1990

49,300

24,650

1980

45,900

22,950

1970

52,700

26,350

1960

57,800

28,900

in 2005 had two primary goals. One, to encourage mixed-use development in West Chelsea with an emphasis on residential and artrelated uses. Second - to reuse the rail viaduct as a high-quality public space. Since the plan’s approval West Chelsea has gone through a dramatic transformation which has established it as one of the most vibrant neighbourhoods in Manhattan.

* To create the data for Chelsea population in the years 1990 -1960 I manipulated the data taken from the chart representing the change in population in Manhattan in these years found in online publication “The Rise and Fall of Manhattan’s Densities, 1800-2010” (Angel and Lamson-Hall, 2014, p.31). As Chelsea is part of Manhattan, I calculated the relative ratio between their areas which stands at 3.4%, as 2 km² (Chelsea area)/59.1 km² (Manhattan area) = 0.034. Then, I found the relative population in Chelsea by multiplying this ratio with the population presented in Manhattan in these years (source: Manhattan, Wikipedia). Chelsea is one of the most densely populated areas in Manhattan, so the inaccuracy in specific numbers in this case doesn’t obscure the overall trend of population change.

Fig. 5.1.2.4A: Chelsea, New York, NY, population and population density rates between 1941-2020

28,900

26,350

1960

1970

22,950

24,650

1980

1990

1980 The High Line viaduct is shut down because of the increasing growth of interstate trucking since 1950s

1999 Friends of High Line was created and reuse proposal for the High Line as linear public promenade was submitted by Joshua David and Robert Hammond

27,921

2000

35,075

30,929

2010

2019

2003

2009

2019

The re-use idea was approved for implementation by NYC

First stage of the project was opened

2019 - The final part of High Line was completed

January 2021 2005 West Chelsea Rezoning Plan was approved including High Line redevelopment as public promenade

NYC government revealed the for additional segement of High Line to connect to the newly expanded Penn Station (A, C, E subway lines)

Fig. 5.1.2.4B: Graph presenting the population density changes in Chelsea, New York, NY, US between the years 1960 and 2019, compared with the major stages of the High Line project development

5.1.3. Integration of LEL with public transport and significant public facilities CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Cincinnati has no transit. There had been a plan to provide the city with an underground network, but it failed to be completed (Mecklenborg, 2010, p.21-6). The two main means of public transportation in Cincinnati today are street-cars (see Fig. 5.1.3.1) and buses (Downtown Cincinnati Inc., 2021) - both strongly related to the CBD, where the skywalk system once existed. Despite the proximity to the CBD, however, only 2% of the potential commuters actually use it, preferring the car instead. The large number of parking lots and garages (see Part 5.4 - Visible evidence of

economic activity), reflects this preference for car use, obviously making the CBD less attractive to pedestrians. The main reason given by the public is that the transit services are not efficient enough (Tucker, Pilcher and K. Sparling, 2018). Cincinnati’s public facilities are spread all over the downtown area, and according to Chris Wetterich, columnist of Cincinnati Business Courier, the most popular public destinations, such as Findlay Market and Jack Casino for example, are located outside the area where the sky-walk system once existed (Wetterich, 2019).

Downtown Cincinnati 1

List of street-car stations: 1.

The Banks

4th & Main

6th & Main

Fountain Square

Over-The-Rhine

List of points of interest: 1.

Fountain Square

Duke Energy Convention Center

Aronoff Center for the Arts

Taft Theatre

CBD

Pedestrian Elevated Walkway (previously existing) Passages endorsed within buildings connecting Pedestrian Elevated Walkways

CBD Cincinnati

St.

500 m

E 5th St. 2

E 4th St.

St. W 3rd ay W n to g in sh Fort Wa

ay St. Broadw

E16th St.

ore St. Sycam

St.

W 5th W 4th

t. Main S

Fig. 5.1.3.1: Cincinnati Bell Connector line and stations and attractive public destinations within the CBD Cincinnati.

St. W 8th 3 E 6th St. St. th 7 W W 6th

100 m

t St. Walnu

t. Vine S

St. Race

t. Elm S

t Plum S

Street-car line

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China: The Central Elevated network of Hong Kong strongly relates to both essential public transport nodes and significant city destinations (Wan, 2007). It is not surprising, since these were the points from which the new branches of the system started to be developed. Fig. 5.1.3.2 illustrates the integration of the network in the western part of the system named ‘Central’ (the eastern part is named ‘Admiralty’)1 with the most

Mass Transit Railway

In this research only ’Central’ area was analysed

Sheung Wan

Hong Kong

Central

Admiralty

Wan Chai

Causeway Bay

Central Admiralty

List of points of interest:

Chater House office b uilding (Landmark Charter)

Dr Sun Yat-sen History Museum

Hong Kong City Hall

Tai Kwun - Centre for Heritage and Arts

augh

t Rd

ux .

ns'

100 m

oe sV

Passages endorsed within buildings connecting Pedestrian Elevated Walkways

ine

Ca Pedestrian Elevated Walkway

Stra

11. Hong Kong Maritime Museum

an Chai Central W

ham

s's

10. Hong Kong Observation Wheel & AIA Vitality Park

Bon

Lan Kwai Fong (historic recreational district)

Conn

CBD Hong Kong - ’Central’

International Finance Centre&shopping mall

Yiu

Exchange Square business center

Ma n

The Center office building (the fifth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong)

Sheung Wan Civic Centre

CBD Hong Kong List of underground transit stations:

significant points of interest and MTR2 stations. Additional facilities distributed within this area include multiple corporate buildings and tourist attractions such as shopping hubs, cultural facilities, public open spaces, food services and hospitality etc (see Part 5.4 Visible evidence of economic activity).

7 Conna

ught R

500 m

Fig. 5.1.3.2: MTR stations and attractive public destinations within the ’Central’ part of the CBD Hong Kong

CS no. 3 – Promenade Plantée and Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France: Viaduc des Arts is part of the Promenade Plantée - a ground-level pedestrian path stretching across the 12th arrondissement and also well connected to Metro, Buses, Train and RER stops within a short walking distance (some popular stations to mention are Bastille and Gare de Lyon) (Le Viaduc des Arts, 2018). After reaching its western point, with the famous Bastille Opera House, it is also possible to continue walking north to the adjacent neighbourhood

List of underground transit stations: 1.

Lines 1, 14 - Paris Gare de Lyon (Rail way terminus)

Lines 1, 5, 8 - Bastille

Line 8 - Ledru-Rollin

Line 8 - Faidherbe - Chaligny

Lines 1, 8 - Reuilly – Diderot

(11th arrondissement). That makes the route valuable as a large-scale pedestrian infrastructure connecting city neighbourhoods. Being a point of interest in itself, Viaduc des Arts is also directly linked to several attractive public spots, such as Opéra Bastille, public gardens such as Jardin de Reuilly and Port d’Arsenal garden and other facilities, making them easily accessible by foot for locals and visitors via the Promenade Plantée walking path (see Fig. 5.1.3.3).

East Paris 11th Arrondissement

Bastille area

12th Arrondissement

List of points of interest: 1.

Opéra Bastille

Viaduc des Arts (string of artisans workshops)

Jardin de Reuilly

Hospital Saint-Antoine

Rue Crémieux

Port de l’Arsenal Garden

Bois de Vincennes (park next to the Château de Vincennes)

12th arrondissement, Paris 2 Rol li Led ru

e nu

e Av

Rue du Faub

ourg

Ab el

Rue

lin

Saint-A

ntoine

e Lyo

Av en

Rue d

Promenade Plantée Pedestrian Walkway

Viaduc des Arts Elevated Walkway

5Rol

rot

rd Dide

iderot oulevard D

Av en

Bouleva

esn

d ue

le uil

100 m

500 m

The High Line

Whitney Museum of American Art

Standard Hotel

Chelsea Market

IAC Building

General Theological Seminary

London Terrace Towers

International Print Centre NY

Chelsea Park

3 10

Ave

List of points of interest:

Hell’s Kitchen Midtown South Chelsea

9 8

Greenwich Village

10. The Shed arts centre

th S

W 28 th S W t. 27 t W h St. 7 26 th S W t. 2 W 5th St 24 . th S W t. 6 23 th W 5 22 St. t h W St. 2 2 W 1th S t. 20 th S W t. 1 W 9th S t 1 . 8 4 W th S t. 1 W 7th S t. 16 th S W t. 1 3 W 5th S t . 14 th S W 2 t 13 1 th S . t. 1 Gansevoort St.

8th

High Line Elevated Walkway

9th

Line 7 - 34 StreetHudson Yards

th A ve

A line - 23rd St

West Chelsea

Manhattan, New York

Ave

A line - 14 St / 8 Av

th A ve

List of underground transit stations:

th A ve

expanded Penn Station directly to the High Line on its north end. It is important to emphasize that the High Line in itself has become one of the most attractive destinations for local New Yorkers and visitors of the city already after the completion of its first stage. In terms of points of interest approachable through the High Line, first to be mentioned are the Whitney Museum, located at its south end and the Shed Cultural Center, located at its north end before the path turns to the west. There are many more important cultural, architectural and recreational hubs along the High Line - some examples are presented in Fig. 5.1.3.4.

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA: Walkability and proximity of public transport make West Chelsea, where the High Line is located, an easily accessible area. According to data from 2019, the major means of transportation to residents of Chelsea going to work in this year were the subway (48.5%) and walking (27.5%) (Point2, 2021). To facilitate the connectivity of the High Line with already existing mobility systems, the entrances to this LEL were deliberately sited in correlation with the transport stops. More than that, according to DEZEEN publication from January 2021 (Howarth, 2021), the New York government recently has revealed the plan to connect the newly

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.1.3.4: Subway stations and attractive public destinations within adjacent area of High Line walking rout in West Chelsea

5.2 Planning strategy From the examples presented earlier in ’Part 3 - Success and Failure of the LELs’ it can be seen that in several cases the LEL project served as a catalyst for a much broader development. Another factor that can be seen in these examples is that interaction with the private sector played an important role in their final outcome. By exploring further the strategic vision created for the four Case Studies in this part, and the role of the involvement the private sector played in each case, I intended to discover the best ’planning approach pattern’ for the successful LEL.

CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Planning policies proposed by the ‘Plan for Downtown Cincinnati’ (1964) were intended to solve downtown decline and to ”make the CBD a better place ’to do business’” (Fairbanks, 1987, p. 248). That included, inter alia, a network of climate controlled walkways connecting the second level of the downtown buildings (Bhalla and Pant, 1985, p.97-98). From the illustration of the sky-walk design from 1958 (see Fig.5.2.1) it also seems that the original idea had a strong intention to enrich connections between street activity and the buildings.

Fig. 5.2.1: Cincinnati Skywalk design (1958). Design prepared by Garber, Tweddell and Wheeler, architects. From Cincinnati CBD Plan: Cost Studies (Cincinnati, 1958). Gift of Young and Klein, Incorporated. [Image source as cited at https://www.flickr.com/photos/ matthunterross/11408886763: Cincinnati: The Queen City, Bicentennial Edition (1988) by The Cincinnati Historical SocietyChapter: ”My Neighborhood and Our City, 1945-1988”

Surprisingly, the guides for sky-walk system development were mentioned in only a few publications among those I got access to, and even they lacked details. For example, one publication points out that the plan was expected to be completed in around 15 years and financed by private and public funds ”The $15,800,000 construction program to build the initial roof-covered walkways commenced in 1969 and is envisaged for completion by 1984. The development of the skywalk has been financed by private, city, and federal funds.” (Bhalla and Pant, 1985, p. 97). Another, that”Plan for Downtown Cincinnati (1964) noted the shortfall of new private investment, proposed new zoning, and called for redevelopment of blighted land.” (Abbott, 1993, p. 12). A third source views the management of the plan’s implementation as ’government failure’ by mentioning that approval for each segment in the system was an extremely long, complicated and expensive bureaucratic process for the building owners: “Cincinnati approves skywalk proposals on a case-by-case basis and typically engages buildingowners in lengthy and complex negotiations concerning sky-walk design, maintenance, repair clauses, and utility costs (in the late 1970s, the entire process from initial discussion to completion averaged about three years in duration). [...] High transaction costs, and substantial private-sector uncertainty, likely are unwanted by-products of such a complex process” (Andrew, 2008, p. 428).

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, CBD, Hong Kong, China: According to Zheng Tan & Charlie Q.L. Xue, in their article exploring the evolution of pedestrian activity in Hong Kong’s urban design regulations (Tan and Xue, 2015), the Colony Outline Plan (COP) created in 1969 by Crown Lands and Survey Office was a strategic plan promoting the expansion of vertical connections of urban functions, which had already started to appear as a spontaneous reaction to the increasing congestion at street level. The plan provided general schemes illustrating the idea of the city as a multi-level integrated mega-structure combining transit, retail and public facilities (see Fig. 5.2.2). Although the plan did not have a legal status, it deeply influenced the development of later planning guidelines especially affecting the elevated pedestrian network (Tan

and Q.L. Xue, 2014). It also included policies encouraging the private

sector to take an active part in its expansion. The publication ‘Cities without ground: a Hong Kong guidebook’ published in 2012 (Solomon, Wong and Frampton, 2017) is a great review of the result of the development of these ideas for the creation of a multilevel city conceived in the 1960s. It shows how far the reinterpretation of the concept of ‘ground’ was taken by this impossibly dense city and demonstrates what today makes up pedestrian Hong Kong.

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France: The transformation of the abandoned rail viaduct into an elevated park and ’Viaduc des Arts’ was part of a much broader plan aiming to redevelop a run-down industrial part of Paris into a district attractive to both residents and visitors (see Fig. 5.2.3). In 1955, a special urban renewal law was passed to enable the Municipal Council to regenerate poorly used areas. Consequentially, the new large scale Master Plan for Paris was created - Schéma directeur d’aménagement et d’urbanisme de la région de Paris (SDAURP) (1965) (L’Institut Paris Region, n.d.) and, in parallel, the Municipal Council established a new planning entity Atelier Parisien d’urbanisme (APUR) (1967) (Apur, n.d.). The innovative aspect about APUR was that it was a surprisingly wide-ranging multidisciplinary team, whose aim was to come up with a strategy to deal with complex, large scale, citywide projects and all their multiple aspects. In the last quarter of the 20th century, both Presidents Chirac and Mitterrand worked to change the focus of urban redevelopment from government authorities to public-private partnerships. This strategy had unparalleled success in attracting interest amongst private developers.

This apparently very complex bureaucratic system succeeded magnificently in harmonizing all the disparate elements of a massive urban regeneration. In 1976, APUR started to create redevelopment zone plans - Zones d’Aménagement Concert (ZAC), as autonomous town plans, facilitating collaboration between public authorities and private stakeholders, yet compatible with more extensive city master plans. In addition to that, following the general rearrangement of planning law in 1983, to carry the plans through the semi-public corporations named SEMs (Sociétés d’Économie Mixte) were established to bring together public and private interest. One of these entities, concentrating its efforts in the eastern part of Paris – SEMAEST (Societe d’economie mixte d’amenagement de l’Est Parisien) embraced the idea of transforming the abandoned rail line in the 12th arrondissement into an active public space. In 1985, APUR released a new master plan for the Bastille–Vincennes rail line promenade in correlation with the developments in ZACs. As a result, ZAC Reuilly had become an integrative plan, including the building of Opera Bastille and the development of Promenade plantée and Viaduc des Arts (Heathcott, 2013, p. 282; Gastil, 2013, p.281).

Viaduc des Arts Fig. 5.2.3: ZAC Reuilly, Masterplan including green walkway Promenade Plantee and its elevated part – Viaduc des Arts (1985) [Source: Becker and Peter Cachola Schmal, 2010, p.45]

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA: The High Line project was initially a private venture beginning in 1999, which led to a creation of a new rezoning plan of West Chelsea named Special West Chelsea District (SWCD) (see Fig 5.2.4). Approved by the Department of City Planning of NYC in 2005, this plan had several goals: to encourage mixed-use development in West Chelsea, emphasising residential and art-related uses and converting the High Line viaduct into a vibrant city public space (City Planning Commission N 050161(A) ZRM, 2005, West Chelsea Zoning Proposal - Approved, 2005, NYC Manhattan Community Board 4, 200). MAXIMUM DENSITY

West Chelsea Rezoning

5.0 10/12* 10/12* 10/12* 5.0 7.5 10/12*

Maximum FAR Current: 5.0 (normal type) DCP:

7.5 (underlined)

CB4:

5.0 (italic)

* Additional 2.0 FAR available only through Inclusionary Housing Program

5.0 10/12* 7.5

5.0 10/12* 6.0

5.0 7.5 7.5

As a tool to reinforce the idea of developing art-related uses, it was decided to permit commercial uses, light manufacturing, museums and non-profit organizations in the plan area (New York City Department of City Planning Manhattan Office, 2013). Furthermore, the SWCD defined street-scape regulations aiming to ensure a high quality pedestrian experience with good visual connectivity and an active ground level appropriate for the new identity of the area.

5.0 7.5 7.5

5.0 7.5 6.0

M1-5

5.0 5.0 5.0

Sub-area Boundaries

CB4 recommendations (colored fill)

C6-2A

7.5 7.5 7.5

C6-3A

C6-3

Proposed by DCP (black outlines)

Special District Boundaries

M1-5

5.0 5.0 5.0

DCP Proposal (red dotted line) CB4 recommended extension area (shaded area)

D 5.0 7.5 7.5

5.0 6.0 5.0

F 1 E 5.0 6.0 6.0

Manhattan Community Board No. 4

The SWCD consists of ten sub-areas, where special regulations respond to the varied built conditions of the immediate urban context of each one. The regulations were able to rezone individual owners’ lots in order to clear space for the High Line, and to compensate them, with benefits, to everyone’s satisfaction. They also dealt with the size and positions of the new buildings in order to preserve the area’s built characteristics and ensure consistency in distribution of the new construction masses. These manipulations were able to provide the High Line with surroundings which ensured its use as a public facility with greenery, natural light, air flow and beautiful city views.

5.0 10 10

F 2

5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 7.5

5.0 7.5 7.5

High Line

February 28, 2005

Fig. 5.2.4: Special West Chelsea District (SWCD) rezoning plan 2005 [Source: Special West Chelsea District, NYC, Manhattan Community Board 4, plan approval meeting report, available at https://cbmanhattan.cityofnewyork.us/cb4/wp-content/uploads/ sites/10/2019/08/1_cpp_wch_resolutions.pdf]

5.3 Design “Design is not just what it looks like and feels like. Design is how it works.” Steve Jobs

To reveal characteristics created by design of the LELs I visually analysed the Case Studies, using street views provided by Google maps. As a result of this process, I was able to de-construct the LELs appearance into several basic design components, which created their ’design code’ according. Presented below are short descriptions of this process for each case study (the created ’Design Code’ can be seen in Fig. 5.3).

The three archetypes of urban relationships between LELs and their adjacent built environment aimed to reveal spatial diversity of the project created by its interaction with the urban environment on a big scale.

The three types of designed spaces integrated within the LEL aimed to analyse the importance of the design quality for the successful outcome

The two types of connections providing access to the LEL aimed to analyse how easily pedestrians can approach the network from different levels and navigate through the city up and down according to their needs.

The three types of relationships with the outdoor environment aimed to indicate whether the design was influenced by the climatic conditions1 of the area where each case study is located. 1 According to Köppen-Geiger coding system for climate conditions by three letters (climate group, seasonal precipitation type, level of heat), the climate code for the four cases studies can be described as follows: CS no. 1 - Cincinnati: Cfa - Humid subtropical climate CS no. 2 - Hong Kong: Cwa - Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate CS no. 3 - Paris: Cfb - Temperate oceanic climate CS no. 4 - New York: Cfa - Humid subtropical climate

To demonstrate how combinations of the above components describe each LEL, the design code was presented along several typical cross sections based on eight representative views chosen for each Case Study.

Three types of designed activity spaces integrated within LEL

Three archetypes of urban relationships between LEL and its adjacent built environment

The structure has a parallel relation to buildings’ façades on its both sides

Archetype

The structure has a parallel relation to buildings’ façades on its one side

Archetype

The structure has no parallel relation to buildings’ façades

Archetype

Two types of connections providing an access to the LEL

Vertical connections (stairs, elevators, escalators)

Walking area

Sitting area

Gardening area

Three types of designed relationships between LEL and the outdoor environment

Horizontal connections to buildings from the elevated level

Climate controlled

Top cover protection

Exposed to the open air

CLC

Fig. 5.3: ’Design code’ created by de-construction of design components found in the four chosen Case Studies

CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA (Fig. 5.3.1A + Fig. 5.3.1B): Cincinnati sky-walks were created according to only one Archetype - ’C’. They were typically enclosed horizontal passageways, connecting two buildings on the level of their second floor over the street below (views no. 2,4,5,6,8). Most of them were climate controlled and glazed all along, allowing open views to the street. This network enabled mainly horizontal circulation with two entrance points to each segment and a very few direct vertical connections to the street level (views no. 1,7). The last fact caused the sky-walks to

be perceived more as ’building extension’ than augmentation of street life. Another factor contributing to their ’building related character’ was the fact that the passageways were created as enclosed corridors for crossing over streets and thus mainly had the same standard length (street width). The references indicating strict design policies mentioned in Part 5.2 - Planning Strategy seem to be true, since they had a homogeneous recognizable style, though leading to a sense of monotony.

Legend: Archetype C Continues pedestrian circulation within a building

CBD Cincinnati

Archetype

ay St. Broadw

ore St.

W 3rd

Sycam

t. S2

W 4th

Archetype Archetype

Walking area

St. St. E 5th W 5th

Gardening area

4th St.6

t. E 3rd S ay ington W h rt Was

St.

Sitting area

Vertical connections Horizontal connections

Climate controlled

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.3.1A: CBD Cincinnati - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of typical views represented by photographs (1-8)

A B C

St.

St. St. E 6th W 6th

Main S

W 7th

St.

t Walnu

t. Vine S

St. Race

t. Elm S

Plum S

l Av.

Centra

W 8th

View location

Top cover protection Exposed to the open air

W S G 1 2

CLC TC OA

* PEW = Pedestrian Elevated Walkway [Source of the views: Google Street Views]

1 PEW over Plum St. (W 6th St. corner)

2 PEW over Elm St. (W 5th St. corner)

Sec.1

1 7

Sec.1 design components 1

Views attributed

PEW over W 5th St. (Elm St. corer)

CLC

PEW along Race St. (between W 4th and W 5th St.)

PEW over Vine St. (W 5th St. corner)

6 PEW over Walnut St. (between E 4th St. and E 5th St.)

2 3 4 5 6 8

Sec.2 design components C

CLC

Views attributed

Sec.2

7 PEW over Walnut St. (between E 5th St. and E 6th St.)

PEW over E 5th St. (between Main St. and Sycomore St.)

Fig. 5.3.1B: CBD Cincinnati - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China (Fig. 5.3.2A + Fig. 5.3.2B): Sky-walk network of Hong Kong, is basically elevated hard-scape created according to all the three archetypes. In contrast to Cincinnati, where the segments were very homogeneous in length and design, in Hong Kong the network consists of segments of diverse architectural styles, changing lengths and directions from crossing a single street (view no.2) to running along an entire block (views no.5,8) or a main road (view no.1). Here, all walkways have top cover, providing pedestrians with protection from sun and rain, but surprisingly, most of them are not climate controlled, despite Hong Kong’s hot climate and high humidity. Multiple horizontal connections to the buildings are well balanced with the diverse vertical

connections to the street level (views no.6,7) making the network an excellent mediator between the outdoor and indoor environment, and easily accessible for the public. Similar to Cincinnati, this network does not provide any other activity than walking, but in contrast to it, aesthetically, the network does not have a particular design style at all. Still, these structures are easily noticeable, but not because of the repetitive architectural form, but because of their massive indisputable presence in the city scape. They penetrate the urban fabric, not necessarily caring for the city aesthetics, but being very effective in their primary purpose - expansion of public pedestrian circulation in an extremely dense megacity.

Legend: Archetype A Archetype B Archetype C Continues pedestrian circulation within a building

View location

CBD Hong Kong - ’Central’ Archetype Archetype Archetype

s's Rd

St .

ch ra n

ton

100 m

Sitting area Gardening area

Vertical connections

Conna

ught R

St.

o wo

ing

ell W

lly

ee Qu

o wo

ict

V en

. Rd ux oe sV d De sR ns'

lly

b Ju

iu S

St. ir a 4

ile

ine

t. eS

Walking area

Morr

ison

St.

an Chai 6 Con Central W nau ght 3 Rd. Bon ham 5 Stra

500 m

Horizontal connections Climate controlled Top cover protection Exposed to the open air

Fig. 5.3.2A: CBD Honk Kong - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8)

A B C W S G 1 2

CLC TC OA

* PEW = Pedestrian Elevated Walkway [Source of the views: Google Street Views]

Sec.1

Sec.1 design components C

Views attributed

2 5 6 7

PEW along Man Yui St.

PEW along Cocharane St. (over Wellingon St.)

Sec.2

Sec.2 design components

3 3 Views attributed

PEW over Central Wan Chai Bypass, Finance St., Man Po St. and Man Kwong St.

PEW along Connaught Rd. (Queen Victoria St. corner)

Sec.3

Sec.3 design components

Views attributed

PEW over and along Connaught Rd. (Gilman St. corner)

PEW over Connaught Rd. (Morrison St. corner)

Sec.4

Sec.4 design components

PEW over Connaught Rd. connecting Jardin House and Chater House (east view)

PEW along Holywood Rd.

Views attributed

Fig. 5.3.2B: CBD Hong Kong - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views

along the way, and there are vertical connections to the street level at a number of meeting points with the crossing streets. There are also segments where the structure cuts through the buildings, so pedestrians walk through a narrow ’canyon’ (view no.1), which also adds to the diversity of the walking experience. Multiple combinations of the design code components create a rich environment responsive to a dynamic urban life, where local residents, pedestrians, joggers and tourists can enjoy the promenade.

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France (Fig. 5.3.3A + Fig. 5.3.3B): This linear park runs along the north side of Avenue Daumesnil, exposing one side to the street and the other to the façade of the residential block (view no. 3). In terms of its relation to the buildings, this structure involves all the three archetypes, and together with a walking path, also provides the user with places to sit and enjoy the greenery. As can clearly be seen from the views on the right, it is completely open to the air. In terms of connections, the promenade is equipped with entrances to the adjacent buildings at several points

Legend: Archetype A Archetype B Archetype C

View location

Rue d

Rol li

12th arrondissement, Paris

Led

rot

rd Dide

Bouleva

Av en

b Rm

let

Sitting area Gardening area

all ng

nil

e Ru

2 1 100 m

Walking area illy

Diderot

500 m

Vertical connections Horizontal connections Climate controlled Top cover protection Exposed to the open air

Fig. 5.3.3A: Viaduc des Arts - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8)

A B C

Rue

u Re

Boulevard

Archetype

en Av

Archetype

ntoine

e Ru

d Le

Saint-A

Av en

ourg

e Lyo

8 ll Ro u r

Archetype

Rue du Faub

W S G 1 2

CLC TC OA

* PEW = Pedestrian Elevated Walkway [Source of the views: Google Street Views]

Sec.1

Sec.1 design components

Views attributed

1 PEW over Rue Montgallet

PEW between streets Rue Montgallet and Rue de Rmbouillet

Sec.2

Sec.2 design components

5 B

Views attributed

PEW over Rue de Rmbouillet

4 PEW between Rue de Rmbouillet and Boulevard Diderot

Sec.3

3 7

Views attributed

Sec.3 design components

PEW over Boulevard Diderot

PEW between Boulevard Diderot and Rue Abel

Sec.4

2 6

PEW betweem Av. Ledru Rollin and Av. Daumesnil

Views attributed

8 PEW over Av, Ledru Rollin

Sec.4 design components B

Fig. 5.3.3B: Viaduc des Arts - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA (Fig. 5.3.4A + Fig. 5.3.4B): Basically similar to the Parisian Viaduc des Arts, in terms of its use of variations in the design code, High Line takes it much further in the diversity of the spaces and frequency of their changes. This LEL represents all the three archetypes as its segments run between buildings (views no. 5,6) or penetrate them as tunnels (view no.2), cross streets or run in parallel to the street (view no. 8). This structure is also completely exposed to the open air, except for several short sections of tunnels through buildings, mentioned earlier. Horizontal and vertical connections

are very diverse in their architectural appearance and character: light bridges (view no.2), new building façades attached to the elevated walkway (view no.3), light staircases to street level at crossing streets (view no.7), robust staircases from points where space is provided underneath the structure, and elevators. The same level of diversity is created by the integration of open spaces, with walking, sitting, and planted areas. This variability together with unusual city views make the place extremely attractive for all types of visitors, encouraging them to return time and again and explains High Line’s great popularity.

West Chelsea Legend: Archetype A Archetype C

Ave

View location

9th

th A ve

Archetype B

th S

28 th S W t. 27 th S W t. 26 th S W t. 25 th S W t. 5 24 th S W t. 23 th S W t. 22 4 th S W t. 21 th S W t . 20 th S W t . 19 th S W 3 t. 18 t h W St. 2 17 th S W t. 16 t h W St. 15 th S W t. 14 th S W Litt t. 13 le W th S 12 t . th

Archetype Archetype Archetype

Walking area Sitting area Gardening area

A B C W S G

8th

Ave

Vertical connections Horizontal connections

St.

Gansevoort St. Climate controlled

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.3.4A: High Line - attributing the network to the archetypes and indicating the locations of the typical views represented by photographs (1-8)

Top cover protection Exposed to the open air

1 2

CLC TC OA

* PEW = Pedestrian Elevated Walkway

Sec.1

Sec.1 design components

[Source of the views: Google Street Views]

Views attributed

PEW between Gansevoort and Little W12th St.

Sec.2

Sec.2 design components

Views attributed

A PEW between W 14th and W 15th St.

3 PEW between W 15th and W 16th St.

Sec.3

3 6

PEW over W 19th St.

Sec.3 design components A

Views attributed

5 Sec.4 PEW between W 21st and W 22nd St.

Sec.4 design components B

Views attributed

6 PEW between W24th and W 25th St.

Sec.5

Sec.5 design components C

8 PEW before turning to the W 30th St.

Views attributed

PEW over W 28th St.

Fig. 5.3.4B: High Line - typical cross sections of the structure related to the views

5.4 Visible evidence of economic activity “The modern economy is a complex entity, subject to a continual process of change and development” (Bean, 2016, p.19)

As was mentioned in `Part 2.3 - Business Characteristics of LELs`, the LEL project is able to leverage a significant transformation in real estate values in its surroundings. Since I did not have access to relevant statistical data concerning the periods prior to the construction of the four Case Studies, I chose to compare the economic impact of these LELs by looking at the actual presence of current businesses and other economically active facilities within their adjacent area. I chose to do so, since economically active facilities and their density are also recognizable manifestations of the development of economic life and the rise in real estate and land values. Professional economists use different types of sources - formal and informal as Economic Indicators to analyse future or current economic activities or opportunities. As Richard Yamorone explains it: ”The traditional market reacts to news, events, and economic data - particularly the top tier economic indicators [...]. While some equity analysts use economic releases to determine the trends in some of their respective industries and stocks, most investment professionals look to see how information will influence the broader markets.” (Yamarone, 2017, p.1). The author then also mentions that the Economic Indicators themselves differ in the way they reflect the economic activity: ”Those that reflect the current state of the economy are coincident; those that predict future conditions are leading; and those that confirm that a turning occurred are lagging.” (Yamarone, 2017, p.20). Coincident indicators are accessible real-time data used by many policy makers and economists, as they reflect an economic phenomenon through a specific economic activity. For example, GDP changes can be seen through fluctuations in employment levels or retail sales. Going back to the idea of Pattern Recognition, it is worth mentioning that recently, even pattern analysis of newspaper articles has become a tool used by

economists for revealing economic activity (Ferrari and Le Mezo, 2019), however, an economic indicator has value only when it is interpreted correctly. Being unable to access professional statistical data, I took the opportunity for a more creative approach to data collection, which led me to working with the ‘coincident indicator’ approach. Definitely, for a really deep understanding of the economic pattern, insight into multiple sets of data is needed, but in the heuristic approach mentioned earlier, these types of indicators can be used as road signs tracking the general path. According to the definition of coincident indicators, the fourth section of this analysis represents current economic activity via the following economic indicator: mapping and counting of private and public Actual Economic Facilities (AEFs) within an area which stretches out a 100 meters on either side of the LEL and running for between 1.5-2.5 km (full length or representative segments of average length were chosen for each Case Study). This information was taken from dynamic Google maps as appeared in September 2020. The types of AEFs, their distribution and density are coincident indicators showing the most recent state of economic activity, which in itself reflects the general economic state of the area. As the first three parts of my analysis show, LELs have a strong impact on their local area. Since we know that AEFs are frequent destinations that create the reasons for people to use the LEL, the distribution of current AEFs reflects some of the economic impact of the LEL on the local area. Ideally, I would present the data comparing the economic activity in the area before the LEL was constructed and then compare it to the current economic activity. However, since that was not possible, the results of the mappings were only compared between the Case Studies themselves to recognize the patterns created by the successful cases and compare them to the failed one. Economic processes are long term, and therefore, the current activity pattern actually illustrates the outcome of the activity of the recent years.

Legend: Private Active Facilities: Food services:

Restaurant Bar Cafe Commerce/private business:

Shopping mall Independent store Private business Hospitality:

Hotel Culture:

Art gallery Museum Enterteinment:

Enterteinment facility Event venue Healthcare:

Fitness Beauty salon Medical clinic Offices:

Financial facility Office building Car services:

Car parking Car service Other:

Other

Public Active Facilities: Governmental facility Educational facility Non for profit organization

Fig. 5.4: Actual Economic Facilities mapped for each Case Study within its adjacent area

Investigation area Pedestrian Elevated walkway Continues pedestrian circulation within a building Private Active Facilities: Food services: Restaurant Bar Cafe Commerce/private business: Shopping mall Independent store Private business

CS no. 1 – Sky-walk in Cincinnati CBD, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: As Cincinnati sky-walk network does not exist anymore, Cincinnati’s current AEF mapping was superimposed on to a dynamic Google map representing a stage of the sky-walk network in the process of its gradual decline, somewhere between 2002, when plan for the demolition was approved and 2020, when the last segment was demolished. As mentioned above, economic processes are long term, so the mapped AEFs can still be considered. There are several areas where AEFs are concentrated by categories: there is an area with several government facilities, an area where the majority of the facilities are restaurants and an area with dominant private businesses, mainly offices. The other parts have either relatively homogeneous distribution of AEFs or very few facilities. The mapping reveals two dominant AEF categories: private businesses and restaurants, that in combination constitute 42% of overall AEFs (see Fig. 5.4.1B). The Public facilities

constitute only 5% of the overall number of the AEFs making the private sector unarguably dominant (see Fig. 5.4.1C). An outstanding factor that can be noticed here is the multiplicity of parking lots and car services. The mapping shows this category as the third most dominant with almost 10% of overall AEFs, and therefore indicates the car oriented, rather than pedestrian and public transport oriented development of the area. Another noticeable factor is the relatively high representation of financial and governmental facilities distributed over the mapped area. Still, the overall density of the facilities is very low - 6 AEF per Ha. It is not surprising in light of the distribution pattern, which shows large areas with very low concentration of facilities. To summarise, the two outstanding features of this LEL are that the density of the facilities is very low and that it indicates car-oriented, rather than pedestrian/public transport-oriented development of the area.

Hospitality: Hotel Culture: Art gallery Museum

Broadw ay St.

ore St.

St.

Sycam

Main

St.

W 7th S

t Walnu

St. Vine

St. Race

St.

t. Elm S

Plum

Healthcare: Fitness Beauty salon Medical clinic

CBD, downtown Cincinnati l Av. Centra

Enterteinment: Enterteinment facility Event venue

W 6th S

Offices: Financial facility Office building

W 5th S

Car services: Car parking Car service

W 4th S

t. W 3rd S n Way shingto a W t r Fo

Other: Other

Public Active Facilities: Governmental facility Educational facility Non for profit organization

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.4.1.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]

Investigation area created by border of 100m from each side of the LEL walking path: 41.2 Ha Overall number of Active Economic Facilities: 251 units Density of the Active Economic Facilities: 6 AEF/Ha

40%

35%

30%

Private businesses - 24% Dominant active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

25%

42% 20% Restaurant - 18%

15% CBD in Downtown Cincinnati CBD in Downtown Cincinnati

Eastern Personnel Services Cincinnati Parking Enforcement Eastern Personnel Services Convention CenterEnforcement Garage Cincinnati Parking Pure Romance Convention Center Garage Securitas Security Services USA Pure Romance 2 WheelerSecurity Free Parking Securitas Services USA Cyrusone 2 Wheeler Free Parking CBTS Cyrusone

Cincinnati Bell 7th St. Office CBTS Cincinnati Club Cincinnati Athletic Bell 7th St. Office Rusconi Pizza Pub Club Cincinnati Athletic Western Union Rusconi Pizza Pub Walgreens Pharmacy Western Union Walgreens Walgreens Pharmacy

The Cincinnatian Hotel, Curio Collection by Hilton Walgreens Brick & Mortar Hotel, Curio Collection by Hilton The Cincinnatian Freking Myers & Reul Brick & Mortar FUSIAN Freking Myers & Reul Akash India Restaurant FUSIAN

Fausto Akash India Restaurant Contemporary Arts Center Fausto

My Mama's Sweets And Eats Catering Contemporary Arts Center Nada My Mama's Sweets And Eats Catering Boca Nada Sotto Boca Igby's Sotto

10 %

eSavingsClub, LLC. Igby's

Richter & Phillips eSavingsClub, LLC.Jewelers Moneypak Richter & Phillips Jewelers Sorta Metro Moneypak Corbus LLC Sorta Metro GwynneLLC Building Corbus

Murrelle's Florist Gwynne Building Shanghai Murrelle'sMama's Florist Saundra'sMama's Kitchen Shanghai

Allpro Parking, LLC Cincinnati, OH Saundra's Kitchen Red Fox Grill LLC Cincinnati, OH Allpro Parking,

6th ave 6th ave

Red Fox Lot Red Fox Grill Red Fox Lot

Duke Energy Convention Center Skyline Chili Convention Center Duke Energy Skyline ChiliRent-A-Car Enterprise 150 W 5th St Parking Enterprise Rent-A-Car

E6th St

150 WKitty 5th St Parking Tokyo Americano Tokyo Kitty SP+ Parking Americano

Maplewood SP+ Parking Kitchen and Bar 84.51 GarageKitchen and Bar Maplewood Chef Jose Salazar • Mita's Restaurant 84.51 Garage James andSalazar Co. • Mita's Restaurant Chef Jose SP+ Parking James and Co. H D Beauty SP+ ParkingSupply National Industries H D Beauty Supply Corporation Wendel's National Industries Corporation

Batsakes Wendel's Hat Shop American Legal Publishing Corporation Batsakes Hat Shop United States Postal Service American Legal Publishing Corporation Robert A. Klingler Co.,Service L.P.A. United States Postal Cincinnati Taxi Hub Robert A. Klingler Co., L.P.A. First Southwest Cincinnati Taxi Hub 514 St Garage FirstRace Southwest Central Parking System 514 Race St Garage 5th Street Gallery Central Parking System Fountain 5th Streetsquare Gallery SP+ Parking Fountain square

ART ON VINE SP+ Parking Via Vite ART ON VINE

Cincinnati Via Vite USA Visitor Center Ada Tay USA Visitor Center Cincinnati Panera Ada TayBread Panera Bread Chipotle Mexican Grill Rooted + Kitchen ChipotleJuicery Mexican Grill Zablong Rooted Juicery + Kitchen Potbelly Sandwich Shop Zablong Bru Burger Bar Potbelly Sandwich Shop Motorcycle Only Parking Bru Burger Bar Dunkin' Motorcycle Only Parking Fifth Third Center Dunkin' Graeter's Cream Fifth ThirdIce Center Street CityIce Pub Graeter's Cream Mr. Sushi Street City Pub Prime Cincinnati Mr. Sushi

Starbucks Prime Cincinnati Silver Ladle Downtown Cincinnati Starbucks Wahlburgers Silver Ladle Downtown Cincinnati AT580 Market Gourmet Wahlburgers Potter StewartGourmet U.S. Courthouse AT580 Market Us Tax Stewart Court U.S. Courthouse Potter US District Court Clerk Us Tax Court TTBDistrict National Revenue US Court Clerk Center US CorpsRevenue of Engineers TTBArmy National Center Cinfed Credit US Army CorpsUnion of Engineers

US Social Security Administration Cinfed Credit Union USCIS Cincinnati Office US Social SecurityField Administration Internal RevenueField Service USCIS Cincinnati Office Wings Model Management Internal Revenue Service Charles Mark Management Wings Model SP+ Parking Charles Mark Deloitte SP+ Parking Columbia Plaza Deloitte

em’s bread café and coffee shop Columbia Plaza Subway em’s bread café and coffee shop Columbia Plaza Garage Subway

Symphony IRI Group Columbia Plaza Garage Nielsen BASES Symphony IRI Group

E5th St. E5th St.

Cincinnati Mortgage Nielsen BASES Cincinnati Mortgage PRVLGD

Plum Street Pet Clinic PRVLGD Plum Street Street Bar & Café Plum Pet Clinic

Lifetime Financial Growth Plum Street Bar & Café Strive Group Inc Growth Lifetime Financial Security Savings Strive Group Inc Bank

E5th St

5th Street Parking Security Savings Bank Allpro Parking 5th Street Parking SP+ Parking Allpro Parking Avis Car Rental SP+ Parking Jimmy Avis CarG'S Rental

Employee Jimmy G'S Management Services Bauer Farm Kitchen Employee Management Services Elm Street Bauer FarmDeli Kitchen Budget CarDeli Rental Elm Street Larry Flynt's HUSTLER® Express Budget Car Rental Red Tavern LarryRoost Flynt's HUSTLER® Express Red Roost Tavern Hyatt Regency Cincinnati Hyatt Regency Cincinnati Saks Fur Salon Saks Avenue Saks Fifth Fur Salon Domino's Saks Fifth Pizza Avenue

SP+ Parking Domino's Pizza Hellman Clothiers - Men's Clothing SP+ Parking 418 RaceClothiers St Garage- Men's Clothing Hellman

Hilton Cincinnati Netherland Plaza 418 Race St Garage Abby Sweets Netherland Plaza HiltonGirl Cincinnati The Bar Palm Court Abby GirlatSweets The Bar at Palm Court Orchids at Palm Court

Fig. 5.4.1.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Paragon Salons Orchids at PalmInc Court Appointments Paragon Salons Inc

Chase Bank Appointments Morton's The Steakhouse Chase Bank Hathaway's Morton's TheDiner Steakhouse

IHathaway's Love Cincinnati DinerShop Statman, Harris &Shop Eyrich, LLC I Love Cincinnati FogelmanHarris Law Firm Statman, & Eyrich, LLC Subway Fogelman Law Firm COLLIERS INTERNATIONAL Subway Bolero Menswear COLLIERS INTERNATIONAL The Bushorn Firm, LLC Bolero Menswear BangBushorn & Olufsen The Firm, LLC

Starbucks Bang & Olufsen McCormick & Schmick's Seafood & Steaks Starbucks Buten Eyewear McCormick & Schmick's Seafood & Steaks The Westin Cincinnati Buten Eyewear Dunkin The Westin Cincinnati U.S. Bank Branch Dunkin Fountain U.S. Bank Square Branch South Garage

Ample Fountain Square South Garage The Fourth National Bank Building Ample

Renaissance Cincinnati Downtown The Fourth National Bank Building Hotel FedEx Office Print & ShipDowntown Center Renaissance Cincinnati Hotel J. Gumbo's-Cincinnati FedEx Office Print & Ship Center Taft Stettinius & Hollister LLP J. Gumbo's-Cincinnati The Taft Center Stettinius & Hollister LLP Queen City Wine & Spirits The Center Currito Queen City Wine & Spirits Federal Reserve Bank Currito

Barnes Co Ltd FederalDennig Reserve& Bank Bake's BarnesPlace Dennig & Co Ltd The Mercantile Bake's Place Library Building Gyro Hero The Mercantile Library Building Kitty'sHero Coffee Gyro Straus Coffee Tobacconist Kitty's Lerner, Sampson & Rothfuss Straus Tobacconist Lerner, Sampson & Rothfuss BB&T Great BB&T Clips

Fourth & Walnut Center Great Clips Taft Theatre Fourth & Walnut Center Stubtopia Cincinnati Taft Theatre

Food Distribution Center - 5000 Club Stubtopia Cincinnati 2 Wheeler Free Parking Food Distribution Center - 5000 Club First Financial 2 Wheeler FreeCenter Parking WillisFinancial Towers Watson First Center Bahl &Towers GaynorWatson Inc Willis Wells Advisors Bahl &Fargo Gaynor Inc Dinsmore & Advisors Shohl LLP Wells Fargo RSM US LLP& Shohl LLP Dinsmore Mariluna store RSM US LLP Paycom Cincinnati Mariluna store

Vocational Economics Paycom Cincinnati PNC Bank Economics Vocational Cincinnati PNC Bank Tax Attorney IRS Tax Settlement Black Tie Moving Cincinnati Tax Attorney IRS Tax Settlement PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP Black Tie Moving Bagel Stop | Sandwich & Catering PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP Fund Group,&LLC BagelEvaluation Stop | Sandwich Catering Moonlight Security, Inc. LLC Fund Evaluation Group,

public facilities 5% private facilities 95%

Fourth & Main Parking Moonlight Security, Inc. Aspiriant | Cincinnati Fourth & Main Parking

Raymond |James Financial Services Aspiriant Cincinnati Skyline Chili Raymond James Financial Services Walgreens Skyline ChiliPharmacy

E4th St. E4th St.

Walgreens Walgreens Pharmacy Walgreens

Mercy Health - Downtown HealthPlex Wild MercyEggs Health - Downtown HealthPlex The Kidd Wild EggsCoffee Co.

The Federal Home The Kidd Coffee Co.Loan Bank of Cincinnati US Bankruptcy Court Clerk The Federal Home Loan Bank of Cincinnati

E4th St

Morgan StanleyCourt Clerk US Bankruptcy BDO Morgan Stanley Atrium Two BDO

The Bridge Atrium TwoGroup - Morgan Stanley eat The @201 Bridge Group - Morgan Stanley Village Green eat @201 Cassidy Turley Village Green Starbucks Cassidy Turley Concentrix Starbucks Omnicare Inc Concentrix

Hammond St. Hammond St. E3rd St. E3rd St.

Fig. 5.4.1.C: Relation between public and private facilities

Central' CBD Hong Kong Central' CBD Hong Kong

pep Omnicare Inc Salzano's Hair Stylist pep Salzano's Hair Stylist Corner Bistro Reynolds De Witt Securities Corner Bistro North American Reynolds De WittProperties SecuritiesInc North American Properties Inc Wells Fargo Bank Wells Fargo Bank

E3rd St

Watermark HSBC Watermark

Fig. 5.4.1.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets 鴻福堂中環碼頭 HSBC 7-11 便利店分店NO.1054 鴻福堂中環碼頭 Laurence Lai Gallery 7-11 便利店分店 NO.1054 Igloo Dessert Bar Laurence Lai Gallery Got IglooBeef Dessert Bar CoinBeef Dragon Got

Starbucks coffee Coin Dragon Hong Kongcoffee Maritime Museum Gift Shop Starbucks Star Pier HongFerry KongCentral Maritime Museum Gift Shop BigBus.com Star Ferry Central Pier Boatat foods market BigBus.com

Man Yiu St /Man Kwong St Man Yiu St /Man Kwong St

Living Costume Boatat@foods market Subway Living @ Costume

Queen's Subway Road Central Hong Kong Observation Wheel & AIA Vitality Park Queen's Road Central Blend & Grind Hong Kong Observation Wheel & AIA Vitality Park Happy&Cow The Wheel Blend Grind

Four Seasons Place, 8 Finance St, Central, Hong Kong Happy Cow The Wheel Man Yiu St / Yiu Sing St

Four Seasons Queen's RoadPlace, Central8 Finance St, Central, Hong Kong

Man Yiu St / Yiu Sing St Man Yiu St / Finance St

Queen's Road Central Queen's Road Central

Man Yiu St / Finance St

Skytime & Watch Company Limited Queen's Jewelry Road Central Blue BarJewelry & Watch Company Limited Skytime SushiBar Saito Blue Pool SushiTerrace Saito Four Terrace Seasons Hotel Hong Kong Pool Kee Bakery FourWah Seasons Hotel Hong Kong Lady M Cake Boutique Kee Wah Bakery Cuisine Cuisine Lady M Cake Boutique Greyhound Café Cuisine Cuisine Harlan's Greyhound Café

Food Expression Harlan's La Rambla By Catalunya Food Expression

國際金融中心資生堂專門店 La Rambla By Catalunya Max Mara 國際金融中心資生堂專門店 Loro Piana Max Mara Ermenegildo Loro Piana Zegna Boutique FURLA SHOP Zegna Boutique Ermenegildo MALIN+GOETZ FURLA SHOP YSL BEAUTÉ MALIN+GOETZ Clé Peau Beauté YSL de BEAUTÉ Chanel Fragrance & Beauty Clé de Peau Beauté Wellendorff Chanel Fragrance & Beauty ZARA IFC Store Wellendorff

city'super IFC Store ZARA IFC Store Jean-Paul Hévin Chocolatier city'super IFC Store Le Salon DeHévin Thé de Joël Robuchon Jean-Paul Chocolatier

% IFCRobuchon LeArabica Salon DeHong Thé Kong de Joël Yo Mama Hong Kong IFC % Arabica Audemars Piguet, Boutique Hong Kong, IFC Mall

Investigation area Pedestrian Elevated walkway Continues pedestrian circulation within a building Private Active Facilities:

CS no. 2 – Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China: In Hong Kong some of the AEFs are not represented on the dynamic map since they are part of high office buildings or big malls. Therefore the mapping sign for large office buildings (big purple points) and the concentration of shops within shopping malls (big green points) were added. For counting, an average of thirty stores per shopping mall and ten offices per office building were used.1 In Hong Kong, there is a clear tendency for certain types of the AEFs to be concentrated in certain areas. For example financial corporations and banking facilities tend to be found in tall office buildings which are connected to the LELs, whereas luxury stores and high-end restaurants create clusters in the malls.

Food services: Restaurant Bar Cafe

There is a big gap between dominant AEFs and the less popular categories. This radical transition can be seen in

Commerce/private business: Shopping mall Independent store Private business

1 Even if the numbers are not quite accurate they illustrate the general relative proportion of the AEF’s distribution and as the counting was according to the minimum possible relative ratio, the real numbers can only be higher.

Hospitality: Hotel

Fig.5.4.2.B. Eighty percent of the overall activities of Hong Kong’s AEF landscape are occupied by three dominant categories. These are shops - mainly concentrated in the airconditioned shopping malls, offices - mainly concentrated in large air-conditioned office buildings and restaurants, located in both. This phenomenon is not surprising taking into consideration Hong Kong’s hot climate and the strong commercial, administrative and financial orientation of its cultural background (see Part 5.1.1 - Cultural/urban background). The representation of Government facilities is very low. It is even lower than that presented in Cincinnati and stands at around 2% with the other 98% representing private facilities. The density of AEFs in Hong Kong is very high, more than 3.5 times higher than that of Cincinnati and reflects the high level of economic activity inherent in this CBD. The presence of large scale office buildings and shopping malls discussed earlier can be considered as a distinctive CBD Hong Kong characteristic. However, another detail can be mentioned - the high number of financial facilities that is a distinctive sign of Hong Kong’s economic landscape.

’Central’, CBD Hong Kong

Culture: Art gallery Museum

augh

t Rd.

ham

Bon

Central Wan Chai

Stra

Healthcare: Fitness Beauty salon Medical clinic

Conn

Enterteinment: Enterteinment facility Event venue

Offices: Financial facility Office building ge

Rd 's t ns t ee y S n S Qu nle gto Sta ellin W

Other: Other

Car services: Car parking Car service

Conn

augh

Des V oeux

t Rd.

Rd.

Public Active Facilities: Governmental facility Educational facility Non for profit organization

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.4.2.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]

Investigation area created by border of 100m from each side of the LEL walking path: 41.1Ha Overall number of Active Economic Facilities: 920 units Density of the Active Economic Facilities: 22 AEF/Ha

The Westin Cincinnati Dunkin U.S. Bank Branch Fountain Square South Garage Ample The Fourth National Bank Building Renaissance Cincinnati Downtown Hotel FedEx Office Print & Ship Center J. Gumbo's-Cincinnati Taft Stettinius & Hollister LLP The Center Queen City Wine & Spirits Currito Federal Reserve Bank Barnes Dennig & Co Ltd Bake's Place The Mercantile Library Building Gyro Hero Kitty's Coffee Straus Tobacconist Lerner, Sampson & Rothfuss

BB&T Great Clips Fourth & Walnut Center Taft Theatre Stubtopia Cincinnati Food Distribution Center - 5000 Club 2 Wheeler Free Parking First Financial Center Willis Towers Watson Bahl & Gaynor Inc Wells Fargo Advisors Dinsmore & Shohl LLP RSM US LLP Mariluna store

40%

Paycom Cincinnati Vocational Economics PNC Bank Cincinnati Tax Attorney IRS Tax Settlement Black Tie Moving PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP Bagel Stop | Sandwich & Catering Fund Evaluation Group, LLC Moonlight Security, Inc. Fourth & Main Parking Aspiriant | Cincinnati Raymond James Financial Services Skyline Chili Walgreens Pharmacy Walgreens

E4th St.

Mercy Health - Downtown HealthPlex Wild Eggs The Kidd Coffee Co. The Federal Home Loan Bank of Cincinnati US Bankruptcy Court Clerk Morgan Stanley BDO Atrium Two The Bridge Group - Morgan Stanley eat @201 Village Green

Stores in shopping malls - 36%

Cassidy Turley Starbucks Concentrix Omnicare Inc pep Salzano's Hair Stylist

Hammond St.

Corner Bistro Reynolds De Witt Securities North American Properties Inc

E3rd St.

35%

Central' CBD Hong Kong

Wells Fargo Bank

Watermark HSBC

鴻福堂中環碼頭 7-11 便利店分店NO.1054 Laurence Lai Gallery Igloo Dessert Bar Got Beef Coin Dragon Starbucks coffee Hong Kong Maritime Museum Gift Shop Star Ferry Central Pier BigBus.com Boatat foods market Living @ Costume Subway Man Yiu St /Man Kwong St

Queen's Road Central Hong Kong Observation Wheel & AIA Vitality Park Blend & Grind Happy Cow The Wheel Four Seasons Place, 8 Finance St, Central, Hong Kong

Man Yiu St / Yiu Sing St

Queen's Road Central

Man Yiu St / Finance St

Queen's Road Central Skytime Jewelry & Watch Company Limited Blue Bar Sushi Saito Pool Terrace Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong Kee Wah Bakery Lady M Cake Boutique

Man Yiu St /Man Kwong St Man Yiu St / Yiu Sing St Man Yiu St / Finance St

Cuisine Cuisine Greyhound Café Harlan's Food Expression La Rambla By Catalunya

30%

國際金融中心資生堂專門店 Max Mara Loro Piana Ermenegildo Zegna Boutique FURLA SHOP MALIN+GOETZ YSL BEAUTÉ Clé de Peau Beauté Chanel Fragrance & Beauty Wellendorff ZARA IFC Store city'super IFC Store Jean-Paul Hévin Chocolatier Le Salon De Thé de Joël Robuchon % Arabica Hong Kong IFC Yo Mama Audemars Piguet, Boutique Hong Kong, IFC Mall Tiffany & Co. Bottega Veneta Hong Kong IFC Club Monaco

Offices in office buildings - 27%

Coach Furla kate spade new york Max & Co. BVLGARI ifc mall Mikimoto Henri J. Sillam Chaumet Theory Godiva Chocolatier

Dominant active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Pierre Hermé Paris ECCO

80%

Fedeli KINJI Accessorize Tim Ho Wan

정두 McDonald's Lavin-Ladies SmarTone GEOX

25%

Larry Jewelry Boutique Links of London ARTE MADRID Swarovski LensCrafters Watsons Bebe Tai Pan Row Yoku Moku Tonkichi Tonkatsu Seafood Pret A Manger MaBelle Elegant Watch & Jewellery Chow Sang Sang Jaeger-LeCoultre Vacheron Constantin Glasstique Hublot Boutique Hong Kong IFC IWC Schaffhausen Panerai Omega Montblanc Boutique - IFC Mall Le Labo Pandora IFC Chantecler (ifc Mall) Berlin Optical Atelier Cologne Boggi Milano lululemon Brandy Melville Apple ifc mall Scotch & Soda Brooks Brothers IFC mall Travelex worldwide money Paul Lafayet - ifc mall LGB Café Starbucks Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong Wilson Wash & Wax - Hong Kong Station

20%

Station Car Park Hong Kong Station Car Park PALACE IFC Broadway Theatre Two International Finance Centre ifc mall Standard Chartered Bank (Hong Kong) Limited HSBC ATM ifc Mall Central Community Liaison Centre Man Yiu St / Harbour view St s Man Yiu St / Connaught PL Hong Kong General Post Office Market Place by Jasons Starbucks Morty’s Jardine House Grappa's Cellar Miso Jasmine Place Chiuchow Garden Man Yiu St / Connaught PL

Restaurant - 17%

Queen's Road Central Bank Julius Baer & Co. Ltd. CitySuper IFC Food Court Macquarie Bank Limited Three Exchange Square

Man Yiu St / Harbour view St Man Yiu St / Connaught Road Man Yiu St / Connaught Road

交易廣場 Classified Exchange Square Allen & Overy (Hong Kong) Liberty Exchange Kitchen & Bar

交易廣場第一二座 Bus terminus The Square The American Club, Town Club Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre (HKIAC) Bookazine Exchange Square

滙豐交易廣場卓越理財中心 Ramsey Street Flyover / Harbour St / Man Yiu St Ramsey Street Flyover / Central-Wan Chai Bypass

Queen's Road Central Queen's Road Central Macau Restaurant Moon Palace

15%

HSBC Shun Tak Centre Day & Night Plus Bafang Dumpling Yoshinoya

Ramsey St Flyover / Harbour St / Man Yiu St Ramsey St Flyover / Central-Wan Chai Bypass

Fortress (Shun Tak Centre Store) Watsons KFC Maxim's MX NIKE Fotomax 7-Eleven McDonald's Maxim's Palace Ajisen Ramen

明星旅遊 Shun Tak Centre Shopping Arcade Munsingwear_sheung Wan Lan Fong Yuen arome KFC

一芳台灣水果茶 Yifang Taiwan Fruit Tea China Merchants Tower, Shun Tak Centre

香港海關調查處 Rumsey Street Multi Storey Car Park Ramsey Street Flyover / Central-Wan Chai Bypass

Queen's Road Central Islands District Lands Office

海事處海員發證組 Immigration - Hong Kong Island Travel Documents Issuing Office

Ramsey Street Flyover / Central-Wan Chai Bypass

海事處香港郵政門市業務科 Harbour Building Occupational Hygiene Division Development - Hong Kong & Kowloon Office Hong Kong Marine Department Home Affairs Enquiry Centres Ramsey Street Flyover / Finance St Des Voeux Rd Central / Man Wan Ln St

Queen's Road Central Queen's Road Central Fandecie - Sheung Wan Casablanca International Limited - Sheung Wan Wing On

10 %

Geox - Sheung Wan Wing on Department Store Triumph - Sheung Wan Wing on Department Store

Des Voeux Rd / Man Wan Ln St

BDO Limited CHANEL BEAUTÉ The Wing On Department Stores Wing On Centre Des Voeux Rd Central / Rumsey St

Queen's Road Central Oliver's Super Sandwiches Chiuchow Garden Restaurant Bank of Hawaii Infinitus Plaza Shopping Arcade

Des Voeux Rd / Rumsey St

MINISO 名創優品 Hallmark Star of Canton Restaurant

李寶椿大廈 Sincere

大新行 Des Voeux Rd Central/ / Wing Wo St

Queen's Road Central Nan Fung Place Kind Kitchen by Green Common YUM CHA (Central) The Annex

Des Voeux Rd / Wing Wo St

FrancFranc Urban Park (Central) Nan Fung Tower CTS House China Travel Service (HK) Ltd Nanyang Commercial Bank Head Office Des Voeux Rd Central / Gilman St

Queen's Road Central CITIBANK HONG KONG HSBC Des Voeux Road Central Branch & Premier Centre Wellent 偉倫電腦上環 Fairwood

Des Voeux Rd / Gilman St

Kevin Ng & Co., Solicitors Chinese Manufacturers Association Building Two Chinachem Plaza

凱悦國際 - 移民置業留學健康好生中興商業大廈 Jollibee 3Shop Gateway Supermarket

KFC Starbucks White Cube Hong Kong China Mobile

衛訊 Wilson - 中環大新人壽大廈 Southland Building Hui's Brothers Foreign Currency Exchange Company Limited Five Dragon Congee & Wonton Noodle Shop

順德聯誼總會 Des Voeux Rd Central / Jubilee St Des Voeux Rd Central/Ice House St

Queen's Road Central Queen's Road Central Dior Ladies New Pau Saint Laurent Tiffany & Co. Louis Vuitton Gloucester Tower

Des Voeux Rd Central / Jubilee St Des Voeux Rd Central / Ice House St

Tod’s Patek Philippe CELINE Landmark Store

新顯利大廈 Bank of East Asia Head Office LANDMARK ALEXANDRA Starbucks Hong Kong Prada Hong Kong Alexandra House Dolce & Gabbana Saint Laurent Alexandra House Linklaters DHL Express ServicePoint - Central (MTR Exit H) Mandarin Oriental, Hong Kong Man Wah Gerson Lehrman Group (Asia) Limited Kee Wah Bakery BVLGARI Landmark Chater kimrobinson Hong Kong Paule Ka

Armani/Dolci LANDMARK CHATER Dolce & Gabbana Armani Pictet & Cie (Europe) SA Des Voeux Rd Central/Pedder St

Queen's Road Central

中環華懋中心二期 Two Chinachem Central 通明大廈 7-Eleven Wheelock House Des Voeux Rd Central/Pottinger St Czarina Remittance Co.,Ltd. world wide House

通利外幣找換有限公司 MoneyGram

環球商場 Des Voeux Rd CentralWorld Wide St

Queen's Road Central Bank of China (Hong Kong) Connaught Road Central Branch Jollibee Jantzen Tailor

Des Voeux Rd / Pedder St Des Voeux Rd / Pottinger St Des Voeux Rd / World Wide St

Lee & Co., C.C. Siberian Fur Store Ltd. - Central Yoshinoya

香港日本文化協會 The Japan Society of Hong Kong The Chinese Club

香港醫學會李樹培醫生專業教育中 Chee Kei Des Voeux Rd Central/Douglas St

Queen's Road Central Brass Spoon, Pottinger Street Pho Bar R&R Bagels

Des Voeux Rd /Douglas St

Watsons Wing Lung Bank

星展銀行德輔道中分行 Maxim's MX

Fig. 5.4.2.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

The Chinese General Chamber of Commerce

莊士大廈 McDonald's

포팅거스트리트 Public Finance Limited - Central China CITIC Bank International Limited Chan & Co., Y.T. Chinachem Tower Austrian Consulate General Hong Kong Des Voeux Rd Central/Pottinger St

Queen's Road Central Robert Half® Hong Kong (香港) Recruitment Agency Market Place By Jasons - Nexxus Building - Central

Des Voeux Rd /Pottinger St

Ying Jee Club Moi Moi UMP Healthcare Holdings Limited Wing On House Bank of China (Hong Kong) Central District (Wing on House) Branch Des Voeux Rd Central/Queen Victoria St

Queen's Road Central

恆生銀行香港總行 Hang Seng Bank - Head Office Des Voeux Rd Central/Jubilee St

Queen's Road Central Bank of China (Hong Kong) Gilman Street Branch Tai Sang Bank Public Financial Holdings Ltd. Public Bank (Hong Kong) Main Branch The Center Pacific Coffee

Des Voeux Rd /Queen Victoria St Des Voeux Rd /Jubilee St

Fook Luk Sau Vegetarian Restaurant Danish Bakery Tai Hing Tsui Wah Restaurant Man On Commercial Building 7-Eleven Treasure Lake Seafood Restaurant Starbucks Man Yee Building Man Yee Building Car Park DEJADE Jewellery Jessica - Central Man Yee Building Dragon Noodles Academy Nam Kee Noodle

裕成商業大廈 IMG Lung Kee Roasted Meat Catering Central Market Queens's Road Central

Queen's Road Central The Pottinger Hong Kong H Queen’s Écriture

Queens's Rd

Tang Contemporary Art Hong Kong Pace Gallery David Zwirner Galerie Ora-Ora HART Hall Kowloon Soy Co. Ltd. Rang Mahal Traditional Indian & Mughlai Cuisine LPM Restaurant & Bar Sing Kee Wings Building ShareTea Central Tower

public facilities 2% private facilities 98%

マークス& スペンサー 웰컴마트 100 Queen's Road Central Wellcome Sasa Stanley St

Staney St

李祖祺醫生 PizzaExpress The Cupping Room Central

Stanley St

Dumpling Yuan Wang Fu Butao Ramen WorkTech Central - Pearl Oriental House Crazy Noodles Mak's Noodle Wellington St

Wellington St Shui Kee Crazy Noodles Tsim Chai Kee Noodle Shop

Wellington St

ZEN Massage & Foot Massage Emack & Bolio's Anglo Chinese Florist Kate Jean Couture Cafe Zenon Ming Bistro Car Po Commercial Building LinQ Gage St

Wellington St

Viaduc des Arts, Paris

Fig. 5.4.2.C: Relation between public and private facilities

Gage St

Rue de Lyon

Docteur Philippe Saffar Nouveau Bagel & Salade Il Sandwichnaro Calabrese

Fig. 5.4.2.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets Amarante

Salad Shop 6éme Sens

Galeries des Arcades

Etat de Siège - Showroom Pro | Bastille Marguerite Mitz-Ronjat

Vépi Mobilier Ergodynamique Coiffure Styliste Coloriste Boucherie Yvon

Djerba couscous

Monalisa Pizzeria. Ekors Intérim

Bose Excellence Center

Boulangerie versavelle petite classe

Rue Moreau VIET NAM IMPRESSIONS Création Akbar New Pharmacy Lyon Pantaleon Isaac Joachim U.S. Ateliers c'juice La Bonne Tradition URPS Kiné IDF Assurance Mutuelle des Motards Prince Chaussures Harmonie Mutuelle LCL Banque et assurance Trochon Bisson Yolande Proman Paris Gare de Lyon Fred tout court CEPRIMA PARIS 12 (Compagnie Européenne de Prêt immobilier et d'Assurance) Laverie du Quartier - Aquilex A Fleur de Peau-Institut de beauté Au Beurre Salé L'Echelle Européenne Paris (75) Micro Evolutif System SieMatic Paris - Notre-Dame Décoration 12ème les citadinesbastille A.T.I.H Agence Technique de l'Information sur Hopiatlisation Aparthotel Adagio access Paris Bastille SIRIUS stories of so Sentou showroom Assistance Audiovisuelle Audionat HIFIGENY furniture Luxury Paris, Sofa Art Deco, Opticien PARIS - LEDRU ROLLIN Optical Center Frequent Flyer Travel Paris Franprix CIRCO DE BAKUZA aire azur carrelage Paris

12th arrondissement, Paris

urg

Saint-A

el Ab Ru e

lly

ui Re

lin

e nu

e Av

d Le

l Ro

ard Boulev

ntoine

Offices: Financial facility Office building

Rue du Faub o

e Ru

Rue

Lyon

Enterteinment: Enterteinment facility Event venue Healthcare: Fitness Beauty salon Medical clinic

Led

e Rue d

Culture: Art gallery Museum

Ro ll

Hospitality: Hotel

Commerce/private business: Shopping mall Independent store Private business

Food services: Restaurant Bar Cafe

rea

Private Active Facilities:

This example has the highest number of public facilities among all the Case Studies. It may be a sign of the correlation with the planning strategy implied in this project (see Part 5.2 - Planning Strategy) where publicly managed corporations aimed to encourage private development. Interestingly, the AEF density of the Viaduc des Arts area is lower than that of Hong Kong - 17 AEF/Ha, but almost equal distribution over the area makes it seem higher. Heterogeneous distribution on the small scale makes the distribution of the AEFs pretty homogeneous on the large scale and it is one of the outstanding characteristics of this LEL. Another one is the relatively high number of public facilities mentioned earlier. Both these factors contribute to a high diversity of economic activity in the area of this project.

Av en

Pedestrian Elevated walkway

Investigation area

CS no. 3 – Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondissement, Paris, France: The Parisian example is highly heterogeneous. The facilities are mixed almost equally over all the mapped areas with non of the dominant category concentrations that were evidenced in the two previous examples. The majority of the AEFs are single independent facilities with an entrance at street level. Exception is a number of office buildings. The transition between the dominant and the less popular categories is gradual (see Fig. 5.4.3.B). Independent stores, private businesses and restaurants are the three most dominant categories, taking more than half of the overall number of the AEFs. Remembering the artistic cultural background of the area (see Part 5.1.1 - Cultural/ urban background) this combination is a natural microclimate for the arts & crafts area.

erot

ard Did Boulev

Didero

ille

u bo

e ed

let

Av en

l ga

Car services: Car parking Car service

Other: Other

eM Ru

nil

Public Active Facilities: Governmental facility Educational facility Non for profit organization

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.4.3.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]

Investigation area created by border of 100m from each side of the LEL walking path: 30 Ha Overall number of Active Economic Facilities: 504 units Density of the Active Economic Facilities: 17 AEF/Ha

Viaduc des Arts, Paris

40%

Rue de Lyon

Docteur Philippe Saffar Nouveau Bagel & Salade Il Sandwichnaro Calabrese

Rue de Lyon

Amarante Salad Shop 6éme Sens Galeries des Arcades Etat de Siège - Showroom Pro | Bastille Marguerite Mitz-Ronjat Vépi Mobilier Ergodynamique Coiffure Styliste Coloriste Boucherie Yvon Djerba couscous Monalisa Pizzeria. Ekors Intérim Bose Excellence Center Boulangerie versavelle petite classe Rue Moreau VIET NAM IMPRESSIONS Création Akbar New Pharmacy Lyon

Rue Moreau

Pantaleon Isaac Joachim U.S. Ateliers c'juice La Bonne Tradition URPS Kiné IDF Assurance Mutuelle des Motards Prince Chaussures Harmonie Mutuelle LCL Banque et assurance Trochon Bisson Yolande Proman Paris Gare de Lyon Fred tout court CEPRIMA PARIS 12 (Compagnie Européenne de Prêt immobilier et d'Assurance) Laverie du Quartier - Aquilex A Fleur de Peau-Institut de beauté Au Beurre Salé L'Echelle Européenne Paris (75) Micro Evolutif System SieMatic Paris - Notre-Dame Décoration 12ème

35%

les citadinesbastille A.T.I.H Agence Technique de l'Information sur Hopiatlisation Aparthotel Adagio access Paris Bastille SIRIUS stories of so Sentou showroom Assistance Audiovisuelle Audionat HIFIGENY furniture Luxury Paris, Sofa Art Deco, Opticien PARIS - LEDRU ROLLIN Optical Center Frequent Flyer Travel Paris Franprix CIRCO DE BAKUZA aire azur carrelage Paris Air Hazur Carrelage Tzuri Gueta l'arche by makesense & WeCanDoo Atelier du Temps Passé créanog 4 cours du Chêne vert Fenêtres Lorenove Paris Parking Q-Park Paris Opéra Bastille Avenue Ledru Rollin Ibis Styles Paris Gare De Lyon Bastille Yooki Sushi SAMERA

Avenue Ledru Rollin

Carole & Brows Zhong Shuren Défi Technology FONCIA Municipality of Paris les étoiles I Quattro Mori Poke star HY RESTO La Cordée - Paris Gare de Lyon L'impasto Saïgon LILIMING Casa de Espana Muguet Salon de massage et sauna 75012 Paris Gare de Lyon

30%

Space Cryo Cryotherapy Bati Bat Bastille Doucet Jean COGEIM eggersmann by Paul & Benjamin Créateurs De Cuisines Maruani Didier Pizza Le Coq L'Encrier bulthaup - Paris Bastille Workshop Re-Naissanc Ateliers Chutes Libres Maison Fey Confiture parisienne Boutique Malhia KENT INMA : Institut National des Métiers d'Art ORENZO Aisthésis Rue Traversiere Pronails premium salon Restaurant Ayasofya Paris Clinique Implant Paris Dr Eric DAVID

Rue Traversiere

Rave Christian Fai Immobilier Lutèce détection Odèle A l'Atelier Jade bleu

Independent stores - 26%

Keycafe Les Garnements l'Olifant Paris Gourmet Gourmand Aux Délices de Pékin Blondeau déménagement CECILE Sophie / COUVELARD Nicolas IMPACT VOYAGES En Couleurs - Coloration Végétale et Bio Paris En Tête R INTERIM PARIS Le Comptoir ITC Paris J VAP (Paris 12) SIM Agences d'emploi

25%

Groupe Adéquat Mercerie A Bout De Fil HSBC Paris Gare De Lyon Effimins Podiatry Center Richaud Marc Apef Paris Diderot Aid Home Ménage Et Garde D'enfants Adecco Electricité Second OEuvre Paris ALACS Meline - etiopath - Paris 12 Asian Spa Studio Nails Market Daumesnil Ause Au Temps Tic Le Calbar LE SINGE A PARIS L Échappée Belle Institut de Beaute atelier Didier Maulet: Ebénisterie - restauration de meubles ADHAP SERVICES Cassiquiare Beige & White La p'tite régalade La Table du Loup Chez Peppe Workshop Sous Les Toits - Ateliers D'écriture Pimlico, Elan Nature Crèche Kiddies Ledru-Rollin Crèches De France L'Ardoisier - Livraison Plateaux Repas Entreprises Coltesse - shop & studio Driving School Aligre - Paris 12 KMF MalaysiaWE Art Up Deco Téodor Résidence étudiante Studéa Bastille HALLCOUTURE

Dominant active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Gamelle Serge Amoruso Le Viaduc Brasserie

54%

reo pasta

20%

Rue Abel Station café immocredit Espace Aubade Paris XII

Rue Abel

AK Informatique Onze Automobiles Jasmine Taxi Moto - Réservation de taxi moto à Paris, Orly et CDG Pompes Funèbres et Marbrerie PLM Expertise Langues La Promenade PROP ET NET PARIS Warhammer Raimbault et Cie BestDrive Paris empresa Carrefour Bio Tobolski Francis ibis Paris Gare de Lyon Diderot 12ème Rice Trotters Le Pop-Up du Label Sos Homophobie N'diambour Meubles CELIO Brain Up Association Toys Films CAFPI Paris 12 Courtier en prêts immobiliers HAXO-BLUN Tangi Mordekhai Moreau Cédrick SCM Boisseau Moreau Julia Nails Yespark - Aligre/Gare de Lyon Paris 12 - Paris Le Richemont Joya Mia Cabinet Dr. Doumit

Private businesses - 15%

Maison d'Europe et d'Orient The 100 - Establishment Cultural Solidarity Le Cent Atelier en Commun MoneyGram Molly's

15%

Paris Hôtel Le Mediterraneen Plans et Cuisines Carrefour Drive Rossli (Le) Piupiupiu Maguey Restaurant Betty Coiffure Ortholine Dav Diffusion Chez Dav L Escale De Lyon Charenton Distribution

Restaurant - 13%

Pharmacie Visot S.m.c. Croix Rouge Française Chapitre 2 Épicerie Du Monde - Alimentation Générale de nuit Nous 4 Selectour - Vernin Voyages LCL Banque et assurance Soleil Levant Dido café Atelier Cattaneo Bronzes France Philippe Atienza Bottier Paris Saargale Créateur Africain Paris Cécile et Jeanne Parking résidentiel Saemes Hector Malot the Ateliers d'Art de France Workshop Bicloune Ithemba Design Ethik Claude Samuel Gallery KMF MalaysiaWE Kisio Digital Art Contemporain Paris Détecteurs Shan Goût Hôtel De Reims Hôtel Prince Albert Lyon Bercy

10 %

Heng Yuan - spécialités chinoises et coréennes Hôtel Du Centre L'Olivier BRED-Banque Populaire ADSP75 MAISON NOEL - MAGASIN DE MEUBLES PARIS Crozatier Conditions Foire Boulevard Diderot Boulangerie Maison Ménier Mode Etoile Pharmacy Gare de Lyon

Boulevard Diderot

Caisse Ecoles 12 ème Arrondissement de Paris Hôtel Concordia School Diderot Library Youth Diderot Maaf Lenoir Services Avril Marie-Gabrielle Mercier AIDES Phare Enfants-Parents Generations Eco-mobilier UNMI - Union Nationale Mutualiste Interprofessionnelle Digital Security Agence Nationale de la Recherche Mutuelle Entrain - Agence de Paris Artemide France Cuisine Bains Rangements Vermer Shiva Lattitude cuir Cros Fabrice SUSHI FLEUR Sapori Boulangerie Pâtisserie CLAP - Passage des tout-petits AXIA INTERIM PARIS Actual l'Agencemploi pizza di saporito Ravenel Fabrice Bar PMU Tabac

Bellas Frédéric Public Primary School Daumesnil Gymnasium Daumesnil Municipal Collective Nursery MICRO2GSM Rambo Justinemine Commissariat Central de Police du 12ème arrondissement De La Ville De Paris RACING CLUB PARIS 10 Atelier Tsuyoshi Tane Architects Columbus Café & Co Hotel Ouvert Mei Xi Hôtel Trianon Gare de Lyon - Paris 12 Gallo Michel Photo Expression Picard Beauty N’Diary Toit Tout Vert Bio and Go Sofradom Mascottes des animaux pour la ville GRAVEXPRESS Johanna Coiffure PLANETT - PARIS Mouvement Républicain et Citoyen Emmaüs (Association) Zhou Ning Le Grenier Lorrain Franprix Lux Hotel CE Consultant Le Bon Sens Sauna Caméléon 100% Scooters Avramovic Miroslav Mimi Coiffure Encros - Recharge Cartouche &Toner Jošanica Bar Wild & The Moon Charenton

CIC Toto Sushi. Samuel B Lio Optic Bistrot Rev’bar MoneyGram Mini Bouffe Opportunities From the 12th Librairie Le Cabanon Kota Makassar Point Smoke Paris 12 Koto-koto Kent Pascal O Chodron Gusto Mèche en l'Hair bauraum Maquette Restauration De Meubles Ébénisterie Les Paruriers Un Autre Regard Ghnassia Florence Jolie masseuse salon de massage Les Rendez-vous italiens Lenain School Gourmet Elsa Gary Cuivre Or Argen Patricia Joubert Pharmacie Générale - Pharmacie Du Viaduc 123 Matieres CBD Foxseeds ParisXII Brasserie L’Arrosoir Au Cadre d'Or MYDRIAZ MARISCHAEL-ORFEVRE Galerie 89

Fig. 5.4.3.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Estampille52 Atelier du Cuivre Yann Porret Master Builder l'atelier homme mon lit et moi PHILIPPE FERRAND Rairies Montrieux SHOWROOM Atelier C ® Paris - Workshops Sur Le Chocolat DAN YEFFET DESIGN STUDIO Artefact Zephyr Paris Rue de Rmbouillet Entrepôt La Poste GEOPARTS Ground Control LX France

Rue de Rmbouillet

Comptoir Sur Mer Librairie Charybde Le Remontalou M.P.C. Technologie NATURALIA Culture Velo Aac Cavalino Theatre of the Oppressed Festival Migractions Agence Express Courses. SERHR Orféa Absolute PC Le Repaire Centre d'action sociale Ville de Paris Lidl CAP INGELEC (75) Midi-Hôtel Inria New office Generix Group Kyriad Prestige Paris Bercy Trio Daumesnil Maison de Retraite Korian Les Arcades Parking mensuel Yespark Dugommier - Paris 12 CFA MEMIEI COIFFURE Massage Belles d'Asie Fen Fang Centre Commercial Daumesnil DM Bakery La Pâtisserie Américaine Parking Q-Park Daumesnil Paris Gare de Lyon 10 Rue de Rambouillet Garage GO SPORT PARIS DAUMESNIL Société Générale E.N INDIAN Coiffure et Esthetique Reuilly BARRACUDA Fashion Style Salon Eric Coiffure Masculine L'Atelier Connecté Leader Price Choukroun Jean-Claude TDI Systems Rmk Computer Maison des femmes de Paris Home Sails Farident New PC Charenton Clean City

public facilities 7% private facilities 93%

Pencolé Françoise Bacry Jean-Luc IT AND YOU Micro Cocktails Isabelle Coiffure Ultra Media ttah Benabou Corinne Bains Douches Municipaux Agence SwissLife Paris 12 quartier gare de Lyon - Jean Baptiste Chilly Recycle My LCD L'Alchimiste Zenpark - Parking Paris - Montgallet - Daumesnil Steph’s place Centre Pierre Dumonteil Computer Electronic Santiano International Trade Univack Andyemine LCD International Dieng Cheikh MEDIATECK Réparation PC portable Leroy Merlin Daumesnil La Grande Récré FONDUE CHONGQING Viaduct arts and crafts Bio c' Bon Rue Montgallet

High Line, NY

Rue Montgallet

33 AVE

SAP America, Inc. Intercept Pharmaceuticals Inc sweetgreen

Fig. 5.4.3.C: Relation between public and private facilities

Boston Consulting Group

Fig. 5.4.3.D: Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets L'Oreal USA

PureWow HQ

Guardian Life ChargeItSpot

Hudson Yards

Mercado Little Spain MAR

Cedric's at The Shed The Shed

Cable News Network

30 AVE

Whitmans

The High Line Zipcar

Wells Fargo Bank Think Coffee Malin Gallery 530 W 30th St parking Kahlo Modern Mexican Cuisine Duane reade Udo Spreitzenbarth Photography LOFT 29 U-Haul Neighborhood Dealer MPG: Manhattan Parking (MP West 29) MPG Parking: 526 W 30th St Duane Reade Via Trenta Pizzoteca iPark - Hudson Yards Parking Online Makeup Academy Manhattan Mini Storage Winebook Inc. Hudson Food Market 29 AVE King Cab Halal Food Cart Death Ave Fifth Revenue Tap Room Highline Pizzeria Gateway Art Center NYC Tsai Jennifer OD iPark Parking Garage 282 11th Ave Parking Virtuosi Quintet, Inc. Next Cleaners art'otel new york city Skylight Gallery Times Square Limousine 28 AVE De Buck Gallery Porteño

CS no. 4 – High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA: Several areas along the High Line have high concentrations of AEFs and others have very low or even no representatives of economic activity. The high concentrations are those of the dominant categories: art galleries, private shops, restaurants (Fig. 5.4.4.A/D). The High Line area has

West Chelsea, NYC Investigation area W3

Pedestrian Elevated walkway

11t

0th

8th

7th

6th

Culture: Art gallery Museum

5th

4th

3th

2th

1th

0th

9th

8th

6th

4th

St.

3th St le W . 12t Gansevoort St. h

St.

Av e

5th

St.

7th

St.

7th

Offices: Financial facility Office building

St.

8th

Healthcare: Fitness Beauty salon Medical clinic

St.

Av e

Enterteinment: Enterteinment facility Event venue

9th

Av e

10t W3

Hospitality: Hotel

Other: Other

St.

hA ve

Commerce/private business: Shopping mall Independent store Private business

Car services: Car parking Car service

St.

hA ve

Food services: Restaurant Bar Cafe

3th

12t

Private Active Facilities:

4th

Litt

100 m

500 m

Fig. 5.4.4.A: Distribution of current economic activities as registered on dynamic Google map in September 2020 [Source of background map: https://snazzymaps.com/]

Investigation area created by border of 100m from each side of the LEL walking path: 39.2 Ha Overall number of Active Economic Facilities: 398 units

St.

Public Active Facilities: Governmental facility Educational facility Non for profit organization

four dominant AEF categories (Fig. 5.4.4.B), with a distinctive concentration of private shops and art galleries which is easily noticeable from the mapping (Fig. 5.4.4.A). It is strongly correlated with the area’s cultural background described in Part 5.1.1 - Cultural/urban background and the planning strategy applied to its development by the Special West Chelsea District (SWCD) master-plan Part 5.2 - Planning Strategy), aimed to support the arts & crafts urban ’ecosystem’ that naturally appeared in the area several years before the project was initiated. As in Hong Kong, there is a wide gap in the New York example between dominant AEF categories (76%) and the secondary ones, and it shows even stronger private sector privilege, with only 1% public facilities represented - the smallest among the four Case Studies, making it strongly market-oriented (Fig. 5.4.4.C). The density of the AEFs along the High Line is the lowest among the successful cases and stands at 10 AEFs per Ha. An outstanding AEF factor here is the high concentration of art galleries in the central part of the High Line area, which is a unique phenomenon. As mentioned earlier, it seems to be a continuous trend that started before the planning process and was strongly encouraged by the planning. The result is an attractive area with a strongly recognizable identity.

Density of the overall Active Facilities: 10 AEF/Ha

Inria New office Generix Group Kyriad Prestige Paris Bercy Trio Daumesnil Maison de Retraite Korian Les Arcades Parking mensuel Yespark Dugommier - Paris 12 CFA MEMIEI COIFFURE Massage Belles d'Asie Fen Fang Centre Commercial Daumesnil DM Bakery La Pâtisserie Américaine Parking Q-Park Daumesnil Paris Gare de Lyon 10 Rue de Rambouillet Garage GO SPORT PARIS DAUMESNIL Société Générale E.N INDIAN Coiffure et Esthetique Reuilly BARRACUDA Fashion Style Salon Eric Coiffure Masculine L'Atelier Connecté Leader Price Choukroun Jean-Claude TDI Systems Rmk Computer Maison des femmes de Paris Home Sails Farident New PC Charenton Clean City Pencolé Françoise Bacry Jean-Luc IT AND YOU Micro Cocktails Isabelle Coiffure Ultra Media ttah Benabou Corinne

40%

Bains Douches Municipaux Agence SwissLife Paris 12 quartier gare de Lyon - Jean Baptiste Chilly Recycle My LCD L'Alchimiste Zenpark - Parking Paris - Montgallet - Daumesnil Steph’s place Centre Pierre Dumonteil Computer Electronic Santiano International Trade Univack Andyemine LCD International Dieng Cheikh MEDIATECK Réparation PC portable Leroy Merlin Daumesnil La Grande Récré FONDUE CHONGQING Viaduct arts and crafts Bio c' Bon Rue Montgallet

High Line, NY 33 AVE

SAP America, Inc. Intercept Pharmaceuticals Inc sweetgreen

33 Ave

Boston Consulting Group L'Oreal USA PureWow HQ Guardian Life ChargeItSpot Hudson Yards Mercado Little Spain MAR Cedric's at The Shed The Shed Cable News Network 30 AVE

35%

Whitmans The High Line Zipcar

30 Ave

29 Ave

Tap Room Highline Pizzeria Gateway Art Center NYC Tsai Jennifer OD iPark Parking Garage 282 11th Ave Parking Virtuosi Quintet, Inc. Next Cleaners art'otel new york city Skylight Gallery Times Square Limousine 28 AVE De Buck Gallery Porteño Gerrard Larriett Aromatherapy Pet Care

30%

28 Ave

Hudson Market Il Piccolo Ristoro Cafe Kasmin Gallery Ovest Pizzoteca Scores Holding Co Inc Robert's Steakhouse 27 AVE 299 Tenth Avenue Brokerage 287 Gallery Marquee New York

27 Ave

Salon Ruggeri The Heath RYAN LEE Friedman Benda Hollis Taggart Pace Prints Chelsea Selina Chelsea New York City George Adams Gallery Starbucks Edward Thorp Gallery THE WRIGHT FIT Jungle City Studios NYC Nancy Hoffman Gallery Inc Sleep No More The McKittrick Hotel 26 AVE Avenues: The World School STAFFED INC. Rogue Space | Chelsea Alexander Gray Associates

26 Ave

Target Corporate Office Nancy Margolis Gallery Inc International Print Center Greene Naftali Field Projects Elmwood (New York) DOOSAN Gallery New York Amsterdam Whitney Gallery Freelance Photographer BPCM

Private businesses - 24%

25%

Paula Cooper Gallery Morgan Lehman Gallery First Street Gallery BravinLee programs Galerie Lelong & Co. Mitchell-Innes & Nash 25 AVE Bryce Wolkowitz Gallery Hill Art Foundation NY Prestige Limo Yossi Milo Gallery

25 Ave

Marty's Auto Body Park- it 249 Parking Corp. HOUSE of WARIS Botanicals PARADISE MARKET PLACE Bottino Subway Chop-Shop Marianne Boesky Gallery Lennon Weinberg Inc

Art galleries - 22%

Gladstone Gallery Hollis Taggart Contemporary Metro Pictures Matthew Marks Gallery ACS Custom USA Bowery Gallery Blue Mountain Gallery Inc Luhring Augustine Gallery Winston Wachter Fine Art 532 Gallery Thomas Jaeckel Agora Gallery Maverik Lacrosse Pace Gallery 550 W 25th Street Gagosian W 243th St. Esu Realty LLC Jim Kempner Fine Art The Drunken Horse

W 243th St.

The Mermaid Inn - Chelsea

Dominant active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Taglialatella Galleries

20%

76%

10th Avenue Car Wash MF Productions Inc Chelsea Barbers Chase Mortgage Calle Dao Chelsea Le Pif Chelsea Restaurant & Wine Bar Rafe New York Along The High Line Lisson Gallery Fremin Gallery MacDowell, New York Eclat Salon Mind the Gap Theatre Stylo Creative Communications Asya Geisberg Gallery Susan Inglett Gallery Jack Shainman Gallery BERRY CAMPBELL Margaret Thatcher Projects Anna Zorina Gallery Videri, Inc W 23th St. Patricia Underwood Empire Diner Dillon Gallery

W 23th St.

Don Giovanni New York Burger Co.

Independent stores - 16%

Tía Pol MoneyGram CVS CVS Pharmacy Danese/Corey FDNY EMS Station 7 the box house Miles McEnery Gallery Granco Sales & Svce Manhattan Mini Storage Flemister Housing Development P.P.O.W. Gallery

15%

Restaurant - 14%

DC Moore Gallery Dia Art Foundation Silas Seandel Studio Inc U-Haul of Chelsea W 22th St. Pepe Giallo 192 Books Expat Careers

W 22th St.

Alma Zevi – New York Comme Des Garçons Kravets Wehby Gallery Tanya Bonakdar Gallery Matthew Marks Gallery 7000 Oaks (Dia Art Foundation + Joseph Beuys) Heavenly Body Works Sikkema Jenkins & Co Lehmann Maupin Carolina Nitsch Project Room Edison ParkFast Guardian Angel School W 21th St. Kamco Supply Corp. Wilensky Exquisite Mineral Gallery Washburn Gallery Galleria Ca' d'Oro

W 21th St.

169 10th Ave Parking Nohra Haime Gallery Highline Wine Market Wonderland Beauty Parlor Underline Coffee Quintessentially New York UNDO Project Space / Say Something Bunny! SUNRIGHTS INC. Crozier Fine Arts - Art Storage and Logistics Ricco/Maresca Gallery Josee Bienvenu Gallery ACA Galleries kargoe Manhattan Mini Storage The High Line Hotel Intelligentsia Coffee Highline Coffeebar

10 %

Gagosian Gladstone Gallery David Zwirner Garth Greenan Gallery Praxis Gallery Sato Sakura Gallery New York W 20th St. Hakimian Organization Cookshop Chelsea Grande Country Club

W 20th St.

161-165 10th Ave Parking Edison ParkFast Bisazza New York Flagship Store David Zwirner Bruce Silverstein Gallery Digital Hollywood Michael Rosenfeld Gallery Timothy Taylor W 19th St. SACI Spina Bride Les Ateliers Courbet

W 19th St.

Lisson Gallery Gfhhkoo Escape men spa Contact Inc./Contact NYC The Kitchen Jane Lombard Gallery SLAG Gallery Courier Network IAC Building Newsweek Daily Beast CO Llc Vimeo 前波画廊 Chelsea Square Market W 18th St. Petzel Gallery Star On 18 F B / L P Textiles Inc 1 OAK

Artichoke Basille's Pizza W 17th St. SoulCycle CHLS - Chelsea C I7 L0GISTICS Okuda New York

W 18th St. W 17th St.

Equinox High Line Dog City Templum, Inc. Comme des Garcons Boutique MPG: Manhattan Parking Chelsea (MP 17) Banchet Flowers W 16th St. Posman Books Sabrett Car Lobster Place Ayada

W 16th St.

Friedman’s at Chelsea Market Pearl River Mart BLACKBARN Shop L'Arte del Gelato Imports from Marrakesh Morimoto West Edge NYC Back Bar L'Atelier de Joël Robuchon Toro NYC Moet Hennessy USA 85 Tenth Avenue Associates Llc Google NYC: 8510 Building Del Posto Moet Hennessy USA Dog City Three Squares Soil Hot Bread Kitchen Package Free Miznon Takumi Taco Big Mozz Tings

Doughnuttery ARTECHOUSE Le Song Sarabeth's Chelsea Market Baskets Artists & Fleas Chelsea W 15th St. Blue Bottle Coffee Ella Brasileira

W 15th St.

Highline Stages Joie Rufus Apparel LLC alice + olivia Giorgio Armani Jeffrey New York Deva Forma Pura Chamberlain Milk Gallery inVentiv Health Highline Stages BLACKBARN Shop Bowery Kitchen Supplies Milk building Giorgio Armani W 14th St. 860 Washington Street Diane von Furstenberg TheBasic

W 14th St.

Sullivan Knickerbocker Management Fast Retailing USA RTW Investments, LP 860 Washington Street Delos Living LLC Alibaba Group New York SoFi Reliable Luxury Car and Limousine

Fig. 5.4.4.B: Identification of dominant economically active categories (above 10% of the overall number)

Liberty Inn Ground Zero Museum Workshop Leo & Sage Lilla P ASICS Catch Hospitality Group AllSaints rag & bone Jack’s Stir Brew Coffee Tesla Twin Point Capital LLC Incline Productions PAIGE Meatpacking Bond No 9 Thor Equities W 13th St. The Standard SeaShack The Shop at The Standard The Standard, High Line

W 13th St.

Le Bain Boom Boom Room The Top of the Standard The Standard Biergarten The Standard Grill The Rink at The Standard, High Line 28 10th Ave Parking Brass Monkey Samsung 837 Maman FIG & OLIVE Sky Gallery Little West Wine & Spirits Palantir Betaworks Studios Mb Sugar Factory American Brasserie Little W 12th St. Whitney Museum Shop Whitney Museum of American Art Untitled

Little W 12th St.

Weichsel Beef Company Reliable Wholesale Meats Inc Helmut Lang Warby Parker Madewell Sneakersnstuff New York Bar Common Ground Bar Dance NYC - Bachata & Salsa Party K & E Holdings Trina Turk | Mr Turk | New York Caudalie Boutique Spa Anna Inspiring Jewellery Renzo Piano Building Workshop Tiziano Zorzan Tory Burch Vince Stephen F Flagship store Dentons Sneakersnstuff STK Downtown 纽约地产

public facilities 1% private facilities 99%

Tenjune Interstate Foods J T Jobbagy Inc Hector's cafe diner 2 M Foods Corporation T & M Meat Fair Inc London Meat Co Bubby's GANSEVOORT ST. INTERMIX Simò Pizza Allouche Gallery

Gansevoort St.

The Upper Crust Sweet Revenge Sugar Co. 521 12th Ave Garage The West Coast by TF Cornerstone Barbuto Wix Playground Christian Louboutin HANRO - New York REIGN 838 Greenwich Street Corporation Kava Café Pastis Brunello Cucinelli Hermès Goldcrest Post Productions 838 Greenwich Street Corporation West Village Nursery School HORALTO ST.

Fig. 5.4.4.C: Relation between public and private facilities

Horalto St.

Fig. 5.4.4.D:Listed businesses according to the defined categories as they appear between/within the area of the main streets

5.5 Case Studies Analysis Summary Part 5.1 Context 5.1.1 Cultural/urban background: Four major types of cultural background appeared through the analysis of the Case Studies: industry, commerce, governance and arts&crafts. There are two noticeable factors that arise from this analysis: first, that the successful cases combine two cultural background characteristics, whereas the failed case has only one; secondly, is that the combinations of all the successful cases involve commerce or arts & crafts (or both) as part of their cultural ’DNA’. It makes it possible to assume that even if there is only one dominant cultural characteristic in the area of a potential LEL, it should be either commerce or arts & crafts. This idea is intensified by the fact that the unsuccessful case has only an industrial cultural background but no commerce or arts & crafts. 5.1.2 Population density: The comparative analysis reveals significant differences in population density between the failed and the successful Case Studies. The first thing to notice is that at their initial point there was already a significant gap in population density between the successful projects and the failed one. Cincinnati’s population density stood at 2,445 person/sqkm - more than three times lower than the lowest population density rate among the successful cases. Another remarkable point is the change of density: in the successful cases population density rose through years of their development, whereas in the failed one - it significantly decreased. Based on the four Case Studies and in light of the above, it can be concluded that the minimum population density needed for the successful outcome is that of CBD Hong Kong in the early stages of Central Elevated network consumption, which stood at 8,246 person/sqkm. 5.1.3 Integration with transit and important public facilities: Since LELs are part of a larger chain of pedestrian circulation, the presence of stations and popular city destinations in their proximity are important engines of the pedestrian flow. A simple examination of means of

public transport available in the area of each Case Study shows the existence of a correlation between underground train connections and a successful LEL. All the successful cases are integrated within underground train systems, having several stations easily accessible in the LEL area, whereas Cincinnati, the failed one, has only external street public transport. In terms of popular city destinations all the successful cases have significant public facilities in their surroundings and in some cases at their endpoints. This creates an association between them and the LELs. Although the failed case, Cincinnati, also has several public facilities within its CBD where the LEL once existed, the most popular city destinations seem to be outside this area.

Part 5.2 Planning strategy There are three important factors to be seen from the planning strategy overview. Firstly, is that in all the successful cases planners seem to make an effort to create conditions beneficial for private sector interests. In Hong Kong, flexibility of the policies aimed to encourage private development initiatives of this public amenity and make it easy to connect new sections to the already existing parts of the network. In Paris, special corporations were established to encourage private development initiatives in the area of the LEL creating a new environment into which the project was then integrated. In New York, a strategy similar to Parisian has been used, where regulations of the larger area masterplan aimed to create conditions for a private development to justify and pay for the reuse of the High Line as a public facility. In Cincinnati, in contrast to the other three, private developers seriously struggled with the complex bureaucracy and inflexible planning. They were required to invest large sums in the structure, but did not necessarily have clear benefits. Secondly, since these projects are always attributed to a long term development, clearly defined (yet flexible) policies seem to be crucial to enable their efficient implementation in different contexts and over time.

Finally, it can clearly be seen that both linear parks (Case Studies 3 and 4) were catalysts for larger redevelopment master-plans, which dramatically changed the contexts these projects consequently became part of. These now-popular public facilities are like ’the tip of the iceberg’, providing visual evidence of the massive complex transformation underpinning them.

Part 5.3 Design The design analysis reveals two major factors that have an impact on the success of the LELs: first - the importance of the large scale spatial diversity, meaning the number of variations in the external relationships between the LELs and their urban environment; second - the importance of the vertical connections between the LELs and the street level. Spatial diversity is the repeating ’pattern’ of all the successful cases, derived from the variety of relations between the structure and its surroundings. When structure is described by all the three archetypes, it implies dynamic walking experience, changing views, and opportunities for multiple types of horizontal connections to the adjacent buildings. This kind of spatial diversity cannot be achieved by small-scale design of the internal parts of the structure, but only by well-planned largescale strategic thinking about its overall integration in the cityscape. It can be seen from the failure of Cincinnati, that when only one archetype was involved, it created monotony, and the structure turned out to be merely a network of building corridors, rather than an LEL. Well designed horizontal and vertical connections seem to play another crucial role in the success of the LELs, since all the successful cases show a high level of integration between the street, the buildings and the LEL structure, which was created by all the horizontal and vertical connections. In contrast, the Cincinnati case showed only one repeating type of horizontal connection and very few direct vertical connections to the street level, which led me to conclude that diverse connections of both types are important.

The quality of design inside the LEL, no matter how good, creates substantial value to the ’final product’, and contributes to the popularity of these places. However, it seems that the design alone cannot make the LEL successful, positioning spatial diversity and horizontal and vertical connections as primary for success. The last two are creators of access for the most important players - the pedestrians - without which LEL cannot fulfil its original purpose - to be a public good for the citizens. In terms of the relation of the design to climate conditions, it is worth mentioning one anecdotal fact: the failed case - CBD Cincinnati and one of the successful cases - High Line, New York both have the same climate classification. The former - is almost entirely climate controlled, the latter - is almost entirely exposed to the open air. By comparison, the Central Elevated in Hong Kong which suffers from a very hot and humid climate, has mostly only a top cover protecting pedestrians from the elements, with some enclosed climate controlled spaces. It leads to the thought that climate conditions do play a role, but it is not as crucial as spatial diversity and connections.

Part 5.4 Visible evidence of economic activity When an area attracts new business investments, economic development, by most definitions, is furthered, but what usually attracts the businesses in the first place? Although the precise nature of the link is by no means clear, there is a little question that mobility infrastructure investment is associated with economic development and the successful LEL cases prove this point. The expansion of pedestrian infrastructure in highly dense cities, especially if it is also developed as an attractive public open space, becomes a business location incentive, attracting new business investment or inducing existing firms to stay and expand. This seems to be exactly what happened in Hong Kong, Paris and New York. In Cincinnati, on the other hand, LEL network was mostly publicly promoted, but with no imperative driven by the private sector, added to this was the low and decreasing population density - therefore the project failed.

6. Revealing the Pattern 6.1 Revealing the Success Pattern

6.2 Revealing the Failure Pattern

6.1 Revealing the Success Pattern Fig.6 summarizes the issues examined in the analysis of the Case Studies and recognizes the pattern of factors contributing to the success of the LELs along with pointing out crucial factors causing their failure. The yellow color highlights the factors (or clusters of factors) that repeat in the successful cases, blue - was chosen for numerical factors, to indicate the minimal ‘border line’ ratio among the successful cases, and red highlights factors appearing below the minimal numerical ‘border line’, or appearing exclusively in the failed case. So, what does the pattern reveal? The Success Pattern reveals several characteristics. Firstly, successful LELs are characterised by a high level of integration in the urban context, including connections to public transport and important city destinations. The pattern also identifies the importance of the existence of specifically underground mass transit systems as the core public mobility infrastructure in the LEL area, rather than other means of public transport or car oriented development. Secondly, in terms of planning strategy, all the successful cases show a high level concern for private sector interests and the intention of public authorities to provide opportunities for long-term fruitful collaboration with private developers. Thirdly, the successful design pattern displays a high level of integration in the urban fabric by diverse relations with the built environment, multiple horizontal connections to buildings on the elevated level and external vertical connections to street level. This pattern also emphasizes the essence of LELs as accessible public open spaces, as exposure to the open air characterizes all the successful cases, regardless of their climate conditions. As for minimal numerical ‘border lines’, there are four that the successful pattern points out (the first one - identifies a crucial preliminary condition and the rest describe the minimal outcome rates attributed to success). First and foremost, is the essential factor that must exist prior to

the development, and that is a minimum population density of 8,246 persons/sqkm in the adjacent LEL area. Second, the level of economic activity in this area after several years of successful functioning has a minimal density of 10 Active Economic Facilities (AEF) per Ha and creates a distinctive eco(nomic)-system via several mutually supportive dominant categories which constitute at least 54% of the overall economic activity in the area, providing it with a strong economic identity. The last numerical factor shows the outcome of a successful LEL development as a relative ratio between the population and the number of the AEFs which stands at a minimal ratio of 9 persons per AEF.

6.2 Revealing the Failure Pattern The summary analysis table in Fig.6, in addition to revealing the Success Pattern, also highlights the crucial factors for the failure of LELs or the Failure Pattern. Since LELs augment pedestrian areas to include more users, if population density appears below the Crucial Minimal Ratio for Success, this becomes a critical factor causing LEL failure. It can clearly be seen that the lowest population density among the successful cases is 8,246 person/sqkm (this number was defined as the Crucial Minimal Ratio). According to the population density analysis in Part 5.1.2, it could fluctuate, but in successful cases it never dropped below this minimal rate. Therefore the failed case, Cincinnati, which had only 2,445 person/sqkm proves the above objection. Two other important factors relate to the integration of the LEL in its urban context: the existence of transit stations and significant city destinations. When there is underground transit in the city, it is already a sign of its great population density, indicating a high demand for the increased efficiency of mass mobility. According to the analysis, the lack of integration with underground transit (especially if it just does not exist, as in Cincinnati), is one of the causes of LEL failure. All the different kinds of urban mobility infrastructure create one interrelated system, enabling people to change between them comfortably. Important city destinations attract the public and therefore motivate people to use the urban mobility infrastructure. The more destinations and transit stations are located in close proximity to the LEL - the more likely people are to use it. The next point is the lack of integration of the private sector in the planning process or at least lack of consideration of their needs. As was described in Part 5.2 - Planning Strategy, Cincinnati city planners did not see private developers as their partners, whose needs also should be addressed. The strict system of regulations did not let the local market play its role in balancing between pedestrian needs, the

demands of private developers and the costs, which would likely have made it profitable to invest in the creation of the LEL. Instead, a long bureaucratic process made it difficult and expensive for the developers to build and maintain the LEL. Two more reasons for the failure of LELs are found in their Design. First, the lack of diversity of ways the structure is integrated within the city fabric. In the failed case of Cincinnati almost the entire network was created using only one Archetype - ’C’. This meant ending up with enclosed corridors crossing the streets and not providing any interaction at all with the building’s facades, except for touching them at their entrance points. Successful cases, in contrast, represent a diversity of ways of the LEL being interwoven in the urban fabric, making them more attractive for walking and much more accessible from adjacent buildings. The second reason is the lack of enough independent vertical connections to the street level. Cincinnati did have several vertical connections to the street, however, the majority of the network segments were accessible only through the buildings they connected above street level, generally detaching the system from street life. The three last factors (red-coloured factors appearing in section IV of Fig.6) indicate the importance of the density of Actual Economic Facilities, the volume of dominant categories and the relative ratio between population density and the density of the AEFs. A low density of AEFs and a lack of a dominant category of businesses means that there are not enough Actual Economic Facilities and that their distribution fails to create one dominant economic character for the area. When parameters attributed to the AEFs under-perform, it indicates that there are not enough economic activity to justify the elevated pedestrian flow.

Crucial factor for Success

Factors repeating in all the three successful cases

Crucial factor for Failure

Crucial Minimal Ratio for Success

Minimal numerical factor among the successful cases

Non dominant factor

Factor appearing exclusively in the failed case or, numerical factor, that is lower than the ’Crucial Minimal Ratio for Success’

Factors that appears in both successful and failed cases, or, numerical factor, that is higher than the ’Crucial Minimal Ratio for Success’

I. Context

Cultural background of urban activity associated with the project area [ Industry / Commerce / Governance / Arts&crafts ] ........................................................................ Population density:

Population density in the area of the project before it was started ...................................................................................................................................................................................

Population density tendency before the project was started [increase / decrease] ...........................................................................................................................................................

Integration in urban context:

Proximity to unerground transit .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Proximity to street public transport ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Proximity to important local city destinations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................

II. Planning Strategy

Took into consideration private sector interests ................................................................................................................................................................................................

Was Initiated by private sector .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Provided clarity, but flexibility making it adaptable to changes in context and time .......................................................................................................................................

III. Design

Archetypes found in LEL network [ A / B / C ] ..................................................................................................................................................................................................

Types of connections found between LEL and its environment [ 1 / 2 ] ...........................................................................................................................................................

Types of spaces [ W / S / G ] ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Relation of the design to the outdoor environment and climate conditions [ CLC / TC / OA ] ..........................................................................................................................

IV. Active Economic Facilities (AEFs) as visible evidence of economic activity

Density of the AEFs (AEF/Ha) ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Small scale distribution of the AEFs ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Large scale distribution of the AEFs

Dominance (Private / Public) ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Volume of dominant categories of the AEFs ....................................................................................................................................................................................................

Relative Ratio between Population and the AEFs (person/AEF) ....................................................................................................................................................................... Fig. 6: Recognition of the Success Pattern and the Failure Pattern through analysis summary

Case Study no. 1

Case Study no. 2

Case Study no. 3

Case Study no. 4

Sky-walk network

Linear Elevated Park

Skywalk in Cincinnati Central Business District, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China

Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondisement, Paris, France

High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA

public

private

public

private

FAILED

SUCCESSFUL

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Industry Commerce Governance Commerce Arts&Crafts Industry Arts&Crafts

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2,445 8,246 21,643 14,355

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. [Increase] [Decrease] [Increase] [Decrease]

A B C A B C A B C .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. C

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

7. Creating an Evaluation Model Crucial factor for Success

Statements that have to be answered as ‘yes’ for the potentially successful LEL project

Yes

Score 1

Score 0

I. Context

1. Cultural background of an area where LEL is considered, relates to combination of at least two factors ....................................................................................................

2. Population density of the area along the proposed LEL project is at least 8,246 person/sqkm .....................................................................................................................

3. Projected population density tendency is increase .......................................................................................................................................................................................

4. The proposeed LEL has proximity to unerground mass transit system ...........................................................................................................................................................

5. The proposeed LEL has proximity to a street public transport .......................................................................................................................................................................

6. The proposeed LEL has proximity to important local city destinations ...........................................................................................................................................................

II. Planning Strategy

7. The planning strategy takes into consideration private sector interests ........................................................................................................................................................

8. The planning strategy is guided by private sector ........................................................................................................................................................................................

9. The planning strategy provides opportunities for long term collaboration with private sector, based on their benefit ...............................................................................

III. Design

10. Creates high level of diversity in relations with the built environment ......................................................................................................................................................

11. Provides multiple horizontal connections to the buildings and independent vertical connections to the street level .. ...............................................................................

12. The designed structure provides combination of walking path, sitting areas and gardening ...................................................................................................................

13 The designed structure relates to the local climate conditions ...................................................................................................................................................................... Fig. 7: Evaluation Model based on the recognised Success and Failure Patterns

Following the examples of Lichtman and Radinsky, by revealing the Success Pattern, I intended to set the ground for the creation of an Evaluation Model (Fig. 7). This is aimed at recognizing how likely a proposed LEL is to become successful, identifying the risk of failure and how suitable a specific urban area is for a potential LEL project. The Evaluation Model relates only to the first three categories (sections I, II, III in Fig.6) that were used in the analysis: context, planning strategy and design, eliminating the characteristics which were not recognized as Crucial Factors or as Crucial Minimal Ratio for Success. The fourth 66

category (section IV in Fig.6) - analysis of the Active Economic Facilities was also excluded, since this part aimed to analyse the outcome of the LELs, and is not relevant for the evaluation of a potential LEL. Nonetheless, the information from this last part should definitely be used in the LEL planning process. The Evaluation Model consists of 13 statements, coincidently repeating the number of statements in Lichtman’s ’13 Keys’. It is worth mentioning that the term ‘keys’ is used in professional discourse about risk management

Case Study no. 1

Case Study no. 2

Case Study no. 3

Case Study no. 4

Sky-walk network

Linear Elevated Park

Skywalk in Cincinnati Central Business District, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Central Elevated, Central Business District, Hong Kong, China

Viaduc des Arts, 12th arrondisement, Paris, France

High Line, Chelsea, New York, NY, USA

public

private

public

private

FAILED

SUCCESSFUL

No Yes Yes Yes ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

No Yes No Yes ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

as a set of issues to be considered in order to identify risks: ‘A well designed set of key elements will stimulate thought, and ensure that all important issues are put before those responsible for identifying risks’ (Cooper and Broadleaf Capital International, 2005, p.27). The characteristics derived from the analysis summary were converted into statements that represent the basic attributes of a successful LEL and could be viewed as ‘yes’ (earning 1 point) or ‘no’ (earning 0 points) in relation to an evaluation of a specific LEL. Then, the Evaluation Model

Score defining the ’Breaking line’ for success

was applied on the four Case Studies using the data known about them at their planning and designing stages, to see the correlation between the positive answers among the successful cases. This in itself reveals what the minimum success score is to allow the stakeholders to manage the risk of failure. According to this application, the Evaluation Model shows that the minimum number of attributes for a successful project is 9 out of 13. Additionally, 7 specific attributes (statements highlighted in yellow) are crucial to be answered as ’yes’, otherwise, the project is likely to fail. 67

8. LELs in times of COVID19 8.1 Dealing with pandemics in the history of city planning

8.2 Overview of several LELs showing how their function was affected by Covid19

8.3 Two questions concerning LELs in future [post]Covid reality

This research has been written in times of the Covid19 crisis, continuing to dramatically change our, once habitual, ways of utilization of public facilities and urban spaces. As pedestrian mobility infrastructure, existing LELs directly and indirectly face the questions posed by the disease, which continues to be part of our daily reality. Below are several overviews of the recent management issues which existing LELs are currently coping with and more general reflections on planning for them in the midst of Covid pandemic.

8.1 Dealing with pandemics in the history of city planning Addressing health issues in the urban context by adaptations on the physical and institutional levels of urban design is not a new challenge. Disease outbreaks have already had a significant influence on what eventually have become widely recognized norms, tools and strategies of urban planning. Sewage systems, clean water and different zoning codes defining built density and distribution of land use - to mention just a few (Bereitschaft and Scheller, 2020). A recent publication by the United Nations ‘Cities and Pandemics: Towards a More Just, Green and Healthy Future’ presents a comprehensive pandemic history overview and their influence on urban planning. It mentions, for example, outbreaks of diseases such as cholera, typhoid and tuberculosis resulting from the poor hygienic conditions in densely crowded city areas during the Industrial Revolution, which made planners rethink their previous strategies and recognize the priority of public social well-being, resulting in an increased development of public spaces and even inspiring ‘“hygienic” style of the modernist movement and its celebration of sunlight and open space’ (United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), 2021). Another example of strategy to deal with such threats, is that of Patrick Geddes, who introduced us to his ‘conservation surgery’ theory,

pioneering a medical approach to healing cities by very specific modifications in densely crowded urban contexts with no option for expansion due to physical limitations. He implemented this approach in his work in Edinburgh, Scotland and several towns in India. For example, as part of the ’surgery’ in some cases, he provided public open spaces even at the expense of removing existing buildings (often slums which needed to be cleared) to provide the remaining residents with muchneeded light and airflow and improving the general quality of life. The Geddesian concept has proved successful in achieving its intention to enhance a sustainable evolution of many cities (Garau, Zamperlin and Balletto, 2016) and from the point of view of sustainability, it resonates with current city planning challenges in Covid times. High air quality is a valuable asset in densely populated cities. ‘Ask most people what they regard as the defining characteristic of the urban atmosphere and they refer to its degraded air quality [...] Inevitably, the concentration of human activities in cities results in emissions that modify the thermal and chemical composition of the urban atmosphere.’ (Oke, 2017, p. 294) The air in the Urban Canopy Layer1 is stuffed with traffic emissions and contaminants from building infrastructure mixed with the breath of crowds. People inhale airborne pathogens, since they linger on different aerosols found in city air such as respiratory droplets and dust particles (Huang et al., 2019). From this perspective, airborne diseases and airborne pollution behave in a pretty similar way: both accumulate and ‘thrive’ in stagnant air, however they lose their impact when air flows disperse their concentration. Taking into consideration that most human activity in cities takes place within street canyons with confined airflows and therefore restricted ability for dilution of any kinds of particles expelled to the air, the issue of airflow is a crucial factor for the health of the citizens. In street canyons airflows are usually created by a combination of flows along the street, as well as perpendicular and helical air movements 1

Air layer beneath the main height of majority of buildings and trees

between the building façades (see Fig. 8.1A). These last, ‘down washing’ effects result in the higher concentration of pollutant particles at human respiration height at street level (Chen et al., 2021, p.169), especially on the leeward side of the street (see Fig. 8.1B). From this perspective, the position of LELs at the height of second floor or higher, where windflows disperse aerosol particles more intensively, have an advantage of providing the pedestrians with a better ventilated walkable environment. Hence, the probability of inhaling particles

transmitting infectious bacteria significantly decreases, because of their much lower concentration, compared to street level. (This issue has also been discussed in Part 2.2 - Public good characteristics of LELs, where a study on changes in concentration of pollution with height was presented showing that the greatest reduction (~40%) in concentration of pollution particles within the street section occurs between the ground and the fourth floor). Pollutant concentrations scale with city population (Paredes-Miranda et al., 2013). Maintaining air quality is a big challenge for dense cities, because of the concentration of anthropogenic aerosols, the repetitive structure of street canyons and the high density of citizens, when people’s breath becomes a kind of emission in itself as far as airborne disease is concerned. Airflows are one of the few ‘devices’ able to channel and reduce concentration of all these pollutants and LELs have the potential to be part of an ‘air quality management kit’ in cities, which is possible to achieve by urban design.

Fig. 8.1A: Typical air flow patterns in urban canyons (a) cross-canyon vortex, (b) multiple stacked vortices in a deep canyon, (c) helical flow along a canyon, and (d) along channelling and jetting along a canyon [Source Oke:2017, p.89]

Fig. 8.1B: Average weekday mixing ratios of Benzene in ppb (bold numbers) measured at different locations and heights in a regular street canyon [Source Oke:2017, p.309]

8.2 Overview of several LELs showing how their function was affected by Covid19 Below I provide several examples of issues which challenged current LELs during the first stages of the pandemic. These examples indicate some of the strengths and weaknesses of today’s LELs, that are worth learning from for future development. The first example I would like to introduce is that of the Minneapolis Skyway System which was not discussed in this research, however it is mentioned in Fig.2: List of significant LELs. It is a large climate controlled and privately owned network covering over seventy full city blocks (Corbett, Xie and Levinson, 2009, p. 711). On a normal day before the Covid19 crisis this network would carry hundreds of thousands of visitors and commuters per day, unarguably proving its role in the smooth operation of downtown and its importance for the

city’s economy. Yet, an article by John Reinan for Star Tribune from May 2020 (Reinan, 2020) revealed one acute problem in the administrative framework for collaboration between the public and private bodies in this network which probably would not have come out so clearly had it not been hit by the pandemic. In the article, the head of the Minneapolis Downtown Council, Steve Cramer and the head of the Minneapolis Building Owners, Kevin Lewis, were both concerned about getting the sky-walks back to their normal operation, but lack of a clear way to do so. Many sky-walks were then either closed or operating on reduced hours, according to schedules set by each individual building owner and the task of coordination between them seemed to be slow and complex process since, as Cramer put it “there’s no entity that can issue an edict on the sky-ways.” (Cramer quoted in Reinan, 2020). This situation illustrates that, prior to establishing a new LEL, it is essential to set a specific body accountable for making such decisions in case of a pandemic (or similar urban disaster). There needs to be a preexisting regulatory framework and a coordinating body to administer those regulations in an emergency case for minimizing conflict in the operation of public and private sectors and expedite the administrative actions when needed. The second example I would like to introduce is that of Hong Kong (Case Study no. 2 in Part 5 - Analysis of four Case Studies). It is one of the most populated cities worldwide with the skywalk network being an integral part of its pedestrian circulation and mostly privately owned. In light of the previous example, this made me think that in Hong Kong there would be difficulty in keeping going during the pandemic. However, I did not come across any specific restrictions on people using it. That may be related to the fact that many of the sky-walks, as the design analysis in Part 5.3 - Design showed, are exposed to the open air, which, as has been shown earlier, plays an important role in reducing the spread of disease. Moreover, a document released in February 2021 by the government of Hong Kong, announced its plan of ‘construction of a landscaped elevated walkway to the new acute hospital in the Kai Tak Development to enhance connectivity and walkability in the existing built-

up areas of Kowloon East, and between the Kowloon Bay business area and the Kai Tak Development’ (The Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 2021), demonstrating that the pandemic did not

prevent the system from continuing to expand. The third example is that of the High Line, extensively discussed already. Despite being an open space, it could not stay open during the pandemic due to its narrowness, when the social distancing have become a crucial factor. As a solution, a timed-entry passes system and environmental graphics with a grid of more than a thousand bright dots were created on the paved areas to manage the number of pedestrians and help to control their social distancing (see Fig. 8.2). This signage spread all over the site today is a beneficial tool for estimating the space visitors should keep one from another. As ’Pentagram’ - the design firm which developed the signage points out: ‘The pattern of circles organizes the space and makes the experience of social distancing as easy as possible for visitors’ (Pentagram, n.d.).

Fig. 8.2: High Line - environmental graphics created for social distancing by Pentagram [Image source: https://www.pentagram.com/work/high-line-reopening/story]

8.3 Two questions concerning LELs in future [post]Covid reality There are many questions that arose regarding the Covid pandemic, but in this part, I would like to address only two directly related to LELs as pedestrian mobility infrastructure for densely populated urban development. The first question is - how will the pandemic change mobility patterns in the long run? The utilization of LELs, as the analysis shows, is highly influenced by the intensity of use of public transport. The latter is very much affected by airborne disease, since people, reasonably, try to avoid being in enclosed and crowded environments. It is reasonable to assume, that public transport as a public good will probably remain necessary for a large portion of the population. However, as many people have developed new ways of working - combining the occasional commute with working remotely - the overall commute pattern in cities is likely to change from what we have known, even after this pandemic is over. LELs will be affected by the new pattern of public transit utilization. Even so, in contrast to congested public transport, these structures have the huge advantage of excellent ventilation and being more spacious in accommodation of social distancing. Therefore, despite the unpredictable changes in future modes and frequency of use of public transport, with some of the adjustments discussed earlier, LELs are likely to remain a highly relevant mobility providers. The possibility of LELs to be developed as public open spaces is valuable as well, especially as far as a pandemic is concerned. The second question is - whether, in the face of demand for social distancing caused by Covid19, the global agenda of urban densification will take a step back to a more spread out form of urban development? Since LELs in this research are explored as a solution for the growing population density in cities, if the answer to this question is ‘yes’ - LELs may not be relevant in the future. However, coming back to previous pandemics in urban history, I don’t think it will be true. As other diseases

have become a trigger for finding solutions for better sanitation and healthcare in cities, Covid19 can become an ‘incentive’ for finding new ways for the future sustainable accommodation of more citizens in smaller areas. This is not to mention the fact that many cities today are already extremely dense and are unlikely to become less so in the near future. Urban sprawl is a kind of pandemic in itself, being an excessive squandering of resources under the camouflage of more affordable or more luxurious housing. For example, in 2018 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)2 released a report named ‘Rethinking Urban Sprawl: Moving Towards Sustainable Cities’, analysing the current situation of urban sprawl and critically assessing its possible consequences. This report emphasizes that many current planning policies are missing an understanding of the actual cost and scale of resources taken by urban sprawl: “[...] tax systems that are misaligned with the social cost of low-density development, the underpricing of car use externalities and the massive investment in road infrastructure” (OECD, 2018, p.10). Another publication, ‘Sustainable urbanism: towards a framework for quality and optimal density?’ by Steffen Lehmann is focused on a discussion of what optimal density actually is for the sustainable cities of tomorrow and, as part of that, points to the wrong perception of advantages tied to low density suburban spread. “For a long time, the high infrastructure costs and inefficiencies caused by urban sprawl have somehow been accepted on the wrong assumption that sprawl would provide affordable housing.” (Lehmann, 2016, p.11). Hence, Lehmann strongly advocates for Urban Intensity, which he defines as a combination of Density, Diversity, Connectedness and Compactness. He also emphasizes the importance of compact, dense development being well balanced, that is to say resource efficient and maintaining high quality living.

2 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental economic organisation including 38 member countries, which was founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and prosperity. (OECD, 2019)

So what does the urban sprawl squandering actually consist of? First, there is an increase in per-user costs of infrastructure for these low density settlements. Secondly, the allocation of resources to develop these new suburbs often results in city centers being neglected, with the added insult of citizens suffering from a rise in taxes in order to pay for the new development (Rafferty, 2019). Thirdly, long commutes create a high dependence on the car, translating into higher air pollution from traffic emissions (OECD, 2018, p.11). And then, there are the apparently indirect consequences, such as an increase of potential risk for floods and reduction of water quality due to the damage to large natural areas. It is interesting though, to understand how big cities have become falsely associated with being higher Covid19 spreaders in the first place. Jacques Teller, the author of an exhaustive report ‘Urban density and Covid-19: towards an adaptive approach’ (Teller, 2021) points out several reasons that contributed to that. Here are some examples of them. First, historical precedents of cities as unhealthy places, where infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis once killed thousands of people. Secondly, large cities primarily became the first hot spots of Covid19 outbreaks because of their intensive global and internal connectivity rather than any inherent dangers. Thirdly, there are concerns about air pollution levels in dense urban environments, which could become a potential accelerator of Covid19 diffusion. The mistaken perception of the density of big cities being the main reason for the spread of Covid19 is opposed even stronger by Dr. Robert McDonald and Dr. Erica Spotswood who in their online article about cities and Covid19 claim that in fact, the speed of the disease transmission in low and high density settlements is almost the same:”[These data show that] high density counties in the United States (mostly urban areas) were the first to see cases, likely due to their connections with the outside world. Because of the earlier timing of outbreaks, the number of cases is greatest in these big metro areas. However, as the virus has spread into smaller cities and more rural communities, the spread of corona-virus appears to be just as rapid there” (McDonald and Spotswood, 2020).

Summarizing the opinions of many, there is no true evidence of the spread of Covid19 being directly related to urban density. There is also a confusion created around the perception and the meaning of urban density, since in a professional discourse it measures the number of people per city area unit, making it possible to differentiate between larger and smaller cities, but in general public discourse it is usually highly associated with overcrowding and this last does mean more intensive spread of disease. Moreover, the references give support to just the opposite - that high density urban development has positive aspects for overcoming the challenge of Covid spread, since big cities are equipped with higher quality and more efficient health systems and provide most of the essential functions within walkable areas. The above leads us back to a discussion about an optimal costeffective solution for urban development in relation to the current Covid pandemic. Governments will need to weigh up the benefits of compact urban development against the challenges it brings, but also against the economic and environmental costs of urban sprawl, especially, as it does not guarantee a magic cure for Covid and does not seem to be the main cause contributing to its spread. The way to go though seems to be what Lehman defined as Urban Intensity - conditions where population density is well balanced with a fair distribution of functions, which are efficiently linked by public transport with supporting green infrastructure and walking systems. All of these aspects point to the high relevance of LELs to the future of urban planning.

9. General conclusions and insights 9.1 The role of population density for the integration of successful public good/successful business in LELs 9.2 The case for a business case

9.3 Possible uses of the Evaluation Model

This research stands on three interrelated pillars of current urban design reality: firstly, urban densification, as a result of rapid population growth; secondly, the development of pedestrian mobility infrastructure, as a reaction to the congestion and environmental issues caused by the first, and, thirdly, the involvement of the private sector in funding urban infrastructure projects, in view of the difficulties faced by the public sector in finding adequate resources to adapt to new and rapidly evolving forms of urban growth. This research identifies Linear Elevated Landscapes (LELs) as a meeting point of the above three issues (see Fig. 9A and Fig. 9B). The name: “Linear Elevated Landscapes in urban development. Revealing exciting opportunities of pedestrian mobility infrastructure” intends to emphasize the importance of the integrated, market-oriented and community-oriented approach, needed for sustainable urban growth. To consider a potential investment, a private investor expects a sound business case to show the feasibility and the potential benefits of the case and predict any possible risks. This last, turned out to be the main

9.1 The role of population density for the integration of successful public good/ successful business in LELs “Strong and economically sustainable cities succeed because they effectively reduce the costs of co-operative acts of all kinds, but especially of market-based transactions” (Webster and Lawrence

[1] Densification of cities as a result of rapid population growth

Linear Elevated Landscapes (LELs)

[2] New opportunities for pedestrian circulation

[3] New opportunities for Investment

[2] Need for Pedestrian Mobility Infrastructure

[Public interest]

[Private interest]

[Public funding]

Fig. 9A: The three pillars of a potential LEL: potential benefits

question of this research: How can we recognize the potential for highly successful LEL projects and eliminate the promotion of those which are destined to fail? The investigation based on three main objectives was set as a research strategy and a backbone for this research: [1] to define the essential elements of successfully functioning LELs, [2] to explore the main causes for their failure, and [3] to create a simple tool to evaluate the potential success of a given LEL project. The analysis process described in the previous parts, led to several general insights presented below.

[3] Private sector involvement in funding of urban infrastructure [Private funding]

Fig. 9B: The three pillars of a potential LEL: potential costs covering

condition - the private sector benefits should be at least as high as the public benefits.

Wai-Chung Lai, 2003, p. 29)

Cities have always been a result of multiple co-operative acts between multiple individuals densely bonded together by complex forms of exchange of shared benefits. Denser cities mean more opportunities for economic growth, but also a need for better accessibility and mobility in order to maintain the quality of life for citizens. One of the most interesting insights arising from investigation of LELs is that they can function to dilute the congestion and significantly increase pedestrian mobility, enabling the city to adapt to its constantly growing population. Another interesting insight is that their development costs can almost completely be covered by the private sector, but under one crucial

LEL Benefits/ Costs

When people and Actual Economic Facilities (see Part 5.4 - Visual evidence of economic activity) operate in high proximity, shared benefits are inevitably dense and ubiquitous. However, at the same time, there are downsides, such as public open spaces shortfall and congestion. It is only in reaction to these specific conditions that the construction of an LEL would be the reasonable solution, otherwise its existence would not be justified - Fig. 9C summarises this idea. As the analysis reveals, there must be a minimum population density, which also meets the optimal rate of economic benefit (point P0 in

[P 0] Minimal PD for LEL development [P 1] PD for LEL with maximum welfare to the existing citizens

LEL success zone LEL failure zone

[P 2] Optimal PD for LEL development [P-3] Growth of PD justified by the expansion of LEL network to keep welfare balance for citizens

+ LEL

Average benefits for public and businesses Average cost

+ LEL Average benefits - possible adaptation with additional LEL Average cost - possible adaptation with additional LEL

Population Density (PD)

(constantly adapting)

Cs 1 Cincinnati

Case study 3 Paris Case study 2 + Hong Kong Case study 4 NYC

Fig. 9C: LELs efficiency in relation to population density - general tendency graph created by the author

Fig.9C), so that LELs do not compete with the already existing economic activity, but promote its growth1. Case Study no. 1 - Cincinnati is an example of a city which created its LEL network when it was below the P0 point (in the LEL failure zone), thus eventually leading to the destruction of the network - the extremely high-cost ultimate failure. The linear parks of Paris and New York (Case Studies no. 3 and no. 4) are examples of cities which created their LELs somewhere around point P1. These projects, operating in highly dense urban environments, aimed to maximize the welfare of the citizens, rather than being a mere tool for pedestrian mobility. Hong Kong (Case Study no. 2), on the other hand, is an example of a city that is constantly maneuvering between points P2 and P3, using its LEL network as an on-hand response to its constantly growing population within fixed geographical constraints.

9.2 The case for a business case ‘Much of the planned order attempted in cities and systems of cities has faltered, failed or been revised by the market’ (Cooper and

Broadleaf Capital International, 2005, p.127)

One of the results of this research has clearly pointed to the absolute necessity of understanding the effect of market forces on any urban planning, and specifically in relation to LELs. This research is intended to expand the view of professional urban planners from thinking in terms of planned order and physical design only, and open up to the reality of spontaneous market phenomena. Returning to the graph in Fig. 9C, showing that public goods and private benefits must be adequately supplied to create success, it is crucial for planners to understand these interplays. Hong Kong for example, with its extremely high density and geographical conditions limiting its expansion, is an excellent example of letting the spontaneous market operate pedestrian mobility as a commodity for exchange. This facilitates public good by providing benefits for private investors. 1 The optimal minimal relative ratio between population and number of AEFs as was identified by this research appears in Fig.6

Cities are incredibly complex systems, and there is no surprise that attempts to manage them by detailed bureaucratic prescription, which fails to consider the needs of private investors, frequently do not succeed (such as happened in Cincinnati). In the past, LELs were primarily viewed as a public good and therefore were not accurately ‘priced’ and valued. Currently, pedestrian mobility and accessibility are widely recognized as one of the pillars on which the sustainable urban development initiatives stand and therefore, demands a creative publicprivate perspective. Governments are part of an economic ecosystem providing policy interventions aimed at balancing public and entrepreneurial interests. Therefore, by seeking public good, they should be aware of the fact that if the infrastructure does not create a beneficial market-based cooperation with AEFs complementing the city economy, the network is eventually highly likely to fail. If a prescriptive approach does succeed, it is most likely that it happened because it deliberately created conditions enabling the surrounding market to flourish, as has been done by the Master Plan for the 12th arrondissement in Paris and the SWCD Master Plan in for West Chelsea in New York (see Part 5.2 - Planning strategy, Case Studies 3 and 4). It is widely recognized that public authorities generally have difficulty in finding adequate resources to fund large-scale projects of a public good. On the other hand, there is a growing awareness of the private sector ability to produce magnificent public projects. What arises from the above is that collaboration for mutual benefit between the public and the private sectors would appear to be the answer for building an expensive but vital public good such as the LEL. So, how can the private sector be encouraged to invest in the public good? First of all, there must be a clear financial benefit to the investor, and the evidence that the project is a safe bet - in other words, highly unlikely to fail. In the normal course of business, any new initiative that needs investment is required to present a business plan, which sets out not only potential profits, but also an assessment of all foreseeable

risks. Producing a business case for a costly, multi-faceted, long-term project, is not a process that many planning officials or architects have much experience with. This research point at a strong need for planning professionals to have skills of building business cases and identifying risks.

9.3 Possible uses of the Evaluation Model ‘The process for identifying opportunities are similar to those used for identifying risks’ (Cooper and Broadleaf Capital International,

2005, p.127)

A truly creative professional approach is that which is constantly seeking for new ways of thinking and questioning already established disciplinary perspectives. The use of the idea of Pattern Recognition as an inspiration for a proposed Evaluation Model for a potential LEL plays a fundamental role in the investigation process of this research. Certainly, there are attributes missing in this model, as it was based on a very small sample. However, it does provide a very useful tool that can be applied for project risk management, as well as identifying exciting opportunities. First, it provides a basic and crucial checklist to be considered before proceeding with planning, when an LEL project is proposed. As was discussed earlier, the private sector plays an essential role in LEL success. Either the private sector must flourish as well as the public sector, or eventually both parts will fail. Here the importance of proper evaluation arises. For example, according to the Evaluation Model presented in this research, the proposal for the Garden Bridge project (see Part 3) would have failed at the outset, thus saving £53m, £43m of which was public money. The Evaluation Model proposed here provides a very quick method for recognizing whether the crucial attributes for determining the likely success of any potential LEL are actually in place. It can be used as the first step in deciding whether the project is worth pursuing at all, whether

any required attribute that is missing can reasonably be provided within the given time-frame, and then, whether it is worth approaching a potential investor with the suggestion. Once a strong business case has been accepted by a professional private investor, there is a relatively high likelihood that the project will go ahead and be successful. Secondly, the Evaluation Model can also be used to identify an area which already has the background qualities for a potentially successful LEL project by using its first part - Context. Once the area is identified as suitable, the rest of the model statements can be used by planners as factors to be included and provided for by their plan. Planners must also take into consideration the importance of flexibility which allows for the natural interrelationship between the AEFs and pedestrian mobility. Here it is worth mentioning that the planners need to be sensitive to the opportunities available in the already existing infrastructure. Examples of this are Viaduc des Arts and High Line both of which prove the success of this approach creating tremendous economic and social upgrades in their neighbourhoods. Thirdly, the Evaluation Model can also be used to create a strategy for ‘fixing’ a failed LEL, rather than knocking it down. In the case of Cincinnati, for example, it seems that the city did have another way of solving the problem with its sky-walk rather than meeting the exorbitant cost of dismantling it. Existing infrastructure manifests a tremendous investment of resources already made. That - make it worth another chance of creative thought concerning its possible reuse such as Viaduc des Arts and High Line. By using an Evaluation Model for regeneration of a failing LEL and its urban environment, it is possible to recognise how the conditions for its upgrade can be created, by tracking the missing qualities in the evaluation that would enable the LEL to get at least a minimum success score. In case of Cincinnati sky-walk that would mean an increase in population, a change in narrow policies for construction making them more business friendly and cooperating to mutual benefit with private investors etc. Finally, it must be said that the Evaluation Model has the potential to

be developed as a much more sophisticated and precise tool by using current Smart City development, and data mining software. This has been widely developed and used across many scientific and professional fields, as it has been done by Lichtman and Radinsky. Tracking ongoing trends and new phenomena of the functioning of cities, and comparing their past performance, is highly likely to reveal new patterns and lead to new insights and provide more opportunities for risk management.

9.4 Developing new ways of thinking The freshness of the approach of this work is manifested by three elements: First, the research identifies LELs as a type of urban structure that reflects the interrelated aspects of the three pillars: urban densification, mobility infrastructure and private sector investment in urban development. Second, the research identifies Pattern Recognition - an analysis strategy used for data mining, as an analysis strategy possible for implementation in urban design. Third, the research suggests a simple, practical Evaluation Model that can be used to provide a quick preliminary estimation of the likelihood of success or failure of a potential LEL project and thus easing the decision whether it is worth pursuing for the public and private sectors.

10. Positioning this research in a personal professional discourse 10.1 Setting the basis for thinking

10.2 Developing new perspectives

10.1 Setting the basis for thinking As a practicing landscape architect, I would like to conclude with a few words about the position of this research in the context of my understanding of landscape and urban design. The three interrelated pillars that underpin this work are urban densification, mobility infrastructure and private sector investment in urban development. Each of these topics has been widely discussed and a plethora of publications provide us with diverse views on general and specific aspects of all the three. Examples of inspirational implementations of Pattern Recognition have already been presented in Part 4.1 Inspirational ideas, but here, I would like to mention three publications, each representing a widely accepted view of the three pillars, that created the background for my thinking about this work. Urban densification: ’Population. An introduction to concepts and Issues’ by John R.Weeks, (Weeks, 1992). This publication sharpened my perception of the meanings of population growth and its processes and made me more aware of the scale and the ways this phenomenon influences our lives. It also introduced me to the economic aspects of population fluctuations and the demographics, and application of this information in business and public administration. Mobility infrastructure: ’The landscape of contemporary infrastructure’ by Kelly Shannon and Marcel Smets (Shannon and Smets, 2016). This extensive and systematic review of recent infrastructure projects spread globally reveals multiple crucial factors involved in these large scale and complex developments. The selection of this comprehensive catalogue was relevant to my work for two main reasons. Firstly, it included only already implemented projects, which proved evidence of their social significance and economic feasibility; secondly, the selected projects are all contemporary interventions relevant to the current professional discourse

Private sector investment in urban development: ’Property rights, planning and markets: managing spontaneous cities’ by Christopher J. Webster Lawrence Wai-chung Lai Cheltenham: Edward Elgar (Webster and Lawrence Wai-Chung Lai, 2003). The strength of this analysis is in elucidating how cities evolve and function as markets and asking how this function could be better coordinated and operated. It debates the balancing of two approaches: the top-down, governmental, centralized policy-oriented, and the bottom-up, spontaneous, free exchange oriented, which are directly related to this research. The book presents the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches and suggests new possible forms of governance involving collaboration between private and public decision-makers.

10.2 Developing new perspectives 1. Cities follow markets While I was doing this research, I came to the realization that good urban design is actually the design of markets. Cities are manifestations of the level of exchange occurring in them. They are first and foremost market hubs, but they are challenged to balance economic activity with sustainability of environment and social life. Otherwise cities decline or turn into chaos. The main reason for the existence of urban communities, going back thousands of years, apart from security, was to facilitate the efficient exchange of goods and services. In essence, any successful city is actually a large market with a fine balance between regulation and free entrepreneurial activity. The higher the level of exchange - the denser and larger the cities. The denser and larger the cities - the greater the need for efficient circulation to enhance the exchange flow. That takes its form in dense building and high demand for mobility infrastructure of all kinds.

I believe that the design of cities must first and foremost take into account the role of economics underlying the fabric of the city. This means urban designers also need to be trained in urban economics in order to encourage the economic feasibility of the urban context they work in. The failure of a project often reflects a lack of understanding of the economic character of the urban environment. If the future financing of major urban interventions is going to involve the investment of the private sector, it seems to me that the education of architects today must encourage an entrepreneurial mindset. This should include the skills of building a business case and a familiarity with the concept of risk management. It is not enough to identify exciting opportunities; this must be balanced by an analysis of potential risk. Only in this way can the private sector be persuaded to invest in public goods. This is where the Evaluation Model comes into its own, as a very useful tool to help designers develop new perspectives. The role of urban designers, hence, is to lead this process to the highest level of functional and aesthetic result in favour of all its collective users, where public and private bodies are represented and expressed in the structural form of the city.

2. Form follows function. The level of pedestrian flow reflects the level of urban economic activity Any urban infrastructure project is a large scale, long term investment and it must be able to sustain itself economically over the period of its lifetime. Pedestrian mobility is an indicator: when it is low - it is a sign of low density and/or market decline; when it is high - it is a sign of high density and/or the flourishing of the market. An LEL with no pedestrian flow is an investment with no return, a negative ROI. To build an LEL in a place where there is poor pedestrian flow in the first place, is like adding more luggage to the sinking boat. Doing the same thing in a place with an abundant pedestrian flow, however, is like adding oil to a mechanical watch. It is the urban designer’s responsibility to identify and foresee which case is which.

Urban mobility infrastructure is ‘Form Follows Function’ on a city level. It is not for nothing that so many large cities create grade separated mobility systems - underground or overground, in addition to their street level circulation. The reason is that this latter simply turns out not to be enough to accommodate the speed and volume of public flow. This applies also to the flow of exchange. Therefore, LELs for pedestrian circulation provide far more opportunities for the market to communicate with the city than any other form of mobility.

3. Urban design pattern follows Market pattern Since the economy changes at a much higher speed than the structure of the city is able to adapt, the physical pattern should simultaneously enhance flexibility, simplicity and sophistication to embrace the constantly changing modality of its contents. Thus, facilitating the city as a well balanced environment and sustainable market turns out to be the real core of good urban design. Finally, I would like to quote the following words by Kelly Shanon and Marcel Smets from their great publication ‘The Landscape of Contemporary Infrastructure’ mentioned earlier: “It may indeed be anticipated that the creation of successful 21st century infrastructure projects will rely on creative public-private partnership and the continued integration of civil engineering, urban design, landscape architecture, and architecture.” (Shannon and

Smets, 2016, p.10)

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