Building with Bamboo by Ganesh Shrestha

Building with Bamboo: An exploration of joinery between traditional and contemporary method. Submitted by: Ganesh Shrestha Faculty Advisor: Professor Elizabeth Golden Independent Study June 14th 2019

Shrestha 2 Abstract With the pace of current development in our built environment throughout the world, it is only natural that the materials involved are getting standardized in order to meet the codes and building regulations. However, with materials like bamboo, we still have not been able to standardize it for mass production. So, despite being a sustainable and effective building material, it is still highly inefficient as we still do not have a standard rule for building with bamboo and it demands crafts people with years of knowledge to build with bamboo properly. Although efforts have been made by several architects, engineers, and organizations especially in Latin America (Ecuador, Colombia and so on), and Asia (Philippines, Indonesia and so on) to understand and study the structural properties of bamboo it has not yet yielded results to allow for a bamboo mass production like concrete and steel. Regardless, it is still worthwhile to look at bamboo as a building material because it is one of the fastest growing plant that yields material for construction, hence, it is a very sustainable building material. Bamboo also has a great resistant against seismic movement. So, it is important to study how bamboo has evolved, from the usage of traditional joinery such as lashing and fish mouth joints, to contemporary joints that involves the usage of concrete, and steel. Introduction Living in the 21st century as an architect/builder, surrounded with all sorts of standard building techniques and promises of perfection, it is extremely difficult for any of us to resort to building techniques by traditional methods, which normally involves extreme labor and requires a very specific set of skills. We want to master everything and make it standard for everyone. As a result, most of the traditional methods are being replaced by the so called, â&#x20AC;&#x153;new building techniques.â&#x20AC;?

Shrestha 3 Same is the case in terms of bamboo construction. Even though we have been using bamboo since the dawn of our building history, as evidence includes a number or Neolithic houses fashioned from bamboo have been found near the middle valley of Yangtze River in China. 1 Furthermore, archaeological evidence found in Ecuador suggests that bamboo has been used in the surrounding region for thousands of years, 2 with the development of other materials such as steel, glass, and concrete, over time, many cultures have stopped using bamboo. Just as everything in today’s world, “international style is becoming the synonym for the triumphant advance in architecture and design of an aesthetics advanced by the Western World.” 3 While everyone is chasing after prestigious house after the “Western model,” the reputation of bamboo as a building material is sinking. 4 So, this paper is a study of techniques involved in bamboo construction with emphasis on their joinery used in traditional building method in contrast to the contemporary approach used by architects like Simón Vélez. It is essential to understand the modern approach in contrast to traditional ones because only after looking at both aspect can we truly understand the difference in their efficiency, and function. This in turn will help create a better understanding in why bamboo can be and should be used for construction. Ultimately, we can continue the bamboo building tradition with a modern twist. Bamboo Belonging to the family Gramineae and subfamily Bambusoideae, 5 bamboo is a giant woody grass. Depending on the species, the life-span of a bamboo is anywhere between 3-120 years and most bamboo flower once during their lifetime and they die after bearing fruit. 6 With the potential to grow up-to a meter each day, some species of bamboo attain their maximum height of up to 30m in the first growing season and can get mature and gain the overall strength within 3-

Shrestha 4 5 years, during which time its structural capacity is also maximized. When they are fully mature they can be harvested and once the culm is cut, it stimulates new growth. 7 If harvested before the culm is matured, it yield low strength material and, if not cut properly, it causes early plant death. 8 The culm is then treated with borax or boric acid, washed and dried to prevent future invasion from pests, fungi, and from cracking. Alternately, smoking, heating and immersion in water can be used to cure bamboo from such invasions. 9 If left untreated, it will only last up to 3 years. However with proper treatment and good design, which involves overhang that protects the poles from getting damp and concrete base to protect it from underneath, it can last for a long time for inhabitation. Properties of Bamboo Bamboo is a hollow grass with woody stem, or culm, which is divided by solid nodes at several intervals. 10 Because of that it has a high strength-to-weight ratio and a relatively light structural framework, ductile connections, and can transfer loads to other structural elements when experiencing lateral force.” 11 It has tensile strength higher than that of steel, however upon connecting they do not transfer force evenly 12. As a remedy for that, several poles can be connected so that, only one bears weight while, “others stabilize the support against sideway breakages.” 13 Slimmer bamboo culms are better under compression as opposed to bigger culms. And because of “accumulation of highly strong fibers in the outer parts of the (culm),” 14 it has a high elastic modulus that makes bamboo flexible, which is why it performs very well during earthquake. Moreover, because of the hollowness, it shrinks more than wood upon loosing water. It can potentially shrink 10-16% in cross section and 15-17% in wall thickness. 15 So, when undertaking bamboo construction one has to account for these things or else, the joints will come loose and

Shrestha 5 structure won’t be stable. Also, due to the presence of high content of silicate acid it has higher fire resistance tolerance than most wood. Advantages of Bamboo In addition to being light, strong and ductile, bamboo is an extremely fast growing grass and “within the same time oak can be harvested once, bamboo can be harvested 12 times.” 16 (Figure 1).

Figure 1:Growth graph (Coen Kampinga)

Another huge advantage of bamboo over other timber is the density of its growth. A study by Nick Hall concluded that 700 hectares land can produce enough Guadua Angustifolia (bamboo found in Costa Rica) for more than 10,000 houses. While the same number of houses built by hardwood timber would demand 6,000 hectares of forest land (Figure 2). 17 Because of difference in their biomass, “(bamboo) can sequester 17 times more carbon dioxide than normal tree (…) at the same time (it) produce 35% more oxygen than a typical pine." 18 Their rhizoids protect the land from soil erosion and their cluster shelter from wind erosion. In addition to ecological benefit, bamboo is also a great building material, especially for earthquake prone regions, “In Limon Cosa-Rica, only

Shrestha 6 the bamboo buildings of a national bamboo project survived a strong earthquake which, struck the city in 1992.” 19

Figure 2: Comparable growth area needed to build bamboo homes vs. timber homes. (Credit: Nick Hall, illustrated by author) (David Witte)

Also because of their growth rate, normally they are easily available and the locals can benefit from it, as low income family can construct a house for low a budget, hence the name, ‘poor man’s timber.’ Disadvantages of Bamboo While bamboo can be a great building material, if left untreated, it won’t last long. As its stem contains a lot of starch, it can easily become a feeding ground for termites and small insects. Also, with increasing moisture level, one has to keep the fungi at bay, or else it will start decomposing bamboo. Coming straight out of nature, bamboo is a true organic building material so, it is hard to predict its shape and size when designing. So, most joints have to be custom made, which makes the whole process inefficient and time consuming, also their structural efficiency is low as they are strong longitudinally but start buckling in transverse section, if supporting structure is not

Shrestha 7 provided. However, the biggest drawback with bamboo construction is the lack of code and building regulations, since it comes straight from nature and has a minimum human intervention in producing them, it makes it hard to predict its actual dimension against other materials such as concrete, steel and so forth. Hence, we aren’t able to standardize the material easily. And “without standardization the quality of product is unknown.” 20 Bamboo Construction Throughout the history, bamboo has been used in buildings, furniture, traps, fences, tools, bridges, windmill, rafts, water pipes, and so on. However, the most essential use we have of bamboo in today’s world is probably in building infrastructures such as bridges, houses, scaffoldings, pavilions and so on. Before undertaking any such commitments, one must address, “the cultural, technical, and economic obstacles” 21 in designing with bamboo because it has a deeply embedded tradition with different cultures around the world. And because of its poor performance time-wise, due to lack of knowledge in treating bamboo, it still has a negative public image and is stigmatized as a lower-class building material. So, being able to overcome such obstacle would be a great leap in bamboo industry. Traditional bamboo construction Generally speaking there are two major types of bamboo construction in traditional manner that is still in practice today. The first one is a type with raised platform, “(it) is the most ubiquitous typology found in Southeast Asia.” 22 ‘Bahay kubo’ from Philippine is a prominent

Figure 3: Tradinal ‘Bahay Kubo’ bamboo house in Philippines

Shrestha 8 example of such type of construction (Figure 3). It is built by using post and lintel system. The vertical posts are distributed evenly and bamboo lintel spans across the post forming the framework for the building. The roof are sloped to prevent the structure from rain. The tectonics of the wall is typically constructed by esterilla (split bamboo woven together) and sometimes the esterillas are hidden by the panels woven from a wide array of natural fibers. The whole construction is based on bamboo-bamboo joinery, mainly fish mouth, which is then lashed for more rigidity. It takes a master crafts people to make such joints so it might not be the best approach for construction in today’s world as a building technique. Traditionally, the whole community from a locale used to be involved in making such dwellings and once completed, they were often carried by manual labor to where it would finally rest. Because the bamboo dwelling wouldn’t last long due to damage sustained by rain, termites or other factors, it was essential for them to be able to move those dwellings. Once a new dwelling was finished, it would replace its predecessor and the older one would normally fall into ruins. Hence, it is obvious that they are small dwellings. The second

type

called

‘bahareque.’ (Figure 4). Geographically, this type of construction is practiced in Latin America especially in Colombia, Ecuador and Northern Peru and, like bahay kubo, it is also a traditional building method of people from that region.

Similar to bahay kubo,

Figure 4: Traditional ‘bahareque’ South-American bamboo house with mud render

dwellings built using this method are based on post and lintel system. However, unlike the previous

Shrestha 9 type, bahareque is normally built without a raised platform and instead of woven fiber panels their walls are covered with esterillas connected to wall framework, which is then rendered with earth or mud. This technique is better known for its seismic resistance and examples of two and three story bahraque dwellings, originally dating from 1920, can still be found in Manizales. 24 Because of the earth/mud render on the external wall, the dwelling is normally safe for outside elements, which is the reason why they last longer than bahay kubo. However, in order to its long life one has to keep the quality of outside wall in check. Modern bamboo construction In the recent times, many architects, developers, engineers and even patrons have realized the benefits of using bamboo. Although slow, the demand of bamboo for construction is at rise. So, pioneers like SimoĚ n VeĚ lez (Colombia, Figure 5), Shoei Yoh (Japan), Rocco Yim (Hong Kong), Vo Trong (Vietnam), Oscar Hidalgo (Colombia), Jules Janssen (Costa Rica), Bijoy Jain (India),

Figure 5: The Guadua Pavilion by Simon Velez. Manizales, Caldas, Colombia (P.C. Antonio Castaneda)

Shrestha 10 Bobby Manoso (Philippines) and many others and organizations like Abari (Nepal), Base (Philippines), Hogar de Cristo (Ecuador) have been bringing initiatives to build with bamboo by embracing the traditional methods and adopting to new changing environment. As such, because of its abundance in nature, growth and density, bamboo has also been used in making relief housing for hundreds of thousands of people who went through various tragedies throughout the world. Abari Nepal built 30 homes and 8 schools under 2 years following the devastating earthquake that terrified the whole nation in April 2015, 25 Base has built over 650 homes and has agreed to build over 10,000 more since 2015. 26 With initiatives like this bamboo has been used both in somewhat traditional manner that involves joineries and various other details in construction, as well as in modern manner that involves the use of prefabricated bamboo poles for construction. Because of the prefabricated joinery technology, designers have been able to break through the traditional style and build something monumental such as Zeri Pavilion by Simón Vélez , Wind and water bar by Vo Trong and so forth that is inspiring designers from newer generations like myself to learn more regarding the material. Moreover, with development of new joints bamboo won’t be only limited to people with relevant skills but is open to everyone. So, it will also bring about the social change and hopefully help remove the stigma attached to having a bamboo house and it will upgrade the status from, “poor man’s timber,” to something that everyone will crave. Issues of Bamboo construction Among many concerns of bamboo construction, its joinery is probably the most troublesome aspect. Being a completely organic material, it is practically impossible to predict its exact dimensions before-hand. Meaning each and every poles we get are somewhat different in dimension. So, it goes without saying that each and every joints have to be custom made by the

Shrestha 11 crafts people and that goes against the notion of new building techniques, i.e. it is next to impossible to standardize the traditional bamboo joinery. However, one way of making it more as a standard procedure is to use it just as any another material in construction without implementation of ‘traditional’ bamboo joints but fabricate it so that it is used as a support for other building constituents. However, doing that takes away all the elegance and aesthetics of bamboo. If so, then why even bother using it? One might argue that we need to be true to the material and use it as it comes. However, instead of just following the regular module can we for once break the rule and make something beautiful? As Vélez writes, “Building with bamboo requires experience and skill, and to date a large amount of time; this has obstructed its use in countries with high labor costs. I can imagine that in the near future, though, new bamboo constructions of a special quality will also appear in these countries. Whether or not superb architecture can be made from bamboo depends entirely on the brains behind the bamboo building process.” 27 Joints used in bamboo construction Joints are one of the unique features in bamboo construction that differs from any other materials. Different bamboo joints have different usage for instance, scaffolding (that can be made up to 70 stories in places like Hong Kong and Shanghai) use lashing/friction tight rope connections almost exclusively, while roofs for large public space, bridges, and so on demands a multitude of joints such as lashing, fish mouth, plugin bolt, double jamb and so on, working together in order for the whole system to function. All the mentioned joints are traditional bamboo joinery. Traditional bamboo joints their usage and limitations

Shrestha 12 With the use of bamboo for construction, there was a need to develop joineries for it to work. Such joints work and fulfill their function most of the time, however, they are not very efficient. Because of the fact that bamboo’s shape and size differs from one culm to another, each joints have to be custom made and doing that is not feasible in today’s time. So, here is a list of few traditional joints, used dominantly in bamboo construction, their usage and limitations. •

Lashing/Friction tight rope joint Lashing/friction tight rope joint is used in almost any kind of bamboo construction. This is also the most primitive form of bamboo joint, “the first bamboo structures were simple gable-shed or conicalshaped roofs made from unworked bamboo, fastened together using lashed joints of rattan or other pliable plant fibers and covered with thatch.” 28 Yet, is effective enough that we still use it today. Using lash also represents Figure 6: Lashing connection using bamboo strips

a form of temporary construction in some cases such as scaffoldings. In the nomadic cultures from SW China, Burma, and North Thailand, refuge were constructed by lash joints so that, if necessary they could be loosened or tightened. 29 Traditionally ropes/lashes were made out of bamboo skin, rind, palm fibers such as raffia, coconut and so on (Figure 6). However, today mostly synthetic materials such as zip strips, plastic and nylon ropes are used (Figure 7), which in a way have a

Shrestha 13 different aesthetics. Also

depending on the

fiber, it might harm the bamboo that it is tied onto, because due to different composition they age at different rates. Although it is an effective and useful joinery type, we still have to consider a few things before using lashing for construction. As bamboo shrinks drastically (between 1017% cross-section and wall thickness), green bamboo should not be used for construction for obvious reasons. In addition to lashing, it is always recommended to use nails for better

Figure 7: Lashing connection using zip ties

results. A node should be present in either side of the culm before lashing, otherwise it might easily crush the culm and potentially damage the whole or part of the structure. Also when used for scaffoldings, lashing brings a great advantage i.e., the joints can be tensioned to the tight degree without difficulty and also quickly release again. 31 â&#x20AC;˘

Fish mouth Joint

Shrestha 14 Apart from lash joint, fish mouth joint is another traditional bamboo joinery that is dominantly used in construction (Figure 9). As the name suggests, the joint comprise of a semicircular outline, which resembles the fish mouth, with the end of the receiving member as template (Figure 8). A simple tool like chisel or machete is used to carve away the material to obtain the shape. It takes years of practice to carve a perfect fish mouth joint because there is

Figure 8: Fish mouth joint

no standard template to cut the joint for all the culms of bamboo vary in size. So, the crafts people gauges the joint with his/her eye that will fit the opposing member. Alternately, rotating drill press can be used in order to chip away the material for the joint, however it takes a lot of training to gauge how much to chip away to fit the template member. After the joint is cut,

Figure 9: Usage of fish mouth joint

bamboo nails are hammered through both members at 45â&#x20AC;&#x201D;degrees and finally the connection is lashed.

Shrestha 15 Although, it is sturdy this kind of joint is extremely inefficient and unpractical in today’s time. So, less and less usage of fish mouth joint is observed in building trend. •

Plugin/bolt joint This is equivalent to mortise and tenon joint used in wood construction meaning, a hole is punctured through a culm that acts as mortise while the penetrating culm is carved to match the hold in the mortise and acts as a tenon (Figure 10). However, because bamboo has a radial profile and each poles are different, just as in fish mouth joint, it is next to impossible to make a standard jig for making such joints, so each joints have to be hand crafted. The plugged in members are accommodated by bolts and the whole thing is usually lashed in order to keep them from moving. Thus, even though it is one of the Figure 10: Plugin/bolt connection

strongest

joint,

isn’t

practically

efficient because it also takes a master crafts people or someone with years of practice to make it perfectly in timely manner for an efficient construction. This joint doesn’t utilize the whole diameter to transmit force evenly which can be fixed by filling the inner cavity

Shrestha 16 with mortar or concrete that accommodates for even transmission of the force. Also, extra care has to be given when making holes for the nails, so that they are not too close to the end of the canes. The nails might split the bamboo or the plug might break so as a remedy to that pre-drilling can be done to prevent those things from happening. 32 It has a great aesthetics and is tied to cultures from Philippines, Indonesia and so on. However, due to lack of crafts people, its use in present time is declining and is being replaced by modern joineries. Contemporary bamboo joinery and their usage Despite of aesthetics and significance in their tradition, it would not be very ideal to continue with the same building methods in today’s time. Because as discussed above, there are a lot of shortcomings with what has been done in the past, mainly in terms of joineries. We have not been able to utilize bamboo as a building material to its fullest. Moreover, due to the lack of scientific study of traditional joinery, it is very difficult to establish codes and also, it is not feasible to experiment with each and every house before construction. So, with understanding and research in modern joineries and construction method, such shortcomings can be easily solve and we can convert bamboo construction into standard practice like any other materials. So, even though there is not enough information, with the studies done on understanding its structural potential by architects/scholars like Simón Vélez and, Oscar Hidalgo López we are closer to understanding how to make it better for today’s building environment. Thus, by being open to new ideas and adopting to new working mechanism we should be able to introduce new building techniques for bamboo and sustain it for future building environment.

Shrestha 17 Joinery by using mortar and steel “Bamboo

can

withstand

tensile

pressure if connected by tensile joints.” 33 So, by taking inspiration form tradition usage Vélez developed a joint mechanism that could be used for high-tech building thereby pushing the horizon of bamboo construction. Vélez filled the end of the section of bamboo cane to be bounded with mortar or concrete then he inserted metal elements that ran parallel to the crane. By doing that he was able to connect the two cranes by metal link

Figure 11: Joinery utilizing mortar and steel developed by Velez

(Figure 11). This is more or less similar to wood core connection, the only difference being wood is replaced by concrete. By using concrete it saves time and effort as it molds into any form without trouble, however with wood core filler, one has to get the dimension the inner core of the crane right and that again in hard to standardize as each and every culm of bamboo is different in diameter. This joint helps to avoid the splinter in hollow crane, which normally occurs when high proportion force in introduced, by transferring such force to dividing walls of the canes. Moreover, it can be taken apart and adjusted easily if needed. 34

Shrestha 18 This joint performs well in any given condition as VeĚ lez, himself has used it in several projects of his. Standardization of this joint is possible and anyone with normal building experience should be able to learn the procedure in no-time (Figure 12).

Figure 12: Making of concrete filled joint

Joinery by using metal tube Architects including Shoei Yoh and Renzo Piano have experimented and used it in their projects in the past. Both have similar working mechanisms but have quite different aesthetics. Both joinery includes a metal tube that functions as an anchor and provides housing for multiple canes to be connected to each other and distribute force evenly.

Figure 13: Connection with steel tubes and bolts

Yoh, inserted a steel tube into the end of the bamboo cane and connected them with bolts (Figure 13). On the other hand in Pianoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s model, he also used the steel tube, however, instead of fastening them with bolts, he used wires through the holes to tighten the joint (Figure 14). In both cases the steel tube is capable to handling a big sum of load. However,

Shrestha 19 in Yoh’s model, since he used bolts to connect the canes with steel instead of wire, it can take withstand more force than Piano’s model. On the other hand, because of the bolts, Yoh’s model looks oversized while Piano’s model seems finer. Similar possibility of using a metal anchor

includes

using

Induo-anchor

Figure 14: Connection with steel tubes and wires

technique (Figure 15). “The Induo-anchor consists of a cast iron core with connection teeth on the side.” Depending on the size of the bamboo used, it can transfer nearly 100% if the load along the cross section. 35 Joinery by using a metal cap At the University of San Martine de Porres (USMP), Peru, Professor Yann

Figure 15: Connection with Induo-Knot anchor

Barnett and Faouzi Jbrane designed a “patent connector” that make the bamboo connection much better and efficient (Figure 16). This joint is designed to form the union between different members under tension, without breaking or buckling.

Shrestha 20

Figure 16: Bamboo culm end connector with expansion system. As forces pull on the culm, teeth dig into the inside wall of the bamboo. Developed at the University of San Martin de Porres, Peru. (Credit: Faouzi Jbrane) (David Witte)

The device contains rough teeth-like component that grabs the inside of the culm under tension while the external metal ring prevents the culm from splitting. 36 The Laboratory of Training and Development of Prototypes (LOTDP) in Rio de Janeiro devised a similar type of joint using a metal cap that can entail a heavy load. For this to work, the cap on the end absorbs all the pressure and passes it through the cane. 37 All the above mentioned joints are hybridized and are designed to work for any kind of bamboo regardless of their shape and size. More approaches like this would set an industry standard and any number of people with some basic training will be able to use bamboo for construction. Bringing these standard joints into the construction industry will also benefit in the making of high end projects as one wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be confined to only building small houses like bahay kubo and bahraque, as a result it will broaden the horizon for building with bamboo. Conclusion â&#x20AC;&#x153;Building with Bamboo requires experience and skill, and to date a large amount of time; this has obstructed its use in countries with high labor costs. I can imagine that in the near future, though, new bamboo constructions of a special quality will also appear in these countries. Whether

Shrestha 21 or not superb architecture can be made from bamboo depends entirely on the brains behind the bamboo building process.â&#x20AC;? (SimoĚ n VeĚ lez) With traditional method slowly being adopted and replaced by the new ones, and with the development of hybrid prefabricated joints, the efficiency and practicality of the bamboo construction realm is bound to increase. And if so, the day is not too far when bamboo will be available in the market just as any other building material. Will it have similar value then? Are we corrupting or tradition by doing such?

Shrestha 22 Notes 1

Golden, Elizabeth. Building from Tradition: Local Materials and Methods in Contemporary Architecture. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2018. Print. 46. 2

López, Oscar Hidalgo. Bamboo: The Gift of the Gods. Print. 366.

Vegesack, Alexander Von., Kries, Mateo, Vitra Design Museum, ZERI Foundation, and C.I.R.E.C.A. Grow Your Own House: Simón Vélez Und Die Bambusarchitektur = Simón Vélez and Bamboo Architecture. Weil Am Rhein, Germany]: [Chatelaine-Genève, Switzerland]: [Lessac, France]: Vitra Design Museum [in Cooperation with]; [Foundation] ZERI [and]; C.I.R.E.C.A., 2000. Print. 189. 4

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 189.

Shenxue, Jiang. Training Manual of Bamboo Charcoal for Producers and Consumers. Nanjing Forestry University. 2004. Print. 6

Utomo, Bangkit. “Bamboo as a Building Material.” Academia.edu, www.academia.edu/22191674/Bamboo_as_a_building_material. 5. 7

Golden. Building from Tradition. 46-47.

Witte, David. “Structural Bamboo Building Codes: Catalysts for Industry, Research, and Construction Technology.” Technology|Architecture Design , vol. 3, no. 1, 26 Mar. 2019, pp. 50–64. Urbanizing, www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24751448.2019.1571824. 58. 9

Utomo. Bamboo as a Building Material. 7.

Golden. Building from Tradition. 46.

N. Van Drunen, ed., Post-earthquake Report on Bamboo Structures and Recommendations for Reconstruction with Bamboo on the Ecuadorian Coast (Quito: International Bamboo and Rattan Organization [INBAR], 2015), 9, https:// resource.inbar.int/upload/file/1500255628.pdf. 11. 12

Raj, Dhenesh, and Bindu Agarwal. “Bamboo as a Building Material.” Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology, vol. 1, no. 3, Aug. 2014, pp. 56–61., www.krishisanskriti.org/jceet.html. 57. 13

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 62.

Raj. Bamboo as a Building Material. 57.

Shrestha 23

Kampinga, Coen. “Bamboo, the Building Material of the Future! An Experimental Research on Glueless Lamination of Bamboo.” 12 June 2015, pp. 1–45., www.academia.edu/35961897/Bamboo_the_building_material_of_the_future. 11. 17

Hall, Nick. “BASIN - News No 11. March 1996: BASIN and the City Summit.” BASIN - News No 11. March 1996: BASIN and the City Summit: Transition from Project Advised Activity to Independent Entrepreneurship, Humaity Development Library 2.0, 11 Mar. 1996, www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l-11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0utfZz-800&cl=CL2.23.1&d=HASH013b8b8f564d8610532a7feb.13>=2. 18

Krawczuk, Katarzyna. “Bamboo as Sustainable Material for Future Building Industry.” Bamboo as Sustainable Material for Future Building Industry, Oct. 2013, pp. 1–48., www.academia.edu/32917405/Bamboo_as_sustainable_material_for_future_building_industry. 31. 19

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 203.

Witte. Structural Bamboo Building Codes: Catalysts for Industry, Research, and Construction Technology. 58. 21

Witte. Structural Bamboo Building Codes: Catalysts for Industry, Research, and Construction Technology. 53. 22

Golden. Building from Tradition. 48.

López. Bamboo: The Gift of the Gods. 370.

“Our Story.” ABARI, abari.earth/our-story/.

Witte. Structural Bamboo Building Codes: Catalysts for Industry, Research, and Construction Technology. 61. 26

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 213.

Golden. Building from Tradition. 48.

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 109.

“How to Build a Bamboo Trellis Tower.” Bonnie Plants, bonnieplants.com/gardening/buildbamboo-trellis-tower/. 30

Guidelines on the Design and Construction of Bamboo Scaffolds. Buildings Department The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, www.bd.gov.hk/doc/en/resources/codes-and-references/code-and-design-manuals/GDCBS.pdf.

Shrestha 24

Caicedo, M Bucheli. “ Construction with Bamboo - Bamboo Connections.” Bamboo Connections, pp. 1–23. Academia.edu, www.academia.edu/28104946/Construction_with_Bamboo_-Bamboo_Connections. 22-23. 32

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 62.

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 110.

Caicedo. Construction with Bamboo - Bamboo Connections. 13-14, 17-18.

Witte. Structural Bamboo Building Codes: Catalysts for Industry, Research, and Construction Technology. 59. 36

Vegesack, Kries. Grow Your Own House. 109.