Geopolitics in the Sahel by Enma Viera

Geopolitics in the Sahel

European University of Madrid June 19, 2015

Universidad Eruopea de Madrid http://universidadeuropea.es Class on Geopolitics PROFESSOR JAVIER MORALES

AUTHORS Guillermo Aguirre, Maria Aranceta, Miguel Asin, Javier Cava, Aline Codognotto, Alberto Diaz, Sandra Elorriaga, Andr茅s Escorial, Romane Goy, Thalita Januario, Walid Laouar, Elena Martin, Patricia Martinez, Marta de la Mata, Thais Monaco, John Odigure, Sara Peir贸, Adrien Peres, Simone Pianeselli, Irene Rodriguez, Marta Saguar, Sergio Serrano, Sung Son and Enma Viera. EDITION AND PUBLICATION June 19, 2015

Contents TRIBAL CONFLICTS

WEAPONS, DRUG TRAFFICKING AND ORGANIZED CRIME

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

GLOBAL WARMING AND DESERTIFICATION

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE

FOREIGN INTERVENTION

THE EU AND THE SAHEL

THE ENERGY AND RESOURCES

THE FRENCH MILITARY INTERVENTION IN MALI

CONFLICT OVER OIL IN SUDAN AND SOUTH SUDAN

WATER SCARCITY IN THE SAHEL, A REASON FOR CONFLICTS

THE IMPACT OF GUM ARABIC IN SUDAN

TERRORISM

101

1 Â

State and non-state actors

Slavery By: Miguel AsĂn. French within the Sahel area Slavery and its different faces

where the prominent tribes were

in the Sahel

During the pre-colonial period

societies than before.

slavery existed within the African communities

Far

within

their

from

being

tribes.

eradicated, nowadays slavery is

Transatlantic slave trade towards

one of those realities presented

the

which

new

and

powerful

world

was

old

occurs

enterprise by the 19 century. But

dimensions

slavery and ownership systems

societies and countries of the

among different local tribes and

Sahel.

societies were largely common and ancient elements.

different

each

the

Most of the societies of the

Sahel

involve

large

The arrival of the French

stratification problems that divide

to the Northern central part of

and separate its groups and

Africa leaded to the imminent

members into different ranks,

modification of societies and their

involving rights and obligations

values. The efforts applied by the

according to their belonging.

French colonial governors during

Furthermore the castes

1905, when the release of the

system produces an eternal cycle

decree that prohibited slavery

was

assures the high class or nobility

enforced,

where

not

hereditary

slavery,

sufficient to eradicate it, but to

their

increase

inheritance of slavery is one of

its

presence

and

continuous

The

strength in all the French African

the

colonies.

The

problem

generation to generation where

appeared

during

power

family members can hardly avoid

transition and transaction that

their circumstances and achieve

was realized during the departure

personal

of the colonizers, mainly the

freedom from its masters.

real the

complexities

wealth.

which

transmitted

development

and

2 Slavery in the Sahel Within schools

among

countries

temporary

the

Koranic

and evolution, but old traditions

some

African

and institution as slavery are

the

form

Sahel of

deeply rooted into local social

slavery

structures with solid and stable

emerged fostered by the religious

bases.

teachers. This practice involves

Chattel Slavery

corrupted

religious

teachers

order

commence

the

whom train their pupils in the arts

presentation of the different forms

of begging and funds collection.

of slavery and the context for this

Other types of slavery

occurrence we shall mention the

are as well fostered by racial and

situation of Mauritania. Being of

ethnical divisions but the aim of

the countries holding the highest

these practices satisfies different

rates for enslaved population its

requirements related to sexual

characteristic found its basis on

demands of purchasers.

ethnical and social differences.

Advocating for change is often

blocked

local

Different factors retain the causes of such a practice in this age.

governments, neglected in the

However,

the

most

important

international scenario or blurred

source of slavery has a private

and hidden by conflicts.

character.

For that reason, the contribution

The

of local NGO´s and academia,

Mauritanian

advocacy groups and testimonies

bases

among other sources represent

marginalization

the major and most updated

domination.

sources to clarify slavery issues

finds its birth into the ethnical and

in the Sahel region.

economic differences among its

Finally,

the

voices

stratification society

for

provided

differentiation, and

This

power

stratification

main ethnic groups. Within its

those human beings under this

most important ethnical groups

suffering often remain silent and

unheard. Certain events as an

Moorish, the Black Moorish, the

increase in the legal norms, in

Black Africans and Haratine.

certain countries, regulating this

White Moorish, also kown as

ancient custom suggest changes

Beidanes,

can

identify

the

White

political

State and non-state actors

dominant class in Mauritania.

This

Their origins are related to the

encouraged and conducted by

expansion and establishment of

the

the caliphates in the Maghreb

Marabouts,

region

Islam community. Marabouts are

during

early

centuries.

practice

religious

slavery

figures,

belonging

the

superiority due to a closer relation

disciplining their pupils, or also

with

coloured

called Talibe, in the religious

supposed features. Furthermore,

practice over the Qur’an. These

over the skin colour patterns

figures

implies a superiority conception

hierarchical religious structures,

over the black Africans, which

and

due to their darker skin tones

communities,

were considered inferior on their

different ambits of society. But

social scale. Considering these

certain practices attached to the

patterns applied by the White

Marabouts follow a very different

Moorish over the skin tones,

path

which are present still today, the

though in their daily life.

skin

enslavement of large groups of

the

Their light skin implies ethnic Allah

charge

are

piece

their

educating

role

and

part

applies

for

schools

the

moral

and

principles

Within different areas of

black Africans is justified by their

the

social and cultural conceptions.

where the Islam is present, the

Within

and

the

Maghreb

Black

figures of Marabouts —present in

community in Mauritania a strong

countries as Senegal, Mauritania,

social

Mali

hierarchy

the

Sahel

present.

Composing the Black community we also identify the Sonniké (or

Niger—

have

been

essential in these societies. Within the Koranic schools,

Soninké), another ethnical group

Marabouts

present in Mauritania (and also in

ancient

Senegal, Niger and Mali among

collection. An organized begging

others)

system is arranged by them using

with

similar

social

have system

adopted of

the

funds

hierarchy distinctions.

as subjects for these practice

This form of slavery has been

young scholars. Their presence

also called chattel slavery.

at these religious schools has a

Indentured servitude

temporary character, which lasts

4 Slavery in the Sahel until students reach a certain age

As being responsible for

of maturity or ends by request of

the wealth of their masters the

their families. The lack of income

punishment of not achieving any

and extended poverty is another

riches might be based on severe

factor that encourages families to

bodily injuries or deprivation of

send part of their children’s to be

living conditions of the pupil. The

educated

lack

and

Marabouts, religious

fed

which

formation,

the

provide food

and

family

support

and

domestic capacity for placement of

these

children

creates

shelter. Furthermore, orphans in

dependence links on their master

need of shelter and protection

based on survival and necessity.

become also a fundamental part

However,

of the groups of pupils within

ownership doesn’t apply to the

Qur’an schools.

extent of all Koranic schools, but

This system was exported

this

temporary

its presence in this institution is

to African cities by the end of the

widespread

and

First World War when chattel

nowadays. Poverty and a lack of

slavery

was

apparently

institutional and familiar supports

threatened

and

desertification

lead to a continuous vicious cycle

promoted population exodus to

over

urban areas to improve their

practice. Family units find an

living

easy path to relief their economic

standards.

Systematized

this

present

temporary

slavery

groups operate on behalf of their

situation

masters’ order through series of

maintenance of more children

“hot spots” within cities. They

and

tribute with the collected funds,

agencies

which

the

support system for these young

Marabouts. But those funds are

children whom end up in vicious

never meant to be shared with

crime and marginalized.

the

Sexual Slaves

belong

pupil

entirely

collectors,

which

avoiding

governments lack

the

and

their

fundamental

perform their imposed duty in

Within the societies of Niger and

harsh

Nigeria another form of inducing

conditions

large journeys.

during

their

individuals

for slavery

denominated

Wahala.

the This

5 Â

State and non-state actors

practice requires young girls to be

currency used in most of this

used as sexual servants during

transactions).

unspecified

time

periods.

The main source of origin

market was created according the

for

demands of a different range of

concubines

individuals form all sorts of social

across the borders of Niger,

origins.

within This

system

has

the

demand has

future

its

NigeriaÂ´s

location

soil.

The

its

demanding individuals range from

bases upon traditional castes

the working classes to highly

systems within stratified societies

influential individuals and families

and racial discrimination.

immersed in trade or religious

According to reports and surveys

conducted

Niger,

ambits. To start the process of acquiring

girl-demanding

almost a majority of the girls were

individual shall enter a dialog

sold before they reached the age

process

of 15.This might be considered

belonging to the different families

the adequate age for fertility and

sexual activities. However, other

Usually to establish contact with

percentage of the girls targeted

the families a special envoy is

and sold for this practice was

sent as an intermediary.

aged between 9 and 11. Although

the deal is accepted the tribal

this data releases characteristics

chief might proceed to a review of

of certain cases there is no

his available human assets. If the

specific age for a majority of the

contacted family lacks human

cases.

resources the process will be The

market

price

with

charge

moved

tribal

over

chiefs

this

different

matter.

Once

family.

young girls established for the

However, within this context of

transactions

business

was

placed

and

trade,

involving

between 300 euros and could

woman, reputation and honour

reach a final price nearby 600

are attached values to certain

euros (this is solely a useful

Touareg families whom will rarely

reference for the reader, being

threaten

the CFA francs the authentic

wrongful delivery (a non-valid

their

status

6 Slavery in the Sahel woman) or by lack of human

child who is a result of this

“merchandise”.

relationship will be recognized as

Once

the

payment

legitimate

the

master.

made, the girl, or also called

However this child will hardly

wahayu, is transferred to her

separate himself from his slavery

master’s property. Once is her

stigma.

post, she will not only be obliged

Other fear variation will

to perform and satisfy her master

be suffered by a wahayu once its

sexual

child is born. Once a master

different

decides that the child can be

demands

perform

all

sorts

responsibilities maintenance

but of

also

related of

her

the

threatening his comfort or the

masters

stability of his living he can take

property.

several

However,

certain

paths

modify

the

circumstances. It is known that in

cases the permanency of these

large

concubines is unknown. The lack

continents

of economic capacity to maintain

common and a present element

the living standards of these

of the life of its inhabitants.

young

women

has

leaded

parts

born

another

essential

mere

pieces of furniture.

the

black

African

magic

Within this practice, new

individuals to transfer them to purchaser

and

toddlers element

are for

an the

fulfilment of black magic spells.

Interviews, made on a

Their internal organs are used for

relevant number of this woman,

witchcraft and spells directed to

reveal the challenges of this

different

imposed lifestyle which reduces

demanding

almost

wishes. Another option is simply

any

slight

space

for

intimacy and personal freedom. In cases where a child is

spheres

individual

the

personal

to force the disappearance of the child

born from a masters-concubine

destination

relation its position is equal to his

performance of the wahayu to its

mother and will receive the same

normal levels.

patterns of treatment from the master. On the social sphere a

untraceable maintain

the

As these sections reflect the

domination

exercised

7 Â

State and non-state actors

masters

reaches

almost

In the context of modern

unthinkable parts of the life of any

conflicts the rise of slavery seems

woman

attached

its

the

maternity, her

several

issues

physical attributes, her mind and

occurring in the African continent.

sentiments. After this process the

Irrationality, violence, lack of self-

women abducted to this practice

control and anger are present

lose any sense or capacity of

elements

governing themselves. Several

inclinations and patterns among

factors can apply to impede the

men towards enslavement. Under

disappearance of this practice. It

this circumstances were morality,

is by large a common practice

government control, law and any

socially accepted and included

limit are not present, enslavement

into

social

and ownership over individuals,

structure of countries as Niger

especially women and children,

and Nigeria. The involvement and

becomes a reality.

interest in the prevalence and

the

cultural

maintenance

and

this

favouring

example

inhuman

this

activity

practice is the method applied by

pertains the high, middle and

the extremist group Boko Haram.

working

those

This new dynamic of targeting

consequently

woman as instruments was a

leads to an influx of the funding of

fundamental innovation in their

the tribes and families which

modus operandi ever since 2013.

lifestyle is largely based and

As a counter response towards

government

classes

societies.

This

the

business

reactions,

Boko

acquiring young woman for a

Haram realized the influence of

future

slavery.

women for their campaign. The

Furthermore an essential problem

Boko Haram group, on behalf of

entailing these factors is the

Islam and Allah, has proceeded

extreme poverty of woman, which

to abduct and enslave women for

avoids an escape route leaded

their own religious and personal

towards

purposes.

Christian

women

whom

considered

circumstances

improving of

this

the young

woman and their descendants.

are

infidels have been suffering this groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities.

8 Slavery in the Sahel These types of activities

Boko Haram with heart striking

have taken place mainly within

tactics

the

northern

Nigerian

region

State

predominantly Muslims

which

implied

the

capturing of family members of

where

the most important leaders of the

organization.

majority located.

However

Relatives as the wife of

Christians, and Christianity as a

Shekau and other commander’s

practice, have been transformed

wives

and reduced by the activists of

Mohammed)

Boko

among

Haram,

proceeded

which

under

have different

and the

children were

(S.

captured

descendants

and

relatives of other members of

methods to convert women into

Boko

Haram.

Boko

Haram

Islam.

subsequently responded towards The recognition of the

the government on series of

control over the disappeared and

video messages exposing his

abducted women has been even

grievances over this government

reported openly to the world by

attack

Boko Haram .One of the most

relatives.

representative

figures of Boko

their

group

and

Ever since this responses

Haram, Abubakar Shekau (often

Boko

identified as the leader), made

campaign

public statements using media to

government

report on the situation of these

Christian woman and young girls.

women. He did determinate that

Christian girls are thought the

the women kept under his domain

lesson by forced marriage to

had

and

commanders and soldiers fighting

requested exchange of militants

for Boko Haram. These young

of Boko Haram held by the

girls serve as home maids to the

Nigerian Government.

troops. However, their tasks are

embraced

This

was

Islam

proceeded against officials

to the

women,

response

not simply limited to their house

related to the tactics utilized by

responsibilities. They are used as

the

and

sexual slaves of common or

The

individual use, and also used as

Nigerian forces planned to hit

“baits” to organize ambushes.

Nigerian

intelligence

Haram

security services.

9 Â

State and non-state actors

Their presence on a warfare

Islam

period is considered essential for

advance

Boko

Another part of is functionality

Haram

militants

whom

has

been of

their

symbolic purposes.

improve their conditions with the

was

different services provided by

government responding to their

these women. Not to mention that

campaign of imprisonment and

a large part of the casualties

capture of Boko Haram attached

arising from the Boko Haram

women. Therefore the counter-

casualties

campaign

are

found

women.

demoralize

reflected

the

also

the

capability of influence of Boko The solution to this case

Haram

comparing

of slavery seems a complex

government

consideration.

creates

Within

large

the

capacity.

This

vicious

circle

response

periods during armed conflicts in

continuous

Africa women have been war

parties which is a dead end. This

instruments

different

dynamic places the figure of a

purposes. In this case the figure

woman as a fundamental piece in

of the woman has been utilized

the coercion game applied by

for

both parties. And finally women

for

series

purposes

representative of Boko Haram.

are

Representative of religious shifts

purposes

enlarge

Nigeria

Haram,

caused

the

transformation

Boko

abduction

and

woman

for

conceived which the

for

utilitarian

enrich

wealth

both

and Boko

Haram warriors in their private life.

10 Slavery in the Sahel

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ACHPR.

[online]

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<http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/#a5> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. ANALO, T. (2015). Slavery in Mauritania: A deafening silence from the African

Union.

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<http://www.africareview.com/Special-Reports/Slavery-in-MauritaniaA-deafening-silence-from-the-African-Union/-/979182/2088596//137ukec/-/index.html> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Anon,

(2015).

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(2015).

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<http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/item/2008/1012/comm/brynn_sla very.html> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Hezser, C. (2015). Slaves within the Household - Oxford Scholarship. [online]

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<http://www.factsandarts.com/current-affairs/a-little-case-of-slaveryniger-and-hadijatou-mani/> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Madut, J. (2015). Download War and Slavery in Sudan PDF. [online] Find Book

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12 Slavery in the Sahel <http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys. last.stronghold/> [Last access: 3 June 2015]. US Department of Labour, (2015). Mali, Finding the Worst Forms of Labor. [online]

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labor/findings/2013TDA/mali.pdf> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Walk Free Foundation - Global Slavery Index 2014, (2015). Mauritania Walk Free Foundation - Global Slavery Index 2014. [online] Available from: <http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/mauritania/> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Zangau,

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2015].

Tribal conflict

Tribal Conflicts By: Guillermo Aguirre.

South Sudan: A Faulty Start

Sadly,

As the 22-year-long civil war in Sudan came to an end, the independence of South Sudan in 2011 after a referendum seemed like the fresh start much needed and desired by the peoples of the youngest country in the World. Despite

such

most

civil

conflicts in Africa, the resuming of fighting is the result of a newly formed

government

failing

deliver progress and benefits to its

population.

Moreover,

government unable to distribute it equally among the five major ethnic groups living in South

high

Sudan. The incumbents in this

expectations, instability appeared

bloody conflict are: on one side

once more, as the country slowly

the

descended into a new spiral of

about 38 per cent of the country’s

conflicts among ethnic groups,

population; and on the other the

failing to escape the African

Nuer, the second biggest ethnic

conflict dynamics which plague

group accounting for somewhat

the continent.

19 per cent of the population.

Dinka,

which

represents

Both occupy the north-eastern part of the country, where also the majority of natural resources are located. At this point the civil war remains at a hurting stalemate, where both sides are failing to form a new coalition government after Photo Source: South Sudan Info.

months

negotiations.

on-going

14 State and non-state actors a) Insight on South Sudan South Sudan is a Sub-Saharan country, bordering with Sudan on

divided in 10 states, and the capital city is currently Juba, also the most populous city.

the north, Ethiopia on the East,

b) Background

Kenia on the southeast, Uganda

conflict

in the south, the Democratic Republic

southwest,

Congo and

the

Central

African Republic on the west. The country stretches over an area of 644,329 square kilometres, about the

same

France,

possesses

population

and

estimated 11,500,000

already

the

introduced

the

conflict with a short explanation of South

Sudan’s

independence,

and the causes for a new conflict to

sparkle.

elaborate

Here on

background political

the

that

historical

led

situation

shall

the

post-war

South Sudan.

inhabitants. Its official language One cannot understand

remains English, though Arabic is spoken in the northern parts, as well as each of the major tribes’ languages.

South

Sudan

possesses

gold,

silver,

petroleum, diamonds, limestone, iron ore, copper, tungsten and

this

conflict

powerful men of South Sudan, President Salva Kiir Mayardit and former

republic,

with

presidential elections held every four years. There are two political the

Liberation

Sudan

Movement

People’s (SLPM)

currently in power, followed by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement – Democratic Change (SPLM-DC).

The

Vice

President

Riek

Machar. Coming from an illiterate

South Sudan is a federal

parties:

making

acquaintance with the two most

zinc, among some others.

presidential

without

country

background of a Dinka family, the former

holds

long

military

career dating back to 1972 after the Addis Ababa Agreement put an end to the First Sudanese Civil War,

joining

the

Sudanese

Military as a low-ranking officer. Kiir already had some military experience as he had joined a rebel Southern Sudanese militia

Tribal conflict

to fight for independence in the

On the other hand, Riek

1960s. When in 1983 conflict

Machar’s career crossed with

breaks out again, Kiir is sent

Kiir’s in 1984 when he joined the

along with Southern Sudan Vice

SPLM/A after graduating from

President John Garang to quell

Khartoum University holding a

the rebellion, however both defect

PhD in Mechanical Engineering.

from the Sudanese Army and

found

commander

the

Sudan

Liberation

People’s

was

appointed of

the

zonal Western

Movement/Army

Upper Nile region, and later was

(SPLM/A), becoming the mayor

ascended to Commander-in-Chief

rebel

against

of SPLM/A forces deployed in

Sudan. Kiir then rises to become

north-eastern, Southern Sudan

the leader of the military wing of

after

the SPLA, and succeeds Garang

Problems arose as Riek’s view of

as leader of the organization after

SPLM/A’s future goals greatly

the death of the former in a

differed from Garang’s. Garang

helicopter

wanted

faction

fighting

accident

2005,

months after the end of the war. Kiir advocated for the independence

Southern

some

military

secure

victories.

secular,

democratic and united Sudan, while Riek aspired for Southern Sudan to achieve independence.

Sudan, finally achieved in 2011.

In 1991 Riek splintered

Then, he presented his candidacy

from

for President, and was elected

founded

with 93 per cent of the votes, due

intent to overthrow Garang from

to the high popularity of the

leadership of the SPLM/A. At this

SPLM/A among South Sudanese

point is probably when Kiir’s and

people. He already had been

Riek’s rivalry started, because

Vice

Southern

Kiir still was under the command

became

of Garang as one of his major

Sudan

President in

President

2005 of

of and

Southern

Sudan

during the transition era (20052011) after Garang’s death.

Garang’s

SPLM/A

SPLA-Nasir

with

and the

commanders. Riek’s SPLA-Nasir was then composed from his own ethnic group, the Nuer people.

16 State and non-state actors Riek made massive efforts to

(SSDF) and he further fuelled

break

the

divide among Nuer and Dinka by

drawing to his side the eastern

Southern Sudan, but he did not

Nuer that were recently against

hesitate to exploit Nuer-Dinka

the SPLM/A.

the

different

ethnic

groups

differences

among coexisting

order

gain

support from its people against the SPLM/A, which was primarily dominated by the Dinka.

from

clashed with the SSDF he had been

supporting

because

On the same year he deserted

In 2000 Riek’s faction

Garang,

was

part

forcibly

remove civilians from their homes

in oil fields, and in an attempt to

committed the Bor massacre,

gain control himself over such

where around 2000 Dinka died,

resources. Failing to avoid such

creating a further divide between

forced displacements, animosity

him and Garang/Kiir. The SPLA-

of Nuer people grew against

Nasir was renamed SPLA-United

Riek. He left the SSDF and

when other ethnic groups joined

founded

his cause in 1993. From 1994 to

Defence Forces/Democratic Front

1997 Riek’s group was named

(SPDF), which was again an anti-

South

Unity

government faction. But in 2002,

and

fearing an attack of the Dok

represented a particular view in

branch of Nuer people (Riek

the conflict: although still having

belonging to the Jikany branch)

Southern

Sudan

Movement/Army

(SSIM/A)

Sudan’s

full

the

signed

Sudan’s

People

alliance

with

independence as primary goal,

Garang and rejoined the SPLM/A,

the

eleven years after having left it.

SSIM/A

was

secretly

supported by Sudan in order to fight against the SPLM/A.

Reik became leader of the South Sudan Defense Force

Finally, when the war ended

1 SSDF is a group composed of rebel guerrillas that gave support to governmental forces in South Sudan.

2005

became

President

South

Vice Sudan

succeeding Kiir after Garang’s death. When independence was declared in 2011, agreements were

made

power

Tribal conflict

among the different ethnic groups

if such divides were fuelled by

within the new nation, and Riek

both

stayed

interests.

Vice

President

leaders

representation of the Nuer group. In 2012 he made a public apology for the Bor massacre committed in 1991.

own

In December 2013, the country was shook once again during

leadership

meeting,

DINKA and Nuer members of the

During the following months, after the public apology was made, power struggle between the two major groups developed. South Sudan had remained a large, underdeveloped area neglected by the Sudanese government in the north, and things weren’t better after twenty-two years of war.

their

where a fight broke out between

c) How did this start?

civil

for

Unfortunately,

the

different Sothern Sudanese rebel factions were only united for short periods of time. Resources and infrastructure were scarce despite the great quantity of them, and the two biggest ethnic groups

National

Guard,

both

parties

declaring allegiance to either Kiir or Riek. The fighting soon spread to

military

moments publicly

headquarters, later

President

announced

and Kiir have

overcome a coup led by Riek, and proceeded to oust him from his position as Vice President, as well as the entire presidential cabinet. Kiir’s allegations of a coup have been received with high incredulity, and his actions made people worry that this is just a move from him to tighten his grip over the country.

casually lived in these areas.

Riek has denied taking

Plus, the heads of both groups

such action, and has immediately

fought and survived the war, as

gone into hiding to avoid arrest

enemies, most of the time.

from

Taking

all

this

into

account, one can really doubt that a

peaceful

agreement

would

easily eliminate ethnic divides that lasted for decades especially

Kiir’s

Dinka

troops,

prompting for Kiir’s overthrow from

power. After this, Nuer

members of the SPLA defected the Army and joined other Nuer troops that either were armed

18 State and non-state actors civilians or defected troops from

Unity and the Upper Nile, where

the

unjustified

fighting also broke out. During the

actions could point Reik as victim

following weeks ethnic violence

of political prosecution, but he

spread to nearby cities, raising

neither hesitated to raise an army

deaths to thousands.

SPLA.

Kiir’s

of about 10,000 men in the north-

d) From bad to worse: a

eastern part of the country (where

humanitarian disaster

the Nuer are dominant). Such army

called

the

Sudan

People’s Liberation Movement-inOpposition (SPLM-IO). Quickly the Nuer militant Organization “Nuer White Army” rose again and drafted 25,000 men. On the other

hand

Kiir

possesses

180,000 troops from the SPLA and

reinforcements

from

the

During the following months of the

outbreak,

the

conflict

developed mostly in the east and centre of South Sudan, where the Dinka

and

Nuer

are

concentrated. This is especially true in the Unity and Jonglei States where tribal grievances go back centuries. It was customary for both ethnic groups to steal

Ugandan Army.

cattle from each other that would During the first days of the new conflict the violence was limited to Juba and its outskirts, jet this does not account for simple skirmishes: eyewitnesses have reported Dinka troops (loyal to President Kiir) arresting Nuer people on the streets, only to bring them to isolated places and execute

them.

Among

the

executed were also women and children. Nuer troops quickly took control of the capital cities of Unity and Jonglei States, as well as seizing the oil fields present in

be presented as wedding gifts. Both

sides

broadcasting

have radio

been

programs,

urging their people to take arms against

the

opponent

and

spreading hate rhetoric against each other. Many farmers were not able to perform irrigation and cultivation of lands, causing a food shortage that affects over one

third

population.

the

Recently

country’s the

Security Council has declared South Sudan’s food crisis the biggest in the world, affecting

Tribal conflict

over

four

million

estimated

that

people; over

it’s

50,000

children could die from hunger.

is lived within Unity State: the capital city, Bentiu, has changed hands from rebel to government forces several times, in order to control the oil fields that represent per

cent

the

State’s

revenues. Due to the sporadic fights, over 1.9 million people have been displaced from their homes, about 45,000 fled from the country, most to Ethiopia. Indiscriminate

fighting

has

ravaged the land surrounding the oilfields, and has taken a toll of over 50,000 deaths having only

Such

assistance

consisted primarily on supplying any

By far, the worst situation

assistance.

needs

refugees

and

people affected by the Second Sudanese Civil War. But after the restless interethnic clashes the UNSC

followed

passing th

Resolution 2155 on March 18 , 2014, whereby the protection of civilians became top priority for the UNMISS’ mandate. As the conflict escalated more and more into civil war, on November 25

during the same year the UNSC passed

Resolution

2187

changing

the

unanimously,

UNMISS’ mandate once more whereby the protection of civilians must be guaranteed at any cost, allowing for the use of force to

passed one and a half years.

meet

In December 24 in 2013, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 2132 which doubled

such

Furthermore,

objectives. UNMISS

responsible for investigating and monitoring human rights.

the size of the UN peacekeeping As

mission to 14,000. Originally this mission

was

called

(United

Nations

UNMIS

Mission

Sudan) and was renamed to UNMISS (United Nations Mission in South Sudan) to suit better the name

operations undertaking

the

actual

where

field it

of was

humanitarian

now,

three

ceasefires were signed, but were broken

afterwards

when

agreement was achieved. The st

last one occurred on February 1 , 2015. Both sides were to reach th

an agreement by March 5 , but this was delayed and fighting was resumed.

20 State and non-state actors In conclusion, we are set

Ugandan

intervention

neither

in front of a hurting stalemate to

does good as many perceive it as

in which both parties see no end,

an outright invasion, even though

as none of them are willing to

they

give

Perhaps the fact that this involves

related to political or economic

the two most powerful men in

power. Both internal and external

South

voices criticize President Kiir for

massive

pushing the conflict further, and

power, is what keeps driving the

doubts

among

conflict on. Either way, if the war

militant Nuer people have in

continues, neither side will have

referring to what Riek ultimate

much left to fight for, and the

objective is. The UNMISS support

impact on the land and on the

is limited and could never ease

people for at least the next two

such huge war damages. The

generations will be disastrous.

any

concessions,

have

arisen

support

Sudan, military

SPLA

troops.

holding and

both

political

Tribal conflict

References BBC, (2015). South Sudan conflict: Bentiu 'ethnic slaughter' condemned. [online]

Available

from:

<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-

27102643> [Last access: 28 May 2015]. BBC, (2015). South Sudan President Salva Kiir in profile. [online] Available from:

<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12107760>

[Last

access: 30 May 2015]. Cfr.org,

(2015).

Global

Conflict

Tracker.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.cfr.org/global/global-conflicttracker/p32137#!/?marker=33> [Last access: 28 May 2015]. Chothia, F. (2015). South Sudan's Riek Machar in profile. BBC. [online] Available from: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-25402865> [Last access: 30 May 2015]. Copnall, J. (2015). South Sudan conflict: What chance of peace?. BBC. [online]

Available

from:

<http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-

30447094> [Last access: 28 May 2015]. Enoughproject.org, (2015). Conflicts in South Sudan. [online] Available from: <http://www.enoughproject.org/conflicts/sudans/conflicts-southsudan> [Last access: 28 May 2015]. Ethnic

Map

Sudan.

(2015).

[image]

Available

from:

<http://southsudaninfo.net/wpcontent/uploads/reference_library/maps /map_sud_ethnic_464.gif> [Last access: 30 May 2015]. Mohammed, A. and de Waal, l. (2015). South Sudan must resolve ethnic conflicts to be a nation at peace. The Washington Post. [online] Available

from:<http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/south-

sudan-must-resolve-ethnic-conflicts-to-be-a-nation-atpeace/2013/12/29/65115c10-709f-11e3-8b3fb1666705ca3b_story.html> [Last access: 30 May 2015].

22 State and non-state actors Responsibilitytoprotect.org, (2015). Crisis in South Sudan. [online] Available from:

<http://www.responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/crises/crisis-

in-south-sudan> [Last access: 28 May 2015]. Van Dijken, K. (2015). South Sudan ravaged by ethnic violence: Tit-for-tat killings between Nuer and Dinka ethnic groups fray the weak ties holding South Sudan together. Aljazeera. [online] Available from: <http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/south-sudanravaged-ethnic-violence-2014236519937368.html> [Last access: 28 May 2015].

Weapons, drug trafficking and

organized crime

Weapons,

drug

trafficking

and organized crime By: Sandra Elorriaga. Weapons

and ammunition in the Sahel

Northern Africa Sahel region is on the front lines of some of the world’s

most

important

international security defiances. The region’s wide open spaces and leaky borders have allured terrorist activity and transnational crime, including illegal arms and weapons diverse

transit.

Additionally,

communities

confront

hazard from left land mines and

region. The high availability of weapons

Human Sahel

territory

non-state

armed

groups grants them permission to interact badly

effectively

equipped

and

with

trained

national armed forces, especially in border areas. Thus, arms are more plausible to be redirected to the

illegal

institutions

market in

when

charge

lack

capability and liability.

unexploded munitions from prior conflicts.

Criminal groups may take weapons by force or the security

security in

the

Africa

has

worsened in last years as a consequence of armed violence. The predominance of non-state armed groups in the area has intensified a clearly ineffective and vulnerable state control over the region. Imbalance and state debility contributes to and allows the increasing growth of weapons

division personnel shall sell them. The flow of illegal weapons and ammunition over the Sahel region is not something new.

Criminal

groups have long manipulated the well-established transnational trading networks to aid in the drugs

and

arms

These

criminal

movement.

networks

are

commonly associated to state actors

and

non-state

armed

24 State and non-state actors groups. The connections between

thermobaric

transnational

crime

missiles, TBG7 rockets, SCUD

and terrorism are a base enabler

missiles, BM-21 multiple-launch

in the stock and trade of illegal

rocket systems, recoilless rifles

weapons and ammunition in the

(AK-47), OG-82 rockets with anti-

region.

personnel warheads and huge

organized

The

elevated

consciousness of the regional associations of badly managed national stocks and the position

charges,

AT-14

quantities of “yellowcake” (which is a type of uranium concentrate) has been found in a military depot.

illegal weapons play in bearing

But the question is: who

and exacerbating armed violence

gain from the distribution of these

has led to an increasing focus on

arms? The first to make profit is

lowering the illegal access of

the Al-Qa’ida terrorist movement

arms.

Many states call for aid

(AQIM). This has been verified by

from the international community

their use of Semtex, an almighty

and

explosive from Libyan arsenals.

specialist

agencies

MAG , to determine and carry out projects

intended

upgrade

weapons and ammunition insight practices.

Weapons are one of the principal

causes

death

Africa. The broad and frequently unhindered presence of arms in

Between the type of arms

diverse regions of the continent,

in circulation, information may

plus

vary

certain

manipulate them has turn into a

been

penalty in itself. All this access to

SA-7

weapons is not just the ultimate

(Soviet

cause of killings or wounds for

but

weapons identified

these that up

ground-to-air

are have

date:

missiles

the

facility

buy

and

origin), MANPADS (Man Portable

that

Air Defense System missiles),

uncertainty. The splitting of local

SA-24

Anti-Tank

resources, corruption of public

with

money and the intrusion of the

weapons

missiles, equipped

2 MAG: Mines Advisory Group.

matter,

“strongest”

law

but

also

with

the

propagation of weapons. Civil

Weapons, drug trafficking and

organized crime and

inter-state

urge

prohibition of cocaine trafficking

claim for weapons and originate a

was intensified in Central and

“pool”

South America back in the 1990s,

employed to perpetrate violent

all those traffickers found another

crimes as well as exacerbate

way

conflicts.

markets headed to the east.

conflicts

arms

that

can

Working

Drug Trafficking

expanding with

into

West

new

African

associates, drug traffickers have

Governance in Sahel territory is

built up new paths as well as new

becoming

airborne ways, moving gradually

criminalized. Money coming from

and consistently to the African

traffic

littoral,

and

drugs

quickly

increasing

cocaine

weakening Sahel’s political and

seizures from 273 kilos to nearly

economic

47,000 kilos in a year.

governance.

Drug

trafficking over the territory is not just buying a house or a car, it is buying

power.

Earnings

from

illegal markets for drugs, sex, stolen oil and many others allow leaders

quick,

loose

and

charge-free source of assets for their

electing

and

military

campaigns. Also traffickers gain protection from these political leaders: a clearly example of this is the traffickers infiltration in Guinea Bissau’s top levels of the political and military authority that caused

the

execution

of the

country’s president. The

Sahel

The outcome is a heavy modernization in Sahel’s criminal markets and the splitting of state monopolies on violence. Narcotraffickers, testing with cocaine production

unquestionably dominant

the

area,

turning

players

amphetamine

and

are into the

opiate

production and circulation. Sahel also prevails as a vital root of cannabis Southern

distribution Europe,

into

overlapping

with cigarettes, human trafficking and clandestine importation of weapons. The overcome seems

quickly

to be a belligerent competition for

turning into what we can call a

administration of drug trafficking

“Silicon Valley” of criminals and

earnings.

belligerent modernization. When

26 State and non-state actors

trade

But why has this drug

human

shifted

cease

this

region,

security. drugs

Attempts

must

take

into

instead of elsewhere? Seeing the

account

whole thing geographically, West

corruption. The requests to all at

Africa is strategically positioned

once fight drugs and terrorism

mid-way between South America

with belligerent and restrictive

and Europe but other factors are

tactics miss to admit the complex

important: the Sahel grants many

and growing links amidst illegal

possibilities for drug traffickers to

economies,

work

leaky

corruption, and have the latent of

borders and mighty connections.

failing to manage drugs trafficking

Also,

while

efficiently,

using

unsteady

law

implementation provides chances to go un-notice. Instead of having to

arrange

traffickers

new

use

governance

violence

additional

and

weakening

governance and peace-building. Organized Crime

facilities,

paths

already

flagged by dealers, constructed long way before the territory limits

For the last ten years, growing imbalance in the Sahel area has been

cause

increasing

attention in Europe and United

were drawn.

States. Western authorities have The

drug

trafficking

represents an important problem for drug producers and transit states: this illegal trade is ruled by transnational

dynamics,

with

international streams and ways subject

market

requests, stocks

and

bias

the

tactics to fight them back. Drug stock control strategies usually

troubled that the deficiency of state control in the region would let AQIM

to spread out their

influence and set up safe shelters in areas external from authority control. These fears seem to have been absolved by the new command of northern Mali by AQIM. But Western authorities have underrated the unsteady

provide to the scattered and diffusion of the problem. In Latin America,

the

militarization

replies has profoundly injured

AQIM: Al-Qa‘ida in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb.<http://www.nctc.gov/site/gr oups/aqim.html>[Last access: 29 May 2015]

Weapons, drug trafficking and organized crime crash

organized

crime

Sahel’s region.

criminal network, taking hostage western nationals with the double of

did

the

past,

Sahel

authorities are using organized

AQIM itself is partially a

purpose

they

extracting

crime as a political support by letting their partners gain from criminal activities.

money

The scope of organized

releasing

criminal activity in Sahel area has

group’s confined members. And

essentially changed in the last

up to date, state conspiracy with

years. As gains from cocaine

organized crime is the principal

trade and kidnaps of foreign

part that allows AQIM’s increase

nationals

and a driver of belligerent in the

criminal networks are broadening

region.

their influence, destroying the rule

actually

of law and the well-established

compensation

and

Players

organized

implicated

crime

manipulate crucial political and military influence in the area. As

grow

social structures.

considerably,

28 State and non-state actors

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–

United

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the

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Crime: The Case of the Sahel Region. [olnine] Available from: <http://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.ea/>

[Last

access: 29 May 2015]. Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel-Sahara Region - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 2015. Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel-Sahara Region - Carnegie Endowment for International

Peace.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/09/13/organized-crime-andconflict-in-sahel-sahara-region> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel-Sahara Region | Africa Center for Strategic Studies. 2015. Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel-Sahara Region | Africa Center for Strategic Studies. [online] Available from: <http://africacenter.org/2013/01/organized-crime-andconflict-in-the-sahel-sahara-region/> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Organized Crime and Terrorism in the Sahel. 2015. Organized Crime and Terrorism

the

Sahel.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.isn.ethz.ch/DigitalLibrary/Publications/Detail/?lang=en&id=126014> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Sahel region countries agree to cooperate in response to illicit trafficking, organized crime and terrorism. 2015. Sahel region countries agree to cooperate in response to illicit trafficking, organized crime and terrorism. [online] Available from: <http://goo.gl/Kh6b5d>

[Last

access: 29 May 2015]. Spiking Arms Proliferation, Organized Crime, Terrorism Part of Fallout from Libyan Crisis Afflicting Sahel, Security Council Told | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 2015. Spiking Arms Proliferation, Organized Crime, Terrorism Part of Fallout from Libyan Crisis Afflicting Sahel, Security Council Told | Meetings Coverage and Press

Releases.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.un.org/press/en/2012/sc10533.doc.htm> [Last access: 29 May 2015].

32 State and non-state actors Spread of Libyan weapons in the Sahel - AEFJN EN. 2015. Spread of Libyan weapons in the Sahel - AEFJN EN. [online] Available from: <http://www.aefjn.org/index.php/364/articles/spread-of-libyanweapons-in-the-sahel.html> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Terror and Insurgency in the Sahara-Sahel Region: Corruption, Contraband ... - Professor Stephen A Harmon - Google Libros. 2015. Terror and Insurgency in the Sahara-Sahel Region: Corruption, Contraband ... Professor Stephen A Harmon - Google Libros. [online] Available from: <https://goo.gl/gibbmr> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime in the Sahel-Saharan, diagnosis and Answers | Royal Institute for Strategic Studies. 2015. Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime in the Sahel-Saharan, diagnosis and Answers | Royal Institute for Strategic Studies. [online] Available

from:

<http://www.ires.ma/en/meetings-and-

debates/terrorism-and-transnational-organized-crime-sahel-saharandiagnosis-and-answers#.VWiub1xiooY> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. The Drug War Moves East As Cartels’ Influence In Africa Grows. 2015. The Drug War Moves East As Cartels’ Influence In Africa Grows. [online] Available

from:

http://footnote1.com/the-drug-war-moves-east-as-

cartels-influence-in-africa-grows-in-africa/. [Last access: 29 May 2015]. The French-British Intervention in the Sahel | Foreign Policy Journal. 2015. The French-British Intervention in the Sahel | Foreign Policy Journal. [online]

Available

from:

<http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/02/03/the-french-britishintervention-in-the-sahel/> [Last access: 29 May 2015]. Transnational Threats: The Criminalization of West Africa and the Sahel / ISN. 2015. Transnational Threats: The Criminalization of West Africa and

the

Sahel

ISN.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=163632> [Last access: 29 May 2015].

Weapons, drug trafficking and organized crime

United Nations News Centre - Africa’s vast Sahel region threatened by terrorism, organized crime, Ban warns. 2015. United Nations News Centre - Africa’s vast Sahel region threatened by terrorism, organized crime,

Ban

warns.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46726#.VWirb1xio oY> [Last access: 29 May 2015].

34 State and non-state actors

Human Trafficking By Miguel Asin, Andrés Escorial and Sergio Serrano.

Photo Source: KRmagazine.

As globalisation has really began

has been carried out by different

to effect the world, one side effect

states of the region. Nonetheless,

the

the cultural and social dimension

marginalisation of some of the

present in the Sahel tribes tends to

world’s

prevail over the legal character of

seems

poorest

people

and

countries.

these laws, provoking that the

Due to economic hardship, culture and the poverty in the

disappearance of slavery is seeing as almost impossible.

Sahel, it is easier to establish nets

That is why, it is really

of human trafficking. Not only the

hard to provide accurate figures

criminals have less legal barriers

and numbers of the percentage of

to perform the human trafficking

enslaved people within the region.

but

The

unfortunately

supported

also

lack

registration

over

traditional

demographic changes, fluctuations

mentalities of the tribes of the

coming from the governments, a

region.

constant Several

the

attempts

regulating the banning of slavery

movement

people

through the different borders and the

the

isolation

certain

Human trafficking

territories creates a scenario in

leading to desperate people to

which any population

make any attempt to find a better

control cannot be achieved.

life. These types of trafficking

One reason of all this is the fact that there has been a decline

state

funded

educational system amongst these poorer countries in the Sahel region, with many inhabitants not having access to levels of basic education. This, coupled with a economic situation in the Sahel that has seemingly got worse,

aimes to trick these people with promises of another land and consequelty a better life which end up being a scheme in where those people are converted to slaves by force and end up entering in a spiral of human trafficking very hard to leave. The projection of this slavery nets involves not only the Sahelian region but also has an international presence.

a. A short history of Human Trafficking within Sahel

Photo Expansion of Caliphates from Near East through Maghreb to the Iberian Peninsula. Source: Wikipedia.org

36 State and non-state actors It must be noted that slavery within

Moving forward into the

the African continent was around

transatlantic slavery trade, human

for

the

trafficking within the Sahel region

transatlantic commerce in slaves

for purposes of multiple type of

took hold in the western world.

slavery was at a high. From a time

centuries

before

The trafficking of humans took its form through the transSaharan slave trade. Once the Arab caliphate began to gain a stronghold in the 9

century, the

period of the years 1500-1800, some 12 million Africans were shipped to the west for slavery, with many making the perilous journey across the Sahel for this.

slave trade also accelerated. Previous

Counting with the already the

transatlantic slave trade slavery and

human

trafficking

were

already presented in the Sahel, of course in a minor dimension. It was based on a certain cultural aspect of past centuries in which the idea of superiority of the Empires and Caliphates, both at the physical, ethnical level and at the cultural one. Therefore the Caliphates

Northern

Africa

established situation in the Sahel, the

decrease

human

trade

transatlantic

imposed

the

European Empires lead to a little relief to the aspect of slavery. But slavery continued to be an aspect of the culture and tradition of the different tribes of the Sahelian region. Therefore the influence of the transatlantic trade within the Sahelian societies in relation to slavery is uncertain.

understood that the purpose of the

Another aspect is that the

inferior tribes of the Sahel were to

modernization of the methods of

serve them. Thus, coming from the

transportation provided an easier

Caliphates the first raids appeared.

and quicker way to transport and

Consisted on the kidnapping of

move the slaves. In consequence

people from the Sahel, brought

an increase in the difficulties to

them to the North and then those

prevent

individuals were either sold or use

future enslavements were installed

as slaves for the Caliphates.

in the Sahelian region.

human

trafficking

and

Human trafficking

problems help the maintenance of a system of slaves. In addition it is used in order to make profit; as certain mafias

and

tribes

have

seen

human trafficking as a cheap easy way to make money. What is

Photo Source: Skyscrapercity.com

more, the different intrastate and

b. Human Trafficking &

tribal

Slavery within the

displacements

Sahel today

create a perfect picture in order to

wars

along and

with

brutal

deceases

capture and convert people by The current human trafficking of

force into slaves.

the Sahelian region may not be as bigger

Caliphates

was

and

with

the

European

Empires. However, the numbers are

still

high

and

the

idea

continues to form part of the normal mind-set of the people within the region.

The darkest side of slavery gets shape in the form of child trafficking; leaving a very high quantity

orphans

that

unfortunately are taken by really bad groups or militias. common

procedure

with

The the

minors is either to sell them as

Slavery is still present, is

slaves in order to gain money or to

not silent and in denial. On the

train them to become part of the

contrary, it is present every single

mafia or the militia. A specific

day and even certain groups are

training starts in which the identity

defending slavery as part of the

of the child is erased and a new

daily life and the natural order of

one is given, always accorded to

things.

the ones of the group. The

main

problem

The most brutal actions of

relation to slavery is the lack of

child

regulations

it.

perpetrated by radical groups and

Moreover a bunch of different

accompanied with the using of

concerning

trafficking

are

those

force. As an example of this type

38 State and non-state actors of actions within the Sahel the

The movement of slaves within the

recent actions of the radical group

Sahel region and to other areas –

Boko Haram. This group has made

mainly the Mediterranean Sea – is

the front pages thanks to the

conducted

massive kidnapped of girls by

whose character makes of them

force. As the radical group claims,

the prefect instrument in order to

it is an unalienable right to have

move

nomadic

tribes,

slaves.

the

slaves, therefore the defend less girls are subject to any type of human degradation. In other words they become slaves in every single aspect of their lives in which the child (especially the female ones) are treated as mere objects. Some girls that were able to survive and they escaped from the radical group

expressed

after

being

treated as properties. Hence,

slavery

nowadays still a huge problem in the Sahelian region. Installed in the mind-set as well as in the daily

life along with military actions, it is seen as part of the natural order of things. For that reason, it is crucial to take actions to end this situation considered

natural

circumstances.

Some of these tribes (in which the most

famous

ones

are

the

Touareg) then began supervising these travel routes. These tribes appeal promises of new land and opportunities

demanding

c. Travelling through

advance

the Sahel region – a

exorbitant fee in exchange for the

perilous journey

guidance

examined

region.

the

payment

through Most

the the

Sahel engaged

individuals for this practice spend

several quantity.

Human trafficking years

Once

achieve paid,

this these

individuals find themselves with no resources depending solely on these tribes. In the majority of cases the tribes use the leverage to make those people subdue to their will. Later, those people will be incorporated to the human trafficking chain, in where there is little hope of escape.

40 State and non-state actors

References Affa'a-Mindzie, M. (2013). Strengthening the Rule of Law and Human Rights in

the

Sahel.Stability:

Development,

International

[online]

2(2),

Journal p.27.

Security

Available

from:

http://www.stabilityjournal.org/articles/10.5334/sta.br/ [Last access: 5 June 2015]. African

Heritage,

(2015).

African

Heritage.

[online]

Available

from:

http://afrolegends.com [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Brynn, E. (2015). Brynn – Slavery in the Sahel. [online] Unc.edu. Available from: http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/item/2008/1012/comm/brynn_slav ery.html [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Campbell, J. (2013). Africa in Transition – Tracking the Traffickers: East African Human Trafficking Networks. [online] Council on Foreign Relations

Africa

Transition.

Available

from:

http://blogs.cfr.org/campbell/2013/05/02/tracking-the-traffickers-eastafrican-human-trafficking-networks/#more-8533 [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Campbell, J. (2015). Africa in Transition » Human Trafficking. [online] Council on Foreign Relations - Africa in Transition. Available from: http://blogs.cfr.org/campbell/category/human-trafficking/ [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Cockayne, J. (2011). Transnational Threats: The Criminalization of West Africa and the Sahel. [online] International Relations And Security Network.

Available

from:

http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-

Library/Articles/Detail/?id=163632 [Last access: 5 June 2015]. IRINnews, (2015). SAHEL: Traffickers targeting poorest countries. [online] Available from: http://www.irinnews.org/report/71765/sahel-traffickerstargeting-poorest-countries [Last access: 5 June 2015].

Human trafficking

KR Magazine - Kidnap and Ransom News, (2015). Homepage - KR Magazine -

Kidnap

and

Ransom

News.

[online]

Available

from:

http://Krmagazine.com [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Pinterest.com, (2015). [online] Available from: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/307792955752855838/ [Last access: 5 June 2015]. s

42 State and non-state actors

Global

warming

and

desertification By: Sergio Serrano.

Moreover, GHG is not the only reason for its vulnerability; the Sahel area is located in the southern age of the Sahara desert, exposing

the

region

harsh

climatic conditions. Another crucial point to emphasize

the

agriculture,

which is a quite important sector in the Photo Source: Dianabuja’s blog

Sahel

–

employment

contribution to national GDP of the countries located in the Sahelian area, among others. The Sahelian

Dealing with both concepts of

agriculture

Sahel and global warming, the

developed depending above all

only word coming out, as the result

from rainfalls, without any kind of

of that is vulnerability. The truth

mechanisation

about the African region of Sahel

people with harvests, nor using

is that, even though it is not one of

any fertiliser or products resulting

the biggest in terms of GHG

from genetic modification such as

emissions (greenhouse gases), its

improve seeds.

capacity for adapting to those

addition, Sahelian population is

changes provoked by the gases is

only

quite low, making Sahel goes

adversities

through a hard suffering.

knowledge of the situation and

able

highly

neither

under-

helping

In confront

through

those rough

many of them depend directly from

Global warming and desertification

it for their livelihoods and their families.

look

the

possible future the Sahel, the

One of the main problems originating the change of climate there is the massive accumulation of

Giving

GHG

the

atmosphere,

provoking frequent extremes as droughts,

flood

and

cyclones.

Therefore, rainfall variability is the major characteristic of the climate present in the area and also one of the main concerns throughout the last century, and the present one.

International

Panel

Climate

Change (IPCC) founds a warming of 0’2-0’5ºC per decade, being more intense inside the African region.

Some

experts

have

mentioned an increase in rainfalls for the next years and decades, but

still,

there

too

much

uncertainty regarding what the Sahel is going to look like in the future.

Even though it affects the entire

a. Impacts Of Climate

region,

Change

the

effects

vary

from

country to country. Thus, Senegal has experienced a trend towards

earlier cessation dater of summer

implications of climate change for

rains

the

from

1950s

1990s.

should

also

Sahelian

analyse

region.

the

Those

However, in Mali it can be found a

impacts can be divided in the

relative stability for summer rains

following

for two periods going these from

impacts, impacts of food security

1959-1978 and 1979-1998, having

and climate change-MDGs.

in this last one a lower level of rainfalls.

way:

Firstly,

the

socio-economic

impact refers to the prolonged droughts during the 20th century had led to horrible outcomes: 100000 especially

drought-related among

the

deaths, rural

community. Besides it produced mass migrations especially from North to South, and landlocked rural areas-coastal cities. Primary Photo Source: Sahel precipitation Index

44 State and non-state actors sector (agriculture and livestock)

harvests to experience a decline,

employs

thus food prices and the risk of

over

half

the

population, with a contribution of

hunger will rise.

40% to GDP. If it continues the trend, cities would be overcrowded rising unemployment there at the same time.

Thirdly, the whole Sahel is subscribed to MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) although their progress is almost inexistent. In

Chad is a country to reflect the consequences

the

fact, if the trends continue as they

climate

are today, none of the MDGs

change. It is the largest Sahelian

would be met by the established

country with 900000 people, which

date. What is more, the gap

has been affected, even though

between rich and poor people is

the number of starved people and

widening

displaces ones remains unknown.

halving poverty by 2015 is the

Secondly, one point to be mentioned

negative

consequences

regarding

most

(Gini

coefficient)

challenging

goal

and

achieved.

food

Anyway,

Sahelian

security. Also the arid conditions

countries differ from one another in

over the region are likely to be

these aspects. Cape Verde and

exacerbated even in those areas

Mauritania seem to be the success

have

towards meeting the MDGs. In

experienced an increase due to

contrast, Gambia and Senegal

the

with

where higher

precipitations

evapotranspiration

regime - because of the higher temperatures

surrounding

the

Sahel.

overall poverty

and

food

poverty and insecure increased. The Sahel has suffered due to climate change in the past,

Global food supplies would not

present and will do in the future.

be affected. Nevertheless, the loss

This tragedy has more to do with

of arable lands in the African

the lack of preparedness to face

region puts it among the worst

those issues. Firstly, due to the

affected regions related to climate

abundance of rainfalls, the colonial

change.

The

reduced

powers and then the independent

precipitations

will

cereal

African states opted to export their

make

Global warming and desertification

products but when the droughts

agriculture.

came, no one was prepared to

decade, more concretely, in 1973,

face them. And secondly, meeting

the CILSS was created to show

the

(Millennium

the commitment by the regional

Development Goals) is considered

governments to deal with food

for

“mission

insecurity in the African region.

conditions

This commitment was reiterated

MDGs the

Sahel

impossible”

unless

During

45 the

same

change. When they will face to

with

these

international conventions: CBD ,

challenges,

vulnerability

would be reduced and there would

ratification

three 5

UNCCD and UNFCCC .

also be a better preparation of the population when it happens again.

the

It is also worth mentioning the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol,

b. Adaptations To The

by Gambia, Mali and Senegal, to

Climate Change

the UNFCCC as well as the submission by the Sahelian states

Progresses on adaptation to the

of their National Communications

climate

changes

(NCs) to the UNFCCC Secretariat.

regions

have

Especially,

all

over

been

made.

Mauritania

also

submitted its National Adaptation

international community involved

Programme of Action (NAPA) ,

helping

Sahelian

governments

Moreover,

the

progresses

the

and

the

region

showing their commitments to fight the droughts and the loss and decrease

food

and

food

insecurity. In 1970s there were some droughts affecting the region with negative consequences for it due to an inadequate response to the crisis, affecting especially to the Sahelian economy and society, which

are

mainly

based

CILSS is Comité permanent Interétats de Lutte contre le Sécheresse dans le Sahel. The mandate or main objective that guides the action of CILSS is to invest in research for food security and the fight against the effects of drought and desertification for a new ecological balance in the Sahel. 5 Convention on Biological Diversity. 6 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. 7 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 8 “NAPAs provide a process for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify priority activities that respond to their urgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate change – those for

46 State and non-state actors while for the others it is still in progress.

in socio-economic data, translating

When we give a look to those NCs

Those NCs failed in factoring

issued

the

Sahelian

national governments, we see they provide the national perceptions of the countries of climate change, focusing above all on agriculture in

the outputs the worst scenarios in terms of agricultural impacts. So, we can say that the first NCs were, rather

towards GHG sources leaving little or no space for vulnerability and adaptability studies (as expected); experienced

limitations:

lack

other

appropriate

models, coarse resolution of the problems and the unavailability of any

long-term

qualitative

and

quantitative data. Also, none of them took into consideration the effects of the higher atmospheric CO2 (carbon dioxide) and the interaction of it with precipitation and

temperatures.

cannot

forget that the huge accumulations of CO2 as well as other gases, the so-called

GHG,

are

the

ones

provoking the famous greenhouse effect

impact

assessments. However, the second round of exception of Senegal whose NC is already

finalised.

document, warming

this

scenarios

new

realistic

and

higher

number of agricultural systems were chosen by the Senegalese Government.

c. Adaptive Resources With

respect

the

adaptive

resources existing in the Sahel, several programmes and projects have explored a wide range of options with the support of the international

community

and

strategic partnerships. However, it would

necessary

for

its

effectiveness to mix the technical innovations with improvement in terms of weather forecasting. The success aimed, should be based

which further delay would increase vulnerability and/or costs at a later stage”. (Change, 2015)

resources

mere

NCs are in preparation, with the

The initial NCs were skewed

which

vulnerability

assessments,

the vulnerability and adaptation studies.

than

both

between

farmers’ and

the

indigenous

adaptive blending knowledge

Global warming and desertification

and scientific and technological

not affecting diversity as much as

innovations.

expected since many species of

According

several

authors, indigenous communities have shown the five following responses with respect to their

indigenous

trees

well

conserved thanks to a process of selective

clearing.

Another

important aspect, worth to be mentioned

perception of the crisis:

are

the

increasing

tendency of keeping animals by farmers because is being more important than those animal held by

specialised

nomadic

pastoralists. Indigenous

Sahelian

people are also aware of the opportunities Photo Source: Climate Change

and

urbanization

Variability

the

Sahel

Region.

thanks

surrounding

them,

the

rapid

and

the

better

mobility, they can export their communities

labour production to other cities,

negotiate the rain, that is, they

coastal countries or across the

need to show wits and flexibility in

whole Africa.

These

timing

indigenous

farmers

operations

and

management household labour.

Agriculture is considered as the core of the Sahelian socio-

The maintenance of high

economic development and, as a

biodiversity within farms and in

matter of fact, the sector plays

agricultural landscapes has been

many

proved as a way to reduce food

improvement of food security, job

insecurity (through simultaneous

creation

growing, mixing or intercropping)

population,

and avoid a total crop failure. The

industries, the partial absorption of

conversion of natural system to

the industrial and semi-industrial

croplands although it is going to

sector’s

reduce the plant population, it is

generation of foreign exchange.

roles and

such

income

for rural

supplies

outputs

the

agro-

and

the

48 State and non-state actors Some examples of plans, policies and similar that national Sahelian

governments

produced

are:

Environmental

have National

Actions

Plans

The

main

desertification overgrazing

causes are

the

of the

farming

average land , the destruction of plants in dry regions

and the

(NEAPs), National Action Plans to

incorrect irrigation in arid regions,

Combat

causing a build up of salt in the

Desertification

(NAPs)

and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

(PRSPs).

The

main

objective of all of them is aimed at contribute to reduce vulnerability of rural population face to climate change. Moreover, policies are being put in all countries parties to the CILSS in order to diversify the agricultural economy by initiating R+D

into

soil.

non-traditional

The

effects

consequences of it are the less usable soil, the vegetation lacked or damaged, the famine, food loss and it also affects to people near to

affected

areas,

suffering

because of flooding, poor water quality, dust storms, and pollution caused by desertification.

agricultural commodities. Now,

d. Desertification

desertification

we has

explain

how

affected

change,

Sahel throughout the time. By

desertification is another threaten

1950s people started establishing

the Sahel has to deal with. At first

settlements within the region that

sight,

relate

with time, provoke an overgrazing.

desertification to climate change

Perennial shrubs were removed,

but it is not only a consequence of

substituted by annual ones leaving

it but also from the action of

a bare soil in there and rocks. The

human beings and other animals

topsoil was washed away and silt

destroying the soil to benefit them.

turned hard when hit by rain, the

Apart

from

climate

could

We would also need to analyse what causes it and which are

the

effects

desertification.

caused

It is related to the nomadism that is decreasing and animals are kept in one place. 10 Taking away the richness of the soil when it should be let replenished before farming. 11 Cutting down trees massively.

Global warming and desertification

consequence was that plants were

were lost due to overgrazing as

not able to grow. Therefore the

well as trampling by cattle. As a

region became a complete desert,

paradoxical event, in the mid-

which is in expansion. As rainfalls

1970s, N.H. McLeod

have decreased and the lack of

pentagon-shaped

vegetation has increased, sands

holding its vegetation. Turning out

are shifted south into the area.

to be a French cattle farm, it

Furthermore, degrading the quality

achieved it just through a strand of

of the Sahelian soil, are also

barbed wire, keeping the deserts

provoking the Sahel becoming a

out.

total desert. We can also classify the consequences into

short-term

desertification and

long-term

effects. The first one happens when the soil loses its nutrients, which

makes

not

useful,

overgrazing destroys vegetation and without it erosion occurs; land becomes salty which makes it difficult to grow crops. And the long- term effects cause people and cattle die of starvation and the soil becomes completely useless. When the French arrived to the Sahel, they altered the existing

agricultural

patterns,

emphasizing the export of crops and the east-west trade from the interior to Atlantic port cities as well. With Western aid (1968-1973) the situation kept going down. Lands

found

region

a still

References Brough, W. and Kimenyi, M. (2004). Desertification of the Sahel | PERC – The Property and Environment Research Centre. [Online] Perc.org. Available from: http://www.perc.org/articles/desertification-sahel [Last access: 1 June 2015]. Change, U. (2015). National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs). [online]

Unfccc.int.

Available

from:

http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php [Last access: 1 June 2015]. DIANABUJA'S BLOG: Africa, The Middle East, Agriculture, History and Culture, (2014). Sahelian City-States in the Western Sahel: Part 2. [online]

Available

from:

https://dianabuja.wordpress.com/2014/01/24/sahelian-city-states-inthe-western-sahel-part-2/ [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Research.jisao.washington.edu, (2015). Sahel Precipitation Index. [online] Available from: http://research.jisao.washington.edu/data_sets/sahel/ [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Tripod, (n.d.). Causes and Effects of Desertification. [Online] Available from: http://desertificationb.tripod.com/id3.html [Last access: 31 May 2015]. United Nations Environment Programme, (2006). Climate Change and Variability in the Sahel Region: Impacts and Adaptation Strategies in the

Agricultural

Sector.

[Online]

Available

from:

http://www.unep.org/Themes/Freshwater/Documents/pdf/ClimateCha ngeSahelCombine.pdf

[Last

access:

May

2015].

State and non-state actors

Religious influence By Andrés Escorial.

the presence of different beliefs

“Die Religion…sie ist das Opium des Volkes” Karl Marx, 1844.

identified in the area: Christianity, Islam, Animist and Unaffiliated.

In the 70’s religion moved

The Sahel is becoming a more and more interesting region as time pass by. Nonetheless the actual situation seems more chaotic for most of the people and experts in the area than in the past. Besides, the religious mixture is short of becoming

huge

problem

up in the scale of importance, in previous decades it was a topic more likely to be understood as a private thing of the individual, families

Nevertheless,

as due

much to

tribes. foreign

influence, the religion started to be seen as something of way more

certain areas of the region.

importance and started to have a Religion is something that reaches the deep spirit of any human being. While the desire for other material issues like basic needs and money can be short of fulfill with a certain quantity of them, religion cannot.

the

Afghanistan,

Soviet the

invasion Sahel

was

people from the capitals of the states,

farmers

and

nomads. But it was more important

12 German (original). ‘Religion…is the opium of the masses’ Karl Marx, 1844. Translation: Unknown.

reached the Sahel, and with all the economic, nutritional, culture and other values that arrived to the region, the different expressions present in the area also appeared.

compound by different groups, different

public life. And finally globalization

and ideas of the religious groups

For a long time, even before

very important role also in the

The region was a place of cross borders, not only in the physical frontier between states but also at a cultural, ethnical and religious level. Sadly, in the last decade

wall

has

been

constructed among the different religious groups, and this has led

52 Religious influence to incidents and some barbaric

and the two more spread within

acts.

the Sahel. It is important to clarify that

the

monotheist

religions

have

a. Religious organization

bigger presence within the Sahel area than the Animists and the

The way of organization is

Unaffiliated, which have quite little

of paramount importance in order

presence.

to understand how these two

addition

organization

the the

internal

religions operate in the area. Christianity

different

presence

aspect within the African region.

groups,

Starting with the Unaffiliated, it is

representative are Catholics and

less likely that they have any

Evangelists.

internal structure or any way of

follows a very pyramidal structure

organization. The Animists have

in which the head is the Pope of

their roots beliefs coming from

Rome, and then it has a very

nature, and then it is usually based

strictly structural organization until

something

those members of the Catholic

material coming for the nature.

Church that work on the field in the

Therefore, the connection is more

Sahel.

individual oriented; the individual

separated Christian Church from

can have direct contact with its

the Catholic one, and they are

deities. It is less likely that some

organized

short of hierarchical structure is

Therefore there is no hierarchical

installed while it is more possible

structure but the free association

that those beliefs are inherited.

of a group of believers under the

and

Moving forward into the other two groups (Christianity and

different

its

religious groups is an important

tradition

has

the

two

The

religious more

former

latter

one

communities.

guidance of a priest. Despite

the

evident

Islam), the first characteristic that

differences between both groups,

we must place in mind is that both

they both have the same root

of them are monotheist religions,

regarding

faith,

the

Christian

religion. Still, the Evangelists are

53 Â

State and non-state actors

growing and growing in presence

occupies the highest position and

within the Sahel.

it answers to no one. Thus, in the

Regarding

Islam,

the

organization of Islam has more resemblances

with

the

Evangelists, due to the fact that they are organized in community groups and they follow the lead of an Imam. Nonetheless, the Imam

end all Muslim communities within the Sahel do share a common belief and a holy book, the Koran. But the communities may differ from a little bit or quite a lot regarding the interpretations or applications of those values.

b. Role of religion in Sahel

Photo Source: Spiegel Online.

It is necessary to underline that

At a strategic level, the

religion is a topic, which is more

region

likely to be linked with almost any

expansions of new interpretations

other topic of the daily life.

or religious groups due to the fact

Nowadays, the Sahel is a region connected to the world and consequently is more subjected to the influence of new trends now more than ever. Most of these new trends came from northern Africa, which

has

direct

access

influence over the Sahel.

and

subjected

quick

that religion is very hard to control neither by the countries nor the African Union. Religious lies in the sense that it belongs to the mind and soul. Hence in the overview of the different topics, some of them may make tensions to arise such as economy or natural resources, but religion is something that can

54 Religious influence make

ruthless

struggle

emanate.

extremely dangerous, just because both break the limit of the interior

For that reason, we could argue that religion is one of those subjects that can make people do irrational things. It can blurred the mind, erase any trace of rationality and common sense and let the

spiritual aspect of the individual and tend to came out and look for a translation or performance within the society, disregarding whether that society follows that same religion or not.

individual act by instinct or random

The best example of the

thoughts, is when the craziest and

argument just exposed is the

most brutal acts are committed in

events that took place in the city of

the name of God. On top of that,

Jos in Nigeria in the year 2008.

there is the misinterpretation of the

The Federal Republic of Nigeria,

holy

common

one of the most populated states

mistake that people usually think,

within the Sahel, also known for

which makes followers of that

the

specific religion commit acts that in

religions

the right sense and interpretation

borders. This nation had had one

have nothing to do with what the

of the greatest clashes among

books say and claim.

religious

books,

The region is quite poor and with a lot of instability, this leads

clear

lack

good

education, among the majority of the population. This is the utmost of the problems towards religion, because then the followers do not fully understand their religion and are very easily to enter into the limits

superstition

and

radicalism. The two issues mentioned in the previous paragraph are

great

mixture within

groups

of its

different national

the

past

decade, a series of events that led the Nigerian city of Jos to be mentioned in almost every single news media worldwide. In previous years – 2001 and 2004 – the state had

witnessed

confrontations

between both religious groups, but in 2008 it reached a level of violence never seen before. Then, actually, in 2008, in the city of Jos, Plateau state (Nigeria), where cohabite together Muslims and Christians, become

State and non-state actors

city chaos. Within the state of

shooting,

Plateau, Christians are seeing as

setting churches and mosques on

indigenous while on the other side

fire.

Muslims are seeing as settlers.

using

machetes

the

third

day

and

The violence sparked due

struggle, the army entered the city

to state elections with a clear

with orders to shoot on sight at the

religious component during the

minimum suspicious of any violent

campaign.

People’s

act. After another couple of days

Democratic Party, which won, was

the situation was normal again,

backed up by the Christians while

even

All Nigeria People’s party, which

patrolling the city for a few more

accused the elections to be rigged,

weeks.

The

was supported by the Muslim community.

though

the

army

kept

The results of the brutal Riots were over 500 deaths, thousands of

From

that

moment

on,

injured

(mostly

machete

everything went out of control.

stabbing) and 10,000 citizens that

Politics was no longer the debate,

flew the city in order to seek help

the two religious groups started a

and security in the surrounding

number of serious accusations

villages outside the city.

against each other, and the things escalated extremely fast.

Hence, this is the best example of how powerful religion

The two ethnicities that

can

be,

and

especially

how

lived in Jos, found themselves in a

important it is within the Sahel

position of radical fanatic and

region. As it happened in Jos, it

violence

spreading

started as a political matter, but it

incredibly quickly, like fire in the

was not until the religion took a

woods.

deep presence that things went

sparked

What is quite shocking is that all the attacks were religious

out of control and the most brutal and nasty actions were seen.

oriented, for two days groups of

Well, this is not something

furious peoples from both faiths

that only takes place in Nigeria;

were

these types of clashes are quite

the

streets

Jos,

56 Religious influence common through the entire Sahel

groups. These groups belong to

region.

the Sahel but in its migration Another important aspect

is not to have a simplistic view on the religious issues in the Sahel, because the problems not only arise

among

different

religious

groups, but also within groups that

displacement they move from the northern African region to the Sahel. These types of tribes are the ones expanding the Islam faith in other regions of the Sahel really fast.

The

problem

the

methodology, as some nomads

claim to follow the same religion.

groups

expand

Islam

through

c. Internal religious

pacific means, other tends to use

divisions

violence in order to ensure the

Another important aspect is not to have a simplistic view on the religious

issues

the

Sahel

victory of Islam. The greatest example of this is the current situation in Mali. In Mali not only violence

because the problems not only arise

among

different

religious

has

spread

over

nomad

and

groups, but also within groups that

settled tribes due to faith, in

claim to follow the same religion.

addition

Right

now,

the

most

famous one with a lot of troubles within the faith is Islam. It

nowadays

French

intervention going on right now. In this specific context, several tribes has band together in order to fight

that

tribes

have

opposed

such

expanding

expansion and are actually fighting

within the Sahel area, and as it

against it. It is curious how the

happens

expansion

more affected tribes or individuals

different groups are taking part of

in Mali are mostly animists; the

it,

jihad had had no mercy on them.

and

in in

in the jihad, nonetheless other

undeniable

Islam

there

every some

cases

the

differences between such groups are quite big. The

arisen in the last years towards the main

way

expansionism is through nomads

But a new controversy has different

tribes

Mali,

combination of Islam with animist’s

State and non-state actors

practices. This has led to real

ends up being under the area

weird expressions of faith. And this

controlled by these groups.

has

created

strong

division

within Islamic tribes in Mali. The tribes that combine Islam with animism are afraid to be seen as infidels by those that claim to practice the pure Islam. This

It is well known that certain cultural heritage in certain Sahel regions

paramount

of Islam could engage in an internal religious war in which getting

victorious

complete

been

destroyed by jihadist groups and for that reason, there is great fear that compounds the Sahel towards all the cultural figures and statues.

These two types of interpretation

the

already

in the central and western states

importance in countries like Mali.

unfortunately

has

only

way

the

elimination

the

opponent. This is the utmost fear of those tribes from south Mali or Ghana which follow the Islam faith but they also practice and are proud of their animist’s traditions and their tribe’s heritage.

This is another proof that religious issues tend to go beyond personal limits or family life and even tries to erase history or cultural

values.

Once

again,

religion can be destructive, but as is

not

very

well

understood

nowadays especially in western societies but also in regions as the Sahel.

This

kind

religious

clashes can get in a ruthless, merciless and savage fight that

Moreover, there are other

can go viral through all the region.

aspects at risk due to religious

radicalization. As an example, the

destruction that actions committed

more savage members that are

in the name of a God sometimes

performing

are

goes beyond imagination, leading

committing ruthless acts not only

to some situations that can destroy

against the population that do not

a person’s soul.

the

jihad

follow their rigorous practices and take not all their values as the true and

valid

ones.

The

cultural

heritage is also in great danger if it

that

happens,

the

level

58 Religious influence d. Radicalism within

capable of correct expressing what

religion

those texts means. Even though the way of organizing religiously is

It is also important to talk about the

different,

difficulties of identifying radicalism

leaders cannot cope with all the

within any religious groups within

people spread over huge amount

the Sahel. Contrary to common

of land.

beliefs,

the

radicalization

religion can evolve into fanatic or superstition – or a combination of both. However, it is not something that can be located in a specific place.

goes

apart

from

geographic or tribal aspects, the capacity of misinterpret religion tends to happened within the minds

Consequently

the

individuals.

there

can

spark

radical groups, formed by their member themselves without prior connection

another

radical

group everywhere.

religious

responsible

and

religious well-educated

religious figures and leaders is also a big issue within the topic of religious

issues

and

clashes

because they have a double scope in

this

aspect.

First

the

responsibility towards the society, most of them are multi-religious ones,

therefore

order

guarantee the survival not only of the faith but also of the state the believers need to learn how to cohabit.

Second, one

moral

the

main

features of the religion in the Sahel

education.

is that it has a clear material

The religion is directly linked with

content. It seems that everything

the poor levels of education that

of the daily life is connected to the

are possible to find in the countries

faith. In the Sahel, most people

that compound the Sahel, more

have forgotten or put in a second

specifically, the lack of a proper

place the spiritual side of religion,

religious

the

while they tend the material and

majority of the population has

mortal side to prevail. And it is

access to the contents of the

quite clear by reading or having

different sacred text of their own

some shirt of knowledge about the

beliefs they lack a figure that is

sacred

main

Lack

dimension,

The main problem with misinterpretations

the

education.

While

texts

the

different

59 Â

State and non-state actors

religions that the spiritual aspect

Central African Republic in order

shall always come first.

to gain control in the country.

The situation explained in

The

Anti-Balaka

the previous paragraph reaches

radical militia group composed by

even

Christians

further,

because

can

and

minority

Animists

opposition. This simply happens

violence used by a radical Muslim

because

group known by the name Seleka.

majority

the

extremist religious groups tend to evolve from more moderate ones. It

ends

voluntary

differentiation by the group itself from the original one. In addition, this radicalized groups tend also to identify opposites, this means the

response

creates other religious groups by the

the

This is a best example of radicalization by opposition, those members of the Christian-Animist militia

are

radicalized

but

the

extremism did not emanate from them but from the actions taken by the Muslim militia.

search for a rival, which is always The

see as the enemy due to the fact that such rival is perceived as the complete opposite to the faith and the gospel and the values that the faith promotes.

Anti-Balaka

movement has its origin as groups of volunteers, against criminals and thieves. Nonetheless it got radicalized after the Seleka militia group committed their first attacks.

We can argue that one Thus,

example of this idea is located in the Central African Republic with certain Christian Militia that was created in opposition to a previous formed Muslim radical group.

longer

nowadays

volunteer

group

defending of villages and people. Now is a clear militia formed by a coalition of Christians and Animists that has a direct rival, the Muslim

The so called Anti-Balaka

militia known as Seleka.

emerged as a response to Muslim rebel group from the country that was operating from the Sahel area located in Chad and intruding the

Consequently, as it has been explained, it is really difficult to deal with the topic of religious issues as a single unit. Because it

60 Religious influence cannot be denied the enormous connections it has with mostly every

other aspect within

the

Sahel and the daily life of the people in the area. Moreover, radicals groups are using one of the most powerful tools in order to create violence in the region. Every

single

aspect

has

connection with religion and the bad

use

combination

these

with

tools

some

wrong

interpretations can lead to the brutal acts that unfortunately are occurring in the Sahel. Therefore, a correct use and appropriate understanding can be the cure of a lot of problems, both at a social and

spiritual

level.

State and non-state actors

References: Camara, K. (2014). Terror and other challenges in the Sahel: Don’t ignore the local – By Kamissa Camara | African Arguments. [online] Africanarguments.org.

Available

from:

http://africanarguments.org/2014/02/17/terror-and-other-challenges-inthe-sahel-dont-ignore-the-local-by-kamissa-camara/ [Last access: 3 June 2015]. Hilsum, L. (2015). Islamic Militants Destroy Malian Cultural Heritage, Purporting a 'Pure Islam'. [online] PBS NewsHour. Available from: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/world-july-dec12-mali_08-23/

[Last

access: 1 June 2015]. Jubber, N. (2015). Mali’s Nomads: Bulwarks Against Jihad | World Policy Institute.

[online]

Worldpolicy.org.

Available

from:

http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/fall2014/mali-nomads-against-jihad [Last access: 3 June 2015]. Kane,

(2015). Sahel

Sahelresearch.africa.ufl.edu.

Research

Group.

Available

[online] from:

http://sahelresearch.africa.ufl.edu/research/religion-and-migration [Last access: 30 May 2015]. Larson, M. and Krieger, E. (2015). National Geographic Magazine NGM.com. [online] Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. Available from: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/geopedia/Sahel [Last access: 30 May 2015]. Mellgard, E. (2015). What is the Antibalaka?. [online] Tony Blair Faith Foundation. Available from: http://tonyblairfaithfoundation.org/religiongeopolitics/commentaries/backgrounder/what-antibalaka [Last access: 3 June 2015]. News.bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC NEWS | Africa | Riots 'kill hundreds in Nigeria'.

[online]

Available

from:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7756695.stm [Last access: 1 June 2015].

62 Religious influence Rice, X. (2008). Nigerian city counts its dead after days of ChristianMuslim

riots.

[online]

the

Guardian.

Available

from:

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/01/nigeria-christianityislam-jos-riots [Last access: 1 June 2015]. Sambe, B. (2015). From Religious Radicalism to Terrorism in the Sahel & Sahara

RCSS.

[online]

Rcssmideast.org.

Available

from:

http://www.rcssmideast.org/En/Article/119/From-Religious-Radicalismto-Terrorism-in-the-Sahel--Sahara#.VWnWTNLtmko [Last access: 31 May 2015]. SPIEGEL ONLINE, G. (2015). Photo Gallery: Nigeria's Religious Divide. [online]

SPIEGEL

ONLINE.

Available

from:

http://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/photo-gallery-nigeria-s-religiousdivide-fotostrecke-50471.html

[Last

access:

June

2015].

State and non-state actors

Foreign Intervention By Guillermo Aguirre, Miguel Asin, Andrés Escorial, Sandra Meana and Sergio Serrano.

Photo Source: Reuters/Joey Penney. Currently there are multiple foreign

This resolution was approved

operations of different scope going

under chapter VII of the UN

on within the Sahel. The range of

Charter, therefore UNAMID was

variety of topics regarding foreign

legally

aid or support is so big that in this

necessary

section the most important ones

achieve the following objectives:

will be developed.

authorised means

use

order

any to

Protecting its human and

a. UNAMID (UN/AU

logistic units in the area

Hybrid Military

and ensuring freedom and security

Operation in Darfur) On the 31 Security

resolution

passed

number

authorizing

operation,

named

Darfur (Sudan).

its

To ensure the success of the

Darfur

Peace

1769

Agreement, to avoid any

peacekeeping

harm that can be caused

UNAMID,

against civilians as well as

to respond and prevent any

movement

there too.

July 2007 the UN

Council

armed

attack.

All

64 Foreign intervention these

shall

done

Strategy

for

Security

and

without interfering in the

Development in the Sahel. It led to

affairs

the

National

Government of Sudan.

approval

the

following

activities regarding the Sahel:

The current strength of UNAMID

A budget over 700 million

up to 31 March 2015 (UN Data) is

euros

16,815

development, security and

uniformed

(13,460

troops

personnel 190

military

observes + 3,165 police), 967 international

civilian

invest

counterterrorism. -

personnel,

The specialized training of the security forces of the

2,864 local civilian staff and 275

different

United Nations Volunteers.

compound the Sahel.

It is still in force in Darfur trying to restore peace, providing humanitarian aid as well as trying to achieve the rest of their goals.

states

that

To ensure that the chaotic situation in the Sahel does not expand towards north, in order to prevent the EU and its citizens of suffer

UNAMID is clear a big transnational intervention (with a

the

possible

consequences.

legal character) due to the fact the both the UN along with the AU are cooperating to ensure the victory

Apart

from

the

UNAMID,

France has decided to send a specific French intervention within

of it.

the Sahelian region, legitimised by Nonetheless

the

importance of the Sahel worldwide can

appreciate

the

following intervention, seeing how a foreign transnational institution decided to take matters in its own hands and entered in the Sahel region in order to intervene. The EU published, signed and ratified on September 2011, the

UN Charter. It is in force in the case of an attack against one of the countries included within the Sahel, allowing for collective selfdefence. Nevertheless, according to the UN Resolution 2085, African forces were the ones called to deal with this kind of issues. Despite the UNAMID, France decided to send its armed forces

State and non-state actors

and

intervened.

With

the

units nor international actors.

intervention of the French armed

These groups are associations

forces within the Sahel, the violent

created by an aggrupation of

radical

people or foreigners with a clear

groups

that

were

expanding their control over the

intention of spread the religion as

territory were stopped. Moreover,

well as to educate with certain

after

values. The main characteristic

forced

these

groups

retreat, the national French army

about these programs is that they

regained some territories.

are international in the sense that

However, the violent radical and terrorist groups were not

congregations are spread all over the world yet connected.

defeated. The President of the French

Republic

Hollande

A good example is the

François

African Assistance Plan, with an

the

Evangelic root that it is nowadays

expressed

impossibility of a complete defeat

installed

of those terrorist groups in such

countries including some of the

period of time. In addition, he has

Sahel as Nigeria. With more than

underlined

25 years of history, it has its

working in different fields apart

presence based on the values of

from the use of military force in

educating under God’s guidance.

order to ensure the defeat of the

This Evangelic group aims to

terrorist and violent groups.

spread the word of almighty God.

the

importance

b. Religious aspects In the topic of religion it is of paramount importance to underline that there is a clear intervention or programs coming from the outside, but the word “foreign” is not the most appropriate one. The religious groups that

African

As the previous program admits, the main objective is to bring God to the African people. Then, they help to improve the education of the people as well as their life standards through the teaching of new techniques and micro financing. Thus, they are a combination of theological lessons

have missions or programs within

and

the Sahel are neither international

improvement.

certain

education,

health

and

66 Foreign intervention It is undeniable that these

Moreover, they demand short of

groups are good players in the

convert or at least follow that

area, but some are criticized by

religion is seem by opposition as a

certain voices due to the fact that

way to take leverage of the locals.

are

not

seeing

unbiased.

c. Humanitarian aid

Photo Source: Doctor without Borders.

Unfortunately, humanitarian aid is really

needed

because

covers

the

Sahel

almost

The

sad

truth

that

thousands of kids need urgent

the

nutrition help, but actually not all of

whole region and hundreds of

them can be help as there is no

different programs and situations.

enough resources, and those that

The greatest example is the one of Doctor without Borders and the topic of child malnutrition.

are treated are in constant fear that the help will stop one day. Plenty

kids

within

These instances are good in order

different countries of the Sahel

to understand how humanitarian

were taken into the program by

intervention is performed in the

Doctor without Borders, but is not

Sahel.

enough.

Simply

because

this

State and non-state actors

program have a hard time trying to maintain the flow of nutritional help coming in into the Sahel. It is really important to understand that this program must have a long-term orientation.

Therefore

the

aid

needs to be constant; otherwise the kids will face gaps of lack of nutritional

aid.

Thus,

may

increase the risk of decease of the patients to higher levels. This not only

applies

the

specific

program above-mentioned but to every single other project that Doctors

without

Borders

have

operational in the region. As we can appreciate in the map, there are a lot of those nutritional kid programs all over the Western Sahel. This NGO’s have a transnational sphere, and their

presence

consequently survival

the

worldwide, chances

thousands

of kids

depend on such programs. These

types

interventions are really positive for the area, still as NGO’s the power they have is limited. Hence their support is vital in order to bring aid and stabilization to the Sahel.

68 Foreign intervention

References Africaassistanceplangh.org, (2015). Africa Assistance Plan | Welcome. [online] Available from: http://www.africaassistanceplangh.org/aap/ [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Doctorswithoutborders.org,

(2015).

[online]

Available

from:

http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/usa/files/MSF_MAP_Sa hel_nut_paediatrics_projects.jpg [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Godement, F. (2015). War in the Sahel: a European cause. [online] Ecfr.eu. Available

from:

http://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_war_in_the_sahel_a_europe an_cause [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Remy, J. (2015). Malnutrition in the Sahel: One Million Children Treated, But

What's

Next?.

[online]

MSF

USA.

Available

from:

http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news-stories/fieldnews/malnutrition-sahel-one-million-children-treated-whats-next [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Un.org, (2015). African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID).

[online]

Available

from:

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unamid/ [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Un.org, (2015). UNAMID Mandate - African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation

Darfur.

[online]

Available

from:

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unamid/mandate.shtm l [Last access: 4 June 2015]. Unccd.int, (2015). UNCCD from:

- About the Convention. [online] Available

http://www.unccd.int/en/about-the-convention/Pages/About-

the-Convention.aspx [Last access: 4 June 2015]. UNFCCC, (2015). About UNFCCC. [online] Available from: http://newsroom.unfccc.int/about/ [Last access: 4 June 2015].

State and non-state actors

The EU and the Sahel By Alberto Díaz, Sara Peiró, Patricia Martínez and Marta Saguar. Being one of the poorest regions

in the cases of Algeria, Libya,

of the world, the Sahel area faces

Morocco and even Nigeria.

the

challenges

disadvantage,

economic

but

also,

the

effects of climate change, the fast population weak

growth,

corruption,

governance,

internal

disputes yet unresolved, the risk of radical and extremist groups in the

area,

illegal

trafficking,

terrorist threats and frequent lack of food.

For these reasons, the European Union External Action Service has started to implement the Strategy for Security and Development

the

Sahel.

Assuming that their neighbour problems will sooner or later affect their own satus quo, the European Union (EU) agrees on the

The

idea

that

security

and

international

development must go hand by

community is aware of these

hand in the region and that

facts, but it is not always easy to

promoting security will allow their

intervene. Thus, most of the time

economies to grow and develop

the Sahel countries are left alone

from poverty. This security in the

with their problems. The main

region

ones are Mauritania, Mali and

cooperation agreements between

Niger. These are the Sahelian

the

core states, altogether with parts

Mediterranean. That is why the

of Burkina Faso and Chad. In this

EU has an important role in

globalized world, problems do not

promoting

end in the frontier lines, but they

development of the nations in the

are international and what affect

Sahel corridor and in helping

the ones affects also the other

them achieving a higher level of

neighbours as we could observe

security that could contribute in

would two

need

shores

the

further of

the

economic

70 The EU and the Sahel the

creation

better

environment.

Humanitarian assistance is also challenged by the vulnerability of

The proliferation of arms in the region is one of the main problems to the security in Sahel.

the area, making the task to the EU

and

high

level

This makes it totally clear

corruption

that we live in an interconnected

contribute to the socio-economic

world where domino effects are

instability in the region. This leads

the rule and not the exception.

to divisions and unrest in the local

Then, only an integrated and

populations

holistic

that

international

community even harder.

The fragility of governments and the

the

creates

the

regional

strategy

will

favourable pot for terrorist groups

make it possible for progress in

and organizations to flourish and

the area to be made. This would

start

and

include: promotion of good and

control to favour their situation.

accountable governance, more

Due to the religious links with

robust public institutions able to

other

provide

demanding

terrorist

power

and

yihadista

basic

organizations in Middle East and

services,

in the rest of the world, the

tensions, etc.

support given from these other external actors is making the situation

even

worst.

The

paradigmatic example would be the activity in the region by AlQaida in the Maghreb, which operates now from northern Mali. Undoubtedly, investment

development

appeasing

The

internal

nature

the

conflicts throughout the Sahel and

Sahara

Violence

has

transnational

changed.

become

phenomenon

places such as Libya, Mali and Nigeria, and there is increasing political,

ethnic

and

religious

in the area is highly discouraged

tensions. Moreover, there is no

by this situation and many of the

cooperation among regions –

production

especially

facilities

and

given

the

rivalry

resources are under control of

between Algeria and Morocco –

these terrorist organizations that

which facilitates the entry of

find this as a way of self-funding.

jihadists, criminal and separatist

State and non-state actors

militants in the area. And thereby

due mainly to threats as al-Qaeda

increase

in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM)

the

links

between

militant groups in the region, such

and

transnational

as Boko Haram and Al Qaeda in

activities

the Islamic Maghreb.

spaces of the region.

the

criminal ungoverned

Many international and

Last May, the EU has

regional institutions, not only the

already launched its reform plans

EU seek to improve the situation

regarding the Sahel agreed to

in the Sahel, but need to improve

strengthen their civilian mission

their cooperation to effectively

EUCAP

address the situation.

the arrival of illegal immigrants

In addition to terrorism, the EU seeks to prevent illegal immigration and promote security of key energy suppliers as Algeria or Libya because of the possibility of

derived

direct

indirect

impacts on Europe. Furthermore, another point is to protect the economic interests that lay on the gas

pipelines

the

Sahara

desert.

in Sahel and to prevent

into the EU – a goal for which it will

provide

Nigerian

implementation

the Strategy for Security and Development

the

Sahel

coincided with these dramatic changes in the region. However, alterations

the

geopolitical

configuration of the Sahel have

authorities.

Besides,

they provide counselling services and training strategy for security services of the regional countries, and a frontier post in Agadez (Niger), one of the centres of trafficking routes to Libya. In last days, Federica Mogherini,

The

assistance

the

High

Representative of Foreign Affairs

13 “On 16 July 2012, the European Union has launched EUCAP Nestor, a strengthening mission under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) in order to enhance the maritime capacities of five

led the EU to recalibrate their

countries in the Horn of Africa and

implementation plans to adapt to

the Western Indian Ocean: Djibouti,

the new situation. The design of a

Kenya, Somalia, Seychelles and

EU strategy for the region was

Tanzania.” (Eeas.europa.eu, (2015))

72 The EU and the Sahel of the EU, has expressed her

The mission EUCAP in Sahel and

awareness about increasing flows

training to the Nigerian authorities

immigration

stating

(Eu-

un.europa.eu, 2015):

fighting

“Just working with the countries of origin and transit, as well as with the African Union and the UN, we will attack the root of the problem and help dissolve the criminal organizations

and

help

migrants to escape from them”.

strengthen against

their

capacities

terrorism

and

organized crime and to improve the ability of cooperation of the Nigerian security forces while developing capabilities.

its

research

State and non-state actors

References Bello, Elodiran. (2012) "La implementación de la Estrategia de la UE para el Sahel: entre

arenas

movedizas"

[online] Available

from:

http://fride.org/.../WP_114_Implementacion_estrategia_UE...

[Last

access: 5 June 2015]. Bolaños Martinez, Jorge. (2012) "MISIÓN DE LA UNIÓN EUROPEA EN EL SAHEL: LA APUESTA DE EUROPA EN UNA REGIÓN CRUCIAL PARA

SEGURIDAD"

[online]

Available

from:

http://www.ieee.es/.../DIEEEI44-2012_MisionEuropeaSahel... [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Consejo de la UE (2015) Comunicado de prensa: "Proyecto de Conclusiones del Consejo relativas al Plan de acción regional para el

Sahel

2015-2020"

[online]

Available

http://www.consilium.europa.eu/.../20-council.../

[Last

from:

access:

June 2015]. Fundacioncives.org, (2015). 80 propuestas para una Europa participativa, abierta e inclusiva - Noticias - Comunicación - Fundación CIVES. [online]

Available

from:

http://www.fundacioncives.org/comunicacion/noticias/80propuestas-para-una-europa-participativa-abierta-e-inclusiva/ [Last access: 2 June 2015]. European External Action Service (EEAS), (2015) - "The European Union and

the

Sahel

fact

sheet"

[online]

Available

http://eeas.europa.eu/.../sahel-european-union-factsheet...

from: [Last

access: 5 June 2015]. European External Action Service (EEAS), (2015) - “EUCAP Nestor” [online] Available from: http://www.eeas.europa.eu/csdp/missionsand-operations/eucap-nestor/index_en.htm [Last access: 5 June 2015].

74 The EU and the Sahel Eu-un.europa.eu, (2015). EU@UN - Statement by EU HRVP Mogherini – United Nations Security Council: Cooperation between UN and Regional Organisation on the Situation in the Mediterranean. [online]

Available

at:

http://eu-

un.europa.eu/articles/en/article_16432_en.htm [Accessed 3 June 2015].

Interview to an expert about the EU and Sahel relations

Interview to an expert about the EU and Sahel relations By Alberto Díaz, Sara Peiró, Patricia Martínez and Marta Saguar.

On, 3

June 2015 a group of

students interested in the relation between

interviewed

and to

the

Miguel

Sahel Ángel

Benedicto, Journalist and Secretary General

the

Spanish

Federal

Council of the European Movement,

Photo 1. Source: Fundación Cives

on the Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel carried out

by the External Action Service of the European Union.

Question - What are the interests that the EU has in the Sahel to create such a strategy? Miguel Ángel Benedicto: The main interest of the EU in the Sahel is the problem of terrorism and its consequences. In addition to geographical proximity, Europe has suffered damage from the North African terrorism, such as kidnapping citizens or attacks, so it is a closer matter. The strategy promoted by the EU is intended to prevent the states from the heart of Africa, such as Mali, to become terrorist states drivers or failed states. In addition, prevent the spread of terrorist groups like the Islamic State or Boko Haram. Another interest is to stabilize the area, which is in turmoil over the issue of terrorism or the dismemberment of Libya. This chaos creates another problem for the EU, immigration so interested in solving the

76 Â State and non-state actors problem in their home. Avoiding other failed states and developing states is a priority. There is also a historical interest, such as France in Mali, which intervened in the area a few years ago to try to protect their interests. In short, you could say that the main interest is to disable the Islamist magazine that has been created in the Sahel so try to create a sort of cap to contain it. To solve these problems are not worth only military intervention, that is why the EU has created this strategy that military actions and cooperation and development. Q: What problems of the area do you think the EU can have a greater effect? M.A.B.: The strategy may have more effect on the terrorist issue, but solving the problem is very difficult if you can slow its expansion. Anyway policies need time to be effective. However, if you manage to make a military cap and then implement development activities in a few years is likely to bring positive consequences for the area. What is clear is that we must take measures to curb the problems of the Sahel; the current situation is not good for anyone, not for the countries of the region and for Europe. Q: What about today? Do you think that this strategy has had an effect? M.A.B.: Absolutely yes, some effect it has had, especially to stop the rise of this series of terrorist groups operating in the area. The intention is to try for all that, do you step back and try to help the governments of those countries. Gradually, very slowly, the situation is changing. If I was the military and the EU international cooperation projects were not there for those states it would probably worse, in the case of Mali is obvious. Q: Do you think the strategy to focus on weaker countries like Mali, Niger and Mauritania, to the detriment of Nigeria and Algeria, is a hit or a miss?

Interview to an expert about the EU and Sahel relations

M.A.B.: I think is a mistake because for the strategy to work you have to involve all countries, especially the larger ones. You cannot ignore Algeria, for example, is essential to have all countries, because if they cannot destabilize the region and create new sources of conflict. If you take a large area such as Algeria and Nigeria this group will bring negative effects, because you have to agree to see with good eyes this intervention in the Sahel. In addition countries such as Algeria they are important in the energy issue, since the EU can affect and be a serious problem. Q: Do you think a strategy in which the relationships of those involved countries are complementary instead of exclusive would have been better? M.A.B.: Yes, I think it is better to involve all together and coordinate joint action involving all the countries in the region, if not the success of the intervention is uncertain. Q: Do you have shortcomings to this strategy? M.A.B.: The disregard all states in the region – Nigeria and Algeria – is a serious problem and geostrategic mistake as I mentioned earlier. Human resources are also important and from what I see so far are few, besides being a project that was late. Those are the problems I see. Q: What suggestions you would have to apply in the Sahel? M.A.B.: The same as I mentioned before – integrating the large countries in the region, expanding both human and financial resources and wellcoordinated action. Coordination between the EU and the countries of the Sahel is very important to rebuild the capacity of those states. The intervention has to go to the Monkey further development to be effective. Q:

Miguel

Ángel

Benedicto,

thank

you.

78 State and non-state actors

The energy and resources By: John Odigure.

How natural resources

and Covenant University in Ota.

have affected Nigeria,

He explained that in concern to

explained with the aid of

the resources of Nigeria we can

expert Professor Joseph O.

not approach the topic without

Odigure

mentioning

three

areas:

oil,

deforestation and bad farming practices. a) Oil th

Nigeria is the 8 largest exporter of petroleum in the world and has the 10

largest proven reserves

in the world. This has generated a significant amount of money for Photo source: <http://im.ftstatic.com/content/images/186a931c -4798-11dd-93ca000077b07658.img>

economy accounting for 40 per cent of GDP and 80 per cent of Government earning.

Professor

Odigure emphasized that since When tasked with the topic of

the discovery of the Niger Delta

how the resources in Nigeria

Nembe Creek oil field in 1973

have affected the region it was

there has been conflict over its

necessary to approach an expert

control

on the topic. Joseph O. Odigure

companies that operate within the

area and the communities.

professor

Chemical

Engineering in both the Federal University of technology in Minna

between

the

oil

14 More Information about Professor Odigure and his Publications can be found at: <https://scholar.google.com/citations ?user=PnbQg5MAAAAJ&hl=en>

The energy and resources Also

not

aiding

the

there is a need to protect the

efficiency at which Nigeria can

resource-based

produce

Increased desertification, due to

oil are

the

frequent

ecosystem.

series of oil spills that have

the

occurred within the Niger Delta.

Sahara

In January 2015, oil giant Royal

southwards,

Dutch Shell agreed to a € 75,05

major threat to the livelihood of

million

the

the citizens of Nigeria. Nigeria

residents of the Bodo community

loses 350,000 hectares of land

in the Niger Delta for two oil

every

spills.

had

encroachment and it is believed

occurred three years earlier had

that this is exacerbated due to

placed

and

increased

global

warming.

others within the community in a

Professor

Odigure

highlighted

situation where they could not

that without greater funding to

longer earn money and had to

Organisations

find alternative jobs as a means

Against

settlement

The

spills

many

with

that

fishermen

of income.

increased

(FADE)

desert is

year

the

spreading considered

due

such

Desert 15

taking

b) Desertification

threat

desert

Fight

Encroachment

, and the government the

problem

desertification more seriously, the According to the Oxford English Dictionary defined

as:

desertification “the

process

problem will continue to grow until it is too late to stop.

of Professor

becoming or rendering desert; the transformation of fertile land into desert or arid waste”. In other words, it is the practice of cutting down trees and other vegetation without replanting.

explained several factors that have also contributed to the increased threat of desertification: deforestation,

bad

farming

practices

bush

burning.

Deforestation According to the Minister of

Environment,

Mrs.

Hadiza

Ibrahim Mailafia, 43.3 per cent of the total land area of the country is prone to desertification, and so

Odigure

not

just

problem for just Nigeria but for Africa as a whole. It leads to a

15 FADE:

non Governmental Organisation that is committed to the fight against desert encroachment.

80 State and non-state actors range of complications for the region such as continued soil erosion and the increased loss of biodiversity.

Bad

farming

practices, as Professor Odigure emphasized, is one of the more significant

causes

desertification, because it is the cause in which we, as humans, have

control.

practices

These

that

desertification

farming

aid

include:

in over

cultivation of land, over grazing of land by cattle and other livestock and

bush

Odigure

burning.

informed

Professor that

these

practices have been happening for many years and it is only through educating farmers of how to better preserve the Nigerian land that we can mitigate the problems.

81 Â

The energy and resources

References BBC, 2015. Shell agrees $84m deal over Niger Delta Oil Spill. [Online] Available from: <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-30699787> [Last Access: 4 June 2015] Endure

Sources,

2013.

Causes

Nigeria.[Online]

and

Effect

Desertification

Available

from:

<http://www.eduresourceworld.com/2013/08/desertificationaccording-to-princeton.html> [Last Access: 4 June 2015] Olasupo. F., 2013. 43.3% land area prone to desertification in Nigeria Mailafia.

Vanguard.

[Online]

Available

from:

<http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/07/43-3-land-area-prone-todesertification-in-nigeria-mailafia/> [Last Access: 4 June 2015] Williams, Lizzie (2008). Nigeria: The Bradt Travel Guide. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 26.

82 State and non-state actors

The

French

military

intervention in Mali By: Walid Laouar.

On 11 January 2013, France

actually ensure a good return on

announced the engagement of its

investment.

armed forces in Mali. A first assessment conducted by the French Ministry of Defence, after a month of conflict, shows that France pays an amount of 2.7 million euros on average per day. This is the double of what the intervention in Libya has cost. Can

imagine

that

such

military, political and financial investment

done

without

compensation? Officially,

If we venture into the Malian subsoil, we will discover a significant resources.

potential Going

oil

beyond

the

border, we can observe in the East the proximity of Niger's uranium mines, which feed the French nuclear power plants. We will notice the north, the presence of Algerian gas stations, one of two energy lungs of Europe. Let's take a global view of the Sahel

French

region. We will find that this one

army's sole objective is to stop

is at the heart of a new strategic

the advance of armed jihadist

space that attracts the greed of

groups

the

and

help

the

Malian

troops in their struggle to regain control of their territory. But the argument of the fight against

great

powers

for

the

transportation of oil and gas. What are the energy underlying facts of the war in Mali?

terrorism might not be the only one: energy supply is also a key concern. These hidden energy assets in the Sahel region will

a) Exploiting potential subsoil

the of

oil Malian

The French military intervention in Mali The example of the Iraq war in

of Malian subsoil is now possible.

2003 has become a textbook

The Taoudeni basin, for example,

case of using the “safety” alibi to

justify a war with the objective of

between northern Mali, southern

exploiting resources. The Malian

Algeria

case is in no way comparable.

regarded by some analysts as

But if proven, energy resources in

one of the areas with the largest

Mali are limited and many studies

oil potential of the world. Before

have shown the existence of

the

considerable fossil resources.

Serval, the French oil company

the

crossing and

trigger

borders

Mauritania,

the

Operation

Map 1 Taken From: nesastrategist.files.

Total had already registered its The first geological research in the 1960s was not sufficiently conclusive. Consequently, drilling techniques have evolved, and

signature. Other basins such as Tamesna, Iullemeden and Nara could also hide important oil reserves.

especially the price of oil has continued to rise. Oil exploitation

But a floor full of black gold

not

synonymous

84 State and non-state actors financial

windfall.

Still

very

including through its subsidiaries

investments

are

Somair and Cominak that exploit

required such as the launch of

the two main mineral deposits of

drilling and the construction of an

the country: Arlit and Akouta.

expensive

oil pipeline that could quickly challenge the profitability of any exploitation.

A few hundred kilometres from the border with Mali is also the Imouraren mine, which is

The thirst for oil was one

expected to start in 2015 and

the cause of the war in Iraq and

become the second largest open-

an explanatory element of the

pit uranium mine in the world.

intervention in Libya. But do not

Suffice to say that French energy

justify the intervention in Mali.

interests in Niger are expected to

Let’s return to the argument of

increase over the years.

the fight against terrorism. It is

This is actually doubly

not only the presence of jihadists

that France and Areva want to

on Malian soil that worried the

weaken the terrorist groups in the

international community but the

region, by ensuring the security of

serious risk of destabilization of

its

the region. And it turns out that

September 2010, where seven

the porous borders of Mali are in

Areva

contact with the two states with

hostage by a group affiliated with

highly strategic energy resources:

AQIM , is still ingrained in the

Niger and Algeria.

memories.

Algerian

gas

reserves Niger, the third uranium producer in the world, provides 33 per cent of the energy used in nuclear power plants in France. Areva, the French flagship of the nuclear industry, is widely implemented,

The

employees

episode were

taken

b) Secure Niger's uranium and

mines.

terms

hostage-

taking, history books will reserve

Al-Qa'ida In The Lands Of The Islamic Maghreb, also known as AQIM, is an Algeria-based Sunni Muslim jihadist group created in 1998. This group acted in the coastal areas of Algeria and desert regions of the Sahel; however, after the French intervention the group reduced its presence in the north of Mali and expanded to Libya and Tunisia. <http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/aqi m.html> [Last access: 11 June 2015]

The French military intervention in Mali a prominent place to the tragedy

Outside

the

85 media

of In Amenas, Algeria, that kept

message sent, the goal of the

the international community in

terrorist action of In Amenas was

suspense for a few days of

probably to remember that gas

January 2013. The choice of the

supply plants are located in the

gas site of Tigantourine in In

south of Algeria, that is to say

Amenas to perpetrate the attack

North Mali.

is not insignificant since it is one of the economic pillars of a country that provides no less than 10

per

cent

energy

consumption in Europe. We must not forget that Algeria is one of the only two gas suppliers of Europe

—the

other

one

Russia—.

Securing uranium mines in Niger

and

Algerian

gas

production are thus inseparable from the fight against terrorism engaged

Malian

Pushing

AQIM

territory.

beyond

the

borders would endanger much of the French and European energy supply. The Operation Serval

Also, the energy alliance

does take place in Mali, but the

between Paris and Algiers still

political

has a bright future ahead of it.

concerns the Sahel region as a

End December 2012, Laurent

whole.

Fabius, the French Minister of

stabilization

c) Being

Foreign Affairs, admitted that the

the

issue

Sahel

energy corridor

two countries would be on track to sign an agreement to launch research

exploitation According

the of

government, unconventional

field

shale the the gas

of gas.

Algerian Algerian reserves

would be as important as those of the United States. What may upset the global energy balance.

Sahel is not a desert strip that stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. It is a turning space for the transportation of oil and gas that increasingly feeds the desire between the great powers. The United Stated have already managed to secure their energy supply through the Gulf of

86 State and non-state actors Guinea.

China

and

emerging

Asian powers have also done it via

the

Red corridor,

which,

connecting the Gulf of Guinea to the

Strait

inevitably

Gibraltar,

will

pass

through

the

Western Sahel. We refer here to the Trans-Saharan Gas Pipeline (TSGP) project, a pipeline of more than 4,100 km to connect the gas fields in the Niger Delta to Spain, via Niger and Algeria. An energy windfall that Europe can not do without.

The

long

series

kidnapping in the region is a perfect illustration. On January 20 2012,

GDF

SUEZ,

another

energy French giant, confirmed the kidnapping of an expatriate employee of GDF Suez and his family

northern

Cameroon,

near the Nigerien border. Looking more closely, these hostages illustrate

the

awareness

jihadist groups of the importance of

energy

interests.

threatening employees of major

The position of the former European

exercise their sovereignty.

Sea.

Europe must now chart its own energy

where states are struggling to

and GDF SUEZ, they seek to

influence by their own means the

region that can satisfy some

geo-economic balance of power.

intensive

hunger.

Terrorist groups may have been

Evidenced by the recent request

the first to understand that France

will definitely have its energy

with

compensation at the end of the

increasingly

the

colonists

European groups such as Areva

threatened energy

Nigerian

renegotiate

President

agreements

Areva, while threatening to initiate exchanges with China. Strategic projects —exploitation of fossil resources, the implementation of a

major

transportation

project or

gas energy

partnership signed agreements— are not sustainable in a space

conflict. If we believe the words of the French

President

François

Hollande, the Operation Serval is reaching its "final phase". Once the war ended, in a gesture long awaited by observers around the world, Paris will make sure to transfer the political sovereignty

The French military intervention in Mali to the Malian people. However, in a less guarded gesture, France will

inherit

energy

compensation. The pursuit of goals such as the study of oil potential of Malian subsoil, securing Niger uranium mines

avoiding

destabilization Algeria

has

of now

the

Southern a

name:

Operation Barkhane, launched in August 2014 that is described as “an

anti-terrorist

Africa’s

Sahel

operation region”.

Thus,

France and Europe would have managed to place their pawns on the Sahel energy hub.

88 State and non-state actors

References GALY Michel, La guerre au Mali, La Découverte, 2013 MINVIELLE Jean-Paul, La question énergétique au Sahel, Karthala, 2000 YouTube, (2015). 3 min pour comprendre: les enjeux énergétiques au Sahel

[online]

Available

from:

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VWk2azh-Ma4> [Last access: 5 June

2015]

State and non-state actors

Conflict Over Oil in Sudan and South Sudan By: Javier Cava

July

2011, South

Sudan

between the two countries and

obtained its independence from

many

Sudan,

the

pastoralism fear being prevented

youngest states of nowadays. In

from moving their herds from one

2005, the Comprehensive Peace

place to another freely as they did

Agreement (CPA) was signed

before, and tap into wells water.

between

Both

becoming

Sudan’s

People

clans

states

dedicated

seem

Liberation Movement (SPLM) and

condemned to understand each

the Government of Sudan. The

other having into account that

CPA

Sudan

made

referendum

its that

way

for

controls

the

pipelines,

South

refineries and infrastructure and

Sudan's independence and fixed

Port Sudan essential for the

the

international departure south to

equitable

gave

the

distribution

benefits from the arising oil.

find oil.

The frontier of both states

According to the International

is not officially defined and the

Monetary Fund (IMF), the oil

violence

and

accounted approximately 98 per

against

civilians

armed

confrontation

still

cent of the South Sudanese

present

different

government revenues in 2011.

frontier

areas.

the

five Abyei,

South

the

other

hand,

Sudan

Kordofan and Blue Nile are the

obtained the same year 78 per

most troubled regions and on

cent of revenues from oil exports,

them are located most of the oil

and this accounted 57 per cent of

wells. The Hague Tribunal left

the government public revenues.

unfixed 20 per cent of the border

The production in South Sudan

90 Conflict over oil in Sudan and South Sudan reached 380,000 barrels a day,

of production could be used for

with a value of nearly 7,000 billion

North military intervention in that

a year. The China Development

area. Lost the control of the oil

Bank offered loans for an amount

fields,

of 1 to 2,000 million to stabilize

imposed a toll of $34 a barrel

the exploitation of hydrocarbons

instead of the $15 agreed. It was

and other minerals that enclose

a way of recovering funds and at

the

land

and

infrastructure railways

build

and

the

factories,

roads,

that

nowadays are nonexistent. The

companies

that

and south Sudan are Asian such as The National Oil Corporation of China (CNPC), the Indian Oil Natural

Gas

Corporation

Limited (ONGC) and Malaysia's Petronas

Petronas

Bashir

same

Government

time, of

regime

choking Juba,

the the

south. When Sudan was unified, it was the third most important

dominate the oil sector in north

and

are

the

African

country

exporting

oil.

Around 60 per cent of this oil goes to China, which has acted perfectly relations

maintaining with

the

north

good and

suggesting the investment in a pipeline at the south that would link Juba to Lamu, Kenya.

companies most involved in the national consortia, according to the

Energy

Administration

Information of

the

United

States (EIA).. The main battles are in the oil states of Unity and Upper Nile and limit the extraction of oil, causing great discomfort in North Sudan. To survive, the Khartoum regime

needs

this

energy

resource, whose trade was set back

the

covenant

September 2012. The stagnation Photo Source: Washington Post.

State and non-state actors

China has not been the

Sudan over South Sudan. It is

only actor that has taken part in

believed that the USA has trained

this conflict over the oil; United

and

States

People's

Liberation

(SPLM)

and

has

also

taken

part

seeking for its interests. We can say that Sudan has become the “oil playground” of both great powers. Unlike other oil producing African countries, Sudan

has

received

strong

Chinese oil sector investments in extraction

wells

infrastructure.

Also

and we

shall

mention that Sudan has become the only African country in which China produces with its own facilities instead of buying crude. In return, the benefits that leave the oil business in the local population are minimal. China is seeking for its interests, apart from dialoguing with both parts that has also helped to support the Sudanese conflict, to deliver weapons

the

Khartoum

government that has been used against South Sudan and Darfur, and to oppose sanctions against Sudan in the Security Council United Nations. On the other hand the USA, meanwhile,

has

historically

supported the sovereign claims of

financed

the has

Sudan’s Movement supplied

weaponry that has been used in the

eastern

and

southern

Sudanese Darfur region. The US presence in South Sudan is due to the oil interests and the silent war for African resources that is facing Washington and Beijing.

92 Conflict over oil in Sudan and South Sudan

References Global Witness, 2014. Will stars shine for South Sudan?. [online] Available from:

<https://www.globalwitness.org/reports/will-star-shine-south-

sudan/> [Last Access: 4 June 2015] Pardo P., 2013. La Guerra de Sudan del Sur alarma a EEUU, a China y al Mercado

del

petróleo.

Mundo.

[Online]

Available

from:<http://www.elmundo.es/internacional/2013/12/22/52b67865268 e3ea3348b4582.html> [Last Access: 4 June 2015] Raghavan S., 2014. With oil at stake, South Sudan’s crisis matter to its customers.

The

Washington

Post.

[Online]

<http://goo.gl/du6G54> [Last Access: 4 June 2015]

Available

from:

State and non-state actors

Water Scarcity in the Sahel, a reason for conflicts By: Simone Pianeselli

“Water holds the key to

characterized

sustainable

climate.

development. We need it

characterized

for health, food security

intense

heat

and

irregular

rainfall,

economic

progress. Yet, each year brings new pressures.”

The

droughts”.

semi-arid

Sahel

“dryness, as

sporadic well

According to the Report

stated water is an invaluable

resource, it is

Environment

for

periodic flooding and prolonged

As the UN Secretary General necessary

the

United

Nations

Program

(UNEP)

health, for food and for progress

Livelihood

but

many

Change, Migration and Conflict in

challenges that we have to face

the Sahel, the North of the Sahel

when we talk about water access.

has an average of rainfall of 200

there

are

also

Geographically speaking the Sahel is a region that cover the African territory from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean placed

between

the

Sahara

Desert and the equatorial Africa

Security.

Climate

mm per years —instead the southern belt receives a rainfall average of 600 mm per year (we must keep in mind that the limit for agriculture is 350 mm per year) —. In accordance to the

UN Secretary General Ban Kimoon’s Statement at the Budapest Water Summit (October 8, 2013) [Online] Available from: <http://www.un.org/sg/statements/ind ex.asp?nid=7184> [Last access: 4 June 2015]

United Nations World Water Development Report 4. Volume 2: Knowledge Base. Pag.647 [Online Document] Available from: <http://www.zaragoza.es/contenidos/ medioambiente/onu/789-eng-ed4v2.pdf> [Last access: 3 June 2015]

94 Water scarcity in the Sahel, a reason for conflicts report, the major water basins are

the

the Lake Chad (that borders

spread of famine.

Chad,

Niger,

Nigeria

and

Cameroon), the Niger River (that cross Guinea, Mali, Niger, Benin and Nigeria), the Senegal River and the Gambia River; all of which depends on the seasonal rainfall.

cases

the

water scarcity usually are conflict over the control of water, water access and over the control of fertile land. These conflicts have a local dimension being also 19

called: small-scale conflicts .

entitled Security implications of climate change in the Sahel that

two-third

the

population present in the Sahel depend on fishing, agriculture and livestock for its livelihood. In the

serious

The conflicts caused by

In the OECD’s Report

affirms

most

southern

area

Sahel

agriculture is more spread (due to the necessity of water and rainfall in order to cultivate the crops),

The small-scale conflict are different from the large-scale ones like interstate and intrastate conflicts, these last one usually are related to proliferation of weapons,

tensions

between

ethno-linguistics

groups,

proliferation of armed groups, legacy form colonialism, poor and or

bad

governance

and

corruption.

whereas in the northern zone is more

common

the

nomadic

breeding of livestock while fishing activities are spread near rivers, lakes

the

coasts.

The

availability of water has a direct impact on livelihood activities; in fact, all these activities need water. Therefore, the scarcity of water

can

undermine

food

security for the entire region with the risk of arising conflicts and in

Instead, the small-scale conflicts are those conflicts that occurred

between

livelihood

groups in relation to changes that alter the conditions that sustain livelihoods. In this kind of local conflicts is central the control of

19 United Nations Environment

Program. Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Migration and Conflict in the Sahel. Pag.26 [Online Document] Available from <http://www.un.org/en/events/envir onmentconflictday/pdf/UNEP_Sahel_E N.pdf> [Last access: 3 June 2015]

fertile

State and non-state actors land

(especially

during

proper exploit the fertile land and

drought periods), but there are

increase

the

extension

other factors that can contribute

arable land in order to ensure

to the spread of conflicts, such as

food security.

the migration of nomad breeders in

pastoral

area

already

controlled by another group.

These localized conflicts do not have large echoes in world’s media; in fact, there is not an exhaustive and complete data 20

collection on these conflicts , but they remains indeed a great threat for the stability of the region because they are related with the food security of the different groups that live in the Sahel. Increasing efficiency in the

water

(especially

management during

drought

periods) and use of other forms of agriculture

(not

only

rain-fed

agriculture) could be an effective solutions not only for increase crops production but also to

United Nations Environment Program. Livelihood Security. Climate Change, Migration and Conflict in the Sahel. Pag.26 [Online Document] Available from: <http://www.un.org/en/events/environ mentconflictday/pdf/UNEP_Sahel_E N.pdf> [Last access: 3 June 2015]

Photo source: World Food Program.

96 Water scarcity in the Sahel, a reason for conflicts

References Bhandari M., 2010. Water Scarcity in the Sahel. Pulitzer Center. [Online] Available from: <http://pulitzercenter.org/content/water-scarcity-sahel> [Last access: 4 June 2015] Essoungou A.M., 2013. The Sahel: One region, many crises. Water Scarcity in the Sahel. Africa Renewal. [Online] Available from: <http://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december2013/sahel-one-region-many-crises> [Last access: 4 June 2015] OECD’s Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat. Security Implications of Climate Change in the Sahel Region: Policy Considerations [pdf] Available from: <http://www.oecd.org/swac/publications/47234320.pdf> [Last access: June 4, 2015] United Nation Environment Programme, 2011. United Nations World Water Development Report 4. Volume 2: Knowledge Base. [pdf] Available from: <http://www.un.org/en/events/environmentconflictday/pdf/UNE P_Sahel_EN.pdf> [Last access: 4 June 2015] United Nation, 2013. Secretary-General’s opening remarks at Budapest Water Summit. [Online] Available from: <http://www.un.org/sg/statements/index.asp?nid=7184> [Last access: 4 June 2015].

State and non-state actors

The impact of gum Arabic in Sudan By: Adrien Peres.

Introduction

but with very important additional

Since 1997, Sudan, the main global exporter of Arabic gum (40 per cent of the total production) lives under a commercial regime of sanctions established by the USA, as a direct consequence of its supposed support to Islamic terrorism.

costs. Then, confronted to this dilemma, American government took a decision that will be discussed later.

Arabic gum in Sudan This natural product issued from the acacia is used in the process of fabrication for many products

Actually, the best variety

such as chewing gum or drugs.

of Arabic gum is produced in

But it is by far in fizzy drinks that

Sudan, quality is said “Hashab”, it

Arabic gum’s presence is the

allows the best emulsion and

more important. It is used as a

represents a key ingredient of the

binder between sugar and water,

famous drink Coke.

without it, sugar would suffer a

Consequently, the submission of those

importations

the

commercial sanctions would have caused

American

major

problem

manufacturers,

for that

would have no choice but to supply itself to a third country, like France

particular,

able

assume the role of intermediary to buy the precious component,

decantation and would pill up at the bottom of our cans. If experts can have some difficulties to find exact

reports

about

real

production of Sudan, we can affirm by examining articles and analysis

that

generally,

comprised between 40 per cent and 70 per cent of the global consumption. We also find It is

98 The impact of gum Arabic in Sudan also important to emphasize that other

countries

produce

approximately 103 million dollars.

the

resource but most of them also suffer of a very instable situation when compared to Sudan. The

other

important

element we can add is that the quality of the gum produced by the

Sudanese

significantly

better than in other countries, it is seen

superior

quality

product, and this is why the demand is so high for countries that need this essential element for products considered as one of the more lucrative in the world. Arabic gum in Sudan is so important that they created a

Sudan, gum Arabic and

structure that is in charge of

the U.S

everything related to the gum: the GAC (Gum Arabic Company). It is

involving

preparing

and

purchasing,

exporting

gum

Arabic kordofan (hashab) and talha

gum

worldwide.

represents strategic raw material with a great importance. The general Secretary of GAC, AbdelMagic

Abdel-Gadir,

made

public declaration and revealed that Sudan had exported 42 tones of gum Arabic to the USA in

2013,

and

represents

Yet in 1997, members of the US congress

were

dissatisfied

particularly

regarding

the

Sudanese governments and acts, accused of supporting terrorism and

religious

persecution.

minorities an

article

published in 2013 in the Soudan 21

Tribune , it is said that Sudan is on the list of countries that favour

21 The original article published in the article “Le Soudan a exporté 42 tonnes de gomme arabique aux Etats-Unis en 2013”, in the diary “Le Soudan Tribune”.

State and non-state actors

terrorism in the USA since 1993.

a glance of hypocrisy.

The concrete problem is easily

understandable:

On the one hand, Sudan

Sudan

is badly considered due to its

offered Osama Bin Laden to stay

relations with Islamic terrorism

in the country, when at this time

and is sanctioned by an embargo;

very

but on the other hand. They are

American

two opposed languages here,

was

not

already

“frequentable”. congress

has

decided

“punish” Sudan by adopting some

and Sudan is now in the capacity to use of its power.

drastic measures in order to severely

limit

Sudanese

commercial exchanges and slow down its economy. However,

Effectively,

quasi

monopoly that benefit Sudan with it resource, allows it to pressure occidental

countries

their

the

diplomatic relations, at the very

economic sanctions were truly

least tended and complicated.

adopted, a lobby representing

We can not forget that remains

one

the

before

the

most

important

the

most

excluded

the

nowadays

context,

American companies, fought with

countries

aim to impose an exception. Like

international

in most cases with lobbies, they

ensures Sudan to belongs to the

had what they fought for: the

international community in some

embargo

ways, by using its weight thanks

everything, agricultural

would

apply

except sector

to and

to the more

precisely the Arabis gum. The US is revealed to be the second most important client of Arabic gum in the world, after France. We can affirm that those exchanges and the relations that could

maintain

Sudan

with

important nations like France and especially the USA are seen with

to gum Arabic.

100 The impact of gum Arabic in Sudan

References CNUCED, « INFOCOMM Gum arabic » [online] Available from: <http://www.unctad.info/fr/Infocomm/Produits-AAACP/FICHEPRODUIT-Gomme-arabique/> [Last access : 12 June 2015] Courrier International, 2013, « Soudan. Quand Coca et Pepsi s’intéressent a la politique Soudanaise » [online], Available at : <http://www.courrierinternational.com/article/2013/06/03/quand-cocaet-pepsi-s-interessent-a-la-politique-soudanaise> [Last access : 12 June 2015] GumArabicSupplier

[online]

Available

at :

<http://www.gumarabicsupplier.com> [Last access : 12 June 2015] IDE-JETRO, « Gum Arabic Company » (online) available at : <http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Data/Africa_file/Company/sudan06.htm l>[Last access : 12 June 2015] Le point, 2015, “Soudan –États-Unis : quand la gomme arabique conduit à des sanctions à géométrie variable” [online], Available at: <http://afrique.lepoint.fr/economie/soudan-etats-unis-quand-lagomme-arabique-conduit-a-des-sanctions-a-geometrie-variable-0804-2015-1919354_2258.php>

[Last

access :

June

2015].

101

State and non-state actors

Terrorism By: Aline Codognotto, Thalita Januario, Thais Monaco, Sung Son. Sahel is a type of wonderland for

non-Islamic population. Despite

the terrorists. On the one hand,

many other reasons, terrorism

due to the fact of practically being

has been associated in the last

a “no man’s land”, with no laws

years

nor king, of hard access and

theme,

inside some kind of whole in

Islam.

between the north and centre of Africa; and on the other hand because they find a safe refuge, of

easy

access

important

points like Europe and Middle East. Moreover, it has natural resources of great richness and thousands of people who are easily

convinced

support

terrorism, having in mind the low standards of life and the political tension existent in the region.

the north and the south where the great majority of the population is Christian

(Kotomska,

2009).

Religion is precisely the biggest reason why this part is divided and because of that, it has been the stage of many civil wars in between Islamic population and

overall

particularly

religious

The prophet Mohammed used the Jihad term to give a meaning to the “sacred war”, symbolizing

the

fight

for

the

conversion of the highest number of people to Islam. The classic Muslim doctrine points to the existence of two worlds, the Islamic World and the World of War or of the Unfaithful. The second

world

was

meant

disappear on their belief.

The zone marks a divisor line between the Islamic world of

The

religious

fundamentalism existing between the Muslims sees Islam not as a religion, but also as a system that regulates

the

political,

economical, cultural and social part of the state. The objective is to

start

installing

again

the

Caliphates into the world. Beyond

102 Terrorism the faith and the knowledge of

Stephen Smith, that Islam is part

heaven on earth, even more

of the "religious landscape of

faithful – many of them are

Africa since the eighth century"

marginalized into society where

and that it has always existed in a

they are inserted on without a job

“moderated form Muslim” and

– allying to extremists groups and

adapted to local customs. In fact,

committing suicide attacks; thus,

Africa has more Muslims than the

giving a “meaning” to their lives.

Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Even though there are many

Senegal, Mali and Niger are

interpretations done of Islam, it is

examples

vital to distance the Muslims as a

Muslim

whole: those defenders of peace

democracies.

and fraternity from those who

Mauritania and Nigeria have even

apply the Jihad in the aggressive

diplomatic relations with Israel.

way. Furthermore, many times

However,

they

Ngoupandé added in the same

are

motivated

for other

interests that are not religious. The represents

African

continent

above

anything

hunger, violation of human rights, a bad government ruling the population, diseases, poverty and

predominantly

states

and

modern Senegal,

Jean-Paul

interview, Osama bin Laden has been seen as 'hero' in African cities, even leading parents to give the name of the former leader of Al- Qaeda to their children.

internal conflicts, but in the past

Failed states, such as

few years, Islamic radicalism has

Somalia (nearly 20 years), are a

won space in the international

paradise

for

concerns related to the Sahel

situation

zone. “There are many forms of

countries where most of the

terrorism,

population is poor, as in a lot of

but

all

them

unfortunately have found a home in Africa”, says John Devera (Devera, 2008) Jean-Paul Ngoupandé analyses in an interview with

terrorists. no

different

The in

places in the Sahel. According

the

president of the Special Team for the Fight against Terrorism of the UN ( CTITF ):

"With

alternative

carpet

the

farmers and other low-

radical Muslim government of

income

Sudan,

workers agree

responsible

for

the

genocide of Christians in the

transport drugs in one

south, has provided support to

direction and weapons in

several terrorists, and even Bin

the other one”.

Laden used the country to carry

political,

ethnic

and

religious

grievances are also fuelling the of

some

Africans

participate in terrorist activities

out operations before moving to Afghanistan. "Sudan, one of the main refuge for terrorists today, may

have

money, have

According to Isaac Kfir:

the civil war, ethnic division and mismatch

socio-economic

make

Sudan

and

Ethiopia weak states, while on the other hand, Kenya, Djibouti and Eritrea are unstable because the

lack

democratic

development, difficulties

economic and

training,

explosives,

forged

carried

abroad

“Internal problems arising from several

provided

documents, but it is not known to

(UNIC Rio de Janeiro, 2010).

other

red

terrorists, as in Somalia. Also the

Jean -Paul Laborde added that

desire

extended

financial incentives, poor

increasingly

103

State and non-state actors

some

unsatisfaction of minorities with the political and social situation". (Kfir, 2008, p. 829).

out

their

operations own

name"

(AAVV, 1998). There are other internal situations

promoting

somehow

the spread of terrorism such as the fact that the population of northern Nigeria have adopted Islamic Sharia, which triggered a fight against the Christian and southern animists that do not want to be governed by Islamic law (Devera, 2008). Thus, if in the past the terror in the area was linked to freedom fights and

Chad also is not much different,

between tribes or religions, is

with tribal and historical conflicts

now more tied to international

between north and south. Indeed,

organizations, appearing arm in

several

arm with various crimes. As well

executives

have

104 Terrorism as international threats, as illegal

jungles of South America to the

immigration,

trafficking,

streets of Europe" (Valdezate,

drug and even human traffic and

2010). Indeed, terrorism in Africa

not forgetting the importance of

resources in the area of the Sahel

cooperation

strategic positioning and lack of

crime. A society in which one

security.

believes that money purchases

arms

The Sahel is "unstoppable" when it comes to crime, Princeton N. Lyman points out, warning that there are at least three main terrain routes across the Sahel for

smuggling

people

and

products, particularly to the north of the continent (to Europe) and to the ports of Nigeria to the

increasingly

organized

everything and where there is no respect for the rules when it comes to conquer power is the ideal place for traffickers, that relate to terrorists searching for protection on routes of Sahel, offering them in return, "what they need most to control the region vehicles and fuel" (Faria, 2008).

south. It has been identified "an African cocaine route, from the

Photo Source: Flickr.

against

linked

105

State and non-state actors

References Amy Zalman, P. (2015). Terrorism in Africa: Somalia War has Multiple Players. [online] About.com

News & Issues. Available from:

<http://terrorism.about.com/od/africa/tp/Somalia-and-Terrorism.htm> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Devera,

(2008).

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.helium.com/items/1028935-a-brief-history-of-terrorism-inafrica> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Faria, J. (2008). Crime Organizado e terrorismo no Sahel. [online] Jornal Defesa.

Available

from:

<http://www.jornaldefesa.com.pt/conteudos/view_txt.asp?id=656> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Kfir, I. (2008). Islamic Radicalism in East Africa: Is There a Cause for Concern?. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(9), pp.829-855. Kotomska, M. (2009). Seguridad y el Sahel: una nueva prioridad para EspaÃ±a.

[online]

Iecah.org.

Available

from:

<http://www.iecah.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=arti cle&id=620:-seguridad-y-el-sahel-una-nueva-prioridad-paraespana&catid=34:analisis&Itemid=85> [Last Access: 5 June 2015]. TIME.com,

(2015).

Terror

Africa.

[online]

Available

from:

<http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,9889133,00.html> [Last access: 5 June 2015]. Valdezate, J. (2010). El Sahel: polvo, emigraciÃ³n,terrorismo y cocaÃna.. [online]

Lemigrant.

Available

from:

<http://www.lemigrant.net/w0/?p=7266> [Last access: 5 Jun. 2015]. YouTube, (2011). AÃ§Ãµes de grupos terroristas se multiplicam na Ãfrica. [online]

Available

from:

<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHg00luwjVQ> [Last access: 5 June 2015].

State and non-state actors

107