Meiji Japan, 1868-1912

Meiji Japan (1868-1912) Teacher Resource Guide East Asia National Resource Center By Kelly Hammond

The Iwakura Mission The Iwakura Mission was a Japanese diplomatic trip around the world in 1871. The purpose of the mission was for Japanese elites and policymakers to observe and learn from the West, bringing back knowledge and ideas with them in order to implement reforms in Japan. Around fifty staff and sixty students formed a delegation, with statesman Iwakura Tonomi at the head of the mission. Several students remained in the countries that they visited to complete their education there, including five women who stayed in the United States.

The leaders of the Iwakura Mission. Source: Geordie Japan

Many of these men and women came from prominent and progressive Japanese families, and contributed to creating strong bonds between top policymakers in foreign countries and those in Japan. The mission left Yokohama in December 1871 and headed to San Francisco. From there, they made their way to Washington D.C., then moved onto Britain, France, Belgium,

the Netherlands, Russia, Germany, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Bavaria, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland. The mission continued on to Egypt, Ceylon, Singapore, Saigon, Hong Kong, and Shanghai. This grand mission took over a year and a half to complete, returning to Japan in September 1873.

The delegation meets with the French president Thiers in 1873.

On their trip, the delegates visited manufacturing plants and construction sites, observed municipal and federal politics, and toured other industrial complexes in the United States and Europe. They also visited schools and universities to audit classes. The purpose of the mission was two-fold: 1) to renegotiate unequal treaties and 2) to gather information on education, technology, culture, military, social and economic structures of other countries to implement reforms in Japan under the Meiji government. The first goal failed completely and the unequal treaties stayed in place until the Japanese claimed victory in the Sino-Japanese War. The failure to meet the first goal reminded those at home the importance of the second goal; if Japan was to be taken seriously on the global stage, they needed to modernize, and do so quickly and effectively.

The Imperial Rescript on Education and the Nationalization of Education in Japan One of the markers of modernity is the way that a nation approaches education. Until the Meiji Restoration, most elite young men in Japan were educated in Confucian tradition that focused on memorizing the Confucian Classics. However, in their quest to create young imperial citizens, the Meiji government quickly realized that a complete overhaul of the education system was needed and that the new education system would have to embrace universal ideas. Some governmental officials resisted the changes, arguing that the fundamental essence of Japan was a strong grounding in the Confucian Classics. However, the reformers won out and they pushed for a more liberal, inclusive education that emphasized math, science, foreign languages, and physical exercise. Following the establishment of the new education system, the Meiji Emperor issued the Imperial Rescript on Education on October 30, 1890. The Rescript was designed to promote studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of their place in the new state-system. They were asked to advance public good, pursue common interests, respect the constitution, be lawful and, most importantly, revere the emperor. Although the rescript was a new,

modern creation, it ironically drew on the idea that the Japanese nation had a strong historic bond between the emperor and his subjects. The purpose of the Rescript was to teach youths to cultivate the virtues of loyalty and filial piety and to use their education as a mechanism to promote the interests of the Japanese Empire. The Rescript is a 315-character document that students were required to study and memorize. Students were often called upon to recite it while looking at the portrait of the Meiji emperor.

Women in Meiji Japan: Creating Imperial Mothers and Citizens

An elite Japanese Woman in modern dress. Source: Tsukioka Yoshitoshi

Tied into this notion of creating modern citizens through universal education was the changing role of women and mothers in Meiji Japan. Although women were not given the vote, the nineteenth century did witness some proponents of and steps forward for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights in Japan. The main issues that these early Japanese feminists were concerned with were working conditions in factories and the state of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education. The idea behind womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s educational reform was that young girls needed to be educated in order to be effective and capable wives and to produce diligent, patriotic sons. This emphasis on education opened the door for further advancements for women in Japanese society. Many women went to go work in factories and for the first time earned their own wages. However, the working conditions in many of these early factories were atrocious. Women were also involved with new charity societies that were funded by Christian missionaries, such as the YWCA. These societies created communities for women and provided them with a way to see themselves as active contributors to the strengthening of the Japanese nation. As they became more educated and more independent, women began to realize the importance of their place in the empire as both mothers and wives, yet they were not full citizens like men because they could not vote or have any involvement in politics. In 1890, the first session of the new Imperial Diet issued a decree banning women for joining political parties. This was overruled in 1921, but women would not get the right to vote until after WWII

when the Americans re-wrote the Japanese constitution during the occupation.

The Meiji Constitution of 1889 The promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889 was the result of popular disaffection with the way that the oligarchs had managed to gain control of Japanese politics directly after the Meiji Restoration. The constitution, which provided for a form of constitutional monarchy based on the Prusso-German model as well as the British model, established a bicameral legislature and guaranteed a range of rights and duties in theory. In essence, however, the constitution was a way for the emperor to retain political power and keep the public happy, while the new parliament became an advisory board for the Meiji emperor and his advisors.

Meiji Constitution promulgation. Source: Toyohara Chikanobu

Since the Meiji Restoration restored direct political power to the emperor, the constitution was established to place check on his power. Civil rights and civil

liberties were guaranteed in practice and they established an Upper House and a Lower House. The Upper House consisted of members of the Imperial family appointed by the Emperor (much like the House of Lords in Britain). The Lower House was an elected body that was voted in by men that owned a certain amount of property. This meant that in theory Japan was a democracy, but in reality only a small percentage of the population was allowed to vote. Unlike the current constitution of Japan, the Meiji Constitution was founded on the principle that sovereignty resided in the Emperor rather than in the people. According to the Constitution, the Emperor had the sole right to exercise executive authority and to appoint and dismiss all government officials. He had the sole right to declare war and make peace. He was also commander of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy. In practice, then, the Parliament became a rubber-stamp institution and anything that the Meiji Emperor and his advisors put forward passed in both the Upper and Lower houses. This strong autocratic system was far from a true democracy but some argue that it was the sort of guidance and authority that was needed in Japan at the time to make the decisions necessary for the country to modernize quickly.

The Sino-Japanese War, the RussoJapanese War, and the Triple Intervention The First Sino-Japanese War (August 1894-April 1895) was fought between Qing forces and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea. The Meiji forces defeated the Qing, and the war was a clear indication of the successes of Meiji modernization. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki and as a result of the treaty, the Qing conceded large territories and agreed to pay a huge indemnity. The victory shifted the balance of power in East Asia and alerted the other colonial powers in the region to Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing naval and military capabilities. The loss was humiliating for China, who lost Korea, an important vassal state. But the war clearly showed that Japan was a newly emerging power in East Asia and allowed the Meiji government to turn its attention to colonizing the Korean peninsula. Japan saw the peninsula as a buffer zone that will protect the main Japanese islands from possible attacks. Moreover, Japan realized that having access to Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coal and iron ore deposits would benefit its growing industrial base. Korea was also seen as a source of agricultural imports to Japan, helping to feed the growing Japanese population.

Japanese soldiers fighting in the first SinoJapanese War. Source: Ozawa Kenshin

Japan’s defeat of China sent waves of shock through the international community. Great Britain quickly and quietly revoked the unequal treaties after the Japanese victory. Soon after the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki between China and Japan were made public, the governments of Russia, France, and Germany demanded that the Japanese retrocede the Liaodong peninsula in an ultimatum known as the Triple Intervention. Russia had the most to gain from the Triple Intervention. Over the last hundred years, the Russians have gradually increased their influence in East Asia seeking for a deep water port on the East Coast that did not freeze in the winter. The loss of Port Arthur to Japan was thus a severe blow to their plans for the region.

Battle of Pyongyang. Source: Sinojapanesewar.com

The Triple Intervention essentially forced Japan to relinquish part of their war spoils from the Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese government reluctantly agreed to the intervention since they were in no position to take on three European military powers. They quietly withdrew their troops from the Liaodong peninsula and other recently acquired territories. Russia quickly moved to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula and fortified Port Arthur. Other European powers took advantage of the weakened Qing to target port cities, such as Qingdao. In Japan, the population was outraged and called out the Europeans for being racist. They felt that they had proved themselves and met all the criteria for being considered a modern nation, but the Europeans would not take them seriously. The humiliation led to increased support for industrialization and militarization. In addition to the Sino-Japanese War, the major event that was pivotal in shifting the world’s view of Japan was their decisive victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Still upset with Russia’s participation in the Triple Intervention, Japan was determined to build up its army and navy so that this type of humiliation would never happen again. Because of its interests in Korea, Japan became increasingly alarmed by Russian encroachment in Manchuria. As tensions escalated between the two empires, Japan launched a surprise attack against the Russian ships docked in Port Arthur. The war went on for over a year with serious casualties on both sides, but in the end Japan was victorious. The Treaty of

Portsmouth formally ended the war ceding Korea and other territories to the Japanese. All these events presented Japan with a conundrum: their new power position in East Asia provided them with the opportunity to free the region from western imperialism, but in order to achieve this goal they themselves would need to colonize and expand their sphere of influence through the same techniques that they condemned the west for using. Wartime propaganda and nationalism played a large role in the public perception of the wars and colonial expansion back in Japan. One of the reasons for the Hibiya Incident (see below) was that Japanese propaganda presented the victories over the Qing and the Russians as complete annihilations, when, in fact, it was not as clear cut as that. This fuelled public outrage against the European imperialists in the region and validated the Japanese ideology of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Asia for the Asians.â&#x20AC;?

The Hibiya Incident of 1905 The Hibiya Incident was a large riot that broke out in Tokyo on September 5, 1095 in protest to the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth. Citizens of the Japanese Empire found the terms of the treaty to be unfair and condescending. Although the Imperial Japanese Navy defeated the Imperial Russian Army decisively, and the Japanese took Port Arthur and extended their forces into

Manchuria, they were completely overextended in their capacities on the mainland. Unclear of the actual situation on the ground, Japanese activists rallied at Hibiya Park in Tokyo over what they imagined to be humiliating terms of the treaty that had been agreed to by the Japanese. The protesters were particularly upset that Japanese territorial gains on the Liaodong Peninsula and the northern half of Sakhalin Island were to be returned to Russia and that the Russians would not pay any reparations to Japan.

Demonstrators during the Hibiya Incident. Source: Mainichi Newspapers Co.

The crowd gathered and quickly grew to 30,000 turning their attention to the Imperial palace and then they rioted throughout the city. Before order was restored, the mobs had destroyed about 400 buildings. Hundreds were arrested and seventeen people died. The news of the riots in Tokyo sparked off similar riots in Kobe and Yokohama and led to hundreds of nonviolent rallies in Japan over the next few months. This unrest contributed directly to the collapse of Prime Minister Katsura Toraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cabinet in January 1906. The Hibiya Incident was one of the first large riots in Meiji Japan

and marks the beginning of the “era of popular violence” in Japan. Over the next thirteen years, Japan would be rocked by similar violent protests culminating the in Rice Riots of 1918 (see Taisho module for more on the Rice Riots).

established hegemony over Korea’s foreign and domestic policy, much to the chagrin of many elite Koreans (one official even committed suicide at the Hague in 1907 after negotiations about Korea’s status).

Imperial Ambitions: The Annexation of Korea in 1910 The Japanese were eager to expand their influence in Asia. After defeating Qing China, they proved to the outside world that they were capable of doing so. The annexation of Korea in 1910 is seen as the culmination of a process that began in the 1870s with the debates over whether to go to war with Korea and the signing of the Japan-Korea Treaty in 1876. During this time, Meiji officials sought to subjugate Korea both politically and economically with the use of soft power. In reality, Japan forced Korea into unequal treaties much like the ones that had been imposed on it by the Western powers approximately twenty-five years before; Japan demanded concessions and extraterritoriality for its citizens and forced the Koreans to open ports for trade. Korea was officially declared an imperial protectorate in 1905 after the RussoJapanese War eliminated Russia as a threat in the region, and full annexation and incorporation of Korea into the Japanese empire was completed by 1910. However, by 1910 Japan had already

Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty of 1910.

The Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty of 1910 stipulated that: 1. His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan. 2. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the concession stated in the previous article and consents to the annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan. The annexation of Korea and the broadening of Japanese interests on the mainland were instrumental to Japan’s colonial ambitions because Japan lacked the natural resources needed to fuel industrialization on the home islands. Although they presented their motives as altruistic, claiming that they were saving

Koreans and other Asians from European imperialists, they were no different from the European powers in the ways they treated their colonial possessions.

appointed the official Dutch teacher of his family’s domain.

Fukuzawa Yukichi, the Discourse of Civilization, and Social Darwinism in East Asia Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) was an important political thinker who—like many of his contemporaries—lived through the Meiji Restoration and was deeply in favor of the transformative changes in Japanese society. Fukuzawa was also an author, teacher, entrepreneur, journalist, and translator. He is regarded as one of the most important political actors in modern Japanese history. As testament to his importance, he appears on the 10,000 Yen note of Japanese currency. Fukuzawa was born into an impoverished low-ranking samurai family in Osaka. He had a traditional Confucian education. When Commodore Perry arrived in Japan, Fukuzawa was nineteen years old. He started to learn Dutch (remember: the Dutch were the only foreigners allowed in Japan at the time, so much of the knowledge from the West was mediated through them) to help his family out of poverty by translating for his domain. He had a gift for learning languages and was

Fukuzawa Yukichi. Source: Hirokun

After Japan opened some ports to Westerners, Fukuzawa was shocked to discover that most of the traders spoke English, not Dutch. He began to study English on his own. Because of his English language skills, he was selected to go on a mission to San Francisco in 1860. Upon his return to Japan with a new Webster’s dictionary in tow, he became the official translator of the Tokugawa Bakufu. He then traveled to Europe with the first envoy of Japanese officials to visit Europe. Upon his return, he began publishing prolifically about the West and Western culture. He also wrote numerous textbooks that were used extensively in the new school system—a testament to his

stature and his emphasis on the need for modern education in Japan. Beyond his campaigns for education and his translation projects, Fukuzawa published many influential essays and critical works. In 1875, he published “An Outline of a Theory of Civilization,” which stipulated his view of the place of Japan within the world order according to social Darwinist theory. This idea was very influential in Japan at the time and essentially reinforced the notion that in order for Japan to succeed, the Japanese people needed to become as “civilized” as those in the West. This, he argued, could be done through the acquisition of knowledge and cultivating young minds through rigorous, modern education. Fukuzawa is recognized as one of the most influential modernizers in Japan. He never went into politics, but was respected by many of his contemporaries. He is also remembered as a man who helped Japan transition through the Meiji Restoration into the modern era.

Meiji Religion: Shinto and Buddhism Shinto is a polytheistic religion with many gods who perform many different tasks. Unlike Christianity or Islam, Shinto is not about salvation. Rather, it is about fostering community, worshiping, and celebrating. Kami—or the gods—can be found in many places; in trees, beautiful flowers, shamans, and even in the

emperor. People make offerings to the gods at shrines in hopes that their desires will be fulfilled and depending on what was needed—to do well on an exam, to get pregnant, to be successful, etc.—different shrines and temples are visited.

Itsukushima Shinto Shrine on Miya-Jima Island, Japan. Source: MatiaStella Photography

There are Shinto shrines all over Japan and they are often built in very picturesque locations with a strong attachment to the natural surroundings. The most famous and impressive Shinto Shrine is the Meiji Shrine in Tokyo. It is a sprawling complex that also serves as a public park, where people are often seen picnicking with their families and enjoying the scenery. This recreational aspect of many Shinto shrines demonstrates that it is a place of worship, but also a place for communities to use and enjoy. Shinto has many festivals but unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no weekly services. For example, in February, there is a bean-throwing festival during which people toss hard beans on the temple grounds in an effort to scare away demons. Shinto also focuses on the notion of purity and impurity. The first thing you do when you walk through the arches of a

Shinto shrine is wash your hands as a purifying gesture. During the Meiji Era, Shinto became the state religion of Japan. Until then, Shinto had been more of a local religion. Under Meiji, Shinto was institutionalized and formalized in ways that it had not been before. From the Meiji Restoration onward, the participation in Shinto rituals and worship became part of the way that people marked their relationship to their communities and also to the nation as a whole. The Meiji Era also restored the importance of numerous imperial rites that had been suppressed by the shoguns. This reinforced the notion that the government, the emperor, and Shinto were inseparable. In this way, Shinto became a part of the state policy on an ideological level and remains an important part of state policy to this day.

Kinkaku-ji Temple in Japan. Source: BBC

Buddhism was institutionalized in Japan for centuries and in many ways overlapped with Shinto traditions until the Meiji period when it was forcefully separated from Shinto with a state policy that called for the further institution and

codification of both religions. Unlike the monotheistic religions, it is not a problem for people to practice both Shinto and Buddhism. Because Shinto became more ingrown and aligned to growing national sentiment during Meiji, Buddhism found a place for itself with a growing connection to the international community of Buddhist believers. Japanese schools of Buddhism—such as Zen Buddhism—were exported to the west and gained many followers in places outside of Japan. This internationalization of Buddhism is seen as a reaction to the ways that the Meiji government placed a new emphasis on Shinto as the state religion of Japan.

The Death of the Meiji Emperor For many, the death of the Meiji Emperor marks the end of an era in Japanese history. Japan changed quickly from the time of the Meiji Restoration to his death in 1912. By 1912, Japan had legitimized itself on the international sphere, but many of the successes and advances of the Japanese had come at the expense of the freedom of their newly emerging citizens. When the Taishō Emperor took the throne, the citizens of Japan demanded change and wanted many of the things that had been promised to them in the constitution. This next era—often called the era of Taishō democracy—is the focus of the next module. Although the Meiji Era did witness enormous changes in the cultural and social—as well as the physical—landscapes

of Japan, many of the processes that put these changes in motion continued into the Taishō Era. The Meiji Era was exceptional in many ways, but portraying the death of the emperor as a watershed moment in Japanese history misses the point: change happens through time, not in an instant or because of a single event. Looking for continuities with the past between the Tokugawa and the Meiji, and from Meiji into Taishō provides the opportunity to look for patterns of change rather than focusing momentous events as drivers of historical change.

Useful Websites MIT Visualizing Cultures—Images of Meiji http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/bea to_places/index.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/bea to_people/index.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/gt_ japan_places/index.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/gt_ japan_people/index.html The Treaty of Portsmouth from the US Department of State Office of the Historian http://history.state.gov/milestones/18991913/PortsmouthTreaty http://www.portsmouthpeacetreaty.com/ Primary Source Newspaper Articles about the Russo-Japanese War hosted by the Library of Congress http://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/russojap anesewar.html MIT Visualizing Cultures—Yokohama Boom Town: Foreigners in Treaty-Port Japan http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yok ohama/index.html

MIT Visualizing Asia Project—Throwing off Asia http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/thr owing_off_asia_01/index.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/thr owing_off_asia_03/toa_vis_01.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/thr owing_off_asia_02/index.html MIT Visualizing Asia Project—Asia Rising: Postcards from the Russo-Japanese War http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/asia _rising/index.html http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/yell ow_promise_yellow_peril/index.html MIT Visualizing Asia Project—The Hibiya Rice Riot of 1905 http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/soci al_protest_japan/index.html Russo-Japanese Research society http://www.russojapanesewar.com/ Resources for History Teachers—The Meiji Restoration https://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispace s.com/WHII.14 Imperial Rescript on Education http://www.danzan.com/HTML/ESSAYS/me iji.html http://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/primarysources/136 Hosting from Princeton about the First SinoJapanese War http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/w iki100k/docs/First_Sino-Japanese_War.html Woodblock Prints from Meiji Japan http://www.artelino.com/articles/meiji_print s.asp Historical Events—the Meiji Emperor http://www.kyotodreamtrips.com/2012/02/h istorical-events-today-1867-prince-

mutsuhito-14-becomes-emperor-meiji-ofjapan-1867-1912/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hRrDg0u DJWQ

Japanese Government site hosted about the Meiji Restoration http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2130.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aPMZ4su RSjY

Columbia University Asia for Educators—the Meiji Restoration http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_ 1750_meiji.htm http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/main_pop/kpc t/kp_meiji.htm http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/chart er_oath_1868.pdf http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/tps/1750_jp.ht m#edo The Japan Society Teacher Resources about the Meiji Restoration http://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/essays_1/ the_meiji_restoration_era_1868-1889 Columbia University East Asia Curriculum Project—the Meiji Constitution http://www.iun.edu/~hisdcl/G369_2002/me ijiconstitution.htm Japan Foundation series about the Meiji Restoration available on youtube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BQr5nR n_Cw http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XN3ujvs M67U http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJnXcYR jYN8 Six part documentary about Japanese history from the Edo period to the Meiji Restoration http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQlxcz9 U2x0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3V5gVL PEvI http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOGyzG WW7j4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vHvmA VSyUI Encyclopedia Britannica—the Meiji Restoration http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic /373305/Meiji-Restoration British Museum—Meiji Prints http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/high lights/article_index/j/japan_prints_and_pai ntings_of.aspx Princeton University Art Museum—Asian Art Collection: Prints and art from the Meiji Restoration http://etcweb.princeton.edu/asianart/timepe riod_japan.jsp?ctry=Japan&pd=Meiji

Suggestions for Further Reading General history of the Meiji Restoration Akita, George. Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 18681900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. Beasley, W.G. The Meiji Restoration. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. Craig, Albert M. Choshu in the Meiji Restoration. New York: Lexington Books, 2000. Jansen, Marius, B., ed. Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji restoration. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994. Kazuhiro Takii. The Meiji Constitution: The Japanese Experience of the West and the

Shaping of the Modern State. Tokyo: International House of Japan, 2007.

nationalism. New York: Garland Publications, 1998.

Ravina, Mark. The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons, 2004.

Huffman, James. Modern Japan: a history in documents. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Swale, Alistair. The Meiji Restoration: monarchism, mass communication and conservative revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.

Jansen, Marius. The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000.

General history of the Meiji Era Clement, Ernest Wilson. A Short History of Japan. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1915. Cortazzi, Hugh. Modern Japan: a concise survey. New York: St. Martinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Press, 1993. Duke, Benjamin. The History of Modern Japanese Education: Constructing a National School System, 1872-1890. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Duus, Peter. Modern Japan. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Ericson, Steven J. The Sound of the Whistle: Railroads and the State in Meiji Japan. Cambrdige: Harvard University Asia Center, 1996. Fogel, Joshua A. Late Qing China and Meiji Japan: political and cultural aspects. Norwalk: EastBridge, 2004. Fujitanai, T. Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Gluck, Carol. Japanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. Goto-Jones, Christopher. Modern Japan: a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Hane Mikiso. Modern Japan: a historical survey. Boulder: Westview Press, 2013. Huffman, James L. Modern Japan: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and

Keene, Donald. Emperor of Japan: Meiji and his World, 1852-1912. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Masselos, Jim. ed. The Great Empires of Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. McClain. James. Japan: A Modern History. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002. Sims, Richard L. Japanese political history since the Meiji Renovation. London: Hurst, 2001. The Meiji Period: 1868-1912. (Video). New York: Films Media Group, 1989. Thomas, J.E. Modern Japan: A social history since 1868. London, Longman, 1996. Tipton, Elise. Modern Japan: a social and political history. London: Routledge, 2008. Cultural and Social history of the Meiji Era Ashkenazi, Michael. Matsuri: Festivals of a Japanese Town. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993. Doak, Kevin Michael. A history of nationalism in modern Japan: placing the people. Leiden, Brill, 2007. Figal, Gerald. Civilization and Monsters: Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan. Durham: Duke University Press, 1999. Hardcare, Helen. Shinto and the State, 18681988. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989. Irokawa Daikichi. The Culture of the Meiji Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.

Lublin, Elizabeth Dorn. Reforming Japan: The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in the Meiji Period. York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.

Wittner, David G. Technology and the culture of progress in Meiji Japan. New York: Routledge, 2008.

Mohr, Michel. Buddhism, Unitarianism, and the Meiji Competition for Universality. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013.