Social Innovation - An Exploration of the Literature by Giorgio Bertini

Social Innovation An Exploration of the Literature

Prepared for the McGill-Dupont Social Innovation Initiative W. O. Nilsson McGill University

2003

INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW

COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS INSTITUTIONAL THEORY & SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ORGANIZATION THEORY AND ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP INNOVATION SOCIAL CAPITAL

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ARTICLES BY DOMAIN

COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS INSTITUTIONAL THEORY & SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY & ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP INNOVATION SOCIAL CAPITAL

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ARTICLES BY AUTHOR

ARTICLES BY DOMAIN WITH ABSTRACTS & COMMENTS

COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS INSTITUTIONAL THEORY & SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ORGANIZATION THEORY & ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP INNOVATION SOCIAL CAPITAL

BOOK LIST BY DOMAIN

COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS INSTITUTIONAL THEORY & SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ORGANIZATION THEORY & ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP INNOVATION SOCIAL CAPITAL

BOOK LIST BY AUTHOR

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Introduction & Overview There is no literature on social innovation - a fact that makes a literature review on the topic an interesting quest. The term 'social innovation' is rarely used either in a scholarly or in a commonplace way. An all-dates term-search on 'social innovation' in scholarly journals on ProquestiABI (an index that includes most major journals in sociology, political science-and organizational science among other domains) produces only 46 hits, most of which have nothing to do with one another. A similar search of abstracts in select domains in JSTOR, an archive that in edition to essential sociological journals includes history, literature, and philosophy and that includes issues that go back to the early 1900s in some cases, reveals only one article. And even when the term 'social innovation' is used, it is used in a variety of dissimilar ways. Here are some of the meanings of the term:

â&#x20AC;˘ Social Entrepreneurship - Creating organizations and projects within the social sector. See for example the Stanford Center for Social Innovation; _

â&#x20AC;˘ Social Responsibilities ofBusiness Organizations - Emphasis on corporate

â&#x20AC;˘

citizenship, sustainability, ethical practices, business/community/government collaboration. See for example the Aspen Institute for Social Innovation through Business. Social Side of Technological Innovation - Social dynamics of innovation process within organizations (primarily businesses). Also may include the larger social dynamics at work in framing and acceptinglrejecting new technologies.

None of these things, it turns out, is what the McGill Dupont Social Innovation Initiative had in mind when it began a series of roundtable dialogues on the topic in the fall of 2002. These "think tank" meetings began without a formal definition of social innovation, but in fairly short order a broad understanding of the way the group was using the term began to emerge. The group saw a social innovation as a significant, creative, and sustainable shift in the way that a given society dealt with a profound and previously intractable problem such as poverty, disease, violence, or environmental deterioration. The "significance" of the innovation might be in terms of scale (it affects a large number of people), of scope (it improves society not just in terms of one factor, but in a deep and multidimensional way), or resonance (it may be too early to determine scale or scope, but the innovation is capturing people's imagination in a powerful way). In the literature on technological innovation, a distinction is sometimes made between an "invention" - the creation of a new product or process - and an "innovation" - the widespread adoption of that new product or process. In this sense, invention is (or can be) individual, whereas innovation is always social. With its focus on outcomes, the think tank group also emphasized this distinction. The group was not interested in new social ideas, per se, but in the way that those ideas achieved impact.

More importantly, the group developed its perspective based on a variety of emergent themes. These themes further distinguished the group's understanding of social innovation from the sparse existing literature(s)on the topic. Here are some of the most important themes around which the group organized its thinking: • • • •

•

• •

Complexity ~ the properties and patterns inherent in complex adaptive systems. The connectionsbetween micro-level interactions and macro -level patterns of institutional change. The high degree to which both societal problems and their solutions are socially constructed rather than technically, objectively given. The assumption that social innovation is not the purview of a particular sector and that to think exclusively along sectoral lines is misleading. Most of the literature on social change tends to focus in one way or another on the not-for-profit sector or on the government sector. The assumption that, though organizations often play an important role in social change, to focus exclusively On organizations would be as limiting and deceptive as focusing on sectors. The belief that confronting paradox is not only inevitable but invaluable when exploring social systems and social change. The understanding that perhaps the central paradox involved in social innovation is the relationship between intention and emergence. How do "leaders" involve themselves in change in complex, unpredictable and ultimately un-"manageable" systems?

Certainly the themes in and of themselves are not original (though most are of fairly recent vintage). They each appear in many domains within the literatures of sociology,. ecology, and/or political science. However, I was able to find nothing that even begins to integrate these themes in any kind of meaningful framework for understanding social innovation. In short, as I hurriedly and worriedly searched for the kind of literature that would provide a comprehensive theoretical grounding for the questions and perspectives with which the think tank group was wrestling, it became clear to me that no such literature existed. The group was indeed beginning to develop an original and powerfully integrated framework ofits own. Where then does that leave us in terms of a "literature review." Well, a real review, perhaps, would be impossible. But it was possible to define a handful of key domains that seemed to reliably produce provocative articles that offered insight into one or more of the think tank's major themes. After a good deal of exploration, I identified the seven domains described below. A keyword search of major indexes revealed some useful, baseline articles.butbecausethere are no magical keywords that can unlock such a rich collection of ideas (since, apparently, "social innovation" doesn't do the trick), the most useful search technique proved to be a "manual" review of article abstracts in the leading sociological and organizational journals. This review covered the five-year period from 1998-1992 (though many of the classic or baseline articles are older).

The domains are not, to be sure, mutually exclusive. There is considerable overlap, and many of the articles fit nicely into several domains. Nor do the articles I've chosen provide a comprehensive look at the domains. (That would require a project ten times as long as this one. A full review of all the domains would easily include several hundred articles.) Rather, some of the articles are included merely because they are representative of the domain. And some are included because they offer examples of the kinds of perspectives within each domain that seem to resonate with the primary concerns of the social innovation think tank. The hope is that a researcher interested in a broad perspective on social innovation will find multiple useful starting points within this collection. Call it an impressionistic "literature-scape" rather than a literature map or review. It is the first word, not the final word. And in that spirit, here are a few very general comments.aboutthe relationship of each domain to the social innovation themes in question.

Complex Adaptive Systems The literature on complex adaptive systems is younger than that of the other domains. Most of the major ideas (at least in terms of complexity theory's applicability to social systems) have been developed in the last 15 years or so. Consequently the field is still awash in multiple perspectives. Articles in this domain often have a distinct mixture of definition, conceptualization, and example e.g., (Dent 1999). Muchof the early sociological work in the field has been done from an organizational perspective (in what sense do organizations operate as complex adaptive systems?) (Gersick 1991; Begun, Zimmerman et al. 2002) or from a very abstract, macro perspective using mathematical modeling. Recent trends with more applicability to social innovation attempt to link multiple levels of analysis (individual actors, organizations, institutions, social systems) from a complexity perspective (Boisot and Child 1999; Glouberman and Zimmerman 2002). Some of the more interesting theoretical work is now being done around specific organizational or system phenomena such as boundaries (Richardson and Lissack 2001) or organizational extinction (Marion and Bacon 2000). The most groundbreaking work in terms of social innovation appears to be the work of C. S. Holling and his research associates. While their approach isrooted in ecology, they have worked to develop a robust set of ideas that can be extended to social systems. Their framework includes significant attention to change and to the potential role of leaders/managers within social systems. This work greatly influenced the think tank team. For an overview, see (Holling 2001). In general the literature on complex adaptive systems offers a variety of profound concepts at the macro level that might be useful to social innovators. It also offers an increasing number of interesting. organizational perspectives. Linking multiple levels of analysis with the concept of agency or intention, however, (which is the central concern of social innovators) is still a young and developing approach that offers a great deal of room for future research.

Institutional Theory & Social Construction Institutional theory is rooted in theories of social construction that attempt to link micropatterns of individual interaction with the development of relatively stable macro-social patterns and structures. These macro forms may be cognitive, normative, or regulatory. They key is that though the macro patterns are created at the subjective, individual level, they achieve a kind of objective status and a certain degree of trans-generational stability. Most of what we think of as social problems can be seen as rooted in institutions of one sort or another. (See the book list for several foundational texts and overviews of institutional theory and social construction e.g., (Berger and Luckmann 1967; Giddens 1984; Powell and DiMaggio 1991; Gergen 1999; Scott 2001). The relationship between institutional theory and social innovation is obvious: the micromacro links; the heft and intractability of patterns that were, after all, produced by humans; the ways in which taken-for-granted cognitive beliefs and frames reveal themselves in moral norms, in organizational forms and in regulatory structures. Most of the early work done in this area was entirely theoretical. Later empirical work was largely quantitative and done at the field level of analysis. While helpful for the social innovator from a conceptual level, most institutional literature offers little in the way of understanding how human intention can help to change existing institutions and engender new ones. In the 90s, several key articles were published that discussed the ways in which organizations might manipulate institutions strategically, but these tended to operate from a very linear framework in which the institutions were readily apparent to the actors involved. Since the roots of institutional theory assume that most institutions operate at a cognitive level of which we are unaware, these strategic approaches were only "institutional" in a very limited way. Recently, a handful of articles have begun to explore micro-macro institutional links from an empirical, qualitative perspective, e.g., (Lawrence, Hardy et al. 2002). This approach seems to leave room for a kind of non-linear, complex intentionality that is rooted in collaboration. This sort of institutional intentionality and its relationship to complex adaptive systems is currently a wide-open field of inquiry, the development of which would contribute significantly to our understanding of social innovation.

Social Movements The literature on social movements is very developed and offers many parallels with the think tank's work on social innovation. Social movements are by nature trans-sectoral, trans-organizational, and driven by explicit purpose and intention. The literature has much to say about the ways in which amorphous collectives can achieve profound social change. There is much subtle and sophisticated theory about the kinds of political structures and forces and organizational patterns that have allowed some movements to be successful. However, social movements as conceptualized in the literature are generally assumed to have a clear understanding of the problem in question and an equally clear understanding of who is a friend and who is an enemy. This type of clarity leaves little room for the kinds of ill-understood and emergent patterns described by complexity theories and institutional theories. Little has been done to link social movement theory with these two schools of thought. 6

There is an emerging body of work that looks at social movements from an ecological perspective that may begin to open up some complexity themes (Zhao 1998). And a small, but important sub-stream of the literature, in contrast to the dominant "strategic" approach, has been very concerned with frames and the development of collective identity- an approach that offers some connection to cognitive institutional theory and socialconstruction. See (Benford and Snow 2000; Edelman 2001) or (Zald 1996; Polletta and Jasper 2001) for an overview. Many articles also explore (if sometimes indirectly) the tension between place as an organizing principle (people living with or near each other and sharing a culture) and ideology as an organizing principle (people attracted to the same cause or idea). While social movements have often been seen as primarily ideological, there is a growing emphasis on place that social innovators would do well to heed. Another possibly useful way to develop social innovation theory would be to link some of the more intimate, personal and intuitive change approaches described in the organizational development literature (e.g., Appreciative Inquiry or Dialogue) with the social movement literature.

Organization Theory and Organizational Development If social innovation is not primarily a matter of formal organizations, the organizational literature is still among the most fruitful domains for thinking about social change. Three major strands in the literature are helpful: â&#x20AC;˘ The literature on the dynamics of inter-sectoral collaboration. Social problems generally involve an array of organizational actors of various sectoral types. As the forces of globalization become stronger and more apparent, organization scholars (and development scholars using an organizational lens) have begun to explore the relationships between NGGs, community organizations, governmental agencies, and private corporations with more subtlety. See e.g., (Bouwen and Steyaert 1999; Brinkerhoff 1999; Brown and Ashman 1999). â&#x20AC;˘ The study of loose, informal, collaborative "organizations." New organizational models and perspectives are emerging that incorporate dimensions and connections quite different from traditional, formal authority and ownership ties. Much of this literature is rooted in network theory, but for our purposes the most interesting articles go beyond a merely formal evaluation of diffuse organizational structures to think about the possibilities these structures hold for values-driven social change. Many articles in the Cooperrider and Dutton edited volume Organizational Dimensions of Global Change address this theme, often profoundly. See e.g., (Tenkasi and Mohrman 1999; Westley 1999; Zald 1999) in the the Cooperrider book or (Foreman 1999; Rohrschneider and Dalton 2002) for other examples. â&#x20AC;˘ Intimate portraits of the ways in which people in organizations can begin to loosen the cognitive institutional shackles and formal organizational constraints with which they are burdened and begin to work creatively with emergent properties of complex systems. Many of these articles have to do with ways of thinking (Appreciative Inquiry), ways of communicating (Dialogue), paradox, intuition, and improvisation. While generally focused on the micro level, lately 7

many of these articles are beginning to seek to connect these micro-dynamics with larger organizational and social patterns. For a selection, see (Whyte 1994; Weick 1998; Crossan, Lane et al. 1999; Isaacs 1999; Weick 1999; Lewis 2000).

Social Entrepreneurship Social entrepreneurship, as the term is generally used, focuses on the creative solution to social problems via the creation of formal (generally nonprofit) organizational structures. Surprisingly, despite this straightforward approach, there does not appear to be a rich literature on the subject. Social entrepreneurship literature would be a natural place for the social innovator (or researcher) to look for guidance, but the pickings are sparse. Much of the literature is concerned with rather pedestrian definitions ((Dees 1998; Mort, Weerawardena et al. 2003) or with exploring the application of traditional management functions and techniques to the nonprofit sector. The literature is also replete with sketchy case studies that might be useful in terms of social innovation, but the reader will have to do the rich, theoretical work for herself, since these articles tend to be short on theoretical subtlety and depth (Pastakia 1998; Offenheiser, Holcombe et al. 1999; Thompson, A1vy et al. 2000). This domain is probably most useful for its attention to the history and roles of nonprofit organizations in various specific instances of social change. I found it surprisingly un-useful in terms of leadership and management themes. These tend to be much more developed in generic (or corporate) organizational literature.

Innovation The literature that's explicitly about innovation is almost exclusively focused on the development of commercial products and the processes that bring them to market. In that sense, the questions it asks are much narrower than the ones asked by people interested in social innovation. There is very little attention paid to the moral value of innovations. Institutions and policies are explored only insofar as they impact the development and marketization of new technologies (e.g., a country's national innovation or R&D policy). When non-technological innovations areexplored, they are usually viewed from the perspective of their relationship to technological innovations. For example,' it is typical in the literature to study the underlying social architecture that encourages or inhibits the development of new ideas and/or the acceptance of those ideas on a wide scale. That being said, there is a depth to this literature in the way that it explores collective creativity that is often missing in more social/values-based literatures. Innovation literature has a lot to say about the way people work creatively together in teams (March 1976; Brown and Duguid 1991), about the way organizational structures support or inhibit innovation, and about the relationships between organizational/social architecture and the ultimate survival of various ideas (Henderson and Clark 1990; Dougherty 1992; Leonard-Barton 1992; Christensen 1997; Hargadon and Douglas 2001). Innovation literature has also begun to explore the relationship between tacit and explicit knowledge .and the way in which this relationship can produce new knowledge. Nonaka's work in particular deals with this theme (Nonaka 1994; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), and it is quite profound both on its own terms and in its potential applicability to social innovation 8

themes. The challenge forthe social innovator or researcher is to develop links between the process depth in the innovation literature and the complex moral and institutional patterns seemingly at the heart of meaningful social change.

Social Capital The literature on social capital explores the way in which patterns ofsocial relationships, traditions, cultures, etc. can be seen as resources (for community stability, for economic production, for the production of new ideas) (Coleman 1990; Schuller, Baron et al. 2000). Understanding social capital is obviously critical for understanding the way in which communities produce new ideas and the ways in which those ideas take root. Much of the social capital literature concerns itself with defining social capital and/or with delineating the relationship between various types of social capital and larger macrosocial phenomena (e.g., education or volunteering) (Buchman and Hannum 2001; Curtis, Baer et al. 2001). These sorts of articles make for an interesting backdrop to certain social innovation themes. Strands ofthe literature that might have more direct applicability for social innovators include: â&#x20AC;˘ Examinations of the relationship between local social capital and more global, issue-focused organizations (generally NGOs) during various types of development projects (Brown and Ashman 1996; Evans 1996; Becker 2002). â&#x20AC;˘ Explorations of the important but paradoxical role of place in an increasingly interconnected global society (similar to some of the themes raised in the social movement literature). These articles often deal with collective identity, as well. (Gieryn 2000; McPherson, Smith-Lovin et al. 2001; Gille and 0 Riain 2002). â&#x20AC;˘ Discussions of issues related to volunteering and participation (Curtis, Baer et al. 2001; Eckstein 2001; Schofer and Fourcade-Gourinchas2001). Helpful for people thinking about mobilization.

Articles By Domain Complex Adaptive Systems Begun, J. W.,B. Zimmerman, et al. (2002). "Health care organizations as complex adaptive systems." Draft Book Chapter 1S. M. Mick and M.Wvttenbach leds.J Advances in Health Care Organization Theory (San Francisco: JossevBass, forthcoming}]. Boisot, M. and J~ Child (1999). "Organizations as adaptive systems in complex environments: The case of China~" Organization Science 1 0(3): 237. Dent,E. B. (1999). "Complexity science: A worldview shift." Emergence 1(4): 5. Gersick (1991). "Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel . exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm." Academy of Management Review 16(1): 10-36. Glouberman, S. and B. Zimmerman (2002). "Complicated and complex systems: What would successful reform of Medicare look like." Discussion paper submitted to the Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada. Goldman, M. and R. Schurman (2000). "Closing the "great divide": New social theory on society and nature." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 563-584. Holling, C. S. (2001). "Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems:' Ecosystems 4(5): 390. Levinthal, D. and M. Warglein (1999). "Landscape design: Designing for local action in complex worlds:' Organization Science 10(3): 342. Marion, R. and J. Bacon (2000). "Organizational extinction and complex systems:' Emergence 1 (4): 71.

Milstein, B. (2002). "Syndemics Overview." Richardson, K. A. and M. R. Lissack (2001). "On the status of boundaries, both natural and organizational: A complex systems perspective." Emergence 3(4): 32-49. Sawyer, R. K. (2001). "Emergence in sociology: Contemporary philosophy of mind and some implications for sociological theory:' American Journal of Sociology 107(3): 551-85.

Institutional Theory & Social Construction Clemens, E. S. and J~ M. Cook (1999). "Politics and institutionalism: Explaining durability and change:' Annual Review of Sociology 25: 441-446. Hardy,C. and N. Phillips (1999). "No joking matter: Discursive struggle in the Canadian refugee system:' Organization Studies 20(1): 1. Ingram, P. and K. Clay (2000). "The choice-within-constraints new institutionalism and implications for sociology:' Annual Review of Sociology 26: 525-546. Lamont, M. and V. Molnar (2002). "The Study of Boundaries in the Social Sciences:' Annual Review of Sociology 28: 167-195. Lawrence, T. B., C. Hardy, et al. (2002). "Institutional effects of interorganizational collaboration: The emergence of protoinstitutions." Academy of Management Journal 45(1): 281290. Mintzberg, H. and F. Westley (2000). "Sustaining the institutional environment:' Organization Studies 21: 71. Perez-Aleman, P. (2000). "Learning, adjustment and economic development: Transforming firms, the state and associations in Chile:' World Development 28(1): 41.

Stolte, .... F., G. A. Fine, et al. (2001). "Socialminiaturism: Seeing the big through the small in social psychology:" Annual Review of Sociology 27: 387-413. Strang, D. andM. W. Macy (20.01). "In search of excellence: Fads, success stories, and adaptive emulation:' American "'ournal of Sociology 107(1): 147-82.

Social Movements Baiocchi, G. (2003). ""Emergent public spheres: Talking politics in participatory government." American Sociological Review

68(1): 52. Benford, R. and D. Snow (2000). "Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment:" Annual Review of Sociology 26: 611-639â&#x20AC;˘. Chwe, M. S.-Y. (1999). "Structure and strategy in collective action:" American "'ournal of Sociology 105(1): 128-56. Edelman,M. (2001). "Social movement: Changing paradigms and forms of politics." Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 285-

317. Giugni, M. (1998). ""Was it worth the effort: The outcomes and consequences of social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 371-393. Hedstrom, P., R. Sandell, et al. (2000). "Mesoloevel networks and the diffusion of social movements: The case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party." American Journal of Sociology

106(1): 145-72. Ingram, P. and T. Simons (2000). "State formation, ideological competition, and the ecology of Israeli workers cooperatives, 1920-1992." Administrative Science Quarterly

45(1): 25. 12

Kollock, P. (1998). "Social dilemmas: The anatomy of cooperation." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 183-214. Kriesi, H. (1996). Organizational structure of new social movements in a political context. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam,J. D. McCarthy and M. N.Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 261-274. Loveman, M. (1998). "High-risk collective action: Defending human rights in Chile, Uruguay, and A-rgentina:" American Journal of Sociology 104(2): 477-525. McCarthy, J. D. (1996). Constraints and opportunities in adop~ing, adapting, and inventing. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 141-151. Oliver, P. and D. Myers (1999). "How events enter the public sphere: Conflict, location, and sponsorship in local newspaper coverage of public events:" American Journal of Sociology 1 05(1): 38-87. Polletta, F. and J. M. Jasper (2001). "Collective identity and social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 283305. Sandell, R. (2001). "Organizational growth and ecological constraints: The growth of social movements in Sweden, 1881 to 1940:" American Sociological Review 66(5): 672. Staggenborg, S. (1998). "Social movement communities and cycles of protest: The emergence and maintenance of a local women"s movement:" Social Problems 45(2): 180(25). Stevenson, W. B. and D. Greenberg (2000). "Agency and social networks: Strategies of action in a social structure of position,opposition, and opportunity:" Administrative Science Quarterly 45(4): 651. 13

Strang, D. and S.Soule(1998). "Diffusion in organizations and social movements: From hybrid corn to poison pills." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 265-290. Useem, B. (1998). "Breakdown theories of collective action." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 215-238. Young, M. P. (2002). "Confessional protest: The religious birth of the U.S. national social movements." American Sociological Review 67(5): 660. Zald, M. N. (1996). Culture, ideology, and strategic framing. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 261-274. Zhao (1998). "Ecologies of social movements: Student mobilization during the 1989 prodemocracy movement in Beijing." American Journal of Sociology 103(6): 1493-1529.

Organizational Theory & Organizational Development Aram, J. D. (1999). Constructing and deconstructing global change organizations. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 235251. Bouwen, R. and C. Steyaert (1999). From a dominant voice toward multivoiced cooperation: Mediating metaphors for global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 291-319. Brinkerhoff, D. W. (1999). "Exploring g state-civil society collaboration: Policy partnerships in developing countries." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 59. 14

Brown, L. D. and D. Ashman (1999). Social capital, mutual influence, and social learning in intersectoral problem solving in Africa and Asia. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 1-36. Cooperrider, D. L. and J. E. Dutton (1999). No limits to cooperation: An introduction to the organizational dimensions of global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, CaUf., Sage Publications: 1-36.

Crossan, M. M., H. W. Lane, et al. (1999). "An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution." Academy of Management Review 24(3): 522. Drazin, R.and L. Sandelands(1992). "Autogenesis: A perspective on the process of organizing:i Organization Science 3(2): 230. Fisher, J. (1999). International networking: The role of southern NGOs. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 210-234. Foreman, K. (1999). "Evolving global structures and the challenges facing international relief and development organizations:' Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 178. Frooman, J. (1999). "Stakeholder influence strategies:' Academy of Management Review 24(2): 191. Gergen, K. J. (1999). Global organization and the potential for ethical inspiration. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 25515

269. Gray, B. (1999). The development of global environmental regimes: Organizing in the absence of authority. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 185-209. Hage, J. T. (1999). "Organizational innovation and organizational change." Annual Review of Sociology 25: .597-622. Hardy, C. and N. Phillips (1998). "Strategies of engagement: Lessons from the critical examination of collaboration and conflict in interorganizational domain." Organization Science 9(2): 217-230. Hart, S. (1999). Corporations as agents of global sustainability: Beyond competitive strategy. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J.E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 346~361.

Kaczmarski, K. M. and D. L. Cooperrider (1999). Constructionist leadership in the global relational age: The case of the mountain forum. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 57-87. Knowles, R. N. (2001). "Self-organizing leadership: A way of seeing what is happening in organizations and a pathway to coherence." Emergence 3(4): 112-127. Lewis, M. W. (2000). "Exploring paradox: Toward a more comprehensive guide:'Academy of Management Review

25(4): 760. Mir, R. A., M. B. Calas, et al. (1999). Global technoscapes and silent voices: Challenges to theorizing global cooperation. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to

cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 270-290. Rohrschneider, R. and R. Dalton (2002). "A global network? Transnational cooperation among environmental groups." Journal of Politics 64(2): 510-533. Rubenstein, D. and R. W. Woodman (1984). "Spiderman and the Burma- Raiders: Collateral organization theory in action." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 20(1): 1. Swanson, D. L. (1999). "Toward an integrative theory of business and society: A research strategy for corporate social performance." Academy of Management Review 24(3): 506. Tenkasi, R. V. and S. A. Mohrman (1999). Global change as contextual collaborative knowledge creation. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 114-136. Vaughan, D. (1999)."The dark side of organizations: Mistake, misconduct, and dlsaster,' Annual Review of Sociology 25: 271-305. Weick, K. E. (1998). "Improvisation as a mindset for organizational analysis." Organization Science 9(5): 543. Weick, K. E. (1999).Sensemaking as an organizational dimension of global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 39-56. Weick, K.E. and F. Westley (1996). Organizational learning: Affirming an oxymoron. Handbook of organization studies. S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy andW. Nord, Sage: 440-458. Westley, F. (1999). "Not on our watch": The biodiversity crisis and global collaboration response. Organizational dimensions of

global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 88-113. Westley, F. and H. Vredenburg (1997). "Interorganizational collaboration and the preservation of global biodiversity:' Organization Science 8(4): 381-403. Zald, M. N. (1999). Transnational and international social movements in a globalizing world: Creating culture, creating conflict. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., S~ge Publications: 168184.

Social Entrepreneurship Bryer, D. and J. Magrath (1999). "New dimen~ions of global advocacy:' Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 168. Dees, J. G. (1998). "The meaning of "social entrepreneurship":' Dichter, T. W. (1999). "Globalization and its effects on NGOs: Efflorescence. or a blurring of roles and relevance?" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 38. Egri, C. P. and S. Herman (1999). "Leadership in the North American environmental sector: Values, leadership styles, and contexts of environmental leaders and their organizations:' Academy of Management Journal 43(4): 571. Lindenberg,M. (1999). "Declining state capacity, voluntarism, and the globalization of the not-for-profit sector:' Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 147. Mort, G. S., J. Weerawardena, et al. (2003). "Social 18

entrepreneurship: Towards conceptualization:" International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 8(1): 76. Offenheiser, R., S. Holcombe, et al, (1999). "Grappling with globalization, partnership, and learning: A look inside. Oxfam America:" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 121. Pastakia, A. (1998). ""Grassroots ecopreneurs: Change agents for a sustainable society:" Journal of Organizational Change Management 11 (2): 157. Sagawa, S. and E. Segal (2000). "Common interest, common good: Creating value through business and social sector partnerships." California Management Review 42(2): 105122. Thompson, J., G. Alvy,et al. (2000). "Social entrepreneurship - a new look at the people and the potential:" Management Decision 38(5): 328-338. Waddock, S. A. and J. E. Post (1991). "Social entrepreneurs and catalytic change:" Public Administration Review 51 (5): 393.

Innovation Brown, J. S. and P. Duguid (1991). ""Organizational learning and communities of practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation:" Organization Science 1 (4): 40-57. Dougherty, D. (1992). "Interpretive barriers to successful product innovation in large firms:" Organization Science 3(2): 179202. Hargadon, A. B. and Y. Douglas (2001). "When innovations meet institutions: Edison and the design of the electric light:" Administrative Science Quarterly 46(3): 476. 19

Henderson, R. M. and K. B. Clark (1990). "Architectural innovation: The reconfiguration of existing product technologies and the failure of established firms:' Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1): 9-30. Leonard-Barton, D. (1992). "Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox路 in managing new product development." Strategic Management Journal 13(Special Issue): 111-126. March, J. G. (1976). Technology of foolishness. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. J. G. March and J. P. Olsen. Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 443-451. Nonaka, I. D. (1994). "A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation." Organization Science 5(1): 14. Van den Bulte, C. and G.L. Lilien (2001). "Medical innovation revisited: Social contagion versus marketing effort:' American Journal of Sociology 106(5): 1409-35. Wejnert, B. (2002). "Integrating models of diffusion of innovations: A conceptual framework." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 297-326.

Social Capital Becker, C. D. (2002). "Grassroots to grassroots: Why forest preservation was rapid at Loma Alta, Ecuador." World Development 31 (1): 163-176. Brown, L. D. and D. Ashman (1996). "Participation, social capital, and intersectoral problem solving: African and Asian cases:' World Development 24(9): 1467-1479. Buchman, C. and E. Hannum (2001). "Education and stratification in developing countries: A review of theories and research." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 77-102. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Social Capital. Foundations of Social

Theory, Belknap Press: 300-321. Curtis, J. E., D. E. Baer, et al. (2001). "Nations of joiners: Explaining voluntary association membership in democratic societies." American Sociological Review 66(6): 783. Eckstein, S. (2001). "Community as gift-giving:. Collectivist roots of volunteerlsm," American Sociological Review 66(6): 829. Evans, P. (1996). "Government action, social capital and development: Reviewing the evidence on synergy:' World Development 24(6): 1119-1132. Gieryn, T. F. (2000). "A space for place in sociology:' Annilal Review of Sociology 26:路463-496. Gille, Z. and S. 0 Riain (2002). "Global Ethnography:' Annual Review of Sociology 28: 271-295. McElroy, M. W. (2002). "Social innovation capital:' Journal of Intellectual Capital 3(1): 30-39. McPherson, M., L. Smith-Lovin, et al. (2001). "Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 415-444. Portes, A. (1998). "Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology:' Annual Review of Sociology 24: 1-24. Sampson, R. J., J. D. Morenorr, et al. (2002). "Assessing "neighborhood effects": Social processes and new directions in research:' Annual Review of Sociology 28: 443-478. Schofer, E. and M. Fourcade-Gourinchas (2001). "The structural contexts of civic engagement: Voluntary association membership in comparative perspective." American Sociological Review 66(6): 806. Schuller, T., S. Baron, et al.(2000). Social capital: A review and 21

critique. Social capital: Critical perspectives. T • Schuller, S. Baron and J. Field. New York, Oxford University Press: 1-3B. Small, M.L. (2002). "Culture, cohorts, and organization theory: Understanding local participation in a Latino housing project:' American Journal of Sociology 108(1}: 1·54. Small, M. L. and K. Newman (2001). "Urban poverty after The Truly Disadvantaged: The rediscovery of the family, the neighborhood, and culture."Annual Review of Sociology 27: 33-45. Tolbert, C. M., T. A. Lyson, et al. (199B). "Local capitalism, civic engagement, and socioeconomic well-being." Social Forces 77(2}: 401·427. Wilson, J. (2000). "Volunteering:' Annual Review of Sociology 26: 215-240~

Articles By Author Aram, J. D. (1999). Constructing and deconstructing global change organizations. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 235251. Baiocchi, G. (2003). "Emergent public spheres: Talking politics in participatory government." American Sociological Review 68(1): 52. Becker, C. ~. (2002). "Grassroots to grassroots: Why forest preservation was rapid at Loma Alta, Ecuador:' World Development 31 (1): 163-176. Begun, J. W., B. Zimmerman, et al. (2002). "Health care organizations as complex adaptive systems:' Draft Book Chapter CS. M. Mick and M. Wvttenbach (eds.) Advances in Health Care Organization.Theory (San Francisco: JossevBass, forthcomingU. Benford, R. and D. Snow (2000). "Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment."Annual Review of Sociology 26: 611-639. Boisot, M. and J. Child (1999). "Organizations as adaptive systems in complex environments: The case of China:' Organization Science 10(3): 237. Bouwen, R. and C. Steyaert (1999). From a dominant voice toward multivoiced cooperation: Mediating metaphors for global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 291-319. Brinkerhoff, D. W. (1999). "Exploring g state-civil society collaboration: Policy partnerships in developing countries:' Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 59. 23

Brown, J. S. and P. Duguid (1991). "Organizational learning and communities of practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation:' Organization Science 1 (4): 40-57. Brown, L. D. and D. Ashman (1996). "Participation, social capital, and intersectoral problem solving: African and Asian cases." World Development 24(9): 1467-1479. Brown, L. D. and D. Ashman (1999). Social capital, mutual influence, and social learning in intersectoral problem solving in Afric_a and Asia. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage .Publications: 1-36. Bryer, D. and J. Magrath (1999). "New dimensions of global advocacy." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 168. Buchman, C. and E. Hannum (2001). "Education and stratification in developing countries: A review of theories and research." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 77-102. Chwe, M. S.-Y. (1999). "Structure and strategy in collective action." American Journal of Sociology 105(1): 128-56. Clemens, E. S. and J. M. Cook (1999). "Politics and institutionalism: Explaining durability and change... 路Annual Review of Sociology 25: 441-446. Coleman, J. S. (1990). Social Capital. Foundations of Social Theory, Belknap Press: 300-321. Cooperrider, D. L. and J. E. Dutton (1999). No limits to cooperation: An introduction to the organizational dimensions of global change. Organizational dimensions of . global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications:

1-36. Crossan, M. M., H. W. Lane, et al, (1999). "An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution:' Academy of Management Review 24(3): 522. Curtis, J. E., D.E. Baer, etal. (2001). "Nations of joiners: Explaining voluntary association membership in democratic societies:' American Sociological Review 66(6): 783. Dees, J. G. (1998). "The meaning of "social entrepreneurship":' -

Dent, E. B. (1999). "Complexity science: A worldview shift." Emergence 1(4): 5. Dichter, T. W. (1999). "Globalization and its effects on NGOs: Efflorescence or a blurring of roles and relevance?" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 38. Dougherty, D. (1992). "Interpretive barriers to successful product innovation in large firms:' Organization Science 3(2):179202. Drazin, R. and L. Sandelands (1992). "Autogenesis: A perspective on the process of organizing:' Organization Science 3(2): 230. Eckstein, S. (2001). "Community as gift-giving: Collectivist roots of volunteerism." American Sociological Review 66(6): 829. Edelman, M. (2001). "Social movement: Changing paradigms and forms of politics:' Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 285317. Egri, C. P. and S. Herman (1999). "Leadership in the North American environmental sector: Values, leadership styles, and contexts of environmental leaders and their organizations:' Academy of Management Journal 43(4): 571.

Evans, P. (1996). "Government action, social capital and development: Reviewing the evidence on synergy." World Development 24(6): 1119-1132. Fisher,J. (1999). International networking: The role of southern NGOs. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 210-234. Foreman, K. (1999). "Evolving global structures and the challenges facing international relief and development organizations." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 178. Frooman, J. (1999). "Stakeholder influence strategies." Academy of Management Review 24(2): 191. Gergen, K. J. (1999). Global organization and the potential for ethical inspiration. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 255269. Gersick (1991). "Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm:' Academy of Management Review 16(1): 10-36. Gieryn, T. F. (2000). "A space for place in sociology." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 463-496. Gille, Z. and S. 0 Riain (2002). "Global Ethnography:' Annual Review of Sociology 28: 271-295. Giugni, M. (1998). "Was it worth the effort: The outcomes and consequences of social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 371-393. Glouberman, S. and B. Zimmerman (2002). "Complicated and complex systems: What would successful reform of

Medicare look like." Discussion paper submitted to the Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada. Goldman, M. and R. Schurman (2000). "Closing the "great divide": New social theory on society and nature:" Annual Review of Sociology 26: 563-584. Gray, B. (1999). The development of global environmental - regimes: Organizing in the absence of authority. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 185-209. Hage, J. T. (1999). ""Organizational innovation and organizational change." Annual Review of Sociology 25: 597-622. Hardy, C. andN. Phillips (1998). "Strategies of engagement: Lessons from the critical examination of collaboration and conflict in interorganizational domain:" Organization Science 9(2): 217-230. Hardy, C. and N. Phillips (1999). "No joking matter: Discursive struggle in the Canadian refugee system." Organization Studies 20(1): 1. Hargadon, A. B. and Y. Douglas (2001). "When innovations meet institutions: Edison and the design of the electric light:" Administrative Science Quarterly 46(3): 476. Hart, S. (1999). Corporations as agents of global sustainability: Beyond competitive strategy. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 346-361. Hedstrom, P., R. Sandell, et al. (2000). "Mesoloevel networks and the diffusion of social movements: The case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party." American Journal of Sociology 106(1): 145路72. 27

Henderson, R. M. and K. B. Clark (1990). "Architectural innovation: The reconfiguration of existing product technologies and the failure of established firms." Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1): 9-30. Holling, C.S. (2001). "Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems'" Ecosystems 4(5): 390. Ingram, P. and K. Clay (2000). "The choice-within-constraints new institutionalism and implications for sociology'" Annual Review of Sociology 26: 525-546. Ingram, P. and T. Simons (2000). "State formation, ideological competition, and the ecology of Israeli workers cooperatives, 1920-1992." Administrative Science Quarterly 45(1): 25. Kaczmarski, K. M. and D. L. Cooperrider (1999). Constructionist leadership in the global relational age: The case of the mountain forum. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 57-87. Knowles, R. N. (2001). "Self-organizing leadership: A way of seeing what is happening in organizations and a pathway to coherence." Emergence 3(4): 112-127. Kollock, P. (1998). "Social dilemmas: The anatomy of cooperation." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 183-214. Kriesi, H. (1996). Organizational structure of new social movements in a political context. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 261-274. Lamont, M. and V. Molnar (2002). "The Study of Boundaries in the Social Sciences." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 167-195.

Lawrence, T. B., C. Hardy, et al. (2002). "Institutional effects of interorganizational collaboration: The emergence of protoinstitutions:' Academy of Management Journal 45(1): 281290. Leonard-Barton, D. (1992). "Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development:' Strategic Management Journal 13(Special Issue): 111-126. Levinthal,D. and M, Warglein (1999). "Landscape design: Designing for local action in complex worlds:' Organization Science 10(3): 342. Lewis, M. W. (2000). "Exploring paradox: Toward a more comprehensive guide:' Academy of Management Review 25(4): 760. Lindenberg, M. (1999). "Declining state capacity, voluntarism, and the globalization of the not-for-profit sector." Nonprofit and VoluntarvSector Quarterly 28(4): 147. Loveman, M. (1998). "High-risk collective action: Defending human rights in Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina:' American Journal of Sociology 104(2): 477-525. March, J. G. (1976). Technology of foolishness. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. J. G. March and J. P. Olsen. Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 443-451. Marion, R. and J. Bacon (2000). "Organizational extinction and complex systems:' Emergence 1 (4): 71. McCarthy, J. D. (1996). Constraints and opportunities in adopting, adapting, and inventing. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D.MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 141-151. McElroy, M. W. (2002). "Social innovation capital:' Journal of Intellectual Capital 3(1): 30-39.

McPherson, M., L. Smith-Lovin, et al, (2001). "Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks:" Annual Review of Sociology 27: 415-444. Milstein, B. (2002). IISyndemicsOverview:" Mintzberg, H. and F. Westley (2000). IISustaining the institutional environment:" Organization Studies 21: 71. Mir, R. A., M. B. Calas, et al. (1999). Global technoscapes and silent voices: Challenges to theorizing global cooperation. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 270-290. Mort, G. S., J. Weerawardena, et al, (2003). "Social entrepreneurship: Towards conceptualization:" International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 8(1): 76. Nonaka, I. D. (1994). IIA dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation," Organization Science 5(1): 14. Offenheiser, R., S. Holcombe, et al. (1999). "Grappling with globalization, partnership, and learning: A look inside Oxfam America:" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 121. Oliver, P. and D. Myers (1999). IIHow events enter the public sphere: Conflict, location, and sponsorship in local newspaper coverage of public events:" American Journal of Sociology 105(1): 38-87. Pastakia, A. (1998). "Grassrootsecopreneurs: Change agents for a sustainable society:" Journal of Organizational Change Management 11 (2): 157. Perez-Aleman, P. (2000). IILeaming, adjustment and economic development: Transforming firms, the state and

associations in Chile." World Development 28(1}: 41. Polletta, F. and J. M. Jasper (2001). "Collective identity and social movements:" Annual Review of Sociology 27: 283305. Portes, A. (1998). "Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology"" Annual Review of Sociology 24:1-24. Richardson, K. A.and M. R. Lissack (2001). "On the status of boundaries, both natural and organizational: A complex systems perspective," Emergence 3(4}: 32-49. Rohrschneider, R. and R. Dalton (2002). "A global network? Transnational cooperation among environmental groups." Journal of Politics 64(2}: 510-533. Rubenstein, D. and R. W.Woodman (1984). "Spiderman and the Burma Raiders: Collateral organization theory in actton," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 20(1}: 1. Sagawa, S. and E. Segal (2000). "Common interest, common good: Creating value through business and social sector partnerships." California Management Review 42(2}: 105122. Sampson, R. J., J.D. Morenorr, etal. (2002). ""Assessing "neighborhood effects": Social processes and new directions in research." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 443-478. Sandell, R. (2001). "Organizational growth and ecological constraints: The growth of social movements in Sweden, 1881 to 1940.." American Sociological Review 66(5}: 672. Sawyer, R. K. (2001). "Emergence in sociology: Contemporary philosophy of mind and some implications for sociological theory," American Journal of Sociology 1 07(3}: 551-85. Schofer, E. and M. Fourcade-Gourinchas (2001). "The structural 31

contexts of civic engagement: Voluntary association membership in comparative perspective." American Sociological Review 66(6): 806. Schuller, T., S. Baron, et al, (2000). Social capital: A review and critique. Social capital: Critical perspectives. T. Schuller, S. Baron and J. Field. New York, Oxford University Press: 1-38. -Small, M. L. (2002). "Culture, cohorts, and organization theory: Understanding local participation in a Latino housing project." American Journal of Sociology 108(1): 1-54. Small, M. L. and K. Newman (2001). "Urban poverty after The Truly Disadvantaged: The rediscovery of the family, the neighborhood, and culture:" Annual Review of Sociology 27: 33-45. Staggenborg, S. (1998). "Social movement communities and cycles of protest: The emergence and maintenance of a local路women"s movement." Social Problems 45(2): 180(25). Stevenson, W. B. and D. Greenberg (2000). "Agency and social networks: Strategies of action in a social structure of position, opposition, and opportunity:" Administrative Science Quarterly 45(4): 651. Stolte, J. F., G. A. Fine, et al.(2001). ""Social miniaturism: Seeing the big through the small in social psychology." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 387-413. Strang, D. and M. W. Macy (2001). "In search of excellence: Fads, success stories, and adaptive emulatlon," American Journal of Sociology 107(1): 147-82. Strang, D. and S. Soule (1998). "Diffusion in organizations and social movements: From hybrid corn to poison pills:" Annual Review of Sociology 24: 265-290. Swanson, D. L. (1999). "Toward an integrative theory of business

and society: A research strategy for corporate social performance:' Academy of Management Review 24(3): 506. Tenkasi, R. V. and S. A. Mohrman (1999). Global change as contextual collaborative knowledge creation. Organizational dimensions. of global. change:. no limits to cooperation~ D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 114-136. Thompson, J., G. Alvy, et al, (2000). "Social entrepreneurship - a new look at the people and the potential." Management Decision 38(5): 328-338. Tolbert, C. M., T. A. Lyson, et al. (1998). "Local capitalism, civic engagement, and socioeconomic well-being:' Social Forces

77(2): 401-427. Useem, B. (1998). "Breakdown theories of collective action:' Annual Review of Sociology 24: 215-238. Van den Bulte, C. and G. L. Lilien (2001). "Medical innovation revisited: Social contagion versus marketing effort:' American Journal of Sociology 106(5):1409-35. Vaughan, D. (1999). "The dark side of organizations: Mistake, misconduct, and disaster:' Annual Review of Sociology 25:

271-305. Waddock, S. A. and J. E. Post (1991). "Social entrepreneurs and catalytic change:' Public Administration Review 51 (5): 393. Weick, K. E. (1998). "Improvisation as a mindset for organizational analysis:' Organization Science 9(5): 543. Weick, K. E. (1999). Sensemaking as an organizational dimension of global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 39-56. Weick, K. E. and F. Westley (1996). Organizational learning: 33

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Articles By Domain With Abstracts & Comments Complex Adaptive Systems Begun, J. W., B. Zimmerman, et al, (2002). "Health care organizations as complex adaptive systems." Draft Book Chapter [S. M. Mick and M. Wyttenbach(eds.) Advances in - Health Care Organization Theory (San Francisco: JosseyBass, forthcoming)]. Abstract From its roots in physics, mathematics, and biology, the study of complexity science, or complex adaptive systems, has expanded into the domain of organizations and systems of organizations. Complexity science is useful for studying the evolution of complex organizations -- entities with multiple, diverse, interconnected elements. Evolution of complex organizations often is accompanied by feedback effects, nonlinearity, and other conditions that add to the complexity of existing organizations and the unpredictability ofthe emergence of new entities. Health care organizations are an ideal setting for the application of complexity science due to the diversity of organizational forms-and interactions among organizations that are evolving. Too, complexity science can benefit from attention to the world's most complex human organizations. Organizations within and across the health care sector are increasingly interdependent. Not only are new, highly powerful and diverse organizational forms being created, but also the restructuring has occurred within very short periods of time. In this chapter, we review the basic tenets of complexity science. We identify a series of key differences between the complexity science and established theoretical approaches to studying health organizations, based on the ways in which time, space, and constructs are framed. The contrasting perspectives are demonstrated using two case examples drawn from healthcare innovation and healthcare integrated systems research. Complexity science broadens and deepens the scope of inquiry into health care organizations, expands corresponding methods of research, and increases the ability of theory to generate valid research on complex organizational forms. Comment Both a handy, brief overview of main currents in lit on complexity in organizations and a good example of the specific application of complexity themes to particular organizational domains (in this case health care).

Boisot, M. and J. Child (1999). "Organizations as adaptive

systems in complex environments: The case of China:' Organization Science 10(3): 237. Abstract This paper treats organizations as adaptive systems that have to match the complexity of their environments. The nature of this complexity is analyzed by linking an institutional Information-Space (I-Space) framework to the work of complexity theorists. The I-Space framework identifies the codification, abstraction, and diffusion of information as cultural attributes. Codification involves the assignment of data to categories, thus giving them form. Abstraction involves a reduction in the number of categories to which data needs to be assigned for a phenomenon to be apprehended. Information is diffused through populations of data-processinq agents, thus constituting the diffusion dimension. Complexity theorists have identified the stability and structure of algorithmic information complexity in a way that corresponds to levels of codification and abstraction. Their identification of system parts and the richness of crosscoupling draws attention to the fabric of information diffusion. We discuss two modes of adaptation to complex environments: complexity reduction and complexity absorption. Complexity reduction entails getting to understand the complexity and acting on it directly, including attempts at environmental enactment. Complexity absorption entails creating options and risk-hedging strategies, often through alliances. The analysis, and its practical utility, is illustrated with reference to China, the world's largest social system. Historical factors have shaped the nature of complexity in China, giving it very different characteristics than those typical of Western industrial countries. Its organizations and other social units have correspondingly handled this complexity through a strategy of absorption rather than the reduction strategy characteristic of Western societies. Western firms operating in China therefore face a choice between maintaining their norms of complexity reduction or adopting a strategy of complexity absorption that is more consistent with Chinese culture. The specifics of these policy alternatives are explored, together with their advantages and disadvantages. The paper concludes with the outlines of a possible agenda for future research, focusing on the investigation of complexityhandling modes and the contingencies which may bear upon the choice between them. Comment A very unusual article. If you can wade through its dense, technical language, it provides a lot of insight into the details (some of them) of the way that complex human systems might process information and develop "strategies" and forms. Very conceptual/mathematical at first, but does work through its ideas in an empirical way using China as an example.

Dent, E. B. (1999). "Complexity science: A worldview shift:' Emergence 1 (4): 5. 37

Abstract One of the frustrations of working in the exciting area of "complexity science in organizations" is that there is no commonly accepted definition of what this term means ... The purpose of this article is to offer a simple definition for complexity science and to demonstrate the shift in worldview necessary for complexity science to become second nature to people as traditional science now is. Comment Kind of all over the place for an article attempting to offer a simple definition of complexity, but some interesting historical information, .exarnples, and insight into complexity as both a generic new way of thinking and a specific way of understanding organizational phenomena.

Gersick (1991). "Revolutionary-change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm." Academy of Management Review 16(1): 10-36. Abstract Research on how organizational systems develop and change is shaped, at every level of analysis, by traditional assumptions about how change works. New theories in several fields are challenging some of the most pervasive of these assumptions, by conceptualizing change as a punctuated equilibrium: an alternation between long periods when stable infrastructures permit only incremental adaptations, and brief periods of revolutionary upheaval. This article compares models from six domains - adult, group, and organizational development, history of science, biological evolution, and physical science - to explicate the punctuated equilibrium paradigm and show its broad applicability for organizational studies. Models are juxtaposed to generate new research questions about revolutionary change in organizational settings: how it is triggered, how systems function during such periods, and how it concludes. The article closes with implications for research and theory. Comment Very smart and useful overview and synthesis of various punctuated equilibrium models. Though Gersick's ultimate focus is organizational change, most of the article is applicable to any sort of change in social systems in general. Would be interesting to take the lit described in this article and think about the role that intention plays or might play in systems that change via rhythms of punctuated equilibrium (article doesn't address agency or intention in any deep way).

Glouberman, S. and B. Zimmerman (2002). "Complicated and complex systems: What would successful reform of 38

Medicare look like." Discussion paper submitted to the Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada. Abstract Authors Glouberman and Zimmerman have written a discussion paper on health care reform in Canada in response to the Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada. The paper presents a history of the Canadian health system, and suggests how an alternative theoretical frame is needed for viewing and understanding the complexities of health care. They take a look at some ofthe "intractable choices" or opposing views appearing in the health care debates, and present a few case studies to high1ight governmental approaches to health care concerns: first, through a study of France's ranking in WHO health care systems; the second, is a look at Brazil's attempts to address HIV/AIDS. The final section of the paper addresses how complexity might be taken up in reforming Canada's health care system. Comment Great article (as the Social Innovation Think Tank well knows) that explores complexity themes from a broader, institutional perspective (as opposed to the purely organizational perspective). Rich both in insight (Brenda's "simple, complicated, complex" perspective is described here among other things) and in examples (e.g., the Brazil AIDS Case).

Goldman, M. and R. Schurman (2000). "Closing the "great divide": New social theory on society and nature." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 563-584. Abstract Twenty years ago, two environmental sociologists made a bold call for a paradigmatic shift in the discipline of sociology-namely, one that would bring nature into the center of sociological inquiry and recognize the inseparability of nature and society. In this essay, we review recent scholarship that seeks to meetthis challenge. The respective strands of this literature come from the margins of environmental sociology and border on other arenas of social theory production, including neo-Marxism, political ecology, materialist feminism, and social studies of science. Bringing together scholars from sociology, anthropology, geography, and history, each of these strands offers what we consider the most innovative new work trying to move sociology beyond the nature/society divide. Comment Concise review article on the various ways that nature is seen in sociology literature. Makes a strong case that any theory of social change will have to account for nature in some meaningful way. "Because ecological and social problems traverse conceptual, geographic, and species boundaries, human 39

membranes as well as cultures, [scholars] suggest that social analysis must follow them wherever they lead."

Holling, C. S. (2001). "Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems."Ecosystems 4(5): 390. Abstract Hierarchies and adaptive cycles comprise the basis of ecosystems and socialecological systems across scale-s. Together they form a panarchy. The panarchy describes how a healthy system can inventand experiment, benefiting from inventions that create opportunity while being kept safe from those that destabilize because of their nature or excessive exuberance. Each level is allowed to operate at its own pace, protectedfrom above by slower, larger levels but invigorated from below by faster, smaller cycles of innovation. The whole panarchy is therefore both creative and conserving. The interactions between cycles in a panarchy combine learning with continuity. An analysis of this process helps to clarify the meaning of "sustainable development." Sustainability is the capacity to create, test, and maintain adaptive capability. Development is the process of creating, testing, and maintaining opportunity. The phrase that combines the two, "sustainable development," thus refers to the goal of fostering adaptive capabilities and creating opportunities. It is therefore not an oxymoron but a term that describes a logical partnership. Comment Eloquent and concise framing of the essentials of Holling's panarchy framework. Essential reading for anyone interested in systemic social innovation.

Levinthal, D. and M.Warglein(1999). "Landscape design: Designing for local action in complex worlds." Organization Science 10(3): 342. Abstract In recent years, the management literature has increasingly emphasized the importance of self-organization and "local action" in contrast to prior traditions of engineering control and design. While processes of self-organization are quite powerful, they do not negate the possibility of design influences. They do, however, suggest that a new set of design tools or concepts may be useful. We address this issue by considering the problem of landscape design-the tuning of fitness landscapes on which actors adapt. We examine how alternative organizational designs influence actors' fitness landscapes and, in turn, the behavior that these alternative designs engender. Reducing interdependencies leads to robust designs that result in relatively stable and predictable behaviors. Designs that highlight interdependencies, such as cross-functional teams, lead to 40

greater exploration of possible configurations of actions, though at the possible cost of coordination difficulties. Actors adapt not only on fixed landscapes,but also on surfaces that are deformed by others' actions. Such coupled landscapes have important implications for the emergence of cooperation in the face of social dilemmas. Finally, actors' perceptions of landscapes are influenced by the manner in which they are framed by devices such as strategy frameworks and managerial accounting systems. Comment Ambitious attempt to open up the concept of the "fitness landscape" from an organizational perspective. Lots of interesting theory and a few grounded examples. A handy article for anyone looking at the micro side of complex adaptive social systems. .~

71'\ ,t:Marion, R. and J â&#x20AC;˘. Bacon (2000). "Organizationalextinction and ~ complex systems." Emergence 1 (4): 71. Abstract How do extinctions occur in robust, complex ecosystems? We will examine this question for an "ecosystem" ... of formal social organizations. Interest in organizational extinction is not new to organizational theory - there are a number of articles in the social science literature that address just this issue. Our approach differs, however, in that we attempt to understand the dynamics of extinction as a function of complex interaction among multiple organizational actors. We will argue that it is the breakdown of such networks that [is] ultimately responsible for organizational extinction. Comment Clever extension of complexity theory - looks at organizational failure as a complex, systemic phenomenon, not a linear response to a single shock or mistake. It would be interesting to play this article off of Holling's stuff about 'traps."

Milstein, B. (2002). "Syndemics Overview." Abstract Syndemics overview. The term "syndemic"refers to the phenomenon ofIinked afflictions. Scholars and practitioners have long observed interactions among diseases, but it wasn't until the early 1990s that anthropologist Merrill Singer suggested that empirical connections among epidemics might signify the existence of a higher-order phenomenon--a syndemic. The links below introduce some of the ideas and methods that are involved in exploring a syndemic orientation for public health.

Comment Provocative way of understanding problems in complex systems - health systems in this case, but might be readily adaptable to social systems in general.

Richardson, K. A. and M. R. Lissack (2001). "On the status of boundaries, both natural and organizational: A complex systems perspective." Emergence 3(4): 32-49. Abstract Contemporary science with its strong positivism tends to trivialize the nature of boundaries. Boundaries are supposedly real and our ability to recognize them as such is regarded as a straightforward exercise. This by-product is a direct result of science's focus on the quantifiable and mathematizable (Goodwin, 2000). Given such a na"ive belief in the (ontological) status of boundaries, it is easy to understand how some scientists can wholeheartedly buy into their models as true representations of what is. If absolute boundaries exist, then as scientists we have simply to map them and with a little mathematical manipulation "heypresto!"-we have true knowledge of the universe. Scientists aren't the only ones who approach nature in such a black-and-white manner, however. We are all frequently guilty of unquestioningly accepting the efficacyof certain physical and conceptual boundaries that may be totally inappropriate for the context of interest. Managers ding on to organizational models that have far outlived their use and relevance; politicians dogmatically cling to ideologies that should have been put to rest many decades ago; employees at every level of organization naively assume that their view of the world is the "right" one. Comment Abstract but lively article that explores the concept of organizational/social boundaries from a complexity perspective.

Sawyer, R. K. (2001). "Emergence in sociology: Contemporary philosophy of mind and some implications for sociological theory." American Journal of Sociology 107(3): 551-85. Abstract Many accounts of the micro-macro link use the philosophical notion of emergence to argue that collective phenomena are collaboratively created by individuals yet are not reducible to explanation in terms of individuals. However, emergence has also been invoked by methodological individualists; they accept the existence of emergent social properties yet claim that such properties can be reduced to explanations in terms of individuals and their relationships. Thus,

contemporary sociological uses of emergence are contradictory and unstable. This article clarifies this situation by developing an account of emergence based in contemporary philosophy of mind. The philosophical account is used to evaluate contradictory sociological theories. Several unresolved issues facing theories of emergence in sociology are identified.

Comment Very helpful and careful review of the concept of emergence in the sociology lit. Should be read by anyone who is exploring micro-macro connections and wants to think about emergent social structures deeply and without using the term "emergent" simplistically or cavalierly. ---;ij-

Institutional Theory & Social Construction Clemens, E. S. and J. M. Cook (1999). "Politics and institutionalism: Explaining durability and change." Annual Review of Sociology 25: 441-446. Abstract From the complex literatures on "institutionalisrns" in political science and sociology, various components of institutional change are identified: mutability, contradiction, multiplicity, containment and diffusion, learning and innovation, and mediation. This exercise results in a number of clear prescriptions for the analysis of politics and institutional change: disaggregate institutions into schemas and resources; decompose institutional durability into processes of reproduction, disruption, and response to disruption; and, above all, appreciate the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the institutions that make up the social world. Recent empirical work on identities, interests, alternatives, and political innovation illustrates how political scientists and sociologists have begun to document the consequences of institutional contradiction and multiplicity and to trace the workings of institutional containment, diffusion, and mediation. Comment One of the more recent reviews of new institutional theory. Very theoretical, but helpful as background. Particularly strong in its understanding of the complexity and multiplicity of the institutional world. "Taken together, these [institutional] literatures suggest that the analysis of institutional change rests on an appreciation of the heterogeneity of institutional arrangements and the resulting patterns of conflict or prospects for agency and innovation."

Hardy, C. and N. Phillips (1999). "No joking matter: Discursive struggle in the Canadian refugee system." Organization 43

Studies 20(1): 1. Abstract Organizations often engage in discursive struggles as they attempt to shape and manage the institutional field of which they are a part. This struggle is influenced by broader discourses at the societal level that enable and constrain discursive activity within the institutional field. This relationship is examined by combining a study of political cartoons, as indicators of the broader societal discourse around immigration, with a case study of the Canadian refugee system, a-complex institutional field. Analysis reveals the complex intertextual and interdiscursive relations that characterize and surround institutional fields, and shows how discursive struggle in the refugee determination system is shaped by, and shapes, broader societal discourses. Comment Very clever paper that manages to tease out in an empirical way the dynamics of the interaction between institutional fields and their larger discursive contexts. Useful for social innovators trying to understand the leverage points at various levels of analysis/action.

Ingram, P. and K. Clay (2000). "The choice-within-constraints new institutionalism and implications for sociology." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 525-546. Abstract The variant of new institutionalism that is our focus is a pan-disciplinary theory that asserts that actors pursue their interests by making choices within institutional constraints. We organize our review of the theory around its behavioral assumptions, the operation of institutional forms, and processes of institutional change. At each stage, we give particular attention to the potential contributions of sociology to the theory. The behavioral assumptions ofthe theory amount to bounded rationality and imply fransaction costs, which, in the absence of institutions, may frustrate collective ends. The principle weakness of these behavioral assumptions is a failure to treat preferences as endogenous. We categorize the institutions that arise in response to transaction costs as to whether they are public or private in their source and centralized or decentralized in their making. In detailing the resulting categories of institutional forms, we identify key interdependencies across the public/private and centralized/decentralized dimensions. The new institutionalism is in particular need of better theory about private decentralized institutions, and theorists could turn to embeddedness theory and cognitive new-institutional theory as a source of help on this topic. The dominant view of institutional change is that it is evolutionary, driven by organizational competition, and framed by individual beliefs and shared understandings. Sociology can refine the change theory by adding better explanations of the behavior of organizations, and of the processes

by which institutional alternatives come to be viewed as acceptable or unacceptable. Comment Stuffy article overly focused on rationality and the economics perspective, though it claims to be pan-disciplinary.

Lamont, M. and V. Molnar (2002). "The Study of Boundaries in the Social Sciences." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 167-195. Abstract In recent years, the concept of boundaries has been at the center of influential research agendas in anthropology, history, political science, social psychology, and sociology. This article surveys some of these developments while describing the value added provided by the concept, particularly concerning the study of relational processes. It discusses literatures on (a)social and collective identity; ( b) class, ethnic/racial, and gender/sex inequality; ( c) professions, knowledge, and science; and ( d)communities, national identities, and spatial boundaries. It points to similar processes at work across a range of institutions and social locations. It also suggests paths for further developments, focusing on the relationship between social and symbolic boundaries, cultural mechanisms for the production of boundaries, difference and hybridity, and cultural membership and group classifications. Comment Review of various perspectives on boundaries in the literature of several domains. Might be helpful for thinking more deeply about dialogue and about the construction of non-formal organizations/movements, though organizational boundaries per se are not addressed.

Lawrence, T. B., C. Hardy, et al. (2002). "Institutional effects of interorganizational collaboration: The emergence of protoinstitutions:" Academy of Management Journal 45(1): 281290. Abstract We argue that collaboration can act as a source of change in institutional fields through the generation of "proto-institutions": new practices, rules, and technologies that transcend a particular collaborative relationship and may become new institutions if they diffuse sufficiently. A four-year study of the collaborative activities of a small nongovernmental organization in Palestine suggests that collaborations that are both highly embedded and have highly involved partners are the most likely to generate proto-institutions.

Comment A great article. One of the few detailed, qualitative looks at how micro (and org level) interactions can begin to produce new institutional patterns. Very important for understanding the micro-macro connection vis-a;.,vis social innovation. The argument that collaboration is a primary engine of the development of new institutions feels intuitively right, even thought this is just one small case study.

Mintzberg, H. and F. Westley (2000). '"Sustaining the institutional environment.'" Organization Studies 21: 71. Abstract Sustaining the physical environment requires sustenance of the associated institutional environment. Questions are raised about this, based on the observation of a day in each of the lives of 2 headquarters managers at Greenpeace, the Executive Director and a Director of certain of the central units. This analysis looks beyond the obvious doing and obvious planning, beyond the obviousactinq and the obvious politicking. Comment A micro look at the way that two individuals work to navigate a complex institutional environment. Helpful for grounding institutional thinking.with respect to the roles and intentions of individual actors. Focus is on organizational perspectives more than on social movement perspectives.

Perez-Aleman, P. (2000). '"Learning, adjustment and economic development: Transforming firms, the state and associations in Chile.'" World Development 28(1): 41. Abstract This article views learning processes as key to successful economic adjustment. It discusses results of research conducted in Chile, focused on the agroindustry and footwear sectors. It identifies specific problems that large and small firms face to upgrade production, and stresses the limits of focusing exclusively on market reforms for achieving growth. The article discusses how institutions reshape to facilitate learning and improve performance in Chile, particularly the relations between firms; the reorientation of trade associations; and the state's role as facilitator of collective learning processes. Comment Unusual article that develops, in a grounded way, a nuanced perspective on the relationship between institutions (both public and private) and economic change. Offers some themes that are contrary to much conventional thinking about

markets, institutions and the role of government.

Stolte, J. F., G. A. Fine,et al. (2001). "Social miniaturism: Seeing the big through the small in social psychology.I I Annual Review of Sociology 27: 387-413. Abstract The distinctive contribution of sociological social psychology can be referred to as sociological mlniaturlsrn, a way of interpreting social processes and institutions that is microsociological more than it is psychological. We argue that . social psychology of this variety permits the examination of large-scale social issues by means of investigation of small-scale social situations. The power of this approach to social life is that it permits recognition of the dense texture of everyday life, permits sociologists to understand more fully a substantive domain, and permits interpretive control. In the chapter we provide examples of this approach from two quite distinct theoretical orientations: symbolic interactionism and social exchange theory. We discuss the ways in which the study of two substantive topics, social power and collective identity, using these perspectives can be informed by closer collaboration between theorists within sociological social psychology. In the end it is our hope that pursuing such integrative theoretical and methodological efforts will produce a more complete understanding of important social phenomena. We offer sociological miniaturism as a promising vehicle for advancing the.earlier call for greater mutual appreciation of and rapprochement between diverse lines of social psychological work in sociology. Comment Helpful methodological take on the relationship between the micro and macro levels of various social processes/structures. Useful for anyone attempting to link individual and organizational themes with large scale institutional themes.

Strang, D. and M. W. Macy (2001). "In search of excellence: Fads, success stories, and adaptive emulation." American Journal of Sociology 107(1): 147-82. Abstract The faddishness of the business community is often noted and lamented but not well understood by standardmodels of innovation and diffusion. We combine arguments about orqaruzational cognition and institutional mimicry to develop a . model of adaptive emulation, where firms respond to perceived failure by imitating their most successful peers. Computational experiments show that this process generates empirically plausible cascades of adoption, even if innovations are entirely worthless. Faddish cycles are most robust across

alternative treatments of managerial decision making where innovations have modest positive effects on outcomes. These results have broad implications for the faddishness of a business community increasingly marked by media-driven accounts of success, and for the properties of organizational practices that are hot one day and cold the next. Comment Puts technical outcomes and functions back into the institutional lit (which was originally developed as a response to functionalist, overly technical approaches) but in some surprising and paradoxical ways. Worth a look for those trying to understand the diffusion of innovations more deeply.

Social Movements Baiocchi, G.(2003). "Emergent public spheres: Talking politics in participatory government:' American Sociological Review 68(1):.52. Abstract This article addresses the question of whether and how participation in government promotes the conditions for participants to engage in the openended and public-minded discussion heralded by democratic theorists. Ethnographic evidence shows how participants in assemblies of the "participatory budget" in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil, created open-ended and public-minded discussion in two of the city's poor districts. The urban poor of Latin American have often been treated as unlikely candidates for democratic engagement, but in these meetings participants regularly carved out spaces for civic discourse and deliberation, deploying a language of the commonality of needs as a vocabulary of public interest. In a district with organized networks of civil society, experienced community activists played an important role in curtailing conflict, while in a district without such networks, the assemblies were severely disrupted at times by virtue of being the "only place in the community" that could serve as a staging ground for some participants to manage their reputations. A comparison with a prior period in both districts shows that before the budgeting assemblies were created it was difficult to sustain any kind of regular meeting place beyond individual neighborhoods to carry out these discussions. The notion of the "public sphere" is broadened, calling for a revision of the stark separation of state and civil society in democratic theory. Comment Interesting argument against the notion of civil society as a kind of disinterested and separate counterpoint to the public sphere. Porto Alegre's hands-on bUdgeting process suggests that substantial engagement and energy can be generated when there is an integration of public and civil society structures. From a social innovation perspective, it's intriguing to think about policy as

something meaningfully integrated into the life of the community rather than as something simply concocted by "representatives" and then "implemented" in the community. The article provides rich ethnographic detail and several interesting perspectives on the Porto Alegre experience. But it underemphasizes the most important thing, which is that people are engaged in Porto Alegre because they are actually deciding things (Le., howto spend the city's budget), not simply giving advice and input, which is what citizen participation usually amounts to in the U.S. and Canada.

. Benford,R. and D. Snow (2000). ""Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment.." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 611-639. Abstract The recent proliferation of scholarship on collective action frames and framing processes in relation to social movements indicates that framing processes have come to be regarded, alongside resource mobilization and political opportunity processes, as a central dynamic in understanding the character and course of social movements. This review examines the analytic utility of the framing literature for understanding social movement dynamics. We first review how collective action frames have been conceptualized, including their characteristic and variable features. We then examine the literature related to framing dynamics and processes. Next we review the literature regarding various contextual factors that constrain and facilitate framing processes. We conclude with an elaboration of the consequences of framing processes for other movement processes and outcomes. We seek throughout to provide clarification of the linkages between framing concepts/processes and other conceptual and theoretical formulations relevant to social movements, such as schemes and ideology. Comment Good review of the burgeoning frame lit in social movements. Useful for SI, since SI often involves fuzzy contexts that don't lend themselves to political and resource mobilization approaches. Frames here are cast as something more fluid than ideology and generally viewed as continually "negotiated shared meaning." Cf dialogue which involves shared meaning, but is not "negotiated" per se. Overall, the SM frame lit seems to be moving toward a more socially constructed, dialogic view of social change, but is still frequently caught up in the kind of linear, strategic language that dominates earlier SM lit. In fact, the article notes that there are many empirical studies of frames from a strategic perspective, but few from a discursive perspective. The lit also tends to be focused on "injustice frames" though it does acknowledge positive frames associated with religious or self-help movements, etc.

Chwe,M. S.-Y. (1999). "Structure and strategy in collective action." American Journal of Sociology 105(1): 128-56. Abstract This article considers both structural and strategic influences on collective action. Each person in a group wants to participate only if the total number taking part is at least her threshold; people use a network to communicate their thresholds. People are strategically rational in that they are completely rationaland also take into account that others are completely rational. The model shows first that network position IS much more important in influencing the revolt of people with low thresholds than people with high thresholds. Second, it shows that strong links are better for revolt when thresholds are low, and weak links are better when thresholds arehigh. Finally, the model generalizes the threshold models of Schelling (1978) and Granovetter (1978) and shows that their findings that revolt is very sensitive to the thresholds of people "early" in the process depends heavily on the assumption that communication is never reciprocal. Comment A dry but possibly useful take on the relationship between network theory and social movements.

Edelman, M. (2001). "Social movement: Changing paradigms and forms of politics." Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 285317. Abstract Theories of collective action have undergone a number of paradigm shifts, from "mass behavior" to "resource mobilization," "political process," and "new social movements." Debates have centered on the applicability of these frameworks in diverse settings, on the periodization of collective action, on the divisive or unifying impact of identity politics, and on the appropriateness of political engagement by researchers. Transnational activist networks are developing new protest repertoires that challenge anthropologists and other scholars to rethink conventional approaches to social movements. Comment Good broad overview of major strands in social movement lit. The last section on modern transnational movements (e.g., antiglobalization, environmentalism, etc.) offers some particularly useful perspectives for social innovation (organizing structures and tactics/techniques).

Giugni, M. (1998). -"Was it worth the effort: The outcomes and 50

consequences of social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 371-393. Abstract Research on social movements has usually addressed issues of movement emergence and mobilization, yet has paid less attention to their outcomes and consequences. Although there exists a considerable amount of work on this aspect, little systematic research has been done so far. Most existing work focuses on political and policy outcomes Of movements, whereas few studies address their broader cultural and institutional effects. Furthermore, we still know little about the indirect and unintended consequences produced by movements. Early studies have dealt with the effectiveness of disruptive and violent actions and with the role of several organizational variables for movement success. More recently, scholars have begun to analyze movement outcomes in their political context by looking at the role of public opinion, allies, and state structures. A comparative perspective promises to be a fruitful avenue of research in this regard. Comment Good look at the sparse lit on the effects of social movements. In general, lit seems to indicate that focused, single-issue movements with coherent org structures are the most effective, particularly when they use violent or disruptive means. However, these findings are problematized by the historical/cultural/political contexts of various movements, so the article's general conclusion is that a lot of work still needs to be done before we really understand the cause and effect relationships inherent in social movements.

Hedstrom, P., R. Sandell, et al, (2000). "Mesoloevel networks and the diffusion of social movements: The case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party:' American Journal of Sociology

106(1}: 145-72. Abstract In analyzing the spatial diffusion of the Swedish Social Democratic Party, this article introduces the notion of a mesolevel network. A mesolevel network is a social network that differs in three important respects from interpersonal microlevel networks directly linking prior and potential adopters of a practice to one another: (1) it is generated by a different causal process than the microlevel network; (2) it tends tobe much sparser than themicrolevel network; and (3) the typical edge of a mesolevel network bridges much longer sociometric and geographic distances than the typical edge of a microlevel network. These types of mesolevel networks are important because they can dramatically influence the speed at which a contagious practice will diffuse. The mesolevel network focused upon in this article is the network that emerged out of the travel routes of political agitators affiliated with the Social Democratic Party. Computational modeling 51

shows that the diffusion of the Social Democratic Party is likely to have been considerably influenced by the structure of this network. Empirical analyses of the founding of party organizations during the period 1894 1911 support these theoretical predictions and suggest that this mesolevel network was of considerable importance for the diffusion of the Swedish Social Democratic Party. Comment Very interesting paper that offers some potential tips for social innovators. The - mesolevel network is a sparse set of relationships cast over a wide.territory. It is driven by a small set of committed (essentially evangelical) "agitators. The authors attempt to show that this kind of network can increase the speed and scope of change, even though traditional network theory presupposes that network density is the defining路factor.

Ingram, P. and T. Simons (2000). "State formation, ideological competition, and the ecology of Israeli workers cooperatives, 1920-1992." Administrative Science Quarterly 45(1): 25. Abstract This paper investigates the effect of community-wide political and ideological interests on the failure rate of Israeli workers' cooperatives. Political order may be provided by the state or through membership in a federation. Organizations that represent rival ideologies cause ideological competition, which should increase failure, while organizations that represent shared ideologies cause ideological mutualism, which should decrease failure. The context of Israeli workers' cooperatives provides a natural laboratory for testing these ideas, as it spans the formation of the Israeli state. The analysis indicates the relevance of interdependence for the evolution of organizational populations. Comment Notable for some insight on the somewhat paradoxical role of the state in providing stability for the survival and effectiveness of social movements.

Kollock, P. (1998). "Social dilemmas: The anatomy of cooperation." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 183-214. Abstract The study of social dilemmas is the study of the tension between individual and collective rationality. In a social dilemma, individually reasonable behavior leads to a situation in which everyone is worse off. The first part of this review is a discussion of categories of social dilemmas and how they are modeled. The key

two-person social dilemmas (Prisoner's Dilemma, Assurance, Chicken) and multiple-person social dilemmas (public goods dilemmas and commons dilemmas) are examined. The second part is an extended treatment of possible solutions for social dilemmas. These solutions are organized into three broad categories based on whether the solutions assume egoistic actors and whether the structure of the situation can be changed: Motivational solutions assume actors are not completely egoistic and so give some weight to the outcomes of their partners. Strategic solutions assume egoistic actors, and neither of these categories of solutions involve changing the fundamental structure of the situation. Solutions that do involve changingJhe rules of the game are considered in the section on structural solutions. I conclude the review with a discussion of current research and directions for future work. Comment Hard to get too excited about such a rationality-based, game-centered approach, but may be of some use when thinking about collective strategies.

Kriesi, H. (1996). Organizational structure of new social movements in a political context. Comparative perspectives on social movements. D.,MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 261-274. Abstract Dry but useful examination/synthesis of issues related to social movemenforg structures. Typology of social movement org structures that is reminiscent of Mintzberg's associations typology with a power twist. Axes: constituency/authorities orientation and no participation/participation. Groups are service, self-help, political representation, and political mobilization. Maps goal orientations onto this typology e.g., commercialization, involution, institutionalization and radicalization. Explores the org infrastructure appropriate to each category of org from a political perspective. Comment

Loveman, M. (1998). "High-risk collective action: Defending human rights in Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina:' American Journal of Sociology 104(2): 477..525. Abstract Under what conditions will individuals risk their lives to resist repressive states? This question is addressed through comparative analysis of the emergence of human rights organizations under military dictatorships in Chile, Uruguay, and

Argentina. While severe state repression is expected to lead to generalized demobilization, these cases reveal that repression may directly stimulate collective action. The potential for sustained collective action in high-risk contexts depends upon the relationship between strategies of repression and the particular configuration of embedded social networks; it is more likely where dense yet diverse interpersonal networks are embedded within broader national and transnational institutional and issue networks. Comment Evocative article with lots of interesting history. Paints a compelling portrait of the complex relationship structures (both personal and institutional) necessary to enable social movements to survive in the face of brutal repression. The connection between dense, face-to-face, very personal networks and external ideological/institutional supportseemslikely to be important in all types of social innovation change efforts.

McCarthy, J. D. (1996). Constraints and opportunities in adopting, adapting,and inventing..Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam, J. D. McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 141-151. Abstract Typology of "movement-mobilizing structures." Informal/formal and nonmovement initiated/movement initiated. Friendship networks, neighborhoods, work networks, churches, unions, professional associations, activist networks, . affinity groups, memory communities, SMOs, protest committees, movement schools. Calls for the development of richer description of various structural configurations, exploration of structural innovation, and examination of the role of framing in choosing and adapting mobilizing structures. Comment

Oliver, P. and D. Myers (1999). "How events enter the public sphere: Conflict, location, and sponsorship in local newspaper coverage of public events:' American Journal of Sociology 105(1): 38-87. Abstract Protest events occur against the backdrop of public life. Of 382 public events in police records for one year in a small U.S. city, 45% convey a message, 14% involve social conflict, and 13% are standard protest event forms. Local newspapers covered 32% of all events, favoring events that were large, involved conflict, were sponsored by business groups, and occurred in central locations. 54

The more liberal paper also favored rallies and events sponsored by national social movement organizations (SMOs) or recreational groups. Discussion centers on the ways these factors shape the content of the public sphere. Comment Mildly tactically useful discussion of the types of protests most likely to get newspaper coverage.

Polletta, F. and J. M. Jasper (2001). "Collective identity and social movements." Annual Review of Sociology 27:283305. Abstract Sociologists have turned to collective identity to fill gaps in resource mobilization and political process accounts of the emergence, trajectories, and impacts of social movements. Collective identity has been treated as an alternative to structurally given interests in accounting for the claims on behalf of which people mobilize, an alternative to selective incentives in understanding why people participate, an alternative to instrumental rationality in explaining what tactical choices activists make, and an alternative to institutional reforms in assessing movements' impacts. Collective identity has been treated both too broadly and too narrowly, sometimes applied to too many dynamics, at other times made into a residual category within structuralist, state-centered, and rationalist accounts. Comment Brief exploration of collective identity as driver of mobilization, participation, and decision making, and as an "alternative to institutional reforms in assessing movements' impacts."

Sandell, R. (2001). "Organizational growth and ecological constraints: The growth of social movements in Sweden, 1881 to 1940." American Sociological Review 66(5): 672. Abstract Based on the theoretical framework of organizational ecology, it is suggested that social movement organizations are inert structures that rarely exceed their initial size. The ecological concept of organizational growth is tested using membership data for Sweden from 1881 to 1940 for virtually all local social movement organizations (29,193 organizations) in three major social movements: the temperance, free church, and trade union movements. Findings show that the organizations in two of the movements have average growth trajectories approximating zero. The ecological argument is then expanded to include

information on the movements' organizational niches and intra- and intermovement density development. After controlling for the local organization's initial size, findings reveal that the remaining variation in aggregate membership is more likely to depend on population and niche dynamics (which organizational ecologists focus on) than on the capacity of the movement's local organizations to expand. These findings are consistent for all three Swedish movements. The ecological argument and the findings presented here are contrary to almost all research on social movements, which takes for granted that social movement organizations are necessarily capable of individual growth. . Comment Startling and counterintuitive research suggesting that social movements are~" ecolo. gica,II Y constrained. and are essentially incapable of being actively "gro " '. . beyond their original sociallgeographicallandscape/location.

Staggenborg, S. (1998). "Social movement communities and cycles of protest: The emergence and maintenance of a local women's movement." Social Problems 45(2): 180(25). Abstract Social movement theorists have argued that multiple movements emerge during cycles of protest in response to political opportunities. This article develops the concept of a "social movement community" and contends that the culture and community of a protest cycle, rather than political opportunities, attract many participants and provide organizational and tactical opportunities for new movements. I examine historical changes in the local women's movement community in Bloomington, Indiana, to explain how some movements are able to endure, and even thrive, after the decline of a protest cycle; their individual movement communities sustain activists and sometimes partially recreate the atmosphere of a protest cycle. Comment Contrasts explanations of social movements as driven by specific political opportunities (not sustainable) with exploration of "movement communities" based on cultures that "sustain activists" after the initial political opportunity is gone. Argues that "movements rarely have clear beginnings or endings, and they overlap with other movements with similar values in the same 'social movement family.'" Thus, "social movement communities are critical to the emergence and survival of social movements."

Stevenson, W. B. and D. Greenberg (2000). "Agency and social networks: Strategies of action in a social structure of 56

position, opposition, and opportunity." Administrative Science Quarterly 45(4):651. Abstract This study uses social movement concepts to explain the success and failure of actors in a network of relationships trying to influence policies on environmental issues in a small city. Results show that strategies to take action and mobilize others in a network of interorganizational relationships can vary depending on the social context, which consists of the political opportunity structure defined by government regulators, whether the actor faces opposition, and the actor's position in the network. Decisions to-engage in strategies to try to influence government regulators directly, to use a broker to reach agreements with the opposition, or to form a coalition with actors in other organizations to influence government decision makers are affected by this social context. Results also show that even peripheral actors, usually assumed to be powerless in network studies, c~n influence policy if they use a direct-contact strategy and the political opportunity structure is favorable. Comment Helpful exploration of network-based strategic options open to social-change actors (focused on policy). Makes use of social movement lit to reintroduce actor intentionality into network theory.

Strang, D. and S. Soule (1998). "Diffusion in organizations and social movements: From hybrid corn to poison pills:' Annual Review of Sociology 24: 265-290. Abstract There has been rapid growth in the study of diffusion across organizations and social movements in recent years, fueled by interest in institutional arguments and in network and dynamic analysis. This research develops a sociologically grounded account of change emphasizing the channels along which practices flow. Our review focuses on characteristic lines of argument, emphasizing the structural and cultural logic of diffusion processes. We argue for closer theoretical attention to why practices diffuse at different rates and via different pathways in different settings. Three strategies for further development are proposed: broader comparative research designs, closer inspection of the content of social relations between collective actors, and more attention to diffusion industries run by the media and communities of experts. Comment Well written overview of literature on diffusion. Lots of useful concepts and some interesting links between social movements lit and institutional lit.

Useem, B. (1998). "Breakdown theories of collective action." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 215-238. Abstract Historically, breakdown theory dominated the sociological study of collective action. In the 1970s, this theory was found to be increasingly unable to account for contemporaneous events and newly discovered historical facts. Resource mobilization theory displaced breakdown theory as the dominant paradigm. Yet the evidence against breakdown theory is weak once a distinction is made between routine and nonroutlne collective action. Several recent contributions affirm the explanatory power of breakdown theory for nonroutine collective action. Breakdown theory also contributes to an understanding of the use of governmental force against protest and of the moral features of collective action. Breakdown and resource mobilization theories explain different types of phenomena, and both are needed to help account for the full range of forms of collective action. Comment Moderately helpful review/refinement of theories dealing with the role that social breakdown does or doesn't play in social change.

Young, M. P. (2002). "Confessional protest: The religious birth of the U.S. national social movements." American Sociological Review 67(5): 660. Abstract Western forms of protest were fundamentally altered in the early nineteenth century. Scholars from a "contentious politics" perspective have identified this rupture in protest forms with the emergence of the "national social movement" and explain the rupture as the result of interactions with national states. Scholars from a "life politics" perspective argue thatthe paradigmatic movements of today have moved beyond the political struggles of the nineteenth century and toward a new form of protest that unfolds within civil society and fuses matters of personal and social change. Protests in the United States in the 1830s, however, raise serious doubts about both of these claims. The first U.S. national social movements were not a heritage of the state and they engaged in a form of life politics. The temperance and antislavery movements emerged in interaction with religious institutions-not state institutions-and pursued goals that mixed personal and social transformation. A cultural mechanism combining the evangelical schemas of public confession and the special sins of the nation launched sustained and interregional protests. The intensive and extensive power of these confessional protests called individual and nation to repent and reform, and mobilized actors and resources within a national infrastructure of religious institutions to challenge drinking and slavery. 58

Comment Interesting historical take. arguing that "modern" identity-based social movements that link personal and social change are not so new after all. Movements that have been painted as almost purely political/structural might not have been any such thing. The more things change ...

Zald, M. N. (~996). Culture, ideology, and strategic framing. . Comparative perspectives on social movements. D. MacAdam, J. D.McCarthy and M. N. Zald. Cambridge, _ Cambridge University Press: 261-274. Abstract Discussion of strategic role of framing in social movements and the relationships between frames, culture, and ideology. Comment

Zhao (1998). "Ecologies of social movements: Student mobilization during the 1989 prodemocracy movement in Beijing." American Journal of Sociology 103(6): 1493路1529. Abstract Based on 70 interviews with informants who were mostly students during the 1989 Beijing student movement, the author found that the ecology of university campuses in Beijing enclosed a huge number of students in a small area with a unique spatial distribution and regulated their spatial activities. This ecology nurtured many close-knit student networks, as well as directly exposed all Beijing students to a collective action environment when the movement started. These ecological conditions not only sustained a- high rate of movement participation but also facilitated the formation of many ecology-dependent strategies of student mobilization, which in turn patterned the dynamics of the movement. Comment Useful paper when thinking about the role of place in social movements, esp. in contrast to the more diffuse global social movements that are the focus of so much current study.

Organization Theory & Organizational Development Aram, J. D. (1999). Constructing and deconstructing global change organizations. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 235251. Abstract Discussion of global change organizations from several perspectives. Contrasts global change organizations (orgs. based on normative values and public goods) - with traditional market organizations (orgs. based on utilitarian values and private goods). Frames them as networks of weak ties. Looks at various cultural/intellectual currents that drive global changeorg members. And explores - a few major global forces that interfere and compete with global org perspectives (e.g., ethno-nationalism). Comment Useful rethinking of basic O'T constructs with respect to emerging global org forms. Helpful when thinking about the. kind of diffuse, network-y structures that seem to be so prevalent when looking at broad scale organizing for social change. These structures aren't exactly movements and aren't exactly orgs as we've come to know them, so new ways of framing them in aT/Sociology are needed and this article offers some decent starting points.

Bouwen, R. and C.Steyaert (1999). From a dominant voice toward multivoiced cooperation: Mediating metaphors for global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 291路319. Abstract Call for movement toward "multivoiced cooperation" in global development. Offers four metaphors for "multivoiced living together:" building the Tower of Babel; dialogical imagination; polyphonic chorus; and strangers' meeting. Central question: "How can we frame human response to global change so that all voices from different and unequal positions can be heard in organizational settings with equivalent seats?" Comment Good addition to the relational/dialogical lit. Metaphors might be useful for playing with paradoxes of relational discourse, e.g., both dialogue and "strangers" (cf Powerful Stranger) are considered.

Brinkerhoff, D~ W. (1999). "Exploring gstate-civilsociety collaboration: Policy partnerships in developing countries." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4):59. Abstract This article examines state--civil society partnerships for policy implementation, focusing on the basic factors partnerships need to deal with to be effective. These include specification of objectives and degre-e of convergence, mechanisms for combining effort and managing cooperation, determination of appropriate roles and responsibilities, and capacity to fulfill those roles and responsibilities. Comment Pretty straightforward article, but with some helpful, grounded suggestions for making governmentiNGO partnerships work in various (often difficult or even antagonistic) political contexts.

1-36. Abstract Opens up the concept of social capital a bit and explores the roles of social capital, types of decision making, and social learning in the success/failure of global change efforts. Looks at org structures that are anchored in local social capital, collaborative (bridging sectoral and power divides), and that are able to "learn" (create new structures/behaviors) via connection and moderate to high conflict. Conclusions are based on thirteen large case studies. Comment Useful empirical stuff for thinking about different types of social capital and the roles they might play in the success or failure of change efforts.

Cooperrider, D. L. and J. E. Dutton (1999). No limits to cooperation: An introduction to the organizational dimensions of global change. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider 61

and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications:

1-36. Abstract Overview of the concept of global change organization. Positions "global change research" as new OT/Soc Sci domain focusing on trans-boundary (intersectoral, nonsectoral) org approaches to complex, systemic social problems. Suggests that collaboration may be a "higher order adaptive strategy" than competition and explores multiple perspectives on global-scale, collaborative orgs. Major themes include collective sense-making, innovative org structures, and social construction vis-a-vis global change. Comment Great intro to great book. Powerful combination of organizational, ethical, and social construction themes.

Crossan, M. M., H. W. Lane, et al. (1999). "An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution." Academy of Management Review 24(3): 522. Abstract Although interest in organizational learning has grown dramatically in recent years, a general theory of organizational learning has remained elusive. Renewal of the overall enterprise as the underlying phenomenon of interest and organization learning is identified as a principal means to this end. With this perspective, a framework for the process of organizational learning is developed, presenting organizational learning as 4 processes - intuiting, interpreting, integrating, and institutionalizing - linking the individual, group, and organizational levels. Comment A very interesting learning model - unique in the way it links intuition and institutionalization. Although focused at the org level, the concepts seem readily extensible into "societal learning," much more so than many org learning models.

Drazin, R. and L. Sandelands (1992). "Autogenesis: A perspective on the process of organizing." Organization Science 3(2): 230. Abstract This paper presents a perspective on organizational theory called 'autogenesis'. This perspective has a long history in both the natural and social sciences, but is suggested particularly by recent developments in the field of self-organizing systems. According to this perspective, complex social organization can be

explained in terms of the interplay of three distinct types of structure: (1) deep structure, which consists of a generative grammar (rules) for organizing; (2) elemental structure, which is the manifest form taken by individual social interactions; and (3) observed structure, which is the supra-individual group or organization as perceived by an observer of the system. The implications of this perspective for expanding the scope of theory and research on social organizations in general, and the process of organizing in particular, are discussed. Comment A very abstract but thoughtful attempt to develop a perspective on organizations that allows us to think about organizational structures without reifying them. Has some useful concepts for anyone interested in developing a connection between micro-level actions and macro-level social structures.

Fisher, J.(1999). International networking: The role of southern NGOs. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 210-234. Abstract . Empirical look at development and current state of international NGO networks with particular focus on the role of southern NGOs and their relationships with northern NGOs. Comment

Foreman, K. (1999). "Evolving global structures and the challenges facing international relief and development organizations:' Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 178. Abstract Most current executives of the largest international relief and development organizations (NGOs) expect their organizations to move toward more global governance structures that incorporate fully vested partners from the north and south. This article seeks to present the potential opportunities and challenges of transition to a global governance structure. Comment Though focused exclusively on NGOs, a helpful addition to the global governance (and collaboration) lit, because it offers some interesting specific models and makes good use of specific examples.

Frooman, J. (1999). "Stakeholder influence strategies." Academy of Management Review 24(2): 191. Abstract When seeking to influence firm decision making, what type of influence strategies do stakeholders have available, and what determines which type the stakeholders choose to use? In this article, the resource dependence theory is used to investigate these 2 questions. It is proposed that th-e resource relationship (who is dependent on whom) determines which of the 4 types of strategies identified in this article will be used: direct withholding, direct usage, indirect withholding, or indirect usage. Comment Very constrained and academic in tone, but a useful opening up of stakeholder theory. The article looks at the relationships between organizations and their stakeholders in a more complex and multi-dimensional way than much previous stakeholder lit, but still tends to overemphasize the rationally strategic at the expense of the institutionally emergent. .

Gergen, K.J. (1999). Global organization and the potential for ethical inspiration. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. cThousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 255-

269. Abstract Article framing ethics (in this case global ethics) as relational. Suggests that global organizations can "nurture the potential for ethical leadership" by understanding the socially constructed nature of the good. This approach allows deeper collaborative exploration of difficult ethical issues than typical, objectified views of ethics (e.g., "pitting malignant expansionists against innocent Third World cultures.") Movement away from universal "principles and sanctions" and toward dialogue and "ethically generative practice." Comment Great article that really casts a new light on so-called values-based organizations and offers a much richer, more supple model - the "dialogic" organization.

Gray, B. (1999). The development of global environmental

regimes: Organizing in the absence of authority. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 185-209. Abstract Problems in and approaches to global organizing for sustainable development. Outlines various structural/political/regulatory contexts in which global environmental problems are situated and suggests alternative models of _ governance includlnq: joint management regimes, globalpartnersbip approach, and global governance approach. Explores framing and.power challenges associated with these approaches. Comment

Hage, J. T. (1999). "Organizational innovation and organizational change....Annual Review of Sociology 25: 597-622. Abstract Three ideas-a complex division of labor, an organic structure, and a high-risk strategy-provoke consistent findings relative to organizational innovation. Of these three ideas, the complexity of the division of labor is most important because it taps the organizational learning, problem-solving, and creativity capacities of the organization. The importance of a complex division of labor has been underappreciated because of the various ways in which it has been measured, which in turn reflect the macroinstitutional arrangements of the educational system within a society. These ideas can be extended to the study of interorganizational relationships and the theories of organizational change. Integrating these theories would provide a general organizational theory of evolution within the context of knowledge societies. Comment Solid, fairly recent review of the literature on organizational innovation, with a set of ambitious theoretical perspectives on why innovation should be more closely studied and integrated intothe sociological lit.

Hardy, C. and N. Phillips (1998). "Strategies of engagement: Lessons from the critical examination of collaboration and conflict in interorganizational domain." Organization Science 9(2): 217-230. Abstract Many writers advocate interorganizational collaboration as a solution to a range 65

of organizational and intersectoral problems. Accordingly, they often concentrate on its functional aspects. We argue that collaboration deserves a more critical examination, particularly when the interests of stakeholders conflict and the balance of power between them is unequal. Using examples from a study of the UK refugee system, we argue that collaboration is only one of several possible strategies of engagement used by organizations as they try to manage the interorganizationaldomain in which they operate. In this paper, we discuss four such strategies: collaboration, compliance, contention and contestation. By examining the stakeholders in the domainand asking who has formal authority, who controls key resources, and who is able to discursively manage legitimacy, researchers are in a stronger position to evaluate both the benefits and costs of these strategies and to differentiate more clearly between strategies that are truly collaborative and strategies that are not. In other words, we hope to demonstrate that collaboration between organizations is not necessarily "good", conflict is not necessarily "bad", and surface dynamics are not necessarily an accurate representation of what is going on beneath. Comment Argues that collaboration is just one org strategy for solving intersectoral problems and that other "strategies of engagement" - compliance, contention, and contestation - may be more appropriate, depending upon power dynamics. Conflict is seen as an appropriate alternative to collaboration in cases where power inequality makes it difficult to challenge existing problem/success frameworks.

Hart, S. (1999). Corporations as agents of global sustainability: Beyond competitive strategy. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 346-361. Abstract Call for corporations to move beyond "competitive strategy" balanced by social impact awareness and toward development of full-scale transformative visions of new, sustainable "sociotechnical systems." Emphasizes that this can only be done collaboratively. Comment

Kaczmarski, K. M. and D. L. Cooperrider (1999). Constructionist leadership in the global relational age: The case of the mountain forum. Organizational dimensions of global

change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 57-87. Abstract "Constructionist Leadership" is a way to create flexible, productive, issue- or perspective-based global coalitions of extremely diverse organizations and individuals by facilitating the collective "construction" of a core set of beliefs and methods that can hold the org together. Key const. leadership principles: "appreciative approach to knowledge," "generative approach to language that is rich in metaphor and narrative form," "formation of 'out of control' organizations through the web of inclusion." Contrasts this type of leadership with traditional types: structural, entrepreneurial, intellectual. Note that constructionist leadership is not necessarily associated with a leader. Comment

Knowles, R. N. (2001). "Self-organizing leadership: A way of seeing what is happening in organizations and a pathway to coherence," Emergence 3(4): 112-127. Abstract This article introduces a new form of leadership called selforganizing leadership, which complements and supports strategic and operational leadership. It looks at organizations from the complex adaptive systems (CAS) perspective and offers a novel way of seeing and understanding some of the self-organizing patterns and processes operating in organizations. I developed a number of new, transformative process models over a 12-13-year period that help us to see what is happening in our organizations, and to make the changes we need to improve our effectiveness and competitive performance. Many writers who use CAS theory to try to understand what organizations are doing work from the perspective of standing outside the organization. They are acting on the organization as if it is a thing to study, manipulate, and control. The work described in this article was undertaken from the perspective of standing within the organization with people who are deeply engaged in conversations, together, clarifying who we are, and developing agreements about how we will behave and work together, as well as addressing our important issues and doing something about them. Stacey (2000, 2001) has written about the importance of transformative processes and complex responsive processes. My work appears to be highly aligned with Stacey's work, and presents a way to bring these ideas into reality in organizations. Comment One of many articles looking at leadership/organizational principles from a complexity perspective, but included here because the author worked for Dupont (and uses his experiences extensively in the article). A handful of useful concepts

(transformative patterns and processes as fractal; comments on Argyris' "management trap" which make one thing ofHolling, etc.), Also interesting in that it uses a Process Enneagram, no doubt drawn from the approach developed at Dupont.

Lewis, M. W. (2000). "Exploring paradox: Toward a more comprehensive guide." Academy of Management Review 25(4): 760. Abstract "Paradox" appears increasingly in organization studies, often to describe conflicting demands, opposing perspectives, or seemingly illogical findings. This article helpsresearchers exploreparadoxes and contribute insights more in tune with organizational complexity and ambiguity. A framework that clarifies the nature of paradoxical tensions, reinforcing cycles, and their management is developed. Using this framework, studies are reviewed in which paradoxes spurred by change and plurality are investigated. Strategies for identifying and representing paradox are outlined. Implications for research are addressed.

Comment Opens up the increasingly popular (but usually simplistic) concept of paradox in org lit. The article serves as a handy launching point for a deeper understanding of paradox - a theme that came up consistently during the Social Innovation think tank.

Mir, R. A., M. B. Calas, et al, (1999). Global technoscapes and silent voices: Challenges to theorizing global cooperation. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 270-290. Abstract Warning about the dark side of cooperation and collaboration." Reviews the ways in which "cooperation" has been a screen for social engineering. Interesting comparison of language and themes from different decades showing eerie similarities with new language of global collaboration. Call forresearchers and practitioners to be particularly reflexive and aware of this danqer.

Comment

Rohrschneider, R. and R. Dalton (2002). "A global network? Transnational cooperation among environmental groups." Journal of Politics 64(2): 510-533. Abstract A rich literature theorizes about the development of transnational networks among social movements that may signal the emergence of a new global civil society. This article presents empirical results from an international survey of environmental groups. We find evidence of a relatively dense network of international action by green groups, anda substantial resource transfer from green groups in the OEeD nations to those in the developing world. At the same time, the patterns of exchange within this network raise questions about the more optimistic claims of the global civil society literature because participation in this transnational network is largely an extension of the factors that encourage domestic political action. ln addition, power inequalities and value differences that exist within this international environmental network may limit transnational cooperation among environmental groups. Comment Article that calls into question paradigms of "global society" that rely on globallydriven patterns for int'l org collaboration. In a study of environmental NGOs, finds that while there are rich networks of int'l collaboration and communication, these networks seem to be driven by the same factors that drive domestic activism (connection to national government, budget size, group ideology) rather than by global context factors (involvement in international community, extent of democracy).

Rubenstein, D. and R. W. Woodman (1984). "Spiderman and the Burma Raiders: Collateral organization theory in action." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 20(1): 1. Abstract A collateral organization is designed to co-exist parallel with the formal organization on a relatively permanent basis. Proponents contend that collateral organizations prove especially valuable in supplementing the formal organization because they provide (1) a means for identifying, analyzing, and mastering iIIstructured problems and (2) an arena for participation. Advocates concede, however, that the parallel arrangement of formal and collateral organizations create a complexity that may confuse participants and cause role problems. To the contrary, this article argues that the proclaimed "advantages" of collateral organizations are problematic while their "problems" actually provide the paramount advantage. Despite claims by proponents, a collateral organization is (1) not inherently a proficient medium for solving - or even seeing - ill-structured. problems, and (2) no less prone to abuse of participation than other participatory forms. Yet collateral organizations offer the invaluable advantage of complex role

sets - t.e., interaction opportunities with a large number of very different people. Complex role sets may enhance mastery of the environment for both individuals and organizations. Comment .A reversal of previous lit on "collateral organization" and an interesting路 piece for anyone trying to get a handle on the themes and dynamics surrounding "informal" organizations (a critical topic for social innovation - indeed for innovation in general - since innovation often seems to arise out of loose, informal or hybrid social/org structures).

Swanson, D. L. (1999). "Toward an integrative theory of business and society: A research strategy for corporate social performance:' Academy of Management Review 24(3): 506. Abstract The lack of integration of normative and descriptive approaches to business and society and the problems posed for coherent theory development are addressed. Corporate social performance topics are reformulated according to a research strategy aimed at moving inquiry beyond problems of integration. The potential for a normative-descriptive unification is then demonstrated, and this is followed with implications for future research. Comment A bit dry, but offers a decent overview andre-conceptualization of the lit on corporate social responsibility.

Tenkasi, R. V. and S. A. Mohrman (1999). Global change as contextual collaborative knowledge creation. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 114-136. Abstract Global change and "collaborative knowledge." Creation and sharing of knowledge via interaction. Knowledge as subjective, contextual, incomplete. (As opposed to typical Western view of knowledge as objective, universal, and complete.) Examples of projects that succeeded or failed largely based on which knowledge perspective they were operating from. Particular emphasis on successful global change efforts developing knowledge collaboratively with local orgs/people rather than attempting simply to transmit knowledge. Comment

Vaughan, D. (1999). "The dark side of organizations: Mistake, misconduct, and disaster:' Annual Review of Sociology 25: 271路305. Abstract In keeping with traditional sociological concerns about order and disorder, this essay addresses the dark side of organizations. To build atheoretical basis for the dark side as an integrated field of study, I review four literatures in order to make core ideas of each available to specialists in the others. Using.a Simmelian-based case comparison method of analogical theorizing, I first consider sociological constructs that identify both the generic social form and the generic origin of routine nonconformity: how things go wrong in socially organized settings. Then I examine three types of routine nonconformity with adverse outcomes that harm the public: mistake, misconduct, and disaster produced in and by organizations. Searching for analogies and differences, I find that in common, routine nonconformity, mistake, misconduct, and disaster are systematically produced by the interconnection between environment, organizations, cognition, and choice. These patterns amplify what is known about social structure and have implications for theory, research, and policy. Comment It's easy to focus on organizational actors (whether they be businesses, NGOs, gov't agencies, etc.) when thinking about social innovation. This article is a thought-provoking review of the literature on the negative outcomes associated not with specific organizations but with the organizational form in general.

Weick, K. E. (1998). "Improvisation as a mindset for organizational analysis:' Organization Science 9(5): 543. Abstract The emphasis in organization theory on order and control often handicaps theorists when they want to understand the processes of creativity and innovation. Symptoms of the handicap are discussions of innovation that that include the undifferentiated use of concepts like flexibility, risk, and novelty; forced either-or distinctions between exploration and exploitation; focus on activities such as planning, visioning, and strategizing as sites where improvements are converted into intentions that await implementation; and reliance on routine, reliability, repetition, automatic processing, and memory as the glue that holds organizations in place. Since the term "organization" itself denotes orderly arrangements for cooperation, it is not surprising that mechanisms for rearranging these orders in the interest of adaptation, have not been developed as fully. (See Eisenberg (1990) for an important exception.) That 71

liability can be corrected if we learn how to talk about the process of improvisation. Comment Great intro essay to special OS issue on improv in organizations. Opens up the concept of improv by exploring the relationship between intuition,practice, and technique. Concepts would be very useful vls-a-vis thinking about emergent leadership. Last bit on "failure" is reminiscent of Holling's safe-fail.

Weick,K. E. (1999).Sensemaking as an organizational dimension of global change. Organizational dimensions of global . change : no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 39-56. Abstract In global change context explores relationship between org design/form, sensemaking, and outcomes, Seven properties of sensemaking: social context, personal identity, retrospect, salient cues, ongoing projects, plausibility, enactment. Relates org characteristics to sensemaking properties (e.g., for Social Context - Does org form encourage conversation?) and maps these onto healthy (successful) and unhealthy (problematic) outcomes. Comment

Weick, K. E. and F. Westley (1996). Organizational learning: Affirming an oxymoron. Handbook of organization studies. S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy and W. Nord, Sage: 440-458. Abstract Review of organizational learning literature and theory development. Comment

Westley, F. (1999). "Not on our watch"": The biodiversity crisis and global collaboration response. Organizational dimensions of global change : no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 88-113. Abstract Frances' piece on what "motivates and enables" individuals to work on

overwhelming and insidious ecological problems with focus on aparticular kind of social organization - global, loosely structured, value-driven, ongoing, with a core sustaining group - that nurtures this motivation and coordinates resulting efforts. Story of Uly Seal and CBSG. Comment

Westley, F. and H. Vredenburg (1997). "Interorganizational collaboration and the preservation of global biodiversity:" Organization Science 8(4)= 381路403. Abstract Using grounded theory development research methods, the authors examine collaborative processes in the global biodiversity preservation domain. The processes examined are those initiated and convened by a subgroup of the Swiss-based International Union for the Conservation of Nature known as the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission. The global collaborative initiatives of the group suggest that extant theory on . collaboration may not adequately explain collaborative processes in so complex a domain as global biodiversity preservation. Specifically, the authors suggest that in highly complex domains, effective structuring of collaborative initiatives may take different forms. Propositions about structuring of collaborations in complex domains are derived. Comment Great article that reframes the way we think about collaborative organizations in highly complex or global contexts. Use of CBSG case study to develop propositions about structuring of collaborations in complex domains. Argues that classical collaboration theory (e.g., Trist) based on eventual centralization around a "referent org" may not apply in highly complex contexts atthe supraorganizational level. At this level. integration and structuring may be achieved by the "creation of shared thought structures" rather than by the development of more formal, enclosed collaborative forms. Also, the entrepreneur-visionary may continue to maintain a strong personal presence rather than eventually giving way to the creation of an impersonal referent org. Certain collaborative patterns may even inform the problem domain independent of the specific initiative/collaboration that gave birth to the them. "Our case study suggests, in short, that Seal's attempt to design a self-amplifying network, based on knowlsdqe, structured by software, and decentralized in resources may be more important to domain transformation than the ultimate survival of CBSG."

Zald, M. N. (1999). Transnational and international social 73

movements in a globalizing world: Creating culture, creating conflict. Organizational dimensions of global change: no limits to cooperation. D. L. Cooperrider and J. E. Dutton. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications: 168184. Abstract Examines paradox that cooperative global change efforts also lead to large-scale conflicts by bringing diverse groups and cultures into unprecedented contact. Writes largely from a social movements perspective (interests/negotiations/grievances, etc.). Comment

Social Entrepreneurship Bryer, D. and J. Magrath (1999). "New dimensions of global advocacy." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 168. Abstract This article argues that globalization impels NGOs to engage further in advocacy work, and that globalization provides important new opportunities as well as significant challenges. In particular NGOs both north and south will have to form strategic alliances. The article uses OxfarnGls's history of advocacy to examine options open to NGOs and to suggest future directions and possible criteria for effective advocacy. Comment Very readable take on the changing nature of advocacy - through the eyes of Oxfam. Frames NGO advocacy as moving well beyond lobbying into a much more complex array of strategies, initiatives and relationships.

Dees, J. G. (1998). "The meaning of "social entrepreneurship"." Abstract Conceptual overview of social entrepreneur as change agent in social sector. SE works by "adopting a mission to create and sustain social value (not just private value); recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunitiesto serve that mission; engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation, and learning; acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand; and exhibiting a heightened sense of accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created."

Comment Short, practitioner-oriented piece that is starting to be widely used. Sectorally focused. Not overwhelmingly useful forsocial innovation.

Dichter, T. W.(1999). "Globalization and its effects on NGOs: Efflorescence or a blurring of roles and relevance?" Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 38. Abstract This article begins by describing attributes of the NGO sector, including its phenomenal growth, its new legitimacy and reputation; and national and regional differences among NGOs. It then discusses the tensions, tradeoffs, trends, and strategies posed by globalization as the political economy in which NGOs operate is changed. It notes that in the global marketplace of altruism, NGOs risk seeing the positive promise of NGO globalization far outweighed by the dangers of commodification of their work. Comment Good, broad, quick overview of the rise of the NGO. Does a nice job of framing current issues around the role of NGOs, particularly their increasing adoption of market-like language and concepts moving them ever closer to the for-profit side of the organizational spectrum.

Egri, C. P. and S. Herman (1999). "Leadership in the North American environmental sector: Values, leadership styles, and contexts of environmental leaders and their organizations." Academy of Management Journal 43(4):

571. Abstract Interview and questionnaire data from 73 leaders on nonprofit environmentalist and for-profit environmental product and service organizations showed that these leaders' personal values were more ecocentric, open to change, and selftranscendent than those of managers in other types of organizations. These leaders also acted as "master managers," performing both transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. As hypothesized, nonprofit environmentalist organizations were highly receptive contexts for transformational leadership, whereas for-profit environmental organizations were at least moderately receptive in this regard. We used these findings to develop a preliminary model of environmental leadership. Comment 75

Somewhat mechanical take on the characteristics of leaders in the environmental sector.

Lindenberg, M. (1999). "Declining state capacity,voluntarism, and the globalization of the not-for-profit sector." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 147. Abstract Since the 1970s, a profound shift has taken place in the roles of the public, private, and not-for-profit sectors. In the wake offiscal crisis, ideological attacks, and privatization, the scope and capacity of governments has declined. Comment Concise historical and structural overview of the global role played by NGOs.

Mort, G. S., J. Weerawardena, et al, (2003). "Social entrepreneurship: Towards conceptualization." International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 8(1): 76. Abstract The marketing in strategy dialogue and the emerging marketing/entrepreneurship interface paradigm stress the need for marketers to research entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship, the entrepreneurship leading to the establishment of new social enterprises and the continued innovation in existing ones, is much discussed but little understood and, given the increasing importance of such organizations, should be addressed. This paper conceptualizes social entrepreneurship asa multidimensional construct involving the expression of entrepreneurially virtuous behavior to achieve the social mission, a coherent unity of purpose and action in the face of moral complexity, the ability to recognize social value-creating opportunities and key decision-making characteristics of innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking. The paper discusses implications for policy and practice, and concludes with a consideration of theoretical issues and directions for future research. Comment Attempt to link entrepreneurship lit to social sector development. Very little depth or insight. Most of the conclusions are self-evident.

Offenheiser, R., S. Holcombe, et al. (1999). "Grappling with

globalization,partnership, and learning: A look inside Oxfam America. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28(4): 121. Abstract This article explores some of the current challenges facing Oxfam America, a Boston based international development and relief organization. Looking outward, Oxfam America isfaced with an increasingly competitive private fund raising market, tensions and opportunities posed by its affiliation with the global Oxfam International structure, the need to revitalize its partnership concept, unprecedented opportunities to link local realities and global policy formulation through advocacy, and the need to respond to changing programming contexts with new funding arrangements and strategic alliances. II

Comment OK case study of Oxfam - some interesting tidbits, but completely focused on organizational development/strategy perspective (as opposed to social change perspective).

Pastakia, A. (1998). "Grassrootsecopreneurs: Change agents for a sustainable society. Journal of Organizational Change Management 11 (2): 157. Abstract Business entrepreneurs contribute tosocio-economic development and change through their commercial enterprises. Enterprising individuals seeking to change society or address social issues through an organized initiative have often been referred to as social entrepreneurs. The past decade has witnessed the emergence of a new breed of eco-conscious change agents who may be called ecological entrepreneurs (ecopreneurs for short). This paper focuses on the strategies developed by six grassrootsecopreneurs drawn from two Indian states. Gujarat and Maharashtra, in the field of alternative agriculture. The cases in this sample consist of individuals who try to diffuse innovations developed by themselves. The paper also explains the conceptual differences between two types of ecopreneurs and provides the theoretical sampling frame; it discusses the research objectives and methodology and presents the ecopreneurs and their efforts at diffusing their eco-friendly ideas and innovations. Finally, the paper focuses on two important barriers to ecopreneurship, describes the strategies used to overcome these barriers and draws conclusions. II

Comment Set of mini-cases studies. Some helpful ethnographic detail, some useful strategic concepts, but not much theory. Article does give one a sense that there are many kinds of strategies for principle/product diffusion that can work. Also the distinction between the product-focused entrepreneurs and the practice/idea.77

focused entrepreneurs is handy.

Sagawa, S. and E.Segal (2000). "Common interest, common good: Creating value through business and social sector partnerships." California Management Review 42(2): 105122. Abstract Business firms and non-profit organizations are increasingly collaborating. Such collaborations promise substantial mutual benefits as business firms realize the extent to which their profits depend on a healthy social environment and social entrepreneurs begin to appreciate how applying business principJes can enable them to fulfill their social missions more effectively. Nevertheless, for the benefits of cross-sector partnerships to be achieved, each partner must have a realistic understanding of both the challenges and potential pitfalls of their relationship. Comment Kind of a callow view, but probably representative of the way many firms view such relationships. Lots of snappy biz jargon.

Thompson, J., G. Alvy, et al. (2000). "Social entrepreneurship - a new look at the people and the potential." Management Decision 38(5): 328-338. Abstract Much has been written about entrepreneurship, mainly as a driver of capitalism and economic activity. However, when economic decline has adversely affected local communities, these communities are likely to need both economic and social regeneration. As well as business entrepreneurs, we need social entrepreneurs, people who realize where there is an opportunity to satisfy some unmet need that the state welfare system will not or cannot meet, and who gather the necessary resources and use these to "make a difference." Thompson et al consider the crucial role of private sector social entrepreneurship in the context of a state welfare system stretched beyond its means. They define social entrepreneurship, recount a number of key points from relevant research projects, reflect upon current developments and initiatives, describe a number of cases and use these to draw a set of tentative conclusions about social entrepreneurs and social entrepreneurship in the context of the current government's aim of fostering rapid growth in the sector. They conclude that while such growth is highly desirable, a number of hurdles have to be overcome. Comment Anecdotal look at social entrepreneurship in England. Positions social sector as

filling gaps in the state welfare system. Discusses relationships between various sectors and sketches out the character of the "social entrepreneur." No depth.

Waddock, S.A~ and J. E. Post (1991). "Social entrepreneurs and catalytic change:'Public Administration Review 51 (5): 393. Abstract The 3 central characteristics of leadership necessary for social entrepreneurs are: 1. The social problem is characterized by extreme complexity, which the.social entrepreneur is somehow able to bound into a vision that has the potential to reshape public attitudes when implemented. 2. Social entrepreneurs are individuals with significant personal credibility, which they use to tap critical -resources and actually build the necessary network of participating organizations. 3. The social entrepreneur generates followers' commitment to the project by framing it in terms of important social values, rather than purely economic terms, which results in a sense of collective purpose among the social entrepreneur and those who join the effort. The goals of catalytic social action tend to focus on long-term change through leveraging the impact that the effort has through the media rather than direct action. Comment Case study look at three social entrepreneurs that evokes some of the kinds of leadership themes that came up during Social Innovation Initiative Discussions. Helpful reinforcement, but nothing earth-shaking.

Innovation Brown, J. S. and P. Duguid (1991). "Organizational learning and communities of practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning and innovation:' Organization Science 1 (4): 40-57. Abstract Recent ethnographic studies of workplace practices indicate that the ways people actually work usually differ fundamentally from the ways organizations describe that work in manuals, training programs, organizational charts, and job descriptions. Nevertheless, organizations tend to relyon the latter in their attempts to understand and improve work practice. We examine one such study. We then relate its conclusions to compatible investigations of learning and of innovation to argue that conventional descriptions of jobs mask not only the ways people work, but also significant learning and innovation generated in the informal communities-of-practice in which they work. By reassessing work, learning, and innovation in the context of actual communities and actual practices, we suggest that the connections between these three become

apparent. With a unified view of working, learning, and innovating, it should be possible to reconceive of and redesign organizations to improve all three.

Comment Classic article outlining communities-of-practice concept. Very organizationally focused, but some of the themes and ideas could be extended (with a little bit of ingenuity and elbow grease) to social change practices.

Dougherty, D. (1992). "Interpretive barriers to successful product innovation in large firms." Organization Science 3(2): 179-

202. Abstract The development of commercially viable new .products requires that technological and market possibilities are linked effectively in the product's design. Innovators in large firms have persistent problems with such linking, however. This research examines these problems by focusing on the shared interpretive schemes people use to make sense of product innovation. Two interpretive schemes are found to inhibit development of technology-market knowledge: departmental thought worlds and organizational product routines. The paper describes in some depth differences among the thought worlds which keep innovators from synthesizing their expertise. The paper also details how organizational routines exacerbate problems with learning, and how successful innovators overcome both interpretive barriers. The main implication of the study is that to improve innovation in large firms it is necessary todeal explicitly with the interpretive barriers described here. Suggestions for practice and research are offered.

Comment Would be interesting to develop the social innovation analogues to "departmental thought worlds and organizational product routines;" Paper has some helpful concepts in terms of thinking about structural and interpretive inhibitors of innovation.

Hargadon, A. B. and Y. Douglas (2001). "When innovations meet institutions: Edison and the design of the electric light." Administrative Science Quarterly 46(3): 476. Abstract This paper considers the role of design, as the emergent arrangement of concrete details that embodies a new idea, in mediating between innovations and established institutional fields as entrepreneurs attempt to introduce change. Analysis of Thomas Edison's system of electric lighting offers insights into how

the grounded details of an innovation's design shape its acceptance and ultimate impact. The notion of robust design is introduced to explain how Edison's design strategy enabled his organization to gain acceptance for an innovation that would ultimately displace the existing institutions of the gas industry. This analysis highlights the value of robust design strategies in innovationefforts,including the phonograph, the online service provider, and the digital video recorder. Comment Another good article whose concepts could be extended into social innovation. Unusually clever attention (for basins innovation focused articles) is paidto both intention/design and emergencelinstitutionalization.

Henderson, R. M. and K. B. Clark (1990). "Architectural innovation: The reconfiguration of existing product technologies and the failure of established firms." Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1): 9路30. Abstract This paper demonstrates that the traditional categorization of innovation as either incremental or radical is incomplete and potentially misleading and does not account for the sometimes disastrous effects on industry incumbents of . seemingly minor improvements in technological products. We examine such innovations more closely and, distinguishing between the components of a product and the ways they are integrated into the system that is the product "architecture," define them as innovations that change the architecture of a product without changing its components. We show that architectural innovations destroy the usefulness of the architectural knowledge of established firms,and that since architectural knowledge tends to become embedded in the structure and information-processing procedures of established organizations, this destruction is difficult for firms to recognize and hard to correct. Architectural innovation therefore presents established organizations with subtle challenges that may have significant competitive implications. We illustrate the concept's explanatory force through an empirical study of the semiconductor photolithographic alignment equipment industry, which has experienced a number of architectural innovations. Comment Similar in conceptualization to Christiansen, and like Christensen, useful for social innovators who might be too apt to assume that dramatic change always looks dramatic. There is presumably a social architecture that is analogous to Henderson's organizational and product architectures and that can be disrupted by similarly small-seeming changes.

Leonard-Barton, .D. (1992). "Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development.". Strategic Management JoumaI13(Speciallssue): 111-126. Abstract This paper examines the nature of the core.capabilities ofa firm, focusing in particular on their interaction with new product and process development projects. Two new concepts about core capabilities are explored here. First, .while core capabilities are traditionally treated as clusters of distinct technical systems, skills, and managerial systems, these dlrnenslons ofcapabilities are deeply rooted in values, which constitute an often overlooked but critical fourth dimension. Second, traditional core capabilities have a down side that inhibits .innovation, here called Gore rigidities. Managers of new product and process development projects thus face a paradox: how to take advantage of core capabilities without being hampered by their dysfunctional flip side. Such projects play an important role in emerging strategies by highlighting the need for change and leading the way. Twenty case studies of new product and process development projects in five firms provide illustrative data. Comment Examination/refinement of Hamel and Prahalad's concept of "core competencies" wrt innovation. Explores "symbiotic relationship" between core capabilities and innovation projects. Notes that these capabilities can also be seen as rigidities and thus can inhibit as well as enable innovation. Nothing earth shattering in terms of its usefulness for social innovation.

March,J~

G. (1976). Technology of foolishness. Ambiguity and choice in organizations. J. G. March and J. P. Olsen. Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 443-451. Abstract Classic article championing "playfulness" (foolishness, intuition, exploration, improvisation) as "an instrument of intelligence" and innovation. . Comment

Nonaka, I. D. (1994). "A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation." Organization Science 5(1): 14. Abstract This paper proposes a paradigm for managing the dynamic aspects of organizational knowledge creating processes. Its central theme is that organizational knowledge is created through a continuous dialogue between tacit and explicit knowledge. The nature of this dialogue is examined and four patterns

of interaction involving tacit and explicit knowledge are identified. It is argued that while new knowledge is developed by individuals, organizations play a critical role in articulating and amplifying that knowledge. A theoretical framework is developed which provides an analytical perspective on the constituent dimensions of knowledge creation. This framework is then applied in two operational models for facilitating the dynamic creation of appropriate organizational knowledge.

Comment Great, seminal article outlining Nonaka's theory of knowledge creation. One of the early explorations of interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge. Offers a clear conceptualization of the role that organizations play in innovation.

Van den Bulte, C. and G. L. Lilien (2001). "Medical innovation revisited: Social contagion versus marketing effort." American Journal of Sociology 106(5): 1409-35. Abstract This article shows that Medical Innovation the landmark study by Coleman, Katz, and Menzel and several subsequent studies analyzing the diffusion of the drug tetracycline have confounded social contagion with marketing effects. The article describes the medical community's understanding of tetracycline and how the drug was marketed. This situational analysis finds no reasons to expect social contagion; instead, aggressive marketing efforts may have played an important role. The Medical Innovation data set is reanalyzed and supplemented with newly collected advertising data. When marketing efforts are controlled for, contagion effects disappear. The article underscores the importance of controlling for potential confounds when studying the role of social contagion in innovation diffusion.

Comment There. may be a similar issue in terms of confounding contagion and "marketing" (whether from NGOs or social movements or political institutions or even market institutions) wrt social innovation. Article suggests that marketing may playa more prominent role in the diffusion of innovations than is often assumed.

Wejnert, B. (2002). "Integrating models of diffusion of innovations: A conceptual framework." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 297-326. Abstract This chapter provides a conceptual framework for integrating the array of variables defined in diffusion research to explicate their influence on an actor's

decision to adopt an innovation. The framework groups the variables into three major components. The first component includes characteristics of the innovation itself, within which two sets of variables are defined concerning public versus private consequences and benefits versus costs of adoption. A second component involves the characteristics of innovators (actors) that influence the probability of adoption of an innovation. Within this component six sets of variables concern societal entity of innovators (either people, organizations, states, etc.), familiarity with the innovation, status characteristics, socioeconomic characteristics, position in social networks, and. personal. qualities. The third component involves characteristics of the environmental context that modulate diffusion via structural characteristics of the modern world. These latter characteristics incorporate four sets of variables: geographical settings, societal culture, political conditions, and global uniformity. The concluding analysis .highligl]ts the need in diffusion research to incorporate more fully (a) the . interactive character of diffusion variables, (b) the gating function of diffusion variables, and (c) effects of an actor's characteristics on the temporalrate of diffusion. Comment Tries to be broad by coming up with lots of variables and formal relationship - hypotheses rather than by developing grounded synthesis of empirical literature. Not likely to be too useful for action oriented social innovation researchers.

Social Capital Becker,路 C. D. (2002)~ "Grassroots to grassroots: Why forest preservation was rapid at LomaAlta, Ecuador'" World Development 31(1): 163-176. Abstract What social arrangements stop deforestation? This paper chronicles the sociological factors underlying the rapid establishment, in 14 months; of a community-owned protected forest in Ecuador. Methods developed by the International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) research program provide a stakeholder analysis related to trends in deforestation. Interviews, community meetings, and informal discussions provide data on attitudes of local people during and after establishment of the forest preserve. Knowledge and resources external to the community motivated local people to preserve a cloud forest, but local institutions and communal land tenurewere critical for the rapid establishment of the protected area. . Comment Intriguing little case study exploring the dynamics of decentralized ecodevelopment. The relationship.between outside NGO expertise and the local community social capital infrastructure might be useful in thinking about other

types of social innovation efforts.

Brown, L. D. andD.Ashman (1996). "Participation, social capital, . and intersectoral problem solving: African and Asian cases:' World Development 24(9):1467-1479. Abstract Cooperation in policy/program implementation between state and nongovernmental-actors can sometimes solve intractable development problems, but such cooperation must span gaps in culture, power, resources, and perspective. This article provides a comparative analysis of 13 cases of intersectoral cooperation among public agencies, nongovernmental organizations, grassrootsgroups, and international donors. Theanalysis reveals two successful implementation patterns: nongovernment organization (NGO)mediated cooperation and grassroots-centered cooperation. Different forms of social capital are central to the two patterns. Indigenous NGOs with credibility across sectors are critical to the former, while grassroots organizations are vital to the latter. Participatory decision-making and mutual influence are essential to - grassroots~centered cooperation, but less so for NGO-mediated collaboration. Comment Notable for its breadth (13 case studies). Opens up the concept of social capital to include different types of patterns and relates these patterns to the success (or lack thereof) of relatively large collaborative development efforts. A nice addition to the lit focused on understanding the relationship between NGO actors, governments, and local social capital.

Buchman, C.and E.Hannum (2001). "Education and stratification in developing countries: A review of theories and research." Annual Review of Sociology 27: 77-102. Abstract This review examines research on education and inequality in developing regions. In tracing the progress of this field of inquiry, it focuses on empirical studies of educational inequality in four broad areas: macro-structural forces shaping education and stratification; the relationship between family background and educational outcomes; school effects; and education's impact on economic and social mobility. It assesses the contributions of research in Africa, Asia, and Latin America to the general study of education and social stratification and the theoretical leverage gained from examining stratification processes in developing regions of the world. Finally, the review discusses recent developments that hold promise for addressing the.knowledge gaps that remain; these include utilizing relatively new data sources and methods in comparative, cross-national studies

and greater collaboration between researchers who. study strikingly similar questions but remain segregated due to their focus on either industrialized or developing societies.

Comment Broad review of the lit on the relationship between educational systems and social structure vis-a-vis class stratification. Helpful for anyone trying to unpack gov't, technical,cultural, and social capital dynamics.

Coleman, J. S. (1990). Social Capital. Foundations of Social Theory, Belknap Press: 300-321. ~~ct. .

Classic statement of social capital as a contrasting perspective toindividLiallybased economic theories. Unlike financial, physical, and human capital, SC is not atomistic. SC adheres in relationship patterns and mayor may not be transferable, depending on context. Article explores nature and role of SC and posits various ways to create and/or destroy it.

Comment

Curtis~

J. E., D. E.Baer, et al. (2001). "Nations of joiners:

Explaining voluntary association membership in democratic societies." American Sociological Review 66(6): 783. Abstract Levels of voluntary association membership for 33 democratic countries are compared using data from surveys of nationally representative samples of adults from the 1990s. Four explanations of national differences in association involvement are identified and tested: economic development, religious composition, type of polity, and years of continuous democracy.

Comment Handy empirical look at some of the macro social features associated with significant participation in voluntary orgs. Nothing to surprising (e.g., being a long-standing democracy helps), but a useful reminder of the degree to which historical macro patterns affect avenues for social innovation.

Eckstein, S. (2001). "Community as gift-giving: Collectivist roots of volunteerism." American Sociological Review 66(6): 829. Abstract

.It is widely believed that the typical volunteer is rniddle-aqed and middle-class and that volunteerism is rooted in American cultural individualism. Undocumented and unexplored are collectivistic roots of giving, which may have a different social base than individualistic-grounded volunteerism.

Comment Conceptual antidote to most volunteer/participation strategies which focus on recruiting individuals as individuals. Small, micro case study without any hint of dramatic social innovation, but the pattern of communal participation/giving is provocative and might be useful when thinking about larger scale advocacy movements.

Evans, P. (1996). "Government action, social capital and development: Reviewing the evidence on synergy.I I World Development 24(6): 1119-1132. Abstract Instead ofassuming a zero-sum relationship between government involvement and private cooperative efforts, the five-preceding articles argue for the possibility of "state-society synergy," that active government and mobilized communities can enhance each others' developmental efforts. This article draws on these articles to explore the forms and sources of state-society synergy. I argue that synergy usually combines complementarity with embeddedness and is most easily fostered in societies characterized by egalitarian social structures and robust, coherent state bureaucracies. I also argue, however, that synergy is constructable, even in the more adverse circumstances typical of Third World countries.

Comment One of the better looks at the different ways of understanding the relationship between government structures/policies and the kinds of social capital that lead to local, private, community initiatives. Unpacks the (not too voluminous) lltand offers a handful of rich perspectives.

Gieryn, T. F. (2000). "A space for place in sociology'" Annual Review of Sociology 26: 463-496. Abstract Sociological studies sensitive to the issue of place are rarely labeled thus, and at the same time there are far too many of them to fit in this review. It may be a good thing that this research is seldom gathered up as a "sociology of place," for that could ghettoize the subject as something of interest only to geographers, architects, or environmental historians. The point of this review is to indicate that

sociologists have a stake in placeno matter what they analyze, or how: The works cited below emplace inequality, difference, power, politics, interaction, community, social movements, deviance, crime, life course, science, identity, memory, history. After a prologue of definitions and methodological ruminations, I ask: How do places come to be the way they are, and how do places matter for social practices and historical change?

. Comment Well-written essay/review taking a deep and provocative look at the various ways that "place" is treated in sociological literature. Helpful for anyone seeking to go deeper into the globalization vs. place dichotomy present in much of the development and social movement literature.

Gille, Z. and S. 0 Riain (2002). "Global Ethnography'" Annual Review of Sociology 28: 271-295. Abstract : Globalization poses a challenge to existing social scientific methods of inquiry and units of analysis by destabilizing the embeddedness of social relations in particular communities and places. Ethnographic sites are globalized by means of various external connections across multiple spatial scales and porous and contested boundaries. Global ethnographers must begin their analysis by seeking out "placemaking projects" that seek to define new kinds of places, with new definitions of social relations and their boundaries. Existing ethnographic . studies of global processes tend to cluster under one of three slices of globalization-global forces, connections, or imaginations-each defined by a different kind of place-making project. The extension of the site in time and space poses practical and conceptual problems for ethnographers, but also political ones. Nonetheless, by locating themselves firmly within the time and space of social actors "living the global," ethnographers can reveal how global processes are collectively and politically constructed, demonstrating the variety of ways in which globalization is grounded in the local.

Comment Another good article exploring place wrt social capital - this time from primarily a methodological perspective. Looks at different ways sociologists (particularly ethnographers) are (or could be) dealing with globalization issues and the transformation of once geographically coherent places. Focused on research issues, but with a lot to say about the modern nature of place in general.

McElroy, M. W. (2002). "Social innovation capital,' ,Journal of Intellectual Capital 3(1): 30-39.

Abstract Current conceptions of how to measure and manage intellectual capital (IC) suffer from a failure to take "social capital" rigorously into account. This is a shortcoming of current thinking in the IC arena. Of particular concern is the absence of "social innovation capital" (SIC) from the scope of leading IC schemes. SIC, the collective capacity of a firm to innovate; is arguably the most valuable form of IC because it underlies a firm's fundamental capacity to learn, innovate, and adapt. Using one leading IC scheme as a basis for analysis (Skandia's), the absence of social capital, and SIC in particular, is highlighted, along with a description of what Skandia's taxonomy would look like if it were to take social capital fully into account. Finally, recommendations are offered on how managers can build and manage SIC, thereby enhancing their organizations' capacities to learn, innovate, and adapt in the marketplace. Comment Org/biz focused account of the importance of internal social capital wrt innovation. Contrasts this perspective with the. usual "intellectual capital" perspective, which focuses primarily on the individual and on support infrastructure. "Social intellectual capital" on the other hand is a self-organizing network - a "particular archetypical social pattern which has as its aim the . production, diffusion and application of new knowledge by, and for, an organization." Very similar to Brown's "Communities of Practice."

McPherson, M., L. Smith-Lovin, et al. (2001). "Birds ofa feather: Homophily in social networks:' Annual Review of Sociology

27: 415-444. Abstract Similarity breeds connection. This principle-the homophily principle-structures network ties of every type, including marriage, friendship, work, advice, support, information transfer, exchange, comembership, and other types of relationship. The result is that people's personal networks are homogeneous with regard to many sociodemographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics. Homophily limits people's social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience. Homophily in race and ethnicity creates the strongest divides in our personal environments, with age, religion, education, occupation, and gender following in roughly that order. Geographic propinquity, families, organizations, and isomorphic positions in social systems all create contexts in which homophilous relations form. Ties between nonsimilar individuals also dissolve at a higher rate, which sets the stage for the formation of niches (localized positions) within social space. We argue for more research on: (a) the basic ecological processes that link organizations, associations, cultural communities, social movements, and many other social forms; (b) the impact of multiplex ties on the patterns of homophily; and (c) the dynamics of network change over time

through which networks and other social entities co-evolve, Comment Detailed exploration of ecological theories of homophily, the tendency of people to associate with people who are like themselves. Worth reviewing from a social innovation perspective since homophily can be a serious problem when thinking路 about wide-scale social innovation. "The pervasive fact of homophily means that cultural, behavioral, genetic, or material information that flows through networks will tend to be localized." Figuring out how to overcome (or utilize) homomphilic forces is one of the key challenges for social innovators if they are interested in anything other than local effects. Dialogue-based approaches, for example, can be thought of as an attempt to disarm our tendency towardhomophily so that that disparate groups can think and work together effectively:

Portes, A.路(1998).路 ..Social capital: Its origins and applications in路 modern s.ociology"- Annual Review of Sociology 24: 1-24. Abstract Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology Comment . A good place to start for a smart and quick, if academic-y, review of social capital in the sociology lit. Not a lot that directly deals with the role of social capital in social innovation, but a handy article for getting uptospeed on the conceptin a general way.

Sampson, R. J., J. D. Morenorr, et al. (2002). --Assessing --neighborhood effects--: Social processes and new directions in researeh," Annual Review of Sociology 28: 443-478. Abstract This paper assesses and synthesizes the cumulative results of a new "neighborhood-effects" literature that examines social processes related to problem behaviors and health-related outcomes. Our review identified over 40 relevant studies published in peer-reviewed journals from the mid-1990s to 2001, the take-off point for an increasing level of interest in neighborhood effects. Moving beyond traditional characteristics such as concentrated poverty, we'; evaluate the salience of social-interactional-and institutional mechanisms hypothesized to account for neighborhood-level variations in a variety of phenomena (e.g., delinquency, violence, depression, high-risk behavior), especially among adolescents. We highlight neighborhood ties, social control, mutual trust, institutional resources, disorder, and routine activity patterns. We

also discuss a set of thorny methodological problems that plague the study of neighborhood effects, with special attention to selection bias. We conclude with promising strategies and directions for future research, including experimental designs, taking spatial and temporal dynamics seriously, systematic observational approaches, and benchmark data on neighborhood social processes. Comment Helpful review for those interested ln unpacking the intertwined nature of various kinds of problems in local communities.

Schofer, E. and M. Fourcade-Gourinchas (2001). liThe structural contexts of civic engagement: Voluntary association membership in comparative perspective:' American Sociological Review 66(6): 806. Abstract Voluntary association membership varies dramatically among nations, by both the number and the type of associations that people join. Two distinctions account for much of this variation: (1) the distinction between statist versus nonstatist (sornetimescalledvliberal") societies, and(2) the distinction between corporate versus noncorporate societies; These two dimensions summarize historically evolved differences in state structure, political institutions, and culture of nations that channel, legitimate (or delegitimate), and encourage (or discourage) various types of associational activity. Membership in associations in 32 countries is examined using data from the 1991 World Values Survey; . hierarchical models estimate the effects of individual-level and country-level factors on individual association membership. Results show that statism constrains individual associational activity of all types, particularly in "new" social movement associations. Corporateness positively affects membership, particularly for "old" social movements. Finally, temporal trends indicate some convergence toward anglo-american patterns of association. Comment Seemingly broad (but somewhat narrowly conceptualized) look at different patterns of associational activity in various countries and their relationship to a few key factors.

Schuller, T., S. Baron, et al. (2000). Social capital: A review and critique. Social capital: Critical perspectives. T. Schuller, S. Baron and J. Field. New York, Oxford University Press: 1-38. Abstract 91

Good academic overviewofthe development of the concept of Social Capital. Synthesizes various perspectives. Comment

Small, M. L. (2002). "Culture, cohorts, and organization theory: . Understanding local participation in a Latino housing project." American Journal of Sociology 108(1): i-54. . Abstract Recent work on neighborhood effects has rekindled interest in social organization theory and its relationship to local social capital. This article addresses several gaps in our knowledge about the mechanisms. linking structural conditions to social (dis)organization and the role of culture in this process. Relying on the case of a predominantly Puerto Rican housing project in Boston, it investigates changes in one aspect of social organization participation in local community activities suggesting the theory should incorporate the role of cohorts and cultural frames and rethink the relationship among structure, culture, and change. Comment Long, smart article unpacking issues of place, culture, and participation.

Small, M.L. and K. Newman (2001). "Urban poverty after The Truly Disadvantaged: The rediscovery of the family, the neighborhood,and culture." Annual Review of Sociology 27:

33-45. Abstract In what follows we critically assess a selection of the works on urban poverty that followed the publication of WJ Wilson's The Truly Disadvantaged. (1987), with a particular focus on the family, the neighborhood, and culture. We frame our discussion by assessing the broad explanations of the increased concentration of poverty in urban neighborhoods characteristic of the 1970s and 1980s. Then, in the section on the family, we address the rising out-of-wedlock and disproportionately high teenage birthrates of poor urban women. Next, we critique the literature on neighborhood effects. Finally, in the discussion of culture, we examine critically the new efforts at complementing structural explanations with cultural accounts. We conclude by calling for more comparative, cross-regional, and historical studies, broader conceptions of urban poverty, and a greater focus on Latinos and other ethnic groups. Comment Quick but thoughtful review of varying approaches to understanding endemic

poverty (in urban U.S.) ..

Tolbert,' C~ M., T. A.' Lyson, et at, (1998). "Local capitalism, civic engagement, and socioeconomic well-being. Social Forces 77(2): 401-427. Abstract II

路This analysis is designed to extend a newly emerging body of social stratification research grounded in theories of civil society. The goal of this larger body of 路 research and writiilgis to provide an alternative social and economic development paradigm to the dominant neoclassical/rational choice/human' capital perspective.

Comment Quant study of relationship between social capital and local socioeconomic outcomes. Emphasis on "local social structure" as a variable in economic .development models. Particular support for the importance of "local. capitalism" (l.e., as opposed to Wal-Mart) as well as support for the importance of several kinds of local noneconomic institutions.

Wilson, J. (2000). "Volunteering." Annual Review of Sociology 26: 215-240. Abstract Volunteering is any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group or cause. Volunteering is part of a cluster of helping behaviors, entailing more commitment than spontaneous assistance but narrower in scope than the .care provided to family and friends. Although developed somewhat independently, the study of volunteerism and of social activism have much in common. Since data gathering on volunteering from national samples began about a quarter of a century ago, the rate forthe United- States has been stable or, according to some studies, rising slightly. Theories that explain volunteering by pointing to individual attributes can be grouped into those that emphasize motives or self-understandings on the one hand and those that emphasize rational action and cost-benefit analysis on the other. Other theories seek to 路 complement this focus on individual level factors by pointing to the role of social resources, specifically social ties and organizational activity, as explanations for volunteering. Supportis found for all theories,although many issues remained unresolved. Age, gender and race differences in volunteering can be accounted for, in large part, by pointing to differences in self-understandings, human capital, and social resources. Less attention has been paid to contextual effects on 路 volunteering and, while evidence is mixed, the impact of organizational, community, and regional characteristics on individual decisions to volunteer

remains a fruitful field for exploration. Studies of the experience of volunteering . have only just begun to plot and explain spells of volunteering over the life course . . and to examine the causes of volunteer turnover; Examining the premise that volunteering is beneficial for the helper as well as the helped, a number of studies have looked at the impact of volunteering on subjective and objective well-being. Positive effects are found for life-satlsfactlon, self-esteem, self-rated health, and for educational and occupational achievement, functional ability, and mortality. Studies of youth also suggest that volunteering reduces the likelihood of engaging in problem behaviors such as school truancy and druq abuse ..

Comment Look at empirical evidence on volunteering. Not too helpful in that it basically "finds that all sorts of(not unexpected) factors playa partin determining who volunteers and why and what they get out of it. There isn't much one could do with this article. .

Book List By Domain Complex Adaptive Systems Boulding, K.E.'(1985).Human betterment. Beverly Hills, Calif., , Sage- Publications. Brown, S. L. and K. M. Eisenhardt (1998). Competing on the edge. Boston, Harvard Business School Press. Erikson, 'K. T. (1995). A new species of trouble: the human experience of modern disasters. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. Gladwell, M. (2000). The tipping point: how little things can ' make a big difference. Boston; London, Little Brown. Gleick,J. (1987). Chaos: Making a New Science. New York, , Penguin. ,

Gunderson, L. H'. andC.S. H~mng (2002).Panarchy : Understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Washington, DC ; London, Island Press. Homer-Dixon, T. F. (2002). Ingenuity gap. Vintage Books. Jacobs, J. (1992). Systems of survival: a dialogue on the moral foundations of commerce and politics. New York, Random House. Johnson, S. (2001). Emergence: the connected lives of ants, brains, cities, and software. New York, Scribner. Minnich, E. K. (1990). Transforming knOWledge. Philadelphia, Temple University Press. Wheatley, M. (1992). Leadership and the new science: learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Institutional Theory & Social Construction Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1967). The social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Garden City, N.Y~, Anchor Books. Daly, H. E., J. B. Cobb, et al. (1989). For the common good: .redirecting the economy toward community, the environment, and a sustainable future. _Boston, Beacon Press. Gergen, K. J. (1999). An invitation to social construction. London ; Thousand Oaks [Calif.], SAGE Publications. Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, University of California Press. Jacobs, J. (1969). The economy of cities. New York, Random House. McKnight, J. (1995). The careless society: community and. its路 counterfeits. New York, BasicBooks. Powell, W. W. and P. DiMaggio, Eds.(1991). The New institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Schorr, L. B. (1997). Common purpose: strengthening families and neighborhoods to rebuild America. New York, Anchor Books. Scott, W. R. (2001). Institutions and organizations. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.

Social Movements Tarrow, S. G. (1998). Power in movement: social movements and contentious politics. Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, Cambridge University Press.

Organization Theory & Organizational Development Cooperrider, D.L. and J. E. Dutton, Eds. (1999). Organizational. Dimensions of Global. Change. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: the psychology of optimal experience. New York, Harper & Rowâ&#x20AC;˘ . Csikszentmihalyi~ M. (1997). Finding flow: the psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York, BasicBooks.Ellinor,L. and G. Gerard (1998). Dialogue: rediscover the . transforming power of conversation. New York, J. Wiley & . Sons. Hock, D. (1999). Birth-of the chaordicage. San Francisco, CA, Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Isaacs, W. (19$~). Dialogue-and the ad of thinking together: a pioneering approach to communicating in business and .in life. New York, Currency. McMaster, M. D. (1996). The intelligence advantage: organizingÂˇ for complexity. Boston, Mass., Butterworth-Heinemann. Morgan,G. (1998). Images of organization. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Petzinger, T. (1999). The new pioneers: the men and women who are transforming the workplace and marketplace. New York, Simon & Schuster. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, Doubleday/Currency. Senge, P. M. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook : strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York, Currency Doubleday.

Whyte, D. (1994). The heart aroused: poetry and the preservation of the soul in corporate America. New York, Currency Doubleday. Whyte,D. (2001). Crossing the unknown sea : work asa pilgrimage of identity. New York, Riverhead Books. Zimmerman, Bit, C. Lindberg; et al.(1998). Edgeware : insights from complexity science for health care leaders. Irving, Tex., VHA Inc.

Social Entrepreneurship Johnson, S. (2000). Literature review on social entrepreneurship, Canadian Centre for SOCial Entrepreneurship.路

Innovation Christensen, C. M. (1997). The innovator's dilemma: when new technologies cause great firms to fail. Boston, Mass., Harvard Business School Press. Nonaka,路I. D. and H. Takeuchi (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York, Oxford University Press. Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. New York London, Free Press; Collier Macmillan. Van de Ven, A. H. (1999). The innovation journey. New York, Oxford University Press.

Social Capital Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone : the collapse and revival of American community. New York, Simon & Schuster.

Book List By Author Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1967). The social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Garden . City, N.Y., Anchor Books. Boulding, K. E. (1985). Human betterment. Beverly Hills, Calif., Sage Publications. Brown, S. L. and K. M. Eisenhardt (1998). Co~peting on the edge. Boston, Harvard Business School. Press. Christensen, C. M. (1997). The innovator路sdilemma: when new路 technologies cause great firms to fail. Boston, Mass., Harvard Business路 School Press. Cooperrider, D. L. and J. E. Dutton, Eds. (1999). Organizational Dimensions of Global Change. Thousand -Oaks, CA,Sage. Csikszentrnihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: the psychology of optimal experience. New York, Harper & Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: the psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York, BasicBooks. Daly, H. E., J. B. Cobb, et al. (1989). For the common good: redirecting the economy toward community, the路 environment, and a sustainable future. Boston,Beacon Press. Ellinor, L. and G. Gerard (1998). Dialogue: rediscover the transforming power of conversation. New York, J. Wiley & Sons. Erikson, K. T. (1995). A new species of trouble: the human experience of modern disasters. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. Gergen, K. J. (1999). An invitation to social construction. London ; Thousand Oaks [Calif.], SAGE Publications.

.Giddens, A. (1984). The constitLition of society: outline of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, University of California Press. Gladwell, M. (2000). The tipping point: how little things can .make a big difference. Boston; London, Little Brown. Gleick, J. (1987). Chaos: Making a New Science. New York, Penguin. Gunderson, L. H. and C. S. Holling (2002). Panarchy: Understanding transformations in human and natural路 systems. Washington, DC ; London, Island Press. Hock, D. (1999). Birth of the chaordic age. San Francisco, CA,. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Homer-Dixon, T. F.(2002). Ingenuity gap. Vintage Books. Isaacs, W. (1999). Dialogue and the art of thinking together: a pioneering路 approach to communicating in business and in . life. New York,Currency. Jacobs, J. (1969). The economy of cities. New York, Random House. Jacobs, J. (1992). Systems of survival :a dialogue on the moral foundations路 of commerce and politics. New York, Random House. Johnson, S. (2000). Literature review on social entrepreneurship, Canadian Centre for Social Entrepreneurship. Johnson, S. (2001). Emergence: the connected lives of ants, brains, cities, and software. New York, Scribner. McKnight, J. (1995). The careless society: community and its counterfeits. New York, BasicBooks.

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McMaster, M. D. (1996). The intelligence advantage: organizing for complexity. Boston, Mass., Butterworth-Heinemann. Minnich, E. K. (1990). Transforming knowledge. Philadelphia, Temple University Pressâ&#x20AC;˘ . Morgan, G. (1998). Images of organization. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Nonaka, I. D. and H. Takeuchi (1995). The knowledge-creating company : How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. New York, Oxford University Press, Petzinger, T. (1999). The new pioneers: the men and women who are transforming the workplace and marketplace. NewÂˇ York, Simon & Schuster. Powell, W. W. and P. DiMaggio, Eds. (1991). The New institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community. New York, Simon & Schuster. Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. New York London,Free Press; Collier Macmillan. Schorr, L. B. (1997). Common purpose: strengthening families and neighborhoods to rebuild America. New York, Anchor Books. Scott, W. R. (2001). Institutions and organizations. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, Doubleday/Currency. Senge, P. M. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook : strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York, 101

Currency Doubleday. Tarrow, S. G. (1998). Power in movement: social movements and contentious politics" Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, Cambridge University Press. Van de Ven, A. H.(1999). The innovation journey. New York, Oxford University路 Press. Wheatley, M. (1992). Leadership and the new science: learning about organization from an orderly -universe. San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Whyte, D. (1994). The heart aroused: poetry and the_preservation of the soul in路corporate America. New York, Currency Doubleday. Whyte, D. (2001). Crossing the unknown sea: work as a pilgrimage of identity. New York, Riverhead Books. Zimmerman, B., C. Lindberg, et al. (1998). Edgeware : insights from. complexity science for health care leaders. Irving, Tex., VHA Inc. '

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