Architecture of Integration - 2019 Masters Thesis (Full)

Architecture of Integration Creating Home with Refugees in a Small Vermont City

by GianCarlo Littell Greco

Norwich University A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the School of Architecture and Art in Candidacy for the Degree of Master of Architecture by GianCarlo Littell Greco Northfield Vermont May 7, 2018 Aron Temkin, AIA, Dean, College of Professional Schools Cara Armstrong, Director, School of Architecture and Art Michael Hoffman AIA, Director, Graduate Architecture Timothy Parker, Ph.D, Thesis Research Tolya Stonorov, AIA

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Dedicated to: Mama, for fostering my curiosity and creativity in home school.

The Parker School, for its supportive learning environment.

My classmates at Norwich, for growing alongside me.

My beautiful Charlotte, for challenging me to think and love more.

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Table of Contents

Abstract 1 Chapter 1: Opportunity 3 Chapter 2: Displacement 7 Chapter 3: Resettlement 23 Chapter 4: Home 31 Chapter 5: My Response 41 Chapter 6: Site Analysis 53 Chapter 7: Architectural Program 67 Chapter 8: Design Process 71 Chapter 9: Final Design 83 Appendix A: Precedents 111 Appendix B: Reading List 145 Epilogue 149 Endnotes 151 Bibliography 161

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Abstract In recent years, the number of displaced persons and their length of displacement has been increasing. This study focuses on resettlement as an alternative to the overcrowding present in the temporary solutions of arrival cities and refugee camps.

My research explores how resettlement in small U.S. cities can be mutually beneficial by creating homes for refugees and revitalizing these communities. This research will be contextualized through a discussion of the historical and sociological dynamics of population displacement. In order to bring this global issue to a local scale, interviews and research related to Winooski, Vermont, will provide insight into a small city that is already benefiting from resettlement. Through analyzing participatory housing models such as Elemental’s “half house� and Spreefeld co-housing, I have developed an architectural program and synthesized regenerative design principles into the design of a mixed-housing development in Winooski. My approach to this research and design is meant to be one alternative to be tested, rather than a single solution to the complex questions raised.

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Chapter 1: Opportunity Our Opportunity of Home Home is a fundamental need of humans. Our homes shelter us from weather. Our homes are the spaces in which we eat, drink, and sleep. Our homes allow us to find individual solace and our homes allow us to gather and commune with family and friends. Home can be much more than physical; home can provide emotional and psychological safety for individuals and groups. Home can provide us with a foundation to launch into our relationships, our work, and our life. “Civic life begins at home, allowing us to plant roots and take ownership over our community, participate in local politics, and reach out to neighbors in a spirit of solidarity and generosity.”1 Home is an essential branching off point for our integration with the community. “Having a longterm home that is safe, affordable, and comfortable (in terms of size and conditions) can increase a person’s sense of belonging to a place, improve their integration prospects… and lead to an increased sense of well-being.”2 All people should have the opportunity of a home which supports their dignity and individuality, as well as their chance to interact with others.

Our Problem Not all of our houses feel like home. For some of us, our home is insecure because of high costs, abuse, crime, and other challenges. Some of us have even been displaced from our homes, whether from high costs, eviction, gentrification, climate, persecution and war, or other factors. When our home is negatively impacted or lost, it takes time and energy to reestablish roots and a sense of belonging. A lack of a stable home makes it harder to address other important needs like health, education, and employment.

Particularly for vulnerable populations, we must find ways of creating home. One especially vulnerable group which has often been stigmatized and excluded from success is the refugee population, defined as people who have been displaced from their country and home due to persecution. Their number and their length of displacement has increased over the past several decades. Prolonged conflicts and other factors make it difficult and in some cases impossible for many to return home. Often refugees can be caught in a state of limbo, without the ability to return home but unable to establish a new home because of their limited rights.

Our Opportunity of Resettlement Resettlement is one path to create a new home for refugees, where they are granted legal, permanent residence in a new country such as the United States, Canada, or

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Germany. The US has historically accepted a large percentage of the world’s refugees, as well as other migrant groups who may have been displaced for other reasons such as lack of employment opportunities. Smaller cities such as Winooski, Vermont, are increasingly playing a large role in providing homes for these individuals. The government of Vermont, at all levels, supports refugee resettlement. As Governor Phil Scott stated: “I have already committed to several initiatives to draw workers from other states, and help Vermonters stay here, but our efforts should not stop at our country’s borders. That is why I welcome legal immigration by those seeking to build careers here in Vermont.”3 Resettlement provides more than just a home for an individual, it can increase the population, diversity, and economy of the state.

Winooski, a small city with a population of 7,237, has already benefited from such resettlement. As a member of the city government states: Generally, the refugee population has enriched our city with a broadened scope of perspectives, ideas, talents, and cultural nuances that have made for a really unique experience… The school is a fantastic case-in-point, where the ethnic, linguistic, and cultural diversity that exists here has led to a very rich learning environment that is truly drawing on global wisdom (both in terms of the student body, as well as the staff).4 This model of mutual benefit is a strength of Winooski. This resettlement effort has been possible through community support; employment opportunity; health services; collaboration between service providers, schools, and of local authorities; and a community-based organization.5 The city is a favorable location for refugees due to its available housing stock and proximity to employment opportunities and services in the greater Burlington area.

In part due to refugee resettlement, Winooski has grown to be the most diverse city in the state. The racial makeup of Winooski was 93% white in 2000 and was 85% white in 2015.6 As of 2016, the population is 81.81% white, 4.11% black, 2.8% hispanic, 9.27% Asian, and 1.07% two or more races.7 Additionally, 15% of the population is foreignborn.8 Diversity is especially concentrated in the younger population, as 45% of schoolaged children are non-white.9 This young population can contribute their energy and skills to schools and to workplaces. However, in order for children and their parents to participate in the local context, a safe, dignified, affordable home is key.

Expanding the availability of affordable homes for local residents in small US cities can help maintain the culture of these communities while providing space for other people and ideas to establish a new home. Providing homes for refugees in mixed-income, mixed-use settings can help with their integration. The private home can be a place of individual identity and customization, shared spaces can foster collaboration among all residents, and public spaces allow for interaction and contact with a wide range of people. This layering of spaces can generate the structure and community for healing and upward social mobility.

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Providing homes for refugees along with local residents can assist integration, boost the population and economy, and lead to more diverse and prosperous neighborhoods.

Over the course of Chapter 2: Displacement, I will expand on the shared challenge of preserving and creating homes which are healthy and affordable in the United States.

The lack of this housing has led to the displacement of certain groups, a narrative which connects with the primary population at the center of this thesis: refugees. In Chapter 3: Resettlement, I will explore why resettlement should be expanded and how the approach can create new homes for refugees. Benefits go beyond the refugee population, as the expansion of inclusive, affordable homes can benefit residents of small cities within the US and increase the population, diversity, and economy of the community. Chapter 4: Home, will build the case for why participatory design and incremental housing are one especially promising approach to integrating refugees, and Chapter 5: My Response will detail my design response: a mixed-income and mixed-use development in Winooski, Vermont.

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Chapter 2: Displacement Housing There is a growing need for affordable homes at a local, national, and global scale.

Research shows that a large amount of people in the US are struggling to afford housing, especially low-income households,10 and these findings have been widely explored in the media.11 The economy of the country is being affected, as lower-wage support workers of large corporations are struggling to pay for their housing, as demonstrated by the inability of many Disneyland employees to afford a home, where one in ten have experienced homelessness.12 CEO’s of large companies like Tesla have recognized that housing shortages are obstacles to their growth, leading many to explore building housing for their workforce.13 Housing affordability is a growing challenge for middleincome households as well, and many regions in the US are increasingly unaffordable for this population.14 There has been a decrease in the vacancy rates of low-cost units at a national level, demonstrating the lack of affordable housing.15 Clearly, the urgency of this problem demonstrates that affordable housing should be expanded across the country.

The challenge is present to the state as well. The need for affordable housing in Vermont “is a major issue for many low and moderate-income populations… the need is much greater than just refugees.”16 The city of Winooski has moderate density already, and any further urbanization should be planned to accommodate a growing population. The comprehensive housing report created by the city outlines the need to “ensure a mix of quality, affordable housing stock that maintains the character and aesthetics of our neighborhoods.” Other principles include “foster[ing] a mix of housing types to serve the needs of different family compositions, household types, and multi-generational needs,” protecting current residents from displacement, and “support[ing] sustainable growth, density, and creation of additional housing units.”17 In order to ensure benefit to refugees and other minority groups, it is essential to address the legacy of exclusion in cities and model a more inclusive approach.

History of Urban Exclusion Minority groups have often been excluded from urban success, and the story of the black population in the US demonstrates this. By exclusion, I refer to both the physical and systemic denial of the rights and opportunities of a particular group. As blacks moved to cities of the north during the Great Migration of the 20th century, whites left due to a combination of de-industrialization and discrimination. Within these

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economically declining urban spaces, a predatory agreement of lending “combined all the responsibilities of homeownership with all the disadvantages of renting - while offering the benefits of neither.” As a result, blacks accumulated debt under the white elite, and because the population was not educated, nor had the right to vote, they could not contest this and could be easily pushed off their land. As the process of contracts for ownership continued, further wealth was put in the pockets of whites.18 During the Great Depression in the 1930s, housing reforms sought to jumpstart the economy. As a part of the New Deal, the Home Owner’s Loan Corporation refinanced at risk mortgages to make home ownership more accessible, but did so selectively because of the perceived risk involved in loaning to poor blacks.19 Thus, certain neighborhoods were excluded from the benefits of these policies, leading to further decline, a pattern which stretched from the 1930s to the 1960s. This combination of economic inequality and segregation reinforced the advantages of those at the top while perpetuating the disadvantages of those on the bottom.20 While more closely tied with urban planning, this discrimination was certainly spatial and even architectural.

“Buildings and communities reflect and reinforce the nature of gender, race, and class relations in society. Architecture is a record of deeds done by those who have had the power to build.”21 Given these historical examples, it is essential to avoid excluding groups like refugees. Subsidies for rent and incentives for home ownership should be accessible to all members of the population. This inclusion is especially relevant because of current-day patterns of urban exclusion.

Home ownership has historically developed capital and affluence, but in the 21st century, sub-prime loans (bad mortgages) were often sold to minorities.22 This led minorities to lose a large portion of their wealth in the recession between 2007 and 2010.23 During this time period, the wealth of the average white family reduced by 11%, while black wealth declined by 31% and Hispanic wealth declined by a 44%.24 Other policies denied this pathway as well. Design strategies for refugees must connect with larger issues, and combat inequality throughout the community hosting the refugees.

This layered approach can benefit all groups, potentially resulting in a more successful integration of refugees.

Current Urban Displacement Cities exemplify the broader, growing inequality of the world. Research has shown that between 1977 and 1999, “the incomes of the top 20% of families rose by nearly 25% while those of the bottom 20% fell by 5%.”25 Globalization could have produced a flat world, an even playing field for all members of society. Yet the world is in fact “spiky.”

Surprisingly few locations matter in the context of the global economy, and these cities are continuing to rise higher as others fall or at least remain poor.26 There are several other key urban issues: the success of superstar cities leads to high housing prices; cities and metro areas are becoming more segregated as the middle class disappears from view; and the suburbs are growing in poverty as people leave cities and as middle class individuals fall into the lower class.27 This demonstrates the tendency of winnertake-all urbanism, where a “small group of elite places forges ever forward while many - if not most - others struggle, stagnate or fall behind.”28 These gaps push people out of

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their homes.

Gentrification describes this process of forcible displacement. Prosperity improves infrastructure and other characteristics of neighborhoods, but can do so in a more inclusive manner. “Generally speaking, gentrification describes a process in which a neighborhood gains wealth and sees its population become more affluent, whiter, and younger.�29 The new demographic displaces the working class, often through evictions.

For example, in Milwaukee, between 2009-2011, 1 in 8 renters experienced a forced move.30 Jane Jacobs, a prominent urban activist in New York City in the 1950s and 1960s, argued that for good and orderly public space, longevity of residence contributes to a sense of ownership.31 Eviction disrupts these consistent presences in both the sending and receiving neighborhoods.32 As certain groups are displaced, others who are in non-gentrifying areas decline further into poverty.

Theses dynamics are present in Vermont as well. By focusing development in Winooski, which has lower rents and home values, the wealth of Burlington can be spread out to is peripheries. Gentrification is not currently present in Winooski33 but the city has been monitoring the risk of gentrification and will continue to do so in order to avoid the displacement of lower-income residents. If minority groups are not included, they can be displaced, which would be detrimental to refugees who have already experienced forcible displacement within their lifetime.

Climate Displacement Climate is another large factor which displaces individuals. Climate-related events such as Hurricane Harvey in Houston, Texas,34 and the Camp Fire in Paradise, California,35 have already displaced large numbers of people. The threats of climate change are likely to continue to displace large populations, resulting in the need for more housing in the future.

1 in 8 Milwaukee Renters Experienced a Forced Move between 2009-2011

Reduction of Average Family Wealth by % 2007-2010

Source: Desmond, Evicted, 5.

Source: Desmond, Evicted, 125.

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Global Displacement of Refugees Displacement is perhaps the most extreme in the case of refugees. While refugees have historically been viewed as temporary and fleeting, their presence has been a recurring phenomenon which has been increasing in the past several decades.36 At the end of 2017, there were 68.5 million registered forcibly displaced persons worldwide, including 25.4 million refugees, 40 million internally displaced people, and 3.1 million asylum seekers.37 2.9 million more persons were forcibly displaced than the previous year,38 a 4.23% increase compared to a 1.12% increase in the global population.39 Yet on average, only 431,000 refugees return home annually.40 The current number of refugees (0.9% of the global population) is the largest since World War II (7.6% of the global population).

The number of affected countries has increased in the current era. While scholarship is often Eurocentric, there have been other large, forced migrant movements in the past, such as the partition of the Indian Subcontinent in 194741 and regimes and revolutions in Southeast Asian countries like Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos in 1975.42 Today, the predominant countries of origin for refugees are Syria: 6.3 million, Afghanistan: 2.6 million, and South Sudan: 2.4 million.43 This variety demonstrates the global scale of the refugee crisis. Yet increasingly, refugees come from and go to more locations across the world. Furthermore, reasons for flight are multifaceted and diverse.

Definition Defining the word refugee helps us understand their diversity and dignity. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (the UNHCR, the primary agency working with refugees), “a refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or violence. A refugee has a well founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group.”44 In my use of the phrase “refugee resettlement” throughout this paper, I refer to those individuals who have officially been granted refugee status through a formal legal procedure of the UNHCR, and granted lawful residence by a

Forcibly Displaced Persons

Population Rise %

Numbers in Millions. Source: “Refugee Statistics,” UNHCR.

Source: “Refugee Statistics,” UNHCR; “Global Population,” Worldometers; “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” UNHCR, 16.

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national government. There are some limitations to this definition, such as not including those displaced by climate change, but for now, this definition will be used as there may be benefits to more specific definitions. While classifying refugees within this group can help us to understand the problem, it is important to keep in mind that refugees have vastly different experiences and backgrounds. The very definition of a refugee has stigmatized this population.

Nationalism and Refugees In the last century, heightened state sovereignty and nationalism led to the creation of the term “refugee.” Before the late 19th century, borders were more open and no international mechanism for dealing with refugees or migrants existed. The conflict of World War I focused around state sovereignty, building from the growing argument of the 20s that a modern state should be ethnically homogeneous.45 This dismantled multi-ethnic empires.46 The idea of the refugee could only exist and become a defined problem because of the growing importance of national boundaries through the state system.47 The large numbers of displaced persons during the war also contributed to the perceived need to create international laws and processes for migration.48 From the start, refugees have been seen as a threat to national identity and state sovereignty.49 Ethnic homogeneity, on the other hand, demonstrates the control and power of a state.

This increased homogeneity was not a natural process, but an intentional procedure achieved through population displacement as a part of the war or, perhaps more disturbingly, in the immediate aftermath.

Following WWI, population transfer was undertaken in an effort to reduce conflict.50 In 1923, 1.22 million Greeks were forced from Asian Minor and 400,000 Turks were forced from Greece as a part of an exchange referred to as the Lausanne Experiment.51 Such ethnocentric positions and distinctions likely contributed to future problems like the ensuing genocide of Jews and other minority groups during the Nazi regime. World

Refugees as % of Global Population

Refugee Origin Countries

Source: “Global Population,” Worldometers; Gatrell, The Making of, 3; Depillis, “A Visual Guide”; Furman, “Population Growth.”

Numbers in Millions. Source: “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” UNHCR.

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War II increased the presence of refugees even further. WWI led to the displacement of an estimated 12 million refugees, but there were an estimated 175 million refugees as a result of WWII.52 Despite the efforts of the Nansen Passport, which sought to give refugees more freedom of migration, much of the movement of refugees in the post-war era was still based on ethnic and national identity through further population exchange.53 For instance, ethnic Germans were deported from Poland and Czechoslovakia.54 Leaders like Winston Churchill advocated for this demographic engineering as a means of “disentangling groups in order to create friendship between nations.”55 In the decades following the World Wars, states sought further control of their borders.56 This strict border policy formed through nationalism has continued to the present, hindering the freedom of movement of displaced persons.

Pathways after Displacement Out of this historical context we are better able to understand the current dynamics of displacement and how these differ from those of the past. The paths of contemporary forcibly displaced persons show the current challenges of creating a new home. After displacement, individuals and families may progress through a variety of pathways.

The various approaches to creating home will break down statistics from millions to individuals. This is not a linear path, and individual complexity and stories are not accounted for within these simplifications. Yet this progression will show the limitations of certain approaches and the importance of expanding refugee resettlement.

Local Integration through the Arrival Cities and Refugee Camps Whether fleeing within their own country as internally displaced persons (IDPs) or to a different country as asylum seekers or refugees, displaced persons are often attracted by the opportunities of a city. This movement is connected with the global story of rural to urban migration. Recent estimates show that half of the global population now lives in cities.57 Mixed with the movement of other migrants, forced migration is increasingly urban, with many IDPs relocating to cities.58 Journalist and author Doug Saunders uses the term “arrival city” to describe the dynamics of these urban environments driven by migrants in the developing world. The length of time that an individual desires to stay in an arrival city may vary, and these locations can act as turnstiles rather than endpoints.59 Arrival cities are a network, an entry mechanism, an urban establishment platform, a social mobility path.60 Refugees may join other migrants, benefitting from the livelihoods provided by the informal economy and self employment.61 This platform can give authorship to its participants through grassroots growth and may be a more attractive alternative than a refugee camp.

If a refugee has fled to a neighboring country, local integration describes the forward path toward residence and acceptance into the local community. Another approach to local integration is the refugee camp. In order to meet the immediate needs of large numbers of refugees without putting strain on the local population, the camp came to be the standard approach. Despite some persisting issues in this neighborhood, Bourj Hammoud, Lebanon, demonstrates the possibility of integration. Originally a camp of refugees, the area has become more dense and connected over the years.

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Bourj Hammoud Location - Beirut, Lebannon Area - .52 mile2 Population - 93,881 Density - 180,540 / mile2 Lebanese Population - 80.8% Syrian Population - 19.1%

This example shows an instance where a camp became enmeshed within an arrival city, and allowed local integration. Started as a camp of Armenian refugees during 1915-1923, it became a permanent settlement within Beirut in 1929 in efforts to approve poor conditions of the camp. There originally were separate camps, but over time these merged together. Wood ruts were eventually replaced by single story brick buildings, and these added more floors later. While segregation exists, it appears to be integrated in the urban fabric.

Source: “Bourj Hammoud Fact Sheet,” UNHCR, 6.

Source: Herz, From Camp to City, 52.

Historic image of city. Source: Herz, From Camp to City, 52.

Source: Google Earth.

Modern day city. Source: “Bourj Hammoud Fact Sheet,” UNHCR, 17.

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Hosting Countries

Image Source: “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” UNHCR, 5.

4.3% of Global Population

Data Source: “Countries in the world by population (2018),” Worldometers.

Issues with Integration Integration through the arrival city or the camp presents challenges. Integration can only occur after being granted asylum,62 which may be a long process, particularly in countries which host a high numbers of refugees. Of all current, global refugees, 31% are hosted in Turkey, Pakistan, and Uganda63 and 85% remain in low and middleincome countries.64 The strains on these communities can thus be intense. In the US and Europe, self-settlement has historically been the norm, while in developing countries, this approach is often resisted by the state.65 This is due to the high numbers of displaced persons and the existing economic and societal challenges of these developing nations, including limited housing. The success of the arrival city as a vehicle for integration is hard to evaluate, as density and informality often prevent displaced persons from receiving support66 and from even being tracked or recorded. A different set of issues seems to exist in camps, including stigmatization. In order to justify humanitarian aid dedicated to refugees, agencies tell a narrative of helplessness.67 Even more disturbing is that the very use of the camp is not a humanitarian tradition, but a “technique of control and oppression”68 that limits the freedom of refugees. Historically, food and other amenities in camps have been low quality. Caught in a state of limbo without the support of local governments or national organizations to further develop, the camp can become a location of prolonged poverty.

Increased Length of Displacement Refugees are increasingly being displaced for longer periods, one of the most significant distinguishing factors in the current era. Protracted refugee situations comprise one in four of the total refugee population.69 Defined as 25,000 or more refugees from the same nationality who have been five or more years in exile, one scholar found that the average length of these protracted refugee situations is 26 years.70 UNHCR estimates that “the average [duration] of major refugee situations… increased from nine years in 1993 to 17 years at the end of 2003.”71 The average duration of all refugee situations may now be as high as 20 years.72 The study of the Za’atari camp in Jordan shows the length that some families must live in these camps. Without a solution, or pathways for upward social mobility, conditions deteriorate over time, reducing the quality of life.73

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The Better Shelter The Better Shelter was formed by a partnership of UNHCR and IKEA. The unit is designed to be flat packed, making shipping more efficient and affordable. Assembly consists of the steel foundation, a roof with ventilation and solar panels, and walls with windows and a door. The modular structure can be assembled by four people in about four hours, and can have some customization. Designed with a lifespan of three years, the structure is a temporary structure. So far, 17,000 units have been delivered worldwide.

Source: Better Shelter.

Source: Better Shelter.

While voluntary repatriation, the right of all individuals to return to his or her country of citizenship, is usually viewed as the best result by governments and agencies, it is often not possible or desirable, especially to young refugees who are unfamiliar with home.74 In camps, refugees are not able to contribute as full members of society, but are rather outcast and remain burdens on local governments.

Refugee Temporary Shelters Temporary shelters can be functional, but only as a short-term fix. Camps are often in extreme climates, making the shelters unsafe and uncomfortable to live in. Studies of Za’atari show that the units get both too cold and too hot.75 For these and other reasons, UNHCR hopes to move away from the camp model, and a recent report states that “refugee camps ‘should be the exception’ for temporary emergencies.”76 The process modeled by agencies is to provide emergency shelters in the immediate aftermath, later replace these with temporary shelters which can be relocated and reused, and eventually create “progressive shelters” which are meant to be a permanent solution.77 However, this development may not occur, leading refugees to spend years in shelters meant only for short time spans. The increased length of displacement of refugees further demonstrates why integration through camps is not always a viable option.

Resettlement Resettlement is an alternative which offers benefits to refugees and more effectively utilizes the skills of architects. Currently, resettlement is rare: just 1% of the total refugee population, according to UNHCR estimates.78 Yet, resettlement can “reduce the risk of protracted stays and lessen refugees’ dependence on humanitarian aid.”79 The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF), recently developed by the UNHCR, documents the need to ease pressure on receiving/hosting countries (of first arrival) and to expand opportunities for resettlement in third countries.80 The CRRF puts “an emphasis on building resilience and self-reliance, by connecting refugees to opportunities and fostering their inclusion in host societies.”81 Opportunities for resettlement can foster the dignity of refugees while also benefiting the host community. “When refugees gain access to education and labor markets, they can

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build their skills and become self reliant, contributing to the local economies and fueling the development of the communities hosting them.”82 A large goal of Vermont’s resettlement program is for refugees to become self-sufficient quickly and become part of the local economy.83 When refugees develop self-sufficiency, they contribute to Vermont’s population growth, economic growth, and diversification. Despite these benefits, there are large obstacles to resettlement at the national level.

National Exclusion of Refugees As the case for resettlement has grown, the US has reduced support of its implementation. As of 2014, the US, Canada, and Australia have provided 90% of the global refugee capacity.84 In keeping with its historically large role, the US government planned to admit 110,000 refugees over the course of 2017, largely in response to the Syrian crisis,85 but refugee admission into the US has declined since reaching 84,994 in 2016. In 2017, US refugee admission was 53,716,86 and if the US reaches its 45,000 cap in 2018, it will have decreased refugee admissions by a further 16%. This number is a stark contrast to the 4.23% increase in the total number of forcibly displaced persons globally. The US refugee admission report shows that as of September 30, 2018, there have only been 22,491 refugees resettled in the country.87 This is the result of increased fear of refugees, along with other trends such as the expulsion of migrants.88 For instance, Temporary Protected Status (TPS) persons are individuals granted sanctuary until a conflict ends or a community recovers from a natural disaster.89 Based on recent governmental policies, by 2020, more than 400,000 TPS persons will become unauthorized immigrants in the United States, representing 90% of the total TPS population in the country.90 Heightened security of the US- Mexico border further demonstrates the attempts of the state to bolster its national identity through exclusion.

This is part of a global movement of many nations away from resettlement, even as the number of refugees grows. There was a 46% decrease in the number of

Refugee Arrivals to US 1975 - 2018 Region of Origin for US Arrivals

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Source: “Cumulative Summary of Refugee Admissions,” Refugee Processing Center.

Za’atari Camp Location - Jordan Area - 2 mile2 Population - 78,552 refugees Density - 39,276 / mile2 Syrian Population - 100% (est)

The camp began with temporary tents, but has transitioned in some areas to a more urban settlement. Just 10,000 of the residents have work permits, but vibrant trade persists through an informal market. A PV array was built to supply power to residents as well (UNHCR). Studies show that 70% of residents have built an extension or enclosed space between units, demonstrating a need to expand. (Albadra, 126) Some authors argue that this involvement of refugees in construction is therapeutic (Albadra, 124).

Source: Reliefweb, “Za’atari Refugee Camp February Factsheet.”

Source: “Zatari Camp Fact Sheet,” UNHCR, 1; Albadra, “Toward Healthy Housing for the Displaced,” 124-126.

Source: US Department of State, Flickr.

Source: Google Earth.

Source: “Life in Za’atari refugee camp, Jordan’s fourth biggest city,” Oxfam International.

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forcibly displaced persons who have been resettled in third countries from 189,300 in 2016 to 102,800 in 2017.91 Yet, the US has remained the biggest monetary donor to the UNHCR, the government giving $1,450,360,238 and the private sector giving $39,463,883.92 This suggests a stance which recognizes that refugees should be helped, but just by someone else. A similar mindset can be seen in many other countries. What this stance fails to consider is that refugees will inevitably be in someone’s backyard, and, as has been demonstrated through the discussion of global statistics and trends, many lower-income countries are already under tremendous strain from displaced persons and other issues. To the degree that ethnic nationalism is part of this recent reduction of support for resettlement, the larger history of racism in the US and some of the contemporary identity politics are relevant contexts.

History of Racism Similar to displacement in the nation building of the World Wars, racism has been used to bolster the national identity of the US. The founders of the country were white male Anglo-Saxon Protestants, and this group has utilized systems of oppression to hold on to its power. Systemically labeling and denying certain groups the rights and privileges offered to other citizens continues to heighten the identity and power of this in-group.

Howard Zinn explores this American story of white suppression, such as the genocide of Native Americans, the enslavement of Africans, and the imprisonment of Japanese Americans in internment camps during World War II.93 In the 1920s, protestant leaders felt threatened by the Catholic Church and Irish, Italian, and Eastern European immigrants and felt they were debasing society.94 Racism against other groups existed in the 20s as well, such as Chinese people, who were barred from immigration during the Chinese Exclusion Act.95 The variation in groups which are discriminated against, and the way that some of these groups have been more widely accepted into society, shows that race is a social construct. I address the heaviness of this past to make one point: while the United States is a country of refugees and immigrants, there has always been reluctance to accept certain groups. Identity politics are by no means a new phenomenon, but are the residue of a legacy of oppression. Similar to these other stories of exclusion, hostility against refugees is one such iteration of oppression.

Refugees and locals are different, but exclusion heightens differences. As one author writes, people perceive the world differently based on their language and culture, which “leads to differential definitions of what constitutes crowded living, different interpersonal relations, and a different approach to both local and international politics.�96 These differences can lead a local group to feel threatened. Responding to and acting on this fear only increases the level of animosity between groups. Maintaining stereotypes about a certain group is one aspect of this hostility. One such stereotype is that refugees are a threat to public safety. Concerns of safety are valid, but refugee resettlement is a complex process with sufficient background checks. After 9/11, the resettlement program was frozen for two months, and over the course of that year only 30,000 refugees were admitted.97 Refugees go through extensive screening processes and procedures to be approved for resettlement (which will be explored further in Chapter 3). However, generating more fear around all refugees makes

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integration more challenging and may increase the likelihood of conflict. “When people feel hopelessly stigmatized, a powerful coping strategy—often the only apparent route to self esteem—is embracing one’s stigmatized identity.”98 If refugees are constantly labeled as a threat, they may, unfortunately, act out of that same fear. Rather than focusing time, energy, and resources on excluding people, it is much more fruitful to find ways to mutually benefit from the opportunity of resettlement. “Refugees should be included in communities from the very beginning.”99 This will lead to a greater level of discussion and collaboration among different people. Person-to-person contact builds understanding and respect of difference. Facilitating conversation and shared experiences among lower-income locals and refugees is important due to another aspect of racism in the US. Historically, lower-income people have been targeted and split into separate groups by elites in order to maintain their power. In the nation building years of the United States, Nathaniel Bacon led a group of slaves (black) and indentured servants (white) in a rebellion against the white elites, seeking to torch Jamestown in 1676. However, differentiated treatment of the two groups in the aftermath of the conflict divided them by creating animosity and hostility, therefore preserving the power of the elite100 by reducing the power of the lowest class. Historically, this process has continued, as the government has created division between lower-income whites and blacks in order to lesson the threat against white elites.101 These dynamics bare a striking resemblance to the 2016 election. Refugees and other minorities largely do not threaten locals, but some of those in power told this lie to the lower-income white population. The argument that refugees and immigrants take jobs creates tension rather than addresses the failure of the free market to adjust to societal changes fairly. Furthermore, this kind of stereotype makes integration harder. Through the collaboration of all groups, refugee resettlement can create jobs and add community benefit to build a stronger, more equitable, and more resilient society.

2018 US Arrivals by Country of Origin

Source: “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” Refugee Processing Center.

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2018 Vermont Arrivals

Source: Refugee Processing Center, “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” October 1, 2017 - September 30, 2018.

The Architect’s Role In response to the needs of refugees, architects have invested time in developing a high level of detail and beauty in tents and temporary shelters, but many have argued that they have effectively been designing within a broken system. A similar discussion has emerged in the design of jails and detention facilities within the US, since it is the system and not the physical structure that needs to be redesigned. “The quality of design for a prison or jail is of secondary importance when the people inside are unjustly incarcerated in the first place.”102 Camps are not a viable option and designers should instead explore ways of integrating refugees in existing neighborhoods. As Killian Kleinschmidt, a former UNHCR official and former director of the Za’atari refugee camp, says, “Don’t design yet another shelter for refugees… They’re not a species. So, there is no need for… architecture for refugees.”103 These approaches should benefit the entire community so that refugees are not further stigmatized.

While I believe in the power of architecture to shape social interactions, architecture on its own cannot be a conclusion. As Lefebvre writes, architecture is not powerful, social life is.104 Rather, the work of architects and designers must be placed within the context of and work alongside the many other approaches to creating homes for those who have been displaced. Architects are not solely responsible for this issue; we are all responsible and must work together. My response will be a hypothesis, an idea to be tested on how we might better integrate refugees within small cities of Vermont through participatory architecture. The process of developing this hypothesis expands the typical discussion of refugees by linking it to many other issues and fields. “At the core of creating regenerative cultures is an invitation to live the questions together.”105 Without diminishing the weight of this challenge, recognizing our coexistence and interdependence can help us to be more content with the small contributions that we can make. It avoids answering the wrong questions well. This can lead to a shift in our approach to change-making, where instead of attempting to solve the problem of the “refugee crisis” we can instead take the opportunity to create homes with, not housing for, refugees.

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Chapter 3: Resettlement The Strength of Diversity Planning for the integration of refugees can capitalize on their skills and stories, generating a vibrant and rich community. Principles of the regenerative design movement can be important for approaching this diversity. The regenerative design movement seeks to go further than just sustaining life by adding value to ecological and social systems. One of the key philosophies is inter-being, which argues that we are all part of an interconnected whole. One example is a piece of paper and the sun. The sun provides energy to trees which helps their growth. Once they grow, they can be harvested and manufactured into paper. So, while appearing very separate, the paper is only made possible by the sun, and thus the two elements inter-are. When applying this mindset to humanity, it “allows us to value a wide diversity of perspectives while unifying us with our larger identity as humanity and life.”106 This unity does not mean uniformity, as individual identities can only flourish when interconnected with others.

Diversity has long been a strength of the US. New people and ideas have constantly contributed to the culture and economy of the nation. American cities have developed economic power through creative talents and innovators attracted by openness for ideas.107 Since diversity is a strength of our nation, it should not be abandoned in an attempt to create unity. New ideas and experiences can broaden our perspectives on life and work, creating value for the entire country. Especially in small cities, refugees can help contribute to the growth of population, diversity, and economy.

Why Small US Cities Recent trends show the need to focus on resettlement in small US cities. First, the UNHCR has been seeking to prioritize resettlement and is pursuing how to provide more support to host communities, and such support is needed in small communities.108 Second, the resettlement pattern within the United States has already shifted away from major cities. Historically, refugees have clustered in urban areas due to the available opportunities and services. Of the three million refugees who have entered the country since 1980, 95% of these have settled in cities and suburbs of cities.109 In the present day, refugee resettlement is “proportionately much higher in so-called ‘non-traditional’ immigrant destination states such as Vermont, Idaho, and North Dakota.”110 Between 2012 and 2016, the approved settlement capacity of New York City was 0.02% of the total population.111 Conversely, Chittenden County in Vermont had an approved settlement capacity which, while not numerically higher, amounts to 1%

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of the population.112 Third, urban centers are growing in wealth as other areas decline.

Through proper planning, refugees can boost the growth of the peripheral areas.

Process of Resettlement in Vermont This process of resettlement is a complex reality. First and foremost, a refugee is granted asylum by a receiving country through a legal process involving various agencies and procedures. Resettlement is only open to those meeting UNHCR’s definition of a refugee. The UNHCR first identifies individual candidates for resettlement and then submits individual cases to the US Department of State, which reviews and determines which cases are eligible. The United States Committee for Refugee and Immigrants (USCRI) is a voluntary agency (Volag), a national nonprofit resettlement organization that contracts with the federal government to provide resettlement services. The USCRI is the only such organization in Vermont. Currently, many Vermont politicians are in support of resettlement,113 which is helping to advance the process. Public support of resettlement is evident as well. Polls conducted in 2015-2018 by the Center for Rural Studies show that only 10% of those surveyed do not support resettling any refugees.114 The Vermont field office of the USCRI, the Vermont Refugee Resettlement Program (VRRP) holds meetings at least quarterly with local stakeholders about resettlement services and capacity. Each spring, the National office of the USCRI applies to the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration to resettle a certain number of refugees nationwide, with a specific number resettled at each field office. The Department of State then approves site locations and numbers as proposed by the Volag. While Volags determine capacity, the President then makes a determination of the maximum number of refugees allowed into the US per fiscal year,115 45,000 in 2018. This number may be significantly smaller than the number proposed by the Volag. The VRRP reviews the general information of cases before the refugees arrival. Several months after, a travel itinerary is issued, and about two weeks after that the family arrives.116 The refugees are provided housing and support by the VRRP, and other stakeholders (like the State Refugee Coordinator) assist in the process. The website of Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities has more detailed information and graphics explaining this process, but this outline should demonstrate the rigor of this process.117 Overview of Refugees in Vermont The decreased number of refugees in Vermont can be an opportunity to develop effective approaches to resettlement. The state has only accepted 133 refugees this year as of September 30, which is 0.59% of the total refugee population in the US.118 Yet, Vermont is only approximately 0.19% of the total US population119 showing a greater concentration of refugees in Vermont. In comparison, Texas has the largest number of refugees so far in 2018 at 1,697, which is 7.55% of the total refugee population of the US. Yet Texas represents 8.75% of the total US population.120 The program in the country and in Vermont is shrinking due to current governmental policies. Decrease in refugee numbers can lead agencies like VRRP to have a more difficult time serving clients121 since organizations are typically funded based on the number of refugees. Yet, a small number of refugees can be seen as an opportunity to test a comprehensive program which can benefit all refugees in the state. If refugee status extends to more individuals,

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numbers will increase in future years. Planning for the potential of future refugees can better prepare communities, making them more resilient. The sections below describe three specific benefits that resettlement could bring to the state of Vermont: population growth, increased diversity, and economic growth.

Population Growth in VT Refugee resettlement is one approach to stabilizing the population decline of Vermont.

According to the governor’s office, over the past several years there have been six fewer people in the workforce and three fewer children in K-12 schools every day.122 The state has already initiated numerous policies in an attempt to attract new businesses and residents123 to boost the population. One incentive program offers as much as $10,000 to attract people to relocate to Vermont and work remotely.124 The state recognizes immigration as a new source to revitalize the workforce as the population of Vermont ages.125 Comparing the density of the state to other locations shows that there is room for growth, even in existing urban areas.

Overall, Vermont land area is 9,216.66 square miles.126 Based on the population of 623,657, there are 67.6 persons per square mile.127 Even Burlington, the most populous city in Vermont at 42,260 people128 over 10.31 square miles, has a density of 4,099 per square mile. While it is not the goal to emulate the 27,000-people-per-squaremile density of New York City, Vermont clearly has available geographical space. In comparison, refugee camps and emerging countries often do not have room for growth.

If the entire population of the Za’atari Camp in Jordan, 78,552 persons, resettled in Vermont, the population would increase to 702,209 but the density would only increase to 76 per square mile. If this same population were to relocate exclusively in Burlington, density in the city would increase to 11,718. These numbers should suggest that the land area of Vermont can be better utilized.

Population Growth in VT Approved Resettlement Capacity as % of Population

Vermont Population 1850 - 2018

Source: Bose, “Refugee Resettlement Trends in the Northeast.”

Source: “Vermont Population 2018,” World Population Review.

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Increased Diversity in VT Arrivals as % of US Arrivals

Arrivals as % of State Population

Source: “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” Refugee Processing Center, October 1, 2017 - September 30, 2018.

Source: “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” Refugee Processing Center, October 1, 2017 - September 30, 2018.

Approved Settlement as % of Foreign Born Population in City VT

U.S.

Winooski

Source: “RRSC: Where are Refugees Being Resettled,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities.

Source: “U.S. QuickFacts,” United States Census Bureau; “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates,” American Fact Finder; “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates,” American Fact Finder, Winooski.

Increased Diversity in VT Refugees bring diverse cultures and perspectives which can benefit the community.

With a 93.4% white population,129 Vermont is largely homogeneous. Just 4.4% of the population of Vermont is foreign-born.130 Furthermore, about 50% of the foreign-born nationals in Vermont are from Europe or Canada, representing a more ethnically and culturally homogeneous population, while the percentage of foreign-born nationals from these locations nationally is 14%.131 Homogeneity can be a part of building identity, but limits our opportunity to learn from others and grow. Without diversity brought from traditional immigration, refugee resettlement has become a larger factor in diversifying the state. Between 2009-2015, the foreign-born population (both refugees and other immigrants) of Chittenden County increased by 34.7% compared to a population increase of 5.5%.132 In Chittenden County, refugees make up 13% of the foreign-born population. For comparison, refugees settling in New York City represent just 0.05%

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of the foreign-born population,133 and the approved resettlement capacity of Boston is just 0.88% of the foreign-born population.134 This is a trend throughout the northeast: a significant percentage of the foreign-born population in small cities are refugees.135 Resettling refugees can provide other benefits. Integrating diversity in small cities should be done in a way that attracts other citizens and produces economic growth.

Economic Growth in VT Refugees bring a wide range of skills and knowledge to contribute to the local and global economy. The economic impact of refugees comprises two parts. One part is based on employment, the businesses they are involved in and the jobs they can create. The Vermont unemployment rate of 4% is on par with the national average, but the state can benefit from economic growth as the Vermont gross state product is the lowest in the US, at $31 billion.136 The state already recognizes immigration as a new source of the workforce.137 By being more inclusive, talent can be attracted, from refugees and immigrants, and new economic fields can be developed. The other economic component of refugees is spending power towards purchases and services.

Money earned by refugees contributes to a variety of areas. Refugees are involved in global economies, as families often send money to their home countries, which can produce growth in impoverished areas.138 On a national level, refugees contribute through taxes and purchases. US refugees had $56.3 billion in spending power in 2015139 of the total national spending power of $13.9 trillion.140 This number is low proportionately, since the approximate accumulated refugee population is 0.76% of the US population,141 and their spending power is just 0.4% of the total spending power.142 This pattern is similar to other minority groups. For instance, Hispanics comprise 18.1% of the US population,143 but only make up 10% of the spending power.144 The black population is 13.4% of the national total145 but just 8.6% of the national spending power.146 Refugees may not have a proportionately higher spending power than other groups, but they do contribute to the both the national and local economy.

Chittenden County has already benefited from immigration and resettlement. Between 2009-2015, foreign-born residents contributed $90.3 million to federal, state, and local taxes, and this population had $168 million in spending power.147 This makes up 6.1% of the county spending power, which is still low when compared to the ratio of the population, as immigrants make up 8.6% of the area’s working population. Foreign-born nationals in the county are over represented in manufacturing (13.7%) and education/ health care (10.6%), and 282 immigrants own their own businesses.148 Chittenden County has demonstrated how New Americans are already integrated in the economy as employees, consumers, homeowners, renters, business owners, investors, and tax payers.149 Within this population, refugees have and will continue to boost the economy of Vermont, since refugees make up a large percentage of foreign-born nationals.

Economic Shifts On a national and global scale, resettlement can generate new jobs and economic fields, capitalizing on current economic trends. Regenerative economic systems can be

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developed through the mixing of diverse ideas and knowledge made possible through resettlement. The circular economy recognizes that there are varied forms of capital: social, material, financial, living, intellectual, experiential, spiritual, and cultural.150 Economies need multiple types of capital, such as human capital (labor and intelligence, culture and organization); financial capital (cash investments and monetary instruments); manufactured capital (infrastructure, machines, tools, and factories); and natural capital (resources, living systems, ecosystem services).151 While refugees may lack certain forms of capital, like financial or material capital, they can provide knowledge, culture, and skills which contribute to a larger economic system.

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Chapter 4: Home Important Needs of Refugees Housing, education, and work are particularly important for the refugee population.

Services such as employment counseling, cultural orientation, interpretation and translation, and English language training help refugees achieve self-sufficiency through early employment, the main goal of the VRRP. There are clear examples of successful integration, but the example of Rutland, described below, demonstrates how these needs can generate tensions in local governments and communities. Not all refugees will be highly skilled or qualified individuals, and upward social mobility will be more difficult.

Because of trauma, language barriers, or other challenges, some people may not be able to fully contribute to the economy and culture. Yet it is still worthwhile and necessary to recognize these members of the refugee population. Certain characteristics of Vermont limit the capacity for resettlement as well. “High cost of housing, shortage of childcare, transportation, and not enough cultural adapted mental health services�152 are all issues.

It can be challenging to make services culturally and linguistically sensitive,153 which creates a large barrier to events and information sharing.154 As a designer, I want to acknowledge the gaps in these services, and pose a hypothesis of how architecture might be of value, keeping in mind that the architectural strategies must also be linked to these other issues.

Housing Housing is an essential need for all individuals, and given the strength of other services offered by VRRP and other groups, I will focus on providing affordable homes. Currently, there are various housing options for the refugee population. Expanding choices of affordable homes helps locals remain in their hometowns while providing a new home for refugees.

Winooski As mentioned earlier, Winooski is diverse and has a mutually beneficial model of resettlement. My work will capitalize on this success, as well as other strengths of the city such as the availability of affordable housing, employment, and transit. Additionally, I selected a small city, just outside of Burlington in order to prioritize the growth of all areas and challenge the inequality in larger cities. While Winooski is affordable, the city still faces several challenges. The median household income of $49,596 is less than the county average, and rent and household value is also lower. 26% of the population of Winooski is below the poverty line.155 The high school drop out rate is 8.6%, compared

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Winooski - Vermont - USA Date - 1922 Area - 1.43 mile2

915.2 acres Population - 7,237 Density - 5,060 / mile2

7.9 / acre Source: “Winooski,” City Data; “Winooski Community Facts,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives.

Median Home Value

Median Gross Rent

Sources: “Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski; “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report.

to a 2.5% state average.156 The city has the opportunity for inclusive growth, building on the strengths of diversity while retaining affordability.

While a small Vermont city with a declining population and economy and lower levels of density, such as Rutland, could benefit the most from growth, there are challenges to these locations. They have largely been unsuccessful for resettlement in current years, and there is reluctance by the VRRP to resettle refugees outside the Burlington area due to minimal resources. Several years ago, a program was started in Rutland, proposing to resettle 100 Syrians to boost the economy of the town. However, local citizens were concerned about assimilation and criticized the perceived lack of transparency. Before being able to work through the issues, the process was halted after just three Syrian families were resettled due to Executive Order 13769, “Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States,” which banned those from Syria and several other Muslim nations from entering the country.157 It is possible that without the executive order, the differences in the community could have been resolved.

Resettlement in small declining cities has worked in other parts of the US and can be pursued as an option. Yet there are clear challenges, such as lack of resources to support a refuge population. Furthermore, the story of Rutland shows that extensive community involvement and support must be garnered in order to achieve success.

Without the capacity to conduct on-the-ground research and interaction, developing a proposal for resettlement in a city like Rutland would inevitably be an imposed vision on the community. Rather than attempting this, I selected a community with existing success in resettlement.

Home Apartment Rental Home apartments, which I classify as one-unit and two-unit rental structures, are common for resettlement. The VRRP locates, furnishes, and prepares initial housing from the open market. Given the lack of income, credit, and a SSN, landlords with smaller buildings are usually need as they are more likely to accept a tenant without a lease. The typology makes up 21% of the housing stock of Winooski,158 demonstrating the availability of this option. Another 33% of the housing stock is made up of one-unit and two-unit owner-occupied properties,159 showing further potential for renting space

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for refugees and others in need of housing through creating accessory dwelling units.

As refugees become established and seek to enter the job market during the first year, they typically remain in their initial housing, with VRRP assisting in the cost of rent.160 Based on the 2016 American Community Survey, the median gross rent in Winooski is $1,027, which is 10% lower than Chittenden County and 5.6% lower than Burlington,161 making Winooski a more affordable alternative. The home apartment is an important but perhaps transitional solution as residents build capital. As support from VRRP decreases, refugees may move to another housing option which the family can pay for on their own.

Affordable Housing Affordable Housing can be sought out by refugees as a cost-viable option. Affordable housing (lowercase), simply means housing which is affordable, a measurement which varies based on income, but Affordable Housing (uppercase) is a housing system subsidized by the government, providing additional support for low-income families.

Tools like Low Income Housing Tax Credits can be used to help finance the construction of these projects and several Affordable Housing units are typically set aside for families that make 80% or below the area median income (AMI). Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers allow residents to pay a maximum of 30% of their income on rent, and the federal government pays the remainder. A benefit to selecting Vermont for resettlement is its policy of permanent affordability: covenants signed by developers prevent rent increase for 99 years.

Winooski has a large amount of this Affordable Housing. While Winooski has just 5% of the housing stock of Chittenden County, it has 14% of the Affordable rentals. Winooski actually has the highest per capita rate of government subsidized housing units in the state, at 687 units.162 This means that 84% of the rental stock of Winooski is affordable to families who make under 80% of the AMI.163 Of the rental units, 54% are incomerestricted to under 80% AMI, 30% are market rate affordable to under 80% AMI, 6% are between 80-120% AMI, and 10% are over 120% AMI. Since refugee status is legal, permanent residency, refugees can apply for this subsidized housing immediately.

Local nonprofit developers like Champlain Housing Trust already house a large percentage of New Americans.164 Unfortunately, the waiting list for these units is often long.165 For example, Cathedral Square, another local nonprofit developer, has a waiting list of 800, making the wait between two and three years.166 These barriers make it challenging for refugee families to get into these units. A project in planning in Winooski, Casavant Overlook, has some affordable units set aside for those who are homeless or at risk of homelessness, and a similar procedure could dedicate some units to refugees.

However, there are some concerns with this approach connected to housing fairness, as it may not be allowed to set aside units based on nationality.167 Given these difficulties, small modular homes may be an alternative.

Modular Homes Social housing may seek to compensate for cost barriers through smaller scale

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alternative housing approaches like modular homes. The Zero Energy Modular (ZEM) initiative, supported by VERMOD and Efficiency Vermont, prevents the need for finding land168 as the micro units can be placed on small plots, such as within a mobile home park. The ZEM program began to provide zero energy, durable, high efficient homes to those who need it most.169 These features are important because of the harsh climate in Vermont and the need for more efficient buildings to address climate change. So far, 100 homes have been built of various sizes and income brackets, and several incentive programs support the expansion of this approach in Vermont, such as through the USDA and Champlain Housing Trust.170 Typically, the units are sold directly to residents.

One of the strengths of the ZEM is that unlike other small social housing approaches like mobile or manufactured homes, it actually appreciates in value. These modular units are less expensive due to their small scale, but limited budgets may still pose an obstacle to refugees early on in their resettlement process. Additionally, the unit does not support growth, as attempts to add on to the highly insulated shell will cause thermal breaks and air gaps, reducing the performance of the unit and increasing energy costs.

The ability to expand is especially important because New American families often tend to be larger than local families. This shows that a micro housing option is likely not preferable for refugees. Also, modular homes may resemble tents and other temporary shelters typically associated with refugee housing, which will be a psychological barrier towards this approach. Additionally, the modular home is a barrier to generating wealth.

Other forms of home ownership may be a stronger alternative, and will better allow refugees to build capital.

Home Ownership Home ownership can be a viable option for refugees. Access to home ownership allows the building up of wealth,171 as traditional houses will appreciate in value over time. The city of Winooski has identified the need to expand homeownership, particularly among the non-white population.172 This is due in part to the an imbalance of owner vs renter units, as 58% of units are renter and 42% are owner.173 Furthermore, there is racial inequality in homeownership. In Chittenden County, 67% of whites are homeowners, while 49% of Asians are homeowners and just 21% of blacks are homeowners.174 Yet, New Americans seem to be challenging this disparity, and have often become homeowners, and even landlords.175 Most strikingly, there is actually a large number of families who have become homeowners within their first five years in the US.176 New American families have bought homes in the same neighborhood in order to be in close proximity and in other cases have pooled money together.

Most Community Development Corporations (CDCs) have some component geared towards home ownership through education and funding, which can be leveraged for refugees. The median home value of Winooski is $223,700, and the city actually has the smallest percentage of owner-occupied one-unit detached and attached housing in the county,177 limiting the availability of affordable home ownership. 60% of the housing stock was built before 1980, and while these homes may be cheaper, they can often have toxic materials like lead and poor insulation.178 Additionally, as mentioned

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before, refugee families are often larger than contemporary American families. Recent construction in Chittenden does tend to be larger, with an average size of 2,098 ft2 and an average bedroom count of three.179 Yet the cost of these new homes using a traditional contractor built approach is significantly higher than the median home value of Winooski, reaching an average sale price of $348,587 for a three bedroom house.

Trends within the county show a tendency towards multi-unit projects as well. The record of building permits in 2017 in Chittenden County reveal that 232 single family units were constructed, while 463 units were constructed in multifamily buildings.180 Like other approaches, these complications make home ownership challenging to implement for refugees.

Limitations of Existing Housing Options Existing housing options for refugees are limited. Home apartments are an important landing point for refugees, and the availability in Winooski can lead to upward social mobility. In larger rental projects, tenant selection often depends on landlord references and credit checks, which can affect the refugee population181 and complicate finding housing. Long waiting lists can keep refugees from being accepted into Affordable Housing units. Modular homes are low density and limit future growth. Detached, single homes are inefficient in land use, and as a result would likely be built in underserved peripheries, displacing poor families from opportunities.182 Investing in a home has greater potential, as there is greater ability to increase the value of a house and build capital. However, with limited finances home ownership may be out of reach for refugees as a resettlement strategy.

Rather than attempting to replace these diverse options by synthesizing them into one new model, I will address these gaps and propose housing which can work alongside these existing choices. This also comes out of a response to the tendency to attempt to solve social issues through one mega plan/project that tries to fix everything. Instead, it is helpful to recognize that meaningful change happens at a much more micro scale and in incremental steps. Before attempting to do so, the larger housing context should be considered at both a local and national scale. Principles from both failed and successful models, and existing housing needs, can inform an approach to housing which would not just benefit refugees but the broader population.

From Housing to Home The process of providing affordable homes has moved towards greater inclusivity. Early Affordable Housing in the US focused on function: sun, light, ventilation, and safety.183 Combined with standardization, usually driven by cost, this stripped functionalism led to further problems by not considering other less measurable needs. Spartan projects and towers in parks proliferated in the 1940s and 1950s184 and many of these projects were demolished only decades later during the renewal of the 1950s and 1960s.185 For example, the Pruitt-Igoe Towers in St Louis were abandoned and destroyed only 18 years after their completion186 due in part to mismanagement of funding and other complications, but I would argue largely because of the massive scale of the project.

The 1960s and 1970s saw shifts to low-rise and low-to-medium density, with Jane Jacobs

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1-2 Unit Rental

Modular Owner

Area - 1,025 ft2 (est) Density - 205 ft2 / Person Amount of Units - 1-2 Monthly Cost to Resident $1,027 rent Percent of VT Stock - 9.7% Percent of Winooski Stock - 21%

Area - 500 ft2 Density - 100 ft2 / Person Amount of Units - 1 Monthly Cost to Resident - $427 mortgage Percent of VT Stock - 7% Percent of Winooski Stock - 0%

Source: Vermont Housing Data; “Winooski Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Vermont Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau.

Source: Vermont Housing Data; “Winooski Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Vermont Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; PV Habitat.

% Winooski Housing 0

100

Monthly Cost $

$$

Site .32 Acres

Better Shelter

Sources: “Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski; “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report.

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20+ Unit Rental

1-2 Unit Owner

Area - 958 ft2 (est) Density - 191.6 ft2 / Person Amount of Units - 20+ Monthly Cost to Resident $1,000 Rent (est max) Percent of VT Stock - 4.1% Percent of Winooski Stock - 21%

Area - 2,000 ft2 (est) Density - 400 ft2 / Person Amount of Units - 1-2 Monthly Cost to Resident $1,533 mortgage (est) Percent of VT Stock - 70.6% Percent of Winooski Stock - 42%

Source: Vermont Housing Data; “Winooski Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Vermont Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau.

Source: Vermont Housing Data; “Winooski Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Vermont Housing,” U.S. Census Bureau; “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report.

Vermont Housing Stock by Units

Source: “Residential Building Type by Tenure,” Vermont Housing Data.

Winooski Housing Stock by Units

Source: “Residential Building Type by Tenure,” Vermont Housing Data.

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as a key figure of this movement.187 Mixed-use districts, short blocks, varied buildings in age, and density are the four conditions that Jacobs outlined for better cities,188 and her support helped rediscover these practices. Benefits of this strategy include better integration, and the ability to meet needs beyond housing, such as economy and education.

While moving towards more human-scaled projects, this process in public housing slowed soon after. In 1973, Nixon suspended subsidies and replaced them with housing vouchers.189 State and local programs like CDCs emerged as federal agencies shrunk.

These groups produce Affordable Housing, and profits from the subsidized collection of rents are used by the CDC to create further development. In Vermont, there are several hundred Affordable units built per year.190 These groups have moved toward a mixed-use and mixed-income model. The diversity of mixed-use approaches can revitalize communities and attract new residents and economic activities. While this model is beneficial, this production falls short of the needed amount. As of 2010, 1 in 5 of all American renting families spend half of their income on housing.191 Yet, the Department of Housing and Urban Development states that individuals should spend just 30% of their income on housing. Affordable homes must be widely expanded so as to be made accessible to all members of society.

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39

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Chapter 5: My Response My Response Refugee resettlement is an opportunity to create more affordable homes. For refugees, a gap exists between initial housing, when the VRRP reduces its support after roughly one year, and when refugees establish a strong cultural and financial base which would support market rate rents or home ownership. The city of Winooski has a deficit in both moderate income housing and homeownership, and a recent Housing Needs Assessment set a primary goal of expanding moderate income, 80-120% AMI, rental units within the city. In order to adequately include all people, there are several key theories which are important. After outlining the principles of each, I will explain how I hope to incorporate these ideas into a more specific description of my design response.

Housing Precedents Analyzing precedents demonstrates the relevance of incremental housing. (Further detail of these precedents, as well as some additional case studies, are included in Chapter 6.) Perhaps the most significant example is the housing projects of the firm Elemental, which is particularly focused in cities within the developing world. This participatory approach views housing as an investment, a loan which can build capital, rather than as an expense.192 This concept could be utilized to provide a system which would allow ownership and future growth by refugees. Also, since our definition of home varies, a participatory model can allow refugees to generate their own space of belonging. It is worth noting that this process of incremental housing is very much a part of the DNA of Vermont, as many owners have built their homes in this fashion.

Even today, a licensed design professional is not needed for the construction of a house.

However, not all individuals, both locals and refugees, may have the ability and time to contribute to the actual construction of their spaces. One of the key elements of Elemental’s work is that it accommodates growth and change over time. The movement of loose-fit architecture, explored by publications like AD,193 focuses on how space can continually be changed and adapted.

Co-housing has some room for this modification through co-ownership and the combination of individual homes with shared spaces and amenities. This model could be helpful in fostering community for refugees and delivering a cost-effective strategy.

Spreefeld in Berlin integrates co-housing with traditional apartments, as well as with shared terraces, commercial space, and option spaces, which can be adapted to the needs of the residents. In this model, the residents are the owners of the project, acting

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Violet Para Housing Complex Location - Chile Date - 2004 Designer - Elemental Area of Initial Home - 387 ft2 Area of Complete Home - 775 ft2 Area of Site - 61,591 ft2 Density - 163ft2 / person Source: Aravena, Elemental, 82.

Floor plan. Source: Aravena, Elemental, 113.

Initial structure. Source: “Half a House,� 99% Invisible Podcast.

After resident modification. Source: Aravena, Elemental, 155.

as the developers in the design and construction phases, and maintaining ownership and control of the project. Bright St Co-op in Brattleboro adapt the principles of mixed use to Vermont.

Other precedents explore mixed homes and gradients of public and private space, allowing for community and individual identity. Upstairs-Downstairs in Helsinki is a multifaceted block of apartments whose overall variety of form is complimented by the diversity of housing types. The apartments range in size and all have access to balconies.

A communal inner courtyard acts as the focal point, and further green space is provided through various roofs and terraces. Casavant Overlook is a current project in Winooski which mixes affordable housing with other housing, a more integrated approach.

What both of these projects lack is the recognition that home is not just a shelter, but connects to livelihoods and employment. Designing for mixed uses addresses this.

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Spreefeld Co-housing

Upstairs-Downstairs

Location - Berlin, Germany Date - 2013 Designer - Carpaneto, Katkoehl, BARarchitekten Area of Home - 581-3,121 ft2 Area of Site - 80,000 ft2 Area of Project - 82,000 ft2

Location - Helsinki, Finland Date - 2018 Designer - OOPEAA + Lundén Architecture Company Area of Home - 358 - 1,226 ft2 Area of Site - 83,549 ft2

All Sources: “Coop Housing at River Spreefeld.”

All Sources: Walsh, “OOPEAA + Lundén Architecture Company Design Charred Timber Housing District in Helsinki.”

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Livelihoods and Employment Employment and upward social mobility should be considered and integrated with housing. The strong focus of the VRRP on employment helps stabilize refugees within early months. One author writes, Affordable Housing “is a human-capital investment… one that would strengthen and steady the American workforce.”194 A more stable home allows for greater participation and benefits to the workplace while also contributing to the physical and emotional health of refugees.195 “When refugees gain access to education and labour markets, they can build their skills and become self reliant, contributing to the local economies and fueling the development of the communities hosting them.”196 Programs can be directly linked to housing, or otherwise be done in conjunction.

There are some key differences in livelihoods for forcibly displaced persons. They start from a position of loss, including assets, people, and health; they must re-establish their livelihoods in foreign policy contexts; and they are recipients of humanitarian assistance.197 “Over time, unless they can recover their livelihoods, they are at risk of further impoverishment.”198 Refugees have a variety of backgrounds and skills, with many refugees working in factories, hotels, and restaurants.199 Not only do refugees need jobs, they often need training and support programs.

The Winooski/Burlington area has various examples of employment and business programs for New Americans. For instance, the Chaplain Valley Office of Economic Opportunity (CVOEO) trains individuals to learn, earn, save, and own through credit establishment, micro business, and other programs.200 House parties, geared to the needs of refugees who have been resettled for 2-5 years, are hosted in community rooms of apartment buildings. One partnership which came from this grassroots model is a Somali Woman’s Sewing Circle which generates small business opportunities.

Inclusive programming can reach the host and refugee populations.201 The government will be more favorable to these partnerships, as they can create networking between locals and foreign-born nationals.202 Addressing shared needs of the host and the displaced (social, recreational, cultural, and livelihoods) can lead to social cohesion.203 Livelihoods and employment help refugees be involved in a local context, and awareness of other cultural distinctions may assist the resettlement process.

Local Architecture Local architecture can foster the identity of Vermonters and make it easier for refugees to understand the history and values of the state. Public-oriented housing has historically ignored such a conversation. Emerging in the post-war industrial boom and housing crisis, the International Style was driven by mechanized systems of production and uniformity. The International Style responded in part to human problems,204 and many of the architects of the time considered humanitarian issues. Yet, the growth of buildings in this era sacrificed regional identity for a modern, contemporary, international identity, becoming a homogenized mass. Generally tall, undifferentiated, and plain buildings could just as easily be located in Winooski as in Tokyo. Without architecture that

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Co-op Plaza

Location - Winooski, Vermont Date - In process Designer - Summit Properties and Dagesse Co Area of Home - 730 - 1,030 ft2 Amount of Homes - 39 Affordable - 27

Location - Brattleboro, Vermont Date - 2012 Designer - gbarchitecture Area of Home - 512-937 ft2 Amount of Homes - 24 Area of Project - 72,800 ft2

All Sources: “Casavant Overlook Apartments,� Summit Properties.

All Sources: gbarchitecture, email to author, October 17, 2018.

D

Casavant Overlook

connects people to local space and culture, it is easier to feel threatened by differences, which can lead to the discrimination of other groups. My architectural approach will link to the local traditions of Vermont, generating a greater sense of local identity and helping refugees understand and adapt to those differences. This principle comes, in part, from sustainable and regenerative design movements.

Sustainability and Regenerative Design Sustainability and regenerative design

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embrace interdependence and complexity, and seek to add value to both the social and ecological systems, a necessary framework for refugee resettlement. Defined in the Bruntland Report at UN General Assembly in 1987, sustainability means meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.205 To sustain life and combat human-induced climate change, global, national, and local strategies should be implemented. Vermont has a stringent comprehensive energy plan which targets reaching 90% renewable energy production by 2050.206 My project will seek to fit within this context, but will incorporate regenerative design by seeking to add value to ecological and social systems. “Instead of doing less damage to the environment, it is necessary to learn how we can participate with the environment - using the health of our ecological systems as a basis for design… our roles, as designers and stakeholders is to shift our relationship to one that creates a whole system of mutually beneficial relationships.”207 Human relationships with other groups and with the environment should recognize the strengths of all components and work in one complimentary system, which is demonstrated well by cities.

Urbanism The urban condition is one of interdependence. “The city creates a situation where different things occur one after another and do not exist separately but according to their differences.”208 Cities are places to encounter differences, and this dynamic is precisely what occurs during resettlement. “For urbanity is about unplanned events and coincidences, it is about paradoxes and possibilities.”209 Cities produce serendipitous and unexpected encounters.210 One key theory developed by Henri Lefebvre is the Right to the City. He writes: Social needs have an anthropological foundation. Opposed and complimentary, they include the need for security and opening, the need for certainty and adventure, that of organization of work and of play, the needs for the predictable and the unpredictable, of similarity and different, of isolation and encounter, exchange and investments, of independence and communication, of immediate and long-term prospects.211 The city can have these varied opportunities to meet the needs of many individuals and groups. The desire for variety is essential in cities because it makes room for complex social patterns. This can have physical implications like mixed-use, short blocks, variety of buildings, and density.212 This place of interaction matches with the dynamics of newness and diversity, and is connected to the tendency of immigrants to locate in cities.

Participatory Urbanism Minority groups have often been excluded from the success and prosperity of cities, and a participatory model of urbanism is thus important. An expansion of Lefebvre’s philosophy is that the right to the city is not just about access, “it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city.”213 The lack of this process in current cities is due in part to popular definitions of creativity. The scholar Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi writes

46

about a very prescriptive and specific definition which argues that creativity requires surplus attention, an elitist position that denies the creativity of individuals responding to their needs.214 This definition is unhelpful. Instead, the creativity of all people should be valued. “Prosperity in the creative age turns on human potential. It can only be fully realized when each and every worker is recognized and empowered as a source of creativity - when their talents are nurtured, their passions harnessed, and they are appropriately rewarded for their contributions.”215 Certain groups may not have the resources or power to influence their spaces, but they must be given greater license.

“Cities have the capacity of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by everybody.”216 In order to foster co-creation, design must be viewed as a primarily human-centered process.

Human-Centered Design Human-Centered Design focuses on the experiences and needs of people. IDEO, a leading organization in this field, believes that problems are solvable by getting answers from those facing them.217 Rather than top-down planning, this approach values and empowers individuals by utilizing their skills in making change. “Design thinking takes the next step, which is to put these tools into the hands of people who may have never thought of themselves as designers and apply them to a vastly greater range of problems. Design thinking taps into capacities we all have but that are overlooked by more conventional problem-solving practices.”218 This is similar to Bjarke Ingles Group’s philosophy of yes is more: “an architecture that allows you to say yes to all aspects of human life, no matter how contradicting!… A pragmatic utopian architecture that takes on the creation of socially, economically, and environmentally perfect places as a practical objective.”219 “In order to get to new solutions, you have to get to know different people, different scenarios, different places.”220 Connecting refugees and locals will ensure all groups benefit. Furthermore, the philosophy can lead to continual adaptation and growth as populations of refugees and their needs change. Rather than feeling pressure to fix every problem instantly, this practice can be one of sustainable, continued learning.

Continued Learning In order for refugee housing to be successful, it should allow for continued learning and evaluation. Daniel Christian Wahl writes that “we have to come to grips with the fact that knowledge and information, no matter how detailed, will remain an insufficient and uncertain basis for guiding our path into the future. We will increase our chances of success if we have the wisdom and humility to embrace our own ignorance, celebrate ambiguity and befriend uncertainty.”221 This kind of approach is necessary for such a complex topic. “Sustainability and regenerative cultures are not endpoints to be reached but continuous processes of collective learning.”222 We should approach things with more humility as well. “History offers many examples of yesterday’s solutions becoming today’s problems, so perhaps answers are the transient means to help us ask better questions.”223 For example, Richard Florida advocated for the growth of creative talent within cities in several publications, but he later saw that this has actually contributed to urban problems. While his predictions were wrong, this does not mean that he is

47

discredited as an author. Rather I include his work in part to demonstrate the need to have humility and allow ourselves to be wrong. “In fact, getting it right on the first try isn’t the point at all. The point is to put something out into the world and then use it to keep learning, keep asking, and keep testing.”224 Continued learning can occur in the design and in the architectural business model.

Buildings can utilize the principle of continued learning in their makeup. Author Stewart Brand examines the ways that buildings change based on shifting needs. He writes, “Age plus adaptivity is what makes a building come to be loved. The building learns from its occupants, and they learn from it.”225 “All buildings are predictions. All predictions are wrong.”226 Rather than trying to control or prevent changes, architecture should allow for modification. “A building is not something you finish. A building is something you start.”227 However, given the complications of buildings and their systems, this openness may be resisted by the profession. Yet it is clear that traditional models have led to a certain level of elitism and lack of connection with actual real world problems.

The certified professional makes a fool of himself, and often does a great deal of harm to other people, by assuming that he knows more than the uneducated by virtue of his schooling. All that second and third hand knowledge and intellectual exercising does for him, however, is to reduce his ability to listen and learn about situations significantly different from his own social and economic experience, with consequences that can be tragic when he has the power to impose his solutions on those who are not strong enough to resist.228 The design-build project delivery method can better help architects learn from their work.

Rather than a provider paradigm, where architects deliver a finished product, designbuild is more of a support paradigm.229 The model of extended ownership in product design and manufacturing, pioneered by the furniture company Steelcase, means that the consumer does not buy the object, but buys a service for a defined user period. This can be more efficient and effective and will create relationships230 while reducing extraction and waste, saving money for manufacturers.231 This practice can be modified to architecture. Efforts to create long-lasting buildings are supported by continued ownership, where the architect can gain from her successes and learn from her mistakes. This challenges the typical mechanized and identical method of housing.

“Mass-produced housing… negated the need for a dialogue between the architect and the occupant.”232 This dialogue can be reestablished through involvement with residents. Not only should this architecture contribute to the continued learning of design professionals, it should support the education and continued agency of residents.

Self-Modification Providing pathways for self-modification by residents can lead to a greater sense of ownership and collective identity. Within the timeline of resettlement, there is adequate time to prepare a space for arrival by refugees. The VRRP already does work to furnish

48

the new home, and some additional efforts by architects and interior designers could help create a more welcoming atmosphere based on the culture of origin. However, there is still much about the desires and preferences of the individual which cannot be known until their arrival. Being able to influence ones own physical environment can have psychological benefits, and can give refugees a chance to express their stories and culture. “A great building, even a good building, does not merely create an effect of power, it brings out our own power. A building is not nature and it is not an imitation of nature; it is an expression of our nature.”233 Additionally, collaborative design of community spaces will facilitate interactions between refugees and the local population.

In particular, this can occur in semi-public spaces, leading to further interaction between residents and neighbors.

A participatory, incremental housing approach of self-modification could expand the home ownership rate of the city and help refugees establish a strong base of capital. The work of Elemental demonstrates that the housing crisis cannot be met by traditional delivery methods of housing, and that self-construction provides a costviable and socially-beneficial alternative. Post-occupancy studies done by the firm show the projects success. As another author writes: “We will never solve the problem of homelessness by simply building houses for people who need them. Rather those without homes must be empowered to create them themselves, making use of local skills, native wisdom, and community-centered educational and economic systems.”234 Especially in social housing and the refugee crisis, the case of Za’atari and the consistent expansion of shelters by residents demonstrate a desire to claim space. “In housing disasters, what gets built afterward is often created out of heated political passions, designers egos, and the financial needs of developers and banking institutions - with only lip service to people’s participation.”235 Ability to shape their own space could help foster a sense of home as well as have upward social mobility.

However, there are several reasons why I have decided to not pursue this approach.

Refugee resettlement can already be a controversial issue, and experimenting with new housing approaches may cause dissonance within the local context. Additionally, the climate of the area complicates owner construction. Construction methods for sustainable buildings are complex, and make expansion challenging. Exploring radical processes of self-modification may be necessary to provide sufficient housing to the population, but should be done in a context where concepts may actually be constructed and tested.

Other scales of self-modification can still be successful, such as structural systems accommodating change. For instance, Le Corbusier’s Maison Dom-ino was designed as a framework to allow flexibility and even building by inhabitants.236 The system of nonstructural walls was meant to allow customization. Additionally, swing spaces can be built out after occupancy and change uses over the years. This may include interior spaces like community kitchens, as well as exterior spaces like gardens. At a more personal level, balconies and porches provide an interface with the larger community where a resident can take ownership. Within homes, furniture and decorations can be modified

49

as well. As one author on Affordable Housing writes: “detached individual homes, or at least the perception of individual homes, helps establish identity and self worth.”237 These detailed possibilities lead to specific design responses and programming for my proposed mixed-use project in Winooski.

Site Analysis and Program Keeping in mind the existing housing models and needs of the city of Winooski, I advocate for constructing more moderate-income Affordable Housing rental units in mid-rise, mixed-use blocks. In light of the needs and benefits described above, an ideal location for my project is at the O’Brien Community Center on Mallet’s Bay Avenue.

The site contains a former one-story grocery store that has been converted into the city library, a community center, a job-training center for women, a dentist, and a health center. Other buildings in the neighborhood tend to be single-unit detached homes, but there are several larger apartments and shops along the street. The other half of the site is in planning for development as a new city hall, including city administration, public safety, and a new library. In keeping with these mixed uses along Winooski’s Gateway District, I will design a mixed-use block on one half of the site, with public functions on lower floors and homes on the upper floors. The homes will be an affordable option for moderate-income families (80-120% AMI) as well as subsidized options for refugees.

Several units would be set aside for refugees as a Special Population through a contract with the housing developer and the VRRP. Private spaces will allow for individuality and customization, shared spaces will foster collaboration among residents, and public spaces will facilitate interactions with others. Chapter 7 and 8 will go into further detail on the Site Analysis and Program for the project.

Summary In facing global issues, we must frame our work with the proper mindset. As architects, we are not the only ones responsible for the crisis. To think so would be taking too much pride in our work as designers. This dynamic can be seen in the adoption of Architecture 2030, which argues that buildings are the most responsible human factor in global warming. Once we begin to get into the details of solving this issue, it is clear that buildings depend on so many other factors that to blame the building itself is unrealistic. On the other end of the spectrum, neither does architecture have so little power that we are off the hook for addressing the needs of refugees. This level of apathy is toxic. A better mindset is this: we are all responsible. Architects, developers, contractors, engineers, artists, manufacturers, laborers, teachers, students, economists, philosophers, and the list goes on. In order to make progress toward a more regenerative system, we must all recognize that we depend on one another, and must work together.

Displacement of refugees is a massive global issue which should be addressed on a localized scale. The number of refugees is growing, and individuals are increasingly displaced from their homes for longer periods of time. Developing nations already have challenges to growth, and refugees lead to further challenges. An expansion of refugee status will create an even greater need for resettlement. In particular, climate change

50

will lead to new refugees, whether because of prolonged shortages or catastrophic events. While the need for resettlement in developed nations increases, resettlement is declining at a global and national level. Within the United States, refugees are increasingly settled in less populated and less diverse areas like Vermont, rather than large metropolitan areas like New York City or Boston. These areas of resettlement can provide housing, education, and work to refugees, and also benefit through population growth, diversification, and economic growth. It is our choice as to whether we, collectively, design this mutually-beneficial system. If we do not, things may play out in a much more strained and tense manner. I have explored how Vermont can form strategies to better integrate refugees, and have identified housing as an architectural pathway towards this improvement. Home can be a space for all of us to find meaning and belonging. However, obstacles keep us from this experience of home, or in some cases displace us from home. Together, we have the opportunity to create a better home for refugees and ourselves.

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Chapter 6: Site Analysis Located in the gateway district of Winooski, the site (currently parking for the O’Brien Community Center) has the potential for mixed use, inclusive development which is well connected to the center of Winooski and the City of Burlington beyond. This proposal focuses on the northern half of the site, the south portion being a potential site for a new city hall and library. The proposal also recognizes the existing strengths of the site, and tries to capitalize on them.

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Winooski City Map

Community Buildings Schools Businesses Shops Restaurants Grocery Stores Islamic Centers Churches

Walking Radius

54

Transit

Neighborhood Plan

Buildings

Affordable Housing

Community Buildings Schools Municipal Offices Businesses Shops Restaurants Grocery Stores Islamic Centers Churches

55

Winooski Zoning Map

Form Based Code

56

Gateway Districts

Building Area - 19,856 ft2

75' FACADE LENGTH

GARDEN WALL AT LOT LINE

20 FT SETBACK NOT REQUIRED

TREES 5-10 FROM LOT LINE, 30 FT OC 25 FT MEZZANINE SETBACK

389' RBL LENGTH 320' BUILDING LENGTH

Homes

15 FT HALF STORY SETBACK

BUILDING BUILT TO 82% RBL

Library

43,400 SQ FT TOTAL AREA 20,000 MAX SQ FT FOOTPRINT 11,700 CITY HALL 2 FLOORS + 25% COURT 19,856 BLOCK 2

32

64

128

Gateway Regulations

Winooski, Vermont

1:2,257

November 3, 2018 Gateway Regulating Plan BFS Urban General BFS Urban Storefront

BFS Townhouse/Small Apt.

Neighborhood Manners - 20 ft Setback

BFS Detached Frontage

Public Space

Neighborhood Manners - 50 ft Setback

Civic Structure

0

0.01

0.03

0.05 mi

0

0.02

0.04

0.08 km

Sources: Esri, HERE, Garmin, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS,

Chittenden County Regional Planning Commission

57

Site Existing Conditions

Existing Context

Site

58

View from Site

View to Park

View along Tracks

59

Settlement Patterns While Winooski has high density, refugee camps generally have even higher densities. If the site were to be filled based on the settlement pattern of a typical camp, it would fit more refugees than were resettled in Vermont over the course of an entire year. This shows the need to find alternative housing solutions for refugees.

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Winooski City Population - 7,237 Density - 5,060 / mile2

Site - 43,400 ft2 Population - 8 Dwelling Units - 3

Za’atari Refugee Camp Population - 78,552 Density - 39,276 / mile2

Site - 43,400 ft2 Population - 600 Dwelling Units - 119

Currently, refugees in Vermont are housed for up to a year in apartments found on the open market by the USCRI. This may make it challenging to find apartments. New apartments built specifically for refugees may cause resistance from the community, as it may not provide clear benefits to the neighborhood. A mixed approach can both benefit residents and leverage the new energy of refugees to increase the economy and diversity of the neighborhood.

Duplex Potential Integration Existing Condition

Mixed Housing Integration Interaction

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Environment

Roofs

62

Uses

Semi-public Spaces

63

Dry Bulb Temperature

Climate Data Monthly Mean Avg Temperature - 47.2 Max Yearly Heating Degree Days - 7946 Max Yearly Cooling Degree Days - 855 Average Yearly Degree Days - 8269 Max Monthly Precipitation - 12 inches Max Yearly Mean Snowfall - 128.4 inches Minimum Ground Snow Load - 40 lbs/ft2

Psychometric Chart

64

Wind Rose

Wind Speed

Solar Radiation

Thermal Comfort based on solar position

65

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Chapter 7: Architectural Program

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Design Objectives In order to provide a space for both Refugees and native Vermonters, it would be important to integrate community development initiatives.

Additionally, a variety of spaces can provide possibilities for contact and solitude, as well as choice and personalization, increasing the level of ownership of residents. Affordability for refugees and local residents is another goal.

Precedent Programming Analysis Downstreet

1 BR 2 BR

Colonial Village

Project Co-op Plaza Brattleboro

Floor Type of Space 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4

Area FT2

Quantity

162 882 1000 825 2843 18311 625 1635 1045.5 5955.25 256 2584 425 642 512 678 678 937 262 512 678 678 937 262

Parking Entry Cafe Outdoor Patio Receiving/Storage Grocery Store Lobby and Circulation Commissary Kitchen Community Room Offices Staff Terrace Park Covered Bikes/Trash Mechanical Efficiency Apartment 1 BR 1 BR 2 BR Common Areas Efficiency Apartment 1 BR 1 BR 2 BR Common Areas

Total Area FT2

118 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 6 1 1 2 3 6 1 1

Total Project Area Winooski River

Efficiency Apartment

Montpelier

350 725 760 1000 10,253 3,932,445

1 BR 2 BR 3 BR

Total Project Area Total Project Budget Taylor Stack

Efficiency Apartment 1 BR 2 BR

Total Project Area Total Project Budget French Block

Efficiency Apartment 1 BR

Total Project Area Total Project Budget

% of Overall

381 $/FT2

500 640 11,500 6,146,208

534 $/FT2

700 900

3 BR

1100 18,150 5,840,491

% of Housing 0 Parking Spots 0 Parking 1 1 BR 1 1 BR ADA 1 2 BR ADA 1 2 BR 1 2 BR 1 Common 2 1 BR 2 2 BR

31.65 Grocery 0.86 Circulation

2 2 BR Space Occupancy 2 2 BR 2 2 BR 3.68 Community Mobility 24 Total Housing 2 Common Business parking 3 1 BR 4 Studio 8.18 Offices 3 2 BR Commercial parking 18 1 BR 3 2 BR 5.62 Open Space Residential parking3 2 BR 2 2 BR 3 2 BR Shared Parking Spaces 3 Common S-2 Total Housing 16126 4 1 BR Shared Parking Lanes S-2 4 2 BR 12.70 Studio 4 2 BR ADA Parking 4 2 BR 1 BR 75.68 Public Surface Parking

Bus Stop Bicycle

Total Project Area City Lights Winooski

2.81 Studio

FLOOR 0 PARKING CIRCULATION

8.39 1 BR 2.57 2 BR Floor 1 0.72 Common Area Working Shops CAFE Option Space Co-working STORAGE WC Storage / MECH SHARED LOBBY CIRCULATION

384 $/FT2

558 636 867 20,000 7,615,000

1 BR 2 BR

Total Project Area Total Project Budget

Casavant Overlook Winooski

19116 882 1000 825 2843 18311 625 1635 1045.5 5955.25 256 2584 425 642 1024 2034 4068 937 262 1024 2034 4068 937 262 72794.75

590 851

18,799 8,844,192

Total Project Area Total Project Budget

1

322 $/FT2

162 5777 730

23 1 4

3726 5777 2920

796 1018 908 1031 2450

1 1 1 2 1

796 1018 908 2062 2450

730 908

4 2

2920 1816

1031

2 1 1 4 2 1 1 2 1

2062 1018 1463

10 2920 1846.8 15 1816 2700 931 43 1012 7770 2062 68 1457 12316.8

908

4 2

931 1012 1031 1457

1 1 2 1

162 162

17 15

300 660

200690 gross

1 2

300 1500

1

690

2 1 BR + 2 2 BR

840 920

1 1

840 920

2 1 BR 2 1 BR 2 Common

760 850

1 1

760 850

660 660

1 1

660 660

840

1

840

760

1

760

850 840

1 1

850 840

920 1,040

1 1

920 1,040

1,000 660

1 1

850 840

1 1

4 2 BR 4 Common

11.62 2 BR Common Areas 3.25 2xResidential

0 Parking Spots 1 Parking Spots 1 Shop 2 1 BR

2 1 BR

3 1 BR 3 1 BR + 3 1 BR 3 1 BR 3 2 BR 3 2 BR 3 2 BR + 4 1 BR 4 1 BR 4 1 BR 4 1 BR + 4 2 BR 4 2 BR + 4 2 BR + 5 1 BR 5 1 BR

S-2

M M Varies (A) B, A-3

S

18.90 Parking

937 1 937 FT2/person Occupancy Table Quantity 1004.5 TotalofFT2 Space Total Occupancy Clear Height Egress Width Stair 1005.3.2 Width Max 1005.3.1 occupant Maxload Common Exit Path Access (Table Lavatory Travel 1006.2.1 M WC Distance FW 1018 Amount 1463 180 730 908180 931 1012180 1031 2001457 gross Area730

3

2920 1816

112

300 gross

2754 2430

5 1 BR + 5 2 BR + 5 2 BR 5 2 BR +

1,040 920

Floor 2 5 Terrace Studio R-2 1 BR R-2 Spreefeld Standard Flats Berlin Cluster Units 2 BR R-2 Communal Terrace 3 BR R-2 Option Space Commercial Space STORAGE Varies (A) Communal Space Total Project Area OPTION SPACE A-3 SHARED COURTYARD A Existing Parking Parking SHARED BALCONY Parking ADA PRIVATE BALCONY CIRCULATION

1,000 750

1,000 660

2

850 840

1 1 1 1

200 2.5 200 3.5 200 4.5 200 5 5 100 15 33.33 15 67

1,000 750

180

107

19260

180

10

1800

33939 Total Housing Area

29

100

400

29

100

400

49 49 49

75 75 75

250 250 250

29

100

250

20 20 20 20

125 125 125 125

250 250 250 250

accesory use) 75 75

250 250

36.76 1 BR 63.24 2 BR 20.12 Common

17.34 Parking 1.00

17669 2 1039

>7

<22

2897 48.2833 2640 44 4644 928.8 1162 23.24 318 563 2033 1139 1 BR 108032.95 11.24 1 BR +

1,040 920

029894 3 38,000 20,500 5 4,500 24,130 10,500 0 3,700 81,330 1 1

39 Total Housing Amount 17 1 BR 22 2 BR

>7

24.82 1 BR 42.70 2 BR 13.58 Common

931 1012 2062 1457 50269

850 1 60 gross 2 850 760 1 760 60 gross 1 920 920 1 990 1 990 5 100 41,040 1,040 1 660net 150660 gross?, 501 gross,115

Total Project Area

Programming Document

470 $/FT2

9.656667 14.485 8.8 13.2 9 185.76 278.64 28 Total Housing Amount 4.648 6.972 13 1 BR 4 1 BR + 5 2 BR 5 2 BR +

Floor 2 Studio 1 BR 2 BR 3 BR STORAGE OPTION SPACE SHARED COURTYARD SHARED BALCONY PRIVATE BALCONY CIRCULATION Floor 3 Studio 1 BR 2 BR 3 BR OPTION SPACE SHARED BALCONY PRIVATE BALCONY CIRCULATION

68

Floor 4

<22 M M Varies (A) B, A-3

60 gross 2 60 gross 1 5 100 4 150 gross?, 50 gross,115 net

S

300 gross 2

R-2 R-2 R-2 R-2 Varies (A) A-3 A

R-2 R-2 R-2 R-2 A-3 A Standing Space

200 2.5 200 3.5 200 4.5 200 5 5 100 15 33.33 15 67

200 2.5 200 3.5 200 4.5 200 5 15 33.33 15 67

0 3 5 2 0 1 1

1 1 4 3 1 1 9

2897 48.2833 2640 44 4644 928.8 1162 23.24 318 563 2033 1139 1080

0 2494 3977 1990 104 1889 4194 681 1152 1692

0 12.5 19.885 9.95 20.8 125.9 279.6

556 781 2579 3768 1329 570 1092 1239

2.78 3.9 12.895 18.84 88.6 38

9.656667 8.8 9 185.76 4.648

>8.8 >8.8 >8.8 >8.8 9 9 9

>8.8 >8.8 >8.8 >8.8 9 9

0 2.494 3.977 1.99 4.16 25.2 55.92

0.556 0.781 2.579 3.768 17.7 7.6

14.485 13.2 278.64 6.972

0 3.7 5.9655 2.985 6.24 37.78 49 (for 83.88

0.834 1.2 3.8685 5.652 26.58 49 (for 11.4

29

100

Floor 4.5 Studio 250 1 BR 250 0.1 0.1 0.1 2 BR 250 0.1 0.1 0.1 3 BR 1.2 1.9 1.9 OPTION SPACE 0.581 0.9296 0.93 SHARED BALCONY PRIVATE BALCONY Circulation 250

20 20 20 20

125 125 125 125

Project Totals 250 Shared 250 COURTYARD 250 SHARED BALCONY 250 OPTION SPACE

49 49 49

75 75 75

accesory use) 75 75

20 125 20 125 20 125 20 125 accesory use) 75 75

R-2 R-2 R-2 R-2 ?

Varies (A) A-3

40 40 40

200 200 200 200 5 5

2.5 3.5 4.5 5 100 100

20

14.61 1 BR +

12.31 2 BR 17.13 2 BR +

20.30 2 BR 22.26 2 BR +

0 2.51 Terrace 0 249446.72 12.5 397725.21 19.885 5.53 1990 5.08 9.95 10412.91 20.8 4.55 1889 14 125.9 4194 279.6 681 1152 1692

>8.8 >8.8 >8.8 >8.8 9 9 9

250 250 Project Total 250 Circulation 250 250 250

2734 13.67 2831 14.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1004.8 986 197.2 715 2749

>8.8 >8.8 >8.8 >8.8 9 9

30 BR; 50 WC 70 else

Varies

CIRCULATION 250 250 Residential Studio 1 BR 2 BR 3 BR Private Balconies

5 4 0 0 0 2

R-2 R-2 R-2 R-2

200 200 200 200

2.5 3.5 4.5 5

1 1

6905 8202 11481

34 9 10 9 6

25997 5086 7392 6556 6963 3894 77976.8 23393.04 101369.84

0 0 1 0.9

23000 Total Housing Area 42.83 1 BR

0 2.494 3.977 1.99 4.16 25.2 55.92

0 3.7 5.9655 2.985 6.24 37.78 49 (for 83.88

3 Floor 3 Studio R-2 200 2.5 1 556 2.78 >8.8 0.556 0.834 20 125 1 BR R-2 200 3.5 1 781 3.9 >8.8 0.781 1.2 20 125 2 BR R-2 200 4.5 4 2579 12.895 >8.8 2.579 3.8685 20 125 3 BR R-2 200 5 3 3768 18.84 >8.8 3.768 5.652 20 125 Space Occupancy FT2/person Occupancy Table Quantity 1004.5 TotalofFT2 Space Total Occupancy Clear Height Egress Width Stair 1005.3.2 Width Max 1005.3.1 occupant Maxload Common Exit Path Access (Table Lavatory Travel 1006.2.1 M WC Distance F WCTable Lavatory 1017.2 Lighting FCAir Levels ft3/min (https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/guidelines-to-residential-room-lighting Temp Relevant Code OPTION SPACE A-3 15 33.33 1 1329 88.6 9 17.7 26.58 49 (for accesory use) 75 Mobility SHARED BALCONY A Standing Space 15 67 1 570 38 9 7.6 11.4 75 Business parking 180 10 1846.8 5 PRIVATE BALCONY 9 1092 Commercial parking 180 15 2700 CIRCULATION 1239 Residential parking 180 43 7770 Shared Parking Spaces S-2 200 gross 68 12316.8 >7 29 100 400 406.2.2 Floor 4 Shared Parking Lanes S-2 https://qcode.us/codes/temecula/view.php?topic=17-17_24-17_24_050 Studio R-2 200 2.5 3 1796 8.98 >8.8 1.796 2.694 20 125 ADA Parking 3 1 BR R-2 200 3.5 2 1286 6.4 >8.8 1.286 1.9 20 125 Public Surface Parking 2 BR R-2 200 4.5 4 3967 19.835 >8.8 3.967 5.9505 20 125 Bus Stop 3 BR R-2 200 5 1 1205 6.025 >8.8 1.205 1.8075 20 125 Bicycle 2xResidential 112 OPTION SPACE Varies (A) 5 100 1 340 68 9 13.6 20.4 SHARED BALCONY A-3 5 100 2 474 94.8 9 19.0 28.44 49 (for accesory use) 75 FLOOR 0 A Standing Space 5 200 2 935 187 9 37.4 56.1 75 PARKING S-2 200 gross 17669 >7 29 100 400 PRIVATE Balconies Circulation 2543 CIRCULATION 1039

Floor 1 Working Shops CAFE Option Space Co-working STORAGE WC Storage / MECH SHARED LOBBY CIRCULATION

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.2 1.9 0.581 0.9296

9

2.734 2.831 0 0 0 39.4

4.101 4.2 0 0 0 59.16 49 (for

20 20 20 20

250 250 250 250 ; https://www.lightin 250 250

250 250 250 250 250 250

125 125 125 125

250 250 250 250

accesory use) 75

250

Program

STUDIO (9)

1BR (10)

2BR (9)

3BR (6)

Apartments 25,757 ft2 Option Space 8,202 ft2 Shared Circulation 11,481 ft2 Shared Terraces 6,905 ft2 Private Balconies 3,894 ft2 Shops 2,897 ft2 Cafe 2,640 ft2 Co-Working 1,162 ft2 Parking 17,669 ft2

31.95% 10.18% 14.24% 8.57% 4.83% 3.59% 3.28% 1.44% 21.92% 69

70

Chapter 8: Design Process The form of the building responds to ecological factors of the site, while also responding to the design objectives. This was accomplished through the use of parametric and energy modeling tools in Grasshopper and Sefaira. Connecting to the existing building and residential context were two important goals as well.

71

Massing Iterations

72

73

Shadow Study

Solar Radiation

Sun Angle 46

7am Jun ENE 205 8am Jun E 216 8am Jun ESE 199

74

9am Sep ESE 227 9am Sep SE 226

22.5

11am Dec SSE 249 12pm Dec S 253

Noon South

69.5

Summer Solstice Shadow Study

Summer Solstice Solar Path

75

Equinox Shadow Study

Equinox Solar Path

76

Winter Solstice Shadow Study

Winter Solstice Solar Path

77

Mixed Housing Massing Diagram 136â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

19,856 ft2 146â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Connect to Existing Building and Sink Parking

Wrap Storage and Mechanical with Shops and Shared Spaces. Connect to Street Front and Pedestrian Street

Half Story with Terrace

78

Wrap Apartments around Courtyard

Solar Access Cut

Slant for Balconies

79

Sefaira Annual Daylight Study

Spring Equinox

Summer Solstice

80

81

82

Chapter 9: Final Design

83

Site Plan

8

32

64

4 3

SITE PLAN

1 - View from East Hill

84

2

1

0'

8'

16'

32'

64'

Level 1

4

16

32

UP

DN

OPTION SPACE: TEMPORARY HOUSING

OPTION SPACE: SHOP

OPTION SPACE: GARDENING CENTER

OPTION SPACE: TOOL LIBRARY

SHOP MECHANICAL

COWORKING

STORAGE

SHOP

KITCHEN

CAFE

STORAGE

LOBBY DN

UP

UP

DN

LEVEL 1

0'

Level 0

8'

4'

4

16'

32'

16

32

UP

20' - 0"

5

66' - 6"

4

34' - 0"

69 Total Required Spaces 44 Residential Spaces 51 Actual Spaces

3 24' - 0"

27' - 6"

24' - 0"

41' - 0"

2

UP

UP

1 62' - 6"

LEVEL 0

62' - 6"

0'

4'

8'

16'

32'

A200 Scale

1/8" = 1'-0"

4/10/2019 5:16:44 PM

85

2 - Entry from South

86

87

Level 2

4

16

32

UP

DN

Storage

1BR

DW

OPTION SPACE

DW

2BR

Storage

3BR

2BR

DW

Storage

DW

DW

DW

2BR Storage

Storage

2BR DW

1BR

DW

DW

DW

1BR

2BR Storage

Storage

DW

3BR

OPTION SPACE

DN

UP

UP

DN

LEVEL 2

0'

Site Section

SITE SECTION

88

4'

8'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

16'

32'

32

32'

Level 3

4

16

32

UP

DW

DN

DW

DW

STUDIO

2BR

3BR

2BR

3BR

2BR

2BR

3BR

2BR

DW

1BR

DW

DW

OPTION SPACE

OPTION SPACE

DN

UP

UP

DN

LEVEL 3

0'

South Courtyard Section

SOUTH COURTYARD SECTION

4'

8'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

16'

32'

32

32'

89

Level 4

4

16

32

UP

DW

DN

DW

DW

DW

STUDIO

DW

2BR

1BR

2BR

DW

3BR

1BR

DW

DW

STUDIO

DW

2BR

STUDIO ADA

2BR

DN

UP

DW

OPTION SPACE

UP

DN

LEVEL 4

0'

East Courtyard Section

EAST COURTYARD SECTION

90

4'

8'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

16'

32'

32

32'

Level 4.5

4

16

32

16'

32'

16

32

DN

DW

DW

DW

DW

DW

STUDIO

1BR

1BR

STUDIO

1BR

DW

STUDIO

DW

STUDIO 1 BR

DW

DW

1 BR ADA

OPTION SPACE

DN

DN

LEVEL 4.5

0'

North Courtyard Section

NORTH COURTYARD SECTION

8'

4'

4

0'

4'

8'

16'

32'

91

East Isometric

4

EAST ISOMETRIC

0'

South Elevation

SOUTH ELEVATION

92

16

8'

4'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

32

16'

32'

32

32'

South Isometric

4

SOUTH ISOMETRIC

0'

West Elevation

WEST ELEVATION

16

8'

4'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

32

16'

32'

32

32'

93

West Isometric

4

WEST ISOMETRIC

0'

North Elevation

NORTH ELEVATION

94

16

8'

4'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

32

16'

32'

32

32'

North Isometric

4

NORTH ISOMETRIC

0'

East Elevation

EAST ELEVATION

16

4'

8'

4

0'

4'

16'

16

8'

32

16'

32'

32

32'

95

Structural System Winooski is an affordable city, with lower rents and home values than Chittenden County averages. This project focused on creating homes which are affordable to moderate income residents, while also providing several units set aside for refugees, as well as several units sets aside for those at risk of homelessness. Thus, the structural system was meant to be cost effective and sustainable.

69' - 7"

28' - 1"

G52

C5A3E

G51

32' - 6 5/8"

24' - 0"

17' - 6"

C5B2

C5B3

G53

18' - 0"

G54

C5B6

C5B7

C5A4

B52 4.5A

C5A1

C5A3

4.5B

B53

C5B2 28' - 9"

B55

B57 B56

C5B4

C5B3 17' - 6"

G55

B54

32' - 1 1/4"

B51

C5B5

G56

23' - 11 3/8"

C5CS

10' - 11"

23' - 8 5/8"

C5A1

C5CS

G57

W 18X119

4.5C

W 18X119

C5C4

G57

W 18X119

C5D9

20' - 8"

C5C4

W 18X119 31' - 0"

C5D9

20' - 8"

W 18X119

C5C4

G523

9' - 6"

C5D10

G522 C5D11

4.5E

G57

C5D7

B511

C5D2

C5D1

C5D4

COLUMNS

LEVEL 4.5 STRUCTURE

96

C5D3

G525 7' - 5"

C5C6

B513 21' - 2"

19' - 8"

G521 31' - 8"

C5D2

12' - 0"

G510

4.5G

B514

B510

GIRDERS

C5C5

C5D6

C5D5

4.5D

BEAMS

C5C4

C5D8

C5G2

G511 C5D1

G520

C5G4 C5G3

8' - 5"

36' - 0"

13' - 0"

C5D8

20' - 3"

G524

31' - 0"

13' - 6"

W 18X119

C5G1

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Beam Calculations LEVEL ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF

SECTION NAME RA CRA1 RB CRA3 RB CRA4 RB CRB2 RB CRB9 RB CRB3 RB CRB8 RB CRB4 RB CRB5 RB CRB7 RB CRB6

ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF

RBe RBe RBe RBe RBe

CRA3e CRB2e CRB3e CRB4e CRB5e

ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF

RC RC RC RC

CRC3 CRC4 CRC5 CRC6

ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF

RG RG RG RG RG

ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF ROOF 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

# ON C 14,580.00 37,284.67 41,262.40 32,945.67 38,308.43 28,625.00 33,487.60 31,206.50 21,388.56 33,955.93 19,984.89

Pbuckling: pi^2EI HEIGHT E /SIZE L^2 units Ixin kips Iy * 1000 to pounds 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 44,842.20 # # W8x13 40 2.73 44,842.20 # # W8x13 40 2.73 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 4 4E 44,842.20 # # W8x13 40 2.73 4 4E 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 4 4E 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 3 3A 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 3 3A 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09 3 3A 34,329.74 # # W8x10 31 2.09

3,614.37 5,362.77 4,367.60 4,449.23 2,401.47

44,842.20 77,789.92 77,789.92 77,789.92 77,789.92

# # # # #

# # # # #

W8x13 6x6 6x6 6x6 6x6

40 76 76 76 76

2.73 76.3 76.3 76.3 76.3

18,896.75 25,097.96 17,337.50 24,225.00

34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74

# # # #

# # # #

W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10

31 31 31 31

2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09

CRC6E CRG1 CRG2 CRG3 CRG4

2,850.00 8,550.00 8,550.00 2,565.00 8,550.00

34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74

# # # # #

# # # # #

W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10

31 31 31 31 31

2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09

RD RD RD RD RE RE RE RE RE

CRD2 CRD3 CRD4 CRD5 CRD6 CRD7 CRD8 CRD10 CRD11

14,440.00 14,820.00 3,800.00 8,930.00 18,596.25 18,240.00 11,400.00 18,240.00 6,935.00

34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74

# # # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # #

W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10

31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31

2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09

4.5A 4.5A 4.5A 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B

C5A1 C5A3 C5A4 C5A3E C5B2 C5B3 C5B7 C5B4 C5B6

21,840.00 53,784.67 60,842.40 6,694.37 58,548.43 51,472.60 63,045.17 61,126.50 39,316.36

34,329.74 56,011.69 130,912.94 34,329.74 130,912.94 56,011.69 130,912.94 130,912.94 56,011.69

# # # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # #

W8x10 W8x15 W8x18 W8x10 W8x18 W8x15 W8x18 W8x18 W8x15

31 48 62 31 62 48 62 62 48

2.09 3.41 7.97 2.09 7.97 3.41 7.97 7.97 3.41

4.5B 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5C 4.5D 4.5D 4.5D 4.5D 4.5D 4.5D 4.5E 4.5E 4.5E 4.5E 4.5E

C5B5 C5C3 C5C4 C5C5 C5C6 C5G1 C5G2 C5G3 C5G4 C5D1 C5D2 C5D3 C5D4 C5D5 C5D6 C5D7 C5D8 C5D9 C5D10 C5D11

43,150.03 38,224.35 48,907.19 39,612.50 37,425.00 13,500.00 13,500.00 4,050.00 13,500.00 5,280.00 28,080.00 23,413.75 4,900.00 13,000.00 27,973.75 30,271.25 22,840.00 6,160.00 28,360.00 10,895.00

56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10

48 48 48 48 48 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31

3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09

4A 4A 4A 4A 4B 4B 4B 4B 4B 4B 4C 4C 4C 4C 4G 4G 4G 4G 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4E 4E

C4A1 C4A3 C4A4 C4A3E C4B2 C4B3 C4B7 C4B4 C4B6 C4B5 C4C3 C4C4 C4C5 C4C6 C4G1 C4G2 C4G3 C4G4 C4D0 C4D1 C4D2 C4D3 C4D4 C4D5 C4D6 C4D7 C4D8 C4D9

29,100.00 70,284.67 80,422.40 9,774.37 78,788.43 69,952.60 87,685.17 91,046.50 53,396.36 62,510.03 53,184.35 68,267.19 69,312.50 50,625.00 18,450.00 18,450.00 5,535.00 25,875.00 12,375.00 10,560.00 41,720.00 31,993.75 6,000.00 17,070.00 37,323.75 42,261.25 34,280.00 12,320.00

34,329.74 130,912.94 130,912.94 34,329.74 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 56,011.69 130,912.94 56,011.69 130,912.94 130,912.94 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 34,329.74

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

W8x10 W8x18 W8x18 W8x10 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x15 W8x18 W8x15 W8x18 W8x18 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x10

31 62 62 31 62 62 62 62 48 62 48 62 62 48 31 31 31 31 31 31 48 31 31 31 48 48 48 31

2.09 7.97 7.97 2.09 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 3.41 7.97 3.41 7.97 7.97 3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09 3.41 3.41 3.41 2.09

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4C 4G 4G 4G 4G 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4D 4E 4E

3A 3B 3B 3B 3B 3B 3B 3C 3C 3C 3C 3G 3G 3G 3G 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3D 3E 3E 3E 3E 3E 3E

C4C6 C4G1 C4G2 C4G3 C4G4 C4D0 C4D1 C4D2 C4D3 C4D4 C4D5 C4D6 C4D7 C4D8 C4D9

50,625.00 18,450.00 18,450.00 5,535.00 25,875.00 12,375.00 10,560.00 41,720.00 31,993.75 6,000.00 17,070.00 37,323.75 42,261.25 34,280.00 12,320.00

56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 34,329.74

C4D10 C4D11 C4D12

38,480.00 14,855.00 9,900.00

56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74

C3A1 C3A3 C3A4 C3A3E C3B2 C3B3 C3B7 C3B4 C3B6 C3B5 C3C3 C3C4 C3C5 C3C6 C3G1 C3G2 C3G3 C3G4 C3D0 C3D1 C3D2 C3D3 C3D4 C3D5 C3D6 C3D7 C3D8 C3D9 C3D10 C3D11 C3D12 C3D13

36,360.00 86,784.67 100,002.40 12,854.37 99,028.43 88,432.60 112,325.17 120,966.50 67,476.36 81,870.03 68,144.35 87,627.19 99,012.50 63,825.00 23,400.00 23,400.00 7,020.00 38,250.00 24,750.00 15,840.00 55,360.00 40,573.75 7,100.00 21,140.00 46,673.75 54,251.25 45,720.00 18,480.00 48,600.00 18,815.00 19,800.00 4,950.00

56,011.69 130,912.94 130,912.94 34,329.74 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 130,912.94 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 130,912.94 34,329.74 34,329.74 56,011.69 56,011.69 56,011.69 34,329.74 56,011.69 34,329.74 34,329.74 34,329.74

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

48 31 31 31 31 31 31 48 31 31 31 48 48 48 31

3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 2.09 3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09 3.41 3.41 3.41 2.09

# # W8x15 # # W8x10 # # W8x10

48 31 31

3.41 2.09 2.09

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

48 62 62 31 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 31 31 31 48 31 31 48 62 31 31 48 48 48 31 48 31 31 31

3.41 7.97 7.97 2.09 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 7.97 2.09 2.09 2.09 3.41 2.09 2.09 3.41 7.97 2.09 2.09 3.41 3.41 3.41 2.09 3.41 2.09 2.09 2.09

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x10

W8x15 W8x18 W8x18 W8x10 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x18 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x18 W8x10 W8x10 W8x15 W8x15 W8x15 W8x10 W8x15 W8x10 W8x10 W8x10

Column Calculations Level Roof Roof

Section Width Class SectionCatch ft RA 22 Beam RA 24 Girder B1

Name B1 GR1

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

RB RB RB RB RB RB

88 Beam 26 Girder 26 Girder 26 Girder 26 Girder 6.5 Girder

B2 B2 B2 B2 Be2

B2 GR2 GR3 GR4 GR5 GR5.5

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

RBe RBe RBe RBe RBe

95 Beam 4 Girder 4 Girder 4 Girder 4 Girder

Be1 Be1 Be1 Be1

Be1 GRe2 GRe3 GRe4 GRe5

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

RC RC RC RC RC

73 Beam 19 Girder 19 Girder 19 Girder 19 Girder

B3 B3,Be2 GR6 B3,Be2 GR7 B3,Be2 GR7 B3,Be2 GR7

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

RCe RCe RCe RCe RCe RCe

Roof Roof

RD RD

100 Beam 8 Girder 8 Girder 8 Girder 8 Girder 8 Girder

Be2 Be2 Be2 Be2 Be2

Be2 GRe5.5 GRe6 GRe7 GRe7 GRe7 B4 GR20

Spacing ft Quantity or trib width Span ft girder ∆max in DL psf LL psf SL psf TL psf Self W 6 5 24 0.06667 15 20 60 95 0 12 2 22 0.06111 15 20 60 95 234.55 6 13 13 13 13 6.5

15 2 2 2 2 1

26 29 18 24 19 26

0.07222 0.08056 0.05 0.06667 0.05278 0.07222

15 15 15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20 20 20

60 60 60 60 60 60

95 95 229.67 95 229.67 95 229.67 95 229.67 95 126.57

3d to 2d E ksi (Modules MinofI Elasticity) in^4 Equation: Size I=5wl^4 W/ft Depth / 384E∆ in Width inIx Notes 570.00 29000 1,273.66 W18x86 86 19 11 1,530 To GR1 1,374.55 29000 2,365.76 W27x84 84 27 10 2,850 To CRA1, CRA3 570.00 1,464.67 1,464.67 1,464.67 1,464.67 744.07

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

1,619.34 W18x106 5,773.99 W27x161 1,380.70 W18x86 3,272.77 W30x99 1,623.84 W18x106 2,113.87 W27x84

106 161 86 99 106 84

18 28 19 30 18 27

11 14 11 11 11 10

1,910 To GR2,GR3,GR4, GR5 6,280 To CRA3,CRB2 1,530 To CRB2, CRB3 3,990 To CRB3, CRB4 1,910 To CRB4, CRB5, CRB6 To CRB6, CRB5

6 4 4 4 4

15 1 1 1 1

4 29 18 24 18

0.01111 0.08056 0.05 0.06667 0.05

15 15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20 20

60 60 60 60 60

95 0 95 3.2667 95 3.2667 95 3.2667 95 3.2667

570.00 383.27 383.27 383.27 383.27

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

5.90 C7x9.8 1,510.91 W18x86 361.29 W16x31 856.40 W18x55 361.29 W16x31

9.8 86 31 55 31

7 19 16 18 16

2 11 6 8 6

11 13 13 13 13

7.0 2 2 2 2

19 11 21 21 21

0.05278 0.03056 0.05833 0.05833 0.05833

15 15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20 20

60 60 60 60 60

95 95 70.505 95 70.505 95 70.505 95 70.505

1,045.00 1,305.50 1,305.50 1,305.50 1,305.50

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

1,158.56 W18x76 280.87 W18x35 1,954.25 W24x76 1,954.25 W24x76 1,954.25 W24x76

76 35 76 76 76

19 18 24 24 24

11 8 9 9 9

21 1,530 375 890 375 co 1,330 510 2,100 2,100 2,100

To GRe2, GRe3, GRe4, GRe5 To CRA3e, CRB2e To CRB2e, CRB3e To CRB3e, CRB4e To CRB4e, CRB5e

11 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

9.0 1 1 1 1 1

7 26 11 21 21 21

0.01944 0.07222 0.03056 0.05833 0.05833 0.05833

15 15 15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20 20 20

60 60 60 60 60 60

95 95 4.8682 95 4.8682 95 4.8682 95 4.8682 95 4.8682

1,045.00 337.37 337.37 337.37 337.37 337.37

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

57.94 C10x15.3 958.45 W18x86 72.58 C10x25 505.02 W18x40 505.02 W18x40 505.02 W18x40

15.3 86 25 40 40 40

10 19 18 18 18 18

3 11 3 6 6 6

67 To GRe5, GRe6, GRe7 1,530 To CRB6e, CRB5e 91 To CRB5e, CRC3e 612 To CRC3e, CRC4e 612 To CRC4e, CRC5e 612 To CRC5e, CRC7e

4 15.5

6.0 2

31 20

0.08611 0.05556

15 15

20 20

60 60

95 95 461.13

380.00 1,933.63

29000 29000

1,829.84 W18X119 2,500.38 W27x84

119 84

19 27

11 10

2,190 TO GR21, GR20 2,850 TO CRC10, CRC14

To GR6, GR7 To CRB4, CRB5, CRC3 To CRC3, CRC4 TO CRC4 TO CRC4, CRC5, CRC6

20 Beam 31 Girder

B4

Roof

RD

8 Girder

B5

GR24

10

2

8

0.02222

15

20

60

95

950.00

29000

35

18

8

Roof Roof Roof

RE RE RE

23 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder

B6 B6

B6 GR22 GR23

4 15.5 15.5

6.8 2.0 2.0

31 10 13

0.08611 0.02778 0.03611

15 15 15

20 20 20

60 60 60

95 95 461.13 95 11.29

380.00 1,933.63 1,483.79

29000 29000 29000

1,829.84 W18X119 312.55 W18x35 526.92 W18x40

119 35 40

19 18 18

11 8 6

2,190 TO GR22, GR23 510 TO CRC17,CRC18,CRC13,CRC14 612 TO CRC14, CRC15, CRC18

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

RG RG RG RG RG

B7 B8 B9 B9 GR10

4.5 10.5 10.5 4.5 10

1 1 1 1 1

15 20 12 12 30

0.04167 0.05556 0.03333 0.03333 0.08333

15 15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20 20

60 60 60 60 60

95 95 95 95 95 35.667

427.50 997.50 997.50 427.50 985.67

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

233.21 W18x35 1,289.87 W18x86 278.61 W18x35 119.41 W18x35 4,301.67 W27x146

35 86 35 35 146

18 19 18 18 28

8 11 8 8 14

510 To CRC6, CRC6e 1,530 To CRCG1, GR10 510 To CRG2, GR10 510 To CRG3, CRG4 5,630 To CRC5, CRG4

1,351.86 W18x86 1,297.41 W18x86

86 86

19 19

11 11

1,530 TO G51 1,530

na na na na na

Beam Beam Beam Beam Girder

78.62 W18x35

510 TO CRC11, CRC11B, CRC12, CRC13

4.5 4.5A 4.5 4.5A

22 Beam 24 Girder

B51 G51

11 12

3 2

24 22

0.06667 0.06111

15 15

40 40

0 0

55 55 93.818

605.00 753.82

29000 29000

4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

70 Beam CRB9 B52 70 Beam CRB8 B53 70 Beam CRB7,B56 B54 Beam B55 GIRDER G52 GIRDER G53 GIRDER G54

6 6 6 6 16 16 16

2 2 2

32 32 32 32 28 18 24

0.08889 0.08889 0.08889 0.08889 0.07778 0.05 0.06667

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 55 55 317.33 55 317.33 55 317.33

330.00 1,197.33 1,197.33 1,197.33

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

17,318.00 15,812.00 18,072.00 1,747.86 4,248.47 1,128.69 2,675.42

W36X260 W36X260 W36X300 W18X119 W27x146 W24X76 W27x84

260 260 300 119 146 76 84

37 37 37 19 28 24 27

17 17 17 11 14 9 10

17,300 NOT UNIFORM 17,300 NOT UNIFORM 20,300 NOT UNIFORM 2,190 5,630 2,100 2,850

6 6 16 16 16

2 2 6

32 32 32 11 22

0.08889 0.08889 0.08889 0.03056 0.06111

15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 317.33 55 317.33 55 317.33

330.00 1,197.33 1,197.33 1,197.33

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

10,267.00 W33X201 1,747.86 W18X119 6,341.74 W27x146 257.59 W16x31 2,060.76 W24X76

201 119 146 31 76

34 19 28 16 24

16 11 14 6 9

11,500 NOT UNIFORM 2,190 5,630 375 2,100

4 15.5 15.5

9.0 2 2

31 20 12

0.08611 0.05556 0.03333

15 15 15

40 40 40

0 0 0

55 55 461.13 55 54.194

220.00 1,313.63 906.69

29000 29000 29000

1,059.38 W18X119 1,698.65 W27x84 253.25 W18x35

119 84 35

19 27 18

11 10 8

4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B 4.5B

B51

4.5 4.5C 4.5 4.5C 4.5 4.5C 4.5 4.5C 4.5 4.5C

70 Beam CRB5 Beam GIRDER GIRDER GIRDER

B56 B57 G55 G56 G57

4.5 4.5D 4.5 4.5D 4.5 4.5D

32 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder

B510 B510

B510 G521 G520

B5

G525

4

2

21

0.05833

15

40

0

55

B511 B511 B511

B511 G522 G523 G524

4 15.5 15.5 15.5

10.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

31 10 13 13

0.08611 0.02778 0.03611 0.03611

15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 461.13 55 11.29 55 16.774

B513 B514 B515

10.5 10.5 4.5

1 1 1

20 12 12

0.05556 0.03333 0.03333

15 15 15

40 40 40

0 0 0

55 55 55

4.5 4.5D

8 Girder

4.5 4.5E 4.5 4.5E 4.5 4.5E 4.5 4.5E

36 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder 31 Girder

4.5 4.5G 4.5 4.5G 4.5 4.5G

4.5 4.5G

na na na

na

4 4A 4 4A

Beam Beam Beam

Girder

G510

10

1,530 510 510

55 35.667

585.67

0 0

55 55 93.818

605.00 753.82

29000 29000

1,351.86 W18x86 1,297.41 W18x86

2 2 2

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 282.67 55 282.67 55 282.67

330.00 1,162.67 1,162.67 1,162.67

29000 29000 29000 29000

1,747.86 W18X106 4,125.46 W27x146 1,096.01 W24X76 2,597.96 W27x84

6 6 16 16 16

17.5 2 2 6

32 32 32 11 22

0.08889 0.08889 0.08889 0.03056 0.06111

15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 282.67 55 282.67 55 282.67

330.00 330.00 1,162.67 1,162.67 1,162.67

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

W30x99 1,747.86 W18X106 6,158.12 W27x161 250.14 W16x31 2,001.09 W24X76

B410 G421 G420 G419 G418

4 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5

9.0 2 2 2 2

31 20 12 11 18

0.08611 0.05556 0.03333 0.03056 0.05

15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0 0

55 55 410.75 55 410.75 55 410.75 55 54.194

220.00 1,263.25 1,263.25 1,263.25 906.69

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

1,059.38 W18X106 1,633.51 W27x84 352.84 W18x40 271.78 W18x35 854.71 W18x86

G425

4

2

21

0.05833

15

40

0

55

220.00

29000

329.32 W18x40

B411 G422 G423

4 15.5 15.5

10.0 2.0 6.0

31 10 13

0.08611 0.02778 0.03611

15 15 15

40 40 40

0 0 0

55 55 410.75 55 11.29

220.00 1,263.25 863.79

29000 29000 29000

B413 B414 B415 G410

B410 B410 B410 B410

8 Girder

B410

4 4E 4 4E 4 4E

36 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder

B411 B411

B31

11 8 8

40 40

32 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder 31 Girder 31 Girder

Beam Beam Beam Girder

19 18 18

40

4 4D

22 Beam 24 Girder

2,190 510 612 612

86 35 35

15 15 15 15

4 4D 4 4D 4 4D 4 4D 4 4D

0

612

11 8 6 6

15 15

B43 B47 G45 G46 G47

na na na na

746.77 W18x86 161.30 W18x35 69.13 W18x35

6

19 18 18 18

15

Beam 105 Beam GIRDER GIRDER GIRDER

3 3A 3 3A

29000 29000 29000

18

0.08889 0.07778 0.05 0.06667

4 4C 4 4C 4 4C 4 4C 4 4C

0.08333

577.50 577.50 247.50

29000

101,977.19

2,190 2,850 510

40 119 35 40 40

0.06667 0.06111

6 16 16 16

30

1,059.38 W18X119 212.33 W18x35 306.75 W18x40 308.70 W18x40

32 28 18 24

B42 G42 G43 G44

1

329.32 W18x40

29000 29000 29000 29000

24 22

11 12

Beam GIRDER GIRDER GIRDER

B51

29000

3 2

B41 G41

4 4B 4 4B 4 4B 4 4B

4 4G 4 4G 4 4G 4 4G

22 Beam 24 Girder

220.00 220.00 1,313.63 863.79 869.27

Total Self W# Total SelfCost W Tons 10,320.00 5.16 6,192 3,696.00 1.85 2,218 40,421.33 20.21 24,253 9,338.00 4.67 5,603 3,096.00 1.55 1,858 4,752.00 2.38 2,851 4,028.00 2.01 2,417 2,184.00 1.09 1,310 588.00 0.29 353 2,494.00 1.25 1,496 558.00 0.28 335 1,320.00 0.66 792 558.00 0.28 335 10,108.00 5.05 6,065 770.00 0.39 462 3,192.00 1.60 1,915 3,192.00 1.60 1,915 3,192.00 1.60 1,915 963.90 0.48 578 2,236.00 1.12 1,342 275.00 0.14 165 840.00 0.42 504 840.00 0.42 504 840.00 0.42 504 22,134.00 11.07 13,280 3,360.00 1.68 2,016 560.00 0.28 336 24,900.75 12.45 14,940 700.00 0.35 420 1,040.00 0.52 624 525.00 0.26 315 1,720.00 0.86 1,032 420.00 0.21 252 420.00 0.21 252 4,380.00 2.19 2,628

2,555.98 W27x146

146

28

14

5,630

86 86

19 19

11 11

1,530 1,530

106 146 76 84

19 28 24 27

11 14 9 10

1,910 5,630 2,100 2,850

99 106 161 31 76

30 19 28 16 24

11 11 14 6 9

3,990 CATCHES 3 B47 1,910 6,280 375 2,100

106 84 40 35 86

19 27 18 18 19

11 10 6 8 11

1,910 2,850 612 510 1,530

40

18

6

612

1,059.38 W18X106 204.19 W18x35 306.75 W18x40

106 35 40

19 18 18

11 8 6

1,910 510 612

86 35 35 146

19 18 18 28

11 8 8 14

1,530 510 510 5,630

86 86

19 19

11 11

1,530 1,530

10.5 10.5 4.5 10

1 1 1 1

20 12 12 30

0.05556 0.03333 0.03333 0.08333

15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 55 35.667

577.50 577.50 247.50 585.67

29000 29000 29000 29000

746.77 W18x86 161.30 W18x35 69.13 W18x35 2,555.98 W27x146

B31 G31

11 12

3 2

24 22

0.06667 0.06111

15 15

40 40

0 0

55 55 93.818

605.00 753.82

29000 29000

1,351.86 W18x86 1,297.41 W18x86

3 3B 3 3B 3 3B 3 3B

Beam GIRDER GIRDER GIRDER

B32 G32 G33 G34

6 16 16 16

2 2 2

32 28 18 24

0.08889 0.07778 0.05 0.06667

15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 317.33 55 317.33 55 317.33

330.00 1,197.33 1,197.33 1,197.33

29000 29000 29000 29000

1,747.86 W18X119 4,248.47 W27x146 1,128.69 W24X76 2,675.42 W27x84

119 146 76 84

19 28 24 27

11 14 9 10

2,190 5,630 2,100 2,850

3 3C 3 3C 3 3C 3 3C 3 3C

Beam 105 Beam GIRDER B37 GIRDER B37 GIRDER B37

B33 B37 G35 G36 G37

11 6 16 16 16

17.5 2 2 6

32 32 32 11 22

0.08889 0.08889 0.08889 0.03056 0.06111

15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 282.67 55 282.67 55 282.67

605.00 330.00 1,162.67 1,162.67 1,162.67

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

W30x99 1,747.86 W18X106 6,158.12 W30X132 250.14 W16x31 2,001.09 W24X76

99 106 132 31 76

30 19 30 16 24

11 11 11 6 9

3,990 CATCHES 3 B37 1,910 5,770 375 2,100

4 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5

9.0 2 2 2 2

31 20 12 11 18

0.08611 0.05556 0.03333 0.03056 0.05

15 15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0 0

55 55 410.75 55 410.75 55 410.75 55 54.194

220.00 1,263.25 1,263.25 1,263.25 906.69

29000 29000 29000 29000 29000

1,059.38 1,633.51 352.84 271.78 854.71

106 84 40 35 86

19 27 18 18 19

11 10 6 8 11

1,910 2,850 612 510 1,530

3 3 3 3 3

3D 3D 3D 3D 3D

Beam Girder Girder Girder Girder

B310 B310 B310 B310

B310 G321 G320 G319 G318

3 3D

8 Girder

B410

G325

4

2

21

0.05833

15

40

0

55

220.00

29000

329.32 W18x40

40

18

6

612

3 3E 3 3E 3 3E 3 3E

36 Beam 31 Girder 31 Girder 31 Girder

B311 B311 B311

B311 G322 G323 G324

4 15.5 15.5 15.5

10.0 2.0 6.0 6.0

31 10 13 13

0.08611 0.02778 0.03611 0.03611

15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 410.75 55 410.75 55 410.75

220.00 1,263.25 1,263.25 1,263.25

29000 29000 29000 29000

1,059.38 W18X106 204.19 W18x35 448.60 W18x55 448.60 W18x55

106 35 55 55

19 18 18 18

11 8 8 8

1,910 510 890 890

10.5 10.5 4.5 10

1 1 1 1

20 12 12 30

0.05556 0.03333 0.03333 0.08333

15 15 15 15

40 40 40 40

0 0 0 0

55 55 55 55 35.667

577.50 577.50 247.50 585.67

29000 29000 29000 29000

746.77 W18x86 161.30 W18x35 69.13 W18x35 2,555.98 W27x146

86 35 35 146

19 18 18 28

11 8 8 14

1,530 510 510 5,630

4 3 6

1 1 1

30 30 6

0.08333 0.08333 0.01667

15 15 15

20 20 20

60 60 60

95 95 95

380.00 285.00 570.00

29000 1800 1800

1,658.41 W18X106 20,039.06 W18X106 320.63 W16x31

106 106 31

19 19 16

11 11 6

1,910 1,910 375

3 3G 3 3G 3 3G 4 3G

32 31 31 31 31

na na na na

Beam Beam Beam Girder

B313 B314 B315 G310

na na na

Beam Beam Beam

Balcony Balcony Balcony

W18X106 W27x84 W18x40 W18x35 W18x86

97

FIBER CEMENT PANEL 1X3 BLOCKING METAL FASTENER

LEVEL 4.5

Wall Sections

0

1

2

4

SOLAR PANELS MOISTURE BARRIER BOLT CONNECTION TO METAL DECK 2 LAYERS 4.5 INCH EPS FOAM ERV UNIT

LEVEL W24x761 STEEL W-SECTION STEEL CHANNELS

TAPERED W SECTION EXTERIOR PATH

3” PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS

5/8” GYPSUM FINISH CEILING

EXTERIOR WALL ASSEMBLY 4" WHITE CEDAR HORIZONTAL LAP SIDING 1" AIR GAP / VERTICAL FURRING STRIPS

CHASE FOR MEP

2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

STEEL ANGLE

23 X 11.5 PRECAST CONCRETE BEAM

5/8" ZIP SHEATHING W/ TAPED JOINTS 8" LIGHT GAUGE STEEL C-CHANNEL

FILTER FABRIC

LEVEL 0

GRAVEL DRAINAGE PIPE 4" EPS FOAM INSULATION

4" CONCRETE SLAB 2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

8" CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL

COMPACTED GRAVEL

PRECAST CONCRETE FOOTING

COMPACTED EARTH

8" DENSE PACK CELLULOSE 5/8" GYPSUM BOARD

2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

MARVIN CLAD SLIDING PATIO DOOR

TYPICAL FLOOR ASSEMBLY 1/2" MARMOLEUM FLOORING

GLASS RAILING

1/2" CORK UNDERLAY 1 1/2" CONCRETE

TOP ROOFMETAL DECK 1 1/2"OF CELLULAR W24X76 STEEL W-SECTION

SOLAR PANELS MOISTURE BARRIER

TREK DECKING 2X4 BLOCKING TAPERED W SECTION

BOLT CONNECTION TO METAL DECK 2 LAYERS 4.5 INCH EPS FOAM

ERV UNIT

TAPERED W SECTION

W24x76 STEEL W-SECTION STEEL CHANNELS 5/8” GYPSUM FINISH CEILING

EXTERIOR WALL ASSEMBLY 4" WHITE CEDAR HORIZONTAL LAP SIDING 1" AIR GAP / VERTICAL FURRING STRIPS

CHASE FOR MEP

2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

STEEL ANGLE

5/8" ZIP SHEATHING W/ TAPED JOINTS 8" LIGHT GAUGE STEEL C-CHANNEL 8" DENSE PACK CELLULOSE 5/8" GYPSUM BOARD

MARVIN CLAD SLIDING PATIO DOOR

TYPICAL FLOOR ASSEMBLY

LEVEL 4.5CONCRETE SLAB 6" 2-WAY

1/2" MARMOLEUM FLOORING 1/2" CORK UNDERLAY 1 1/2" CONCRETE 1 1/2" CELLULAR METAL DECK W24X76 STEEL W-SECTION

GLASS RAILING TREK DECKING 2X4 BLOCKING TAPERED W SECTION

CONCRETE TRANSFER BEAMS

LEVEL 2

6" 2-WAY CONCRETE SLAB

CONCRETE TRANSFER BEAMS

98 0

OOF W18X119 STEEL W-SECTION BEAM BOLTED CONNECTION W18X35 STEEL W-SECTION GIRDER

EXTERIOR WALL ASSEMBLY VERTICAL FIBER CEMENT CLADDING AIR GAP / HORIZONTAL FURRING STRIPS AIR GAP / VERTICAL FURRING STRIPS 2" EPS FOAM INSULATION 5/8" ZIP SHEATHING W/ TAPED JOINTS 8" LIGHT GAUGE STEEL C-CHANNEL 8" DENSE PACK CELLULOSE 5/8" GYPSUM BOARD

MARVIN CLAD ULTIMATE PUSH OUT CASEMENT

ALUMINUM SOLAR SHADE

TOP OF ROOF

FIBER CEMENT PANEL 1X3 BLOCKING METAL FASTENER

W18X119 STEEL W-SECTION BEAM BOLTED CONNECTION EXTERIOR WALL ASSEMBLY VERTICAL FIBER CEMENT CLADDING

W18X35 STEEL W-SECTION GIRDER

AIR GAP / HORIZONTAL FURRING STRIPS AIR GAP / VERTICAL FURRING STRIPS 2" EPS FOAM INSULATION 5/8" ZIP SHEATHING W/ TAPED JOINTS 8" LIGHT GAUGE STEEL C-CHANNEL 8" DENSE PACK CELLULOSE 5/8" GYPSUM BOARD

MARVIN CLAD ULTIMATE PUSH OUT CASEMENT

ALUMINUM SOLAR SHADE

FIBER CEMENT PANEL 1X3 BLOCKING METAL FASTENER

LEVEL 4.5

EXTERIOR PATH

LEVEL 1

3” PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS

EXTERIOR PATH

23 X 11.5 PRECAST CONCRETE BEAM

3” PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS

23 X 11.5 PRECAST CONCRETE BEAM

FILTER FABRIC

LEVEL GRAVEL

0

DRAINAGE PIPE 4" EPS FOAM INSULATION

FILTER FABRIC GRAVEL DRAINAGE PIPE 4" EPS FOAM INSULATION

4" CONCRETE SLAB 2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

8" CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL

COMPACTED GRAVEL

PRECAST CONCRETE FOOTING

COMPACTED EARTH

2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

4" CONCRETE SLAB 2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

8" CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALL

COMPACTED GRAVEL

PRECAST CONCRETE FOOTING

COMPACTED EARTH

2" EPS FOAM INSULATION

99

Systems High insulation values, efficient systems, and the installation of renewable energy generation can reduce the maintenance costs of the building, and also provide surplus energy to the rest of the neighborhood.

Assembly: R 38.9 Targeting Net Positive Total Energy Use Residential: 57,500 kw/yr New Roof Area: 6,200 ft2 92kW array 96,812 kwH/year Existing Roof Area: 29,100 437 kW array 459,856 kwH/year Annual Vermont Usage 6,830 kwH/year 67 homes powered by solar

ENERGY RECOVERY VENTILATOR 4” DUCTING SUPPLY 4” DUCTING RETURN EXHAUST FAN

LEVEL 4 FRESH AIR

100

Heat Loss Calculator for Study Building

Energy Modeling

Infiltration* Heat Recovery

141825 ERV

184372.5

3,073

90

0.018

70% Subtract from Total Infiltration

4,978.06 (3,484.64)

Total Heat Loss

33,579.96

*to Find infiltration:Calculate the total volume of the building. Multiply the volume by 1.3 ACH (Appendix B6.2)Then Divide by 60 inorder to get CFM. Example: 300,000 Cubic Feet x 1.3ACH= 390,000CFHour x 60Min/1 Hour =6500 CFM

N Block Residential North Wall

38.9

2551

90

0.025707

5,902.06

NORTH GLASS

3.25

408

90

0.307692

11,298.46

6

144

90

0.166667

2,160.00

NORTH DOORS Delta T

S Block Residential Lighting + Other Shower + Hot Water

60

Gallons

to lbs

20

BTUs

160

Watts

Input/dayWatts/yr

9600 2823.529 3105.882

kw/yr /1000

NORTH 4.5 ROOF http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/pdf/FSEC-PF-464-15.pdf

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

20

160

9600 2823.529 3105.882

60

20

160

9600 2823.529 3105.882

4,960.00

0.036232

0.022222

2,520.65

0.307692

2,658.46

North Stair ROOF

45

190

90

0.022222

45

486

90

0.022222

972.00

27.6

811

90

0.036232

2,644.57

3.25

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

WEST STAIR GLASS

1133647 22,728.06

BASE SHOPS

Solar Potential: https://www.solar-estimate.org/solar-panels-101/how-many-square-feet-of-roof-space-do-i-need-to-install-solar-panels Roof area of existing building azimuth 144 29,160 kW Array on 80% surface 437 kWh/year 459,856 Roof area of new building Usable roof area of new building kW Array

3.25

96

90

90

0.307692

752

90

0.025707

1,739.85

272

90

0.307692

7,532.31

38.9

2893

90

0.025707

6,693.32

SOUTH COURT GLASS

3.25

560

90

0.307692

15,507.69

SOUTH COURT SLIDING DOOR GLASS

3.25

588

90

0.307692

16,283.08

6

28

90

0.166667

420.00

SOUTH COURT DOOR

7,740 6192

Volume Infiltration*

96,812

*1.3 ACH 135036

ERV

To CFM

175546.8

2,926

Heat Loss 90 Calculator 0.018 for Study Building 4,739.76

70% Subtract from Total Infiltration

(3,317.83)

Total Heat Loss

U-Value

Heat Loss in BTU/HR

86,586.83

E Block Residential

Heat Loss Calculator for Study Building

Insulation AREA in Sq Ft Delta -T

2,658.46

38.9 3.25

Heat Recovery

Assembly Type

380.00

WEST WALL

92

kWh/year

96

WEST GLASS SOUTH COURT WALL

Total 57,552.67

Section of Envelope

834.00

NORTH STAIR ROOF FLAT WEST STAIR WALL

Space Heating

0.022222

90

18,977.93

1133647

E BLOCK RESIDENTIAL Lighting + Other Shower + Hot Water

90

773

North Stair NORTH STAIR GLASS

60

Space Heating

417 2480

15,846.67

N BLOCK RESIDENTIAL Lighting + Other Shower + Hot Water

90

45 45 27.6

NORTH ROOF

1133647

Space Heating

Wall Height:

9

NORTH WALL

38.9

1000

90

0.025707

2,313.62

NORTH GLASS

3.25

220

90

0.307692

6,092.31

6

23

90

0.166667

NORTH DOORS

S Block Residential

345.00

South Wall

Light Gauge Metal Stud infilled with Dense38.9 Pack Cellulose1638

90

0.025707

3,789.72

EAST WALL

38.9

4140

90

0.025707

9,578.41

South Glass

Triple Pane

90

0.307692

9,969.23

EAST GLASS

3.25

807

90

0.307692

22,347.69

27.6

720

90

0.036232

2,347.83

3.25

48

90

0.307692

1,329.23

3.25

360

SOUTH STAIR WALL

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

27.6

900

90

0.036232

2,934.78

EAST STAIR WALL

SOUTH STAIR GLASS

Triple Pane

3.25

112

90

0.307692

3,101.54

EAST STAIR GLASS

West Wall

Light Gauge Metal Stud infilled with Dense38.9 Pack Cellulose1650

90

0.025707

3,817.48

West Glass

Triple Pane

90

0.307692

9,747.69

3.25

352

WEST STAIR WALL

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

27.6

812

90

0.036232

2,647.83

WEST STAIR GLASS

Triple Pane

3.25

112

90

0.307692

3,101.54

North End Wall

Light Gauge Metal Stud infilled with Dense38.9 Pack Cellulose 274

90

0.025707

633.93

North End Glass

Triple Pane

36

90

0.307692

996.92

North Wall

Light Gauge Metal Stud infilled with Dense38.9 Pack Cellulose1474

90

0.025707

3,410.28

North Glass

Triple Pane

North Doors

Triple Pane

3.25

3.25

152

90

0.307692

4,209.23

6

24

90

0.166667

360.00

East End Wall

Light Gauge Metal Stud infilled with Dense38.9 Pack Cellulose 341

90

0.025707

788.95

East End Glass

Triple Pane

3.25

24

90

0.307692

664.62

East End Door

Triple Pane

3.25

84

90

0.307692

2,326.15

East COURTYARD Wall

38.9

1374

90

0.025707

3,178.92

East Glass

3.25

136

90

0.307692

3,766.15

6

52

90

0.166667

780.00

East Door East Roof

45

East Roof Glass

90

0.022222

1,920.00

SOUTH STAIR GLASS

28

90

0.166667

420.00

318

90

0.022222

636.00

818

90

0.036232

2,667.39

90

3.25

100

SOUTH WALL

38.9

648

90

0.025707

1,499.23

3.25

72

90

0.307692

1,993.85

SOUTH DOOR

90

0.307692

6

26

WEST COURT WALL

38.9

3116

90

0.025707

7,209.25

3.25

288

90

0.307692

7,975.38

WEST COURT SLIDING DOORS GLASS

3.25

672

90

0.307692

18,609.23

6

26

90

0.166667

BUMP OUT WALL

38.9

116

90

0.025707

268.38

BUMP OUT GLASS

3.25

35

90

0.307692

969.23

WEST COURT DOOR

BUMP OUT DOOR

6

28

90

0.166667

2,769.23

WEST COURT GLASS

0.166667

390.00

390.00

420.00

BUMP OUT ROOF

45

902

90

0.022222

1,804.00

EAST 4.5 ROOF

45

1683

90

0.022222

3,366.00

90

0.022222

6,034.00

EAST ROOF

32

90

0.307692

886.15

1963

90

0.022222

3,926.00

45

1455

90

0.022222

2,910.00

Infiltration*

3.25

48

90

0.307692

1,329.23

Heat Recovery

*1.3 ACH

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

SOUTH GLASS

45

3017

Heat Loss Calculator for Study Building Volume

Total Heat Loss Volume

6 45 27.6

EAST STAIR ROOF

45

West Roof West Roof Glass

960

EAST STAIR DOOR

SOUTH STAIR WALL

3.25

South Roof

6" CONCRETE AND 4" INSUL

*1.3 ACH 148104

ERV

192535.2

To CFM 3,209

90

70% Subtract from Total Infiltration

0.018

5,198.45 (3,638.92) 60,309.94

To CFM

TO AIR SOURCE HEAT PUMP ON ROOF REFRIGERANT LINE INDOOR AIR HANDLER

LEVEL 4 HEATING

101

Site Model

102

Model

103

104

105

3 - Pedestrian Street

106

107

4 - Central Courtyard

108

109

110

Appendix A: Precedents

111

Dadaab Refugee Complex Location - Kenya Area - 17 mile2 Population - 235,269 Density - 13,839 / mile2 Somali Population 96% (est)

The original camp was only planned for 90,000, but grew past this amount to five separate camps: Dagahaley, Ifo, Ifo 2, Hagadera, and Kambioos. Many of these refugees are from Somalia, but others are from Uganda, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Herz 60). Some areas have progressed and resemble naturally grown towns (UNHCR Kenya). Showing the prevalence of protracted refugee situations, there are 10,000 third generation Somali refugees (Milner 153).

Source: “Dadaab Refugee Complex Data Sheet,” UNHCR.

Source: “Dadaab Refugee Complex Data Sheet,” UNHCR; Herz, From Camp to City, 60; Milner, “Protracted Refugee Situations,” 153.

Source: D’Osri, “The world’s largest refugee camp.”

Source: Google Earth.

Source: “Dadaab Refugee Complex Data Sheet,” UNHCR.

112

Kibera Location - Nairobi, Kenya Area - .96 mile2 Population - 170,000-1,000,000 Density - 177,083 / mile2 (min) 1,041,666 / mile2 Lebanese Population - 80.8% Syrian Population - 19.1%

Began as an informal settlement by a group of Nubians, the area has continued to grow denser and is now one of the largest slums in the world.

The wide range of estimates in population (from as little as 170,000 to over a million) show the lack of governance and organization. An example of the challenges of an arrival city, the neighborhood lacks electricity, employment, and other basic needs like water.

Source: Aravena, Elemental, 27; Fihlani, “Kenya’s Kibera slum gets a revamp.”

Source: “Kibera Facts and Information.”

Source: “An aerial view of the Kibera slums.”

Source: Google Earth.

Source: Fihlani, “Kenya’s Kibera slum gets a revamp.”

113

Violet Para Housing Complex Location - Iquique - Chile Date - 2004 Designer - ELEMENTAL Area of Initial Home - 387 ft2 Area of Complete Home - 775 ft2 Area of Site - 61,591 ft2 Density - 163ft2 / person

The project was an early iteration of Elemental’s incremental housing approach. Working in close collaboration with 93 families in an informal settlement in Iquique, the social housing challenged typical patterns of reducing size and displacing families from the city. The homes are constructed partially, with the main services like plumbing and electrical installed for the kitchen and bathroom.

Then, with guidance, the residents expand their homes to fill the porous spaces, saving money and giving ownership to these families.

Source: Aravena, Elemental, 82.

Source: Aravena, Elemental, 82.

Floor plan. Source: Aravena, Elemental, 113.

Site plan. Source: Aravena, Elemental, 101.

114

Initial structure. Source: “Half a House,” 99% Invisible Podcast.

After resident modification. Source: Aravena, Elemental, 155.

Diagrams

Growth

Personalization

Private - Public

Circulation

115

Empower Shack Location - Cape Town, South Africa Date - 2013 - current Designer - Urban Think Tank Area of Home - ft2 Area for Public - 23,800 ft2 Area for Private - 19,580 ft2 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Empower Shack.â&#x20AC;?

116

While there should be a right to housing based on the constitution of the country, 7.5 million people are not able to participate in the housing market due to price, regulations, lack of finances, and private developers. As a result, there are 2,700 informal settlements in South Africa. The Empower Shack pursues the goal of the fair distribution of space. The design integrates livelihood programs and not just housing. The design created an overall percentage of 10% dedicated to rental stock to provide housing for additional families and individuals in Khayelitsha.

Villa Verde Location - Constitución, Chile Date - 2016 Designer - ELEMENTAL Area of Home - 935 ft2 Area of Site - 61,203 ft2

The forestry company Arauco partnered with Elemental to develop a plan to house its workers in an affordable manner. By providing the minimum spaces to meet Chilean legal requirements, costs were kept to a minimum. The shells are well insulated, and complex systems like plumbing and electricity were installed before occupancy. Through incremental housing, residents can then make changes to the design through resources like design manuals and workshops which provide training.

All Sources: “Villa Verde Housing.”

117

Upstairs-Downstairs Location - Helsinki, Finland Date - 2018 Designer - OOPEAA + Lundén Architecture Company Area of Home - 358 - 1,226 ft2 Area of Site - 83,549 ft2 All Sources: Walsh, “OOPEAA + Lundén Architecture Company Design Charred Timber Housing District in Helsinki.”

118

In a quickly growing area of the city, the project tried to links the forest, the active street, and railway. The multifaceted blocks of apartments creates an overall variety through the form which is enforced with the diversity of housing types. The apartments range in size, and can be two story, studios, and have access to balconies. A communal inner courtyard acts as the focal point, and further green space is provided through various roof terraces. Massing optimizes light and shade, and solar panels and storm-water collection are other environmental features.

Diagrams

Private - Shared

Private - Public

Massing

Circulation

119

Spreefeld Co-housing Location - Berlin, Germany Date - 2013 Designer - Carpaneto, Katkoehl, BARarchitekten Area of Home - 581-3,121 ft2 Area of Site - 80,000 ft2 Area of Project - 82,000 ft2 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Coop Housing at River Spreefeld.â&#x20AC;?

120

Designed through a participatory process known as the Baugruppen, various families grouped together and purchased the land. These grassroots developers sought to create a socially just, economically stable, and environmentally responsible urban building block. The site is open to neighbors and the city, and has various gradients of public and private space.

Community spaces include fitness, guest, salon, kids, storage, and laundry and the option space includes a construction shop. The project uses modular and affordable construction, as well as renewable energy.

Diagrams

Private - Shared Plan

Private - Shared Section

Private - Public

Source: “Coop Housing at River Spreefeld.”

Circulation

121

Tête in L’air Location - Paris, France Date - 2013 Designer - KOZ Architects Home Area - 1,075 ft2 Site Area - 22,614 ft2 Amount of Homes All Sources: “T´ête in L’air.”

122

The site is an old working class borough of the city, and had a vacant building on it for several years.

Keeping some of the urban characteristics of the context, the new building engages with the street, but then has a series of paths and gardens within.

Generous gardens opens onto the path, creating intermediary between home and street. 100% wood construction has a lower carbon footprint than typical concrete construction, and the siding creates a warm atmosphere in the central courtyards.

Nanterre Co-housing Location - Nanterre, France Date - 2015 Designer - MaO Architects, Tectône Home Area - 1,700 ft2 Amount of Homes - 15

Created out of participatory design process with residents, 15 specific families collaborated on the design of the buildings. There are complex spatial qualities provided, helping to blur the line between suburb and urban. Height differentiation between two and four stories helps this as well. A footbridge connects the two separate buildings. The ground floor has common areas like a multipurpose hall, kitchen, laundry, DIY shop, and bike storage, as well as a collective garden.

All Sources: “Nanterre Co-Housing.”

123

Bright St Cooperative Housing Location - Burlington - Vermont Date - 2016 Designer - Duncan Wisniewski Architecture Area of Home - ft2 Amount of Homes - 40

The projects mixes houshold sizes and incomes.

Smaller homes at the edge of the road tie the design in with the community. The community has a system of self ownership and management. Shared amenities include underground parking, a laundry room, a community room, and shared outdoor spaces. 13 one bedroom units range $675-$975.

12 two bedroom units range $780-$1,250. 5 three bedroom units range $975-$1,350. 1 four bedroom unit ranges from $1,300 to $1,450. The buildings are energy efficient in construction as well.

Source: “Bright Street Cooperative Housing,” Duncan Wisniewski.

Source: Shenton, “Bright Street Co-op Update.”

Source: “Bright Street Cooperative Housing,” Duncan Wisniewski.

Source: Seelig, “Senator Leahy Brings Program HOME.”

124

Source: “Bright Street Cooperative Housing,” Duncan Wisniewski.

Diagrams

Context

Private - Public

Circulation

125

Bristol Village Co-housing Location - Bristol - Vermont Date - 2015 Designer - Vermont Integrated Architects Area of Home - 890-1530 ft2 Amount of Homes - 14 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bristol Village Co-housing.â&#x20AC;?

126

The project takes a more urban approach than some other Vermont co-housing models. Located near the town center, with shops and amenities like the bus, the village comprises 14 households across 2.5 acres, with a variety of options: apartments, attached townhouses, and single family houses. The units range from 1-3 bedroom, and 890-1530 square feet.

Each is built to high energy standards. There are a variety of shared components, such as a common green, a kitchen for shared meals, and gardens for residents.

Diagrams

Private - Shared

Circulation

127

Burlington Co-housing Location - Burlington, Vermont Date Designer - Maclay Architects Home Area - ft2 Amount of Homes - 30

A series of buildings cluster around pedestrian circulation, with parking located on the periphery.

Townhouses and a large apartment building provide variety of options, and slight variations in the plane of facades offer more individuality. Shared spaces in the common house include kitchen, living and dining, and guest rooms. Environmental features include central heating plant, and high insulation and air sealing in construction. Additionally, solar panels on rooftops generate electricity.

Source: “Burlington Co-housing,” Maclay Architects.

Source: “Burlington Co-housing,” Maclay Architects.

Source: “Burlington Co-housing,” Maclay Architects.

Source: Google Earth.

128

Source: “Burlington Co-housing,” Maclay Architects.

Waterfront Housing Location - Burlington, Vermont Date - 2014 Designer - gbA Home Area - ft2 Amount of Homes - 40

Rather than capitalizing on the potential profit of real estate development on the waterfront, the project focused on the social impact and incorporated affordable units into the design. In total, there are 40 mixed income apartments in the building.

Amenities include underground parking and a communal courtyard for residents. The project also shows a commitment to sustainability through LEED certification.

Source: “Waterfront Housing,” gbA.

Source: “Waterfront Housing,” gbA.

Source: “Waterfront Housing,” gbA.

Source: Google Earth.

Source: “Waterfront Housing,” gbA.

129

Co-op Plaza Location - Brattleboro, Vermont Date - 2012 Designer - gbA Area of Home - 512-937 ft2 Amount of Homes - 24 Area of Project - 72,800 ft2 All Sources: gbA, email to author, October 17, 2018.

130

The site is at a major intersection of mid-rise downtown Brattleboro. A mixed use project, the building contains a food co-op on the ground floor which spills out into an outdoor cafe. The second floor contains offices, a commissary kitchen, and a pocket park. Upper floors have mixed income housing units. Conventional and innovative systems were combined for energy efficiency, such as extensive daylighting through skylights and louvers.

The mixed use also allows excess heat from the grocery store to be used to help heat apartments.

Diagrams

Housing Variety

Circulation Floor 3

Private - Public

Circulation Floor 1

131

Casavant Overlook Location - Winooski, Vermont Date - In process Designer - Summit Properties and Dagesse Co Area of Home - 730-1,030 ft2 Amount of Homes - 39 Affordable - 27

Located at 268 East Allen Street, the project overlooks the nearby natural area. A for profit housing developer purchased the property and came to the city with a proposal to build Affordable Housing. The majority of the units are affordable, and several of these are set aside for those transitioning from or at risk of homelessness. Various apartments include private decks, and there is an outdoor community space in a patio as well. Bike storage is also included, as well as a fitness center.

Source: “Casavant Overlook Apartments,” Summit Properties.

Source: “Casavant Overlook Apartments,” Summit Properties.

Source: “Casavant Overlook Apartments,” Summit Properties.

Source: Google Earth.

132

Source: “Casavant Overlook Apartments,” Summit Properties.

City Lights Location - Winooski, Vermont Date - 2017 Designer - Wiemann Lamphere and Dagesse Co Area of Home - 660-1,040 ft2 Amount of Homes - 29 Monthly Rent - $1,450 - $2,700

Part of a larger master plan, the project is a mixeduse apartment building. Given the historic home on the site and other concerns, the company did various outreach activities. Through environmental design and construction, the building received Efficiency Vermont’s second highest rating. The thick walls also help soundproofing. A sawtooth roof forms vaulted ceilings and allows for integrated solar panels. Shared amenities include a garage, fitness center, and rooftop terrace. The lower floor includes retail space as well.

Sources: Picard, “Jacqueline and Nathan Dagesse”; City Lights Modern Living.

Source: Picard, “Jacqueline and Nathan Dagesse”; “City Lights Redevelopment,” Wiemann Lamphere.

A - 660 ft2 B - 690 ft2 C - 840 ft2 D - 1,040 ft2 E - 760 ft2 F - 920 ft2 G - 1,000 ft2 H - 850 ft2 J - 850 ft2 K - 990 ft2

Source: City Lights Modern Living.

Source: Picard, “Jacqueline and Nathan Dagesse.”

Source: Google Earth.

133

Downstreet Apartments Location - Barre, Vermont Date - 2016 Designer - Scott+Partners and Downstreet Housing Area of Home - ft2 Amount of Homes - 27 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Downstreet Apartments.â&#x20AC;?

134

The project is a energy efficient mixed use apartment and office building which replaced three old buildings on the site. Close to the downtown center, residents have access to shopping, services, and public transit. The project was done in partnership with various groups like Housing VT. The units range from one to two bedrooms and vary in affordability. To address the 100 year flood, the base was raised 1 foot. The building contains a training and teaching classroom for public education and outreach for Downstreet Housing as well.

Community First! Village Location - Austin, Texas Date - ongoing Designer Area of Home - ft2 Area of Site - 27 acres Amount of Homes - 240

A master plan was developed by a local organization known as Mobile Loaves and Fishes. The site has spots for 140 micro units and 100 RVs. Units were designed by leading architects. The project also contains various group features. Amenities include affordable housing options, medical facilities, gardens, and a market. Another organization, community works, provides micro enterprise opportunities such as gardening, art, blacksmithing, woodworking, and concessions.

All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Community First! Village.â&#x20AC;?

135

Bayside Anchor Location - Portland, Maine Date - 2017 Designer - Kaplan Thompson Are of Project - 38,500 ft2 Area of Home - ft2 Amount of Homes - 45 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bayside Anchor.â&#x20AC;?

136

The building acts a community hub for lower-income residents of the neighborhood. The majority of units are affordable, with some subsidized rents. The building exemplifies many sustainable strategies, such as highly insulated walls, optimized daylighting, and efficient systems. The fresh air ventilation system has heat recovery incorporated. The hot water is an ondemand recirculation system. Additionally, there is a 50kw solar array.

Village Centre Location - Brewer, Maine Date - 2016 Designer - CSW Architects Area of Project - 54,000 ft2 Area of Home - ft2 Amount of Homes - 48

Designed in the cold climate of Maine, the project had to respond to the large heating demand. Wide East and West exposure resulted in a solar shading solution to prevent overheating in summer months.

In order to reach an R-40 insulation value, the walls are double offset studs filled with cellulose. High efficiency ERV units are used, supplemented with electric baseboards.

Source: “Village Centre.”

Source: “Village Centre Apartments, ME.”

Source: Village Centre - Brewer, ME

Source: Village Centre - Brewer, ME

Source: Village Centre - Brewer, ME

137

Pruitt-Igoe Location - St. Louis, Missouri Designer - Minoru Yamasaki Date - 1954 Demolished - 1973 Amount of Homes - 2,870

As wealthier individuals (typically white) moved out of cities, blight and slums resulted. With federal funding from the Housing Act of 1949, St Louis sought to build 5800 units to redevelop decaying areas.

Built in the height of modernism, Pruitt-Igoe was a massive undertaking which concentrated half of these housing units in one location. Demonstrating the failures of the residential tower, the area soon fell into decay and gang violence proliferated. Due in part to budget cuts and to segregation, the project was demolished only 18 years later.

Source: Fiederer, “AD Classics: Pruitt-Igoe.”

Sources: Source: Marshall, “Pruitt-Igoe”; Fiederer, “AD Classics: Pruitt-Igoe.”

Source: Marshall, “Pruitt-Igoe.”

Source: Fiederer, “AD Classics: Pruitt-Igoe.”

138

Source: Marshall, “Pruitt-Igoe.”

Habitat 67 Location - Montreal, Canada Date - 1967 Designer - Moshe Safdie Area of Home - ft2 Amount of Homes - 354

Designed for the Canadian pavilion of the 1967 World expo, the approach was about prefabrication and radical changes to apartment design. 354 identical, prefabricated modules were connected by steel cables. These units were prefabricated on site before assembly.

Source: Merin, “AD Classics: Habitat 67.”

Source: Merin, “AD Classics: Habitat 67.”

Source: Merin, “AD Classics: Habitat 67.”

Source: Google Earth.

Source: Merin, “AD Classics: Habitat 67.”

139

Interlace Location - Singapore Date - 2013 Designer - OMA Home Area - ft2 Site Area - 870,876 ft2 Amount of Homes - 1,040 All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Interlace.â&#x20AC;?

140

The site is 870,876 ft2 with more than double this amount in built area, at 1,825,559 ft2. There is also 112% green area due to the strategy of stacking.

Comprised of 1040 apartment units, the site also contains various outdoors spaces and landscaping.

The scheme breaks from isolated vertical towers to an interconnected network of spaces. This strategy is accomplished through stack 31 apartment blocks (each of which are 6 stories tall) to form courtyards and gradients of public and private space.

VM Mountain Location - Copenhagen, Denmark Date - 2008 Designer - BIG Home Area - ft2 Site Area - 355,209 ft2 Amount of Homes -

To challenge the typical separation of building types, the Mountain places the parking underneath the housing, created a multifaceted surface which gives all residents access to a terrace. By doing so, the project mixes the benefits of suburban living with urban density, and has easy access to a light rail network.

All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mountain Dwellings.â&#x20AC;?

Google

141

Kunsthofpassage Location - Dresden Date - 2001 Designer - Annette Paul

A group of artist and designers transformed several courtyards in the Neustadt district of Dresden. One facade includes an elaborate downspout systems that creates music when it rains. The project is an example of how to enliven interior spaces.

Sources: “The Singing Drain Pipes of Kunsthofpassage” ; “Kunsthofpassage Singing Drain Pipes.”

Source: “Kunsthof Dresden.”

142

Source: Google

Source: “Kunstof Dresden.”

Source: “The Singing Drainpipes of Kunstofpassage

Yerba Buena Lofts Location - San Francicso Date - 2001 Designer - Natoma Architects Home Area - ft2 Site Area - ft2 Amount of Homes -

A sturdy concrete structure provides a framework that allows for resident customization and modification.

All Sources: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Yerba Buena Lofts.â&#x20AC;?

143

144

Appendix B: Reading List

145

Yes is More by Bjarke Ingels Group: For those unfamiliar with the world of architecture, this book, formatted as a comic book, presents design in an unpretentious and playful manner.

The Consensus Project Website: This organization examines published, peer-reviewed research on the human influence on global warming and finds that 97% of published climate papers with a position on human-caused global warming agree that global warming is happening and we are the cause. The data shows that the arguments of skeptics are not backed by science.

Drawdown edited by Paul Hawken: This manual presents over one hundred potential solutions to global warming in collaboration with some of the leading experts in the field.

Sustainability Defined Podcast: Defining sustainability one topic and one bad joke at a time, this podcast explains complex issues clearly and with humor.

Designing Regenerative Cultures by Daniel Christian Wahl: The book explores how we can go beyond sustainability, which can be static and passive, to a regenerative culture which adds value to ecological and social systems.

How Buildings Learn by Stewart Brand: Challenging the notion of architecture as a static form, the book makes the case that buildings are not something you finish, but something you start. The human impact and influence of those living and working in a space is part of its nature, and should be embraced.

Cradle to Cradle by William McDonough and Michael Braungart: The book explores how our economy and culture should shift from a cradle to grave mindset, where many resources are wasted, to a cradle to cradle approach, where the products of one system can act as resources to another. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Right to the Cityâ&#x20AC;? by Henri Lefebvre: The writing of this social and urban theorist explains why everyone has a right to not just be in a city but influence it.

Human Cargo by Caroline Moorehead: This challenging book is a collection of many horrific and heartbreaking true stories exploring the many challenges faced by displaced persons and refugees.

UNHCR Global Report 2017: The report gives a broad overview of the global trends in displacement, and the efforts of the UNHCR, the agency which works to serve the needs of refugees.

146

The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies edited by Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh: A collection of essays and writings, both historic and contemporary, on refugees and displaced persons.

Arrival City by Doug Saunders: As millions of people move to cities, especially in the developing world, this puts enormous strain on these communities, defined by the author as Arrival Cities, where people seek opportunity and a better life.

Elemental by Alejandro Aravena: The book details the work of Elemental, a firm which does extensive work in developing countries to seek to build the capacity for upward social mobility and growth.

A People’s History of the United States by Howard Zinn: Delving into some of the darker components of our American history, the book shows the consistent pattern of the white oppression of minority groups. A challenging read, but important to understand the truth of our past.

“The Case for Reparations” by Ta-Nehisi Coates: The article uncovers the historic exclusion of blacks to home ownership, especially in urban spaces.

Evicted by Matthew Desmond: This collection of interviews and stories brings a level of clarity to the lack of affordable homes in the country, and how this damages people and neighborhoods.

Enterprise “Housing Insecurity Dashboard”: This organization has a large collection of data showing that housing is not affordable to many Americans, increasingly including those in the middle-class.

The Architecture of Affordable Housing by Sam Davis: A collection of projects show some of the considerations and complexities of the architectural considerations of affordable housing.

Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities: This website has a large body of data on the impact of refugees on small U.S. cities.

147

148

Epilogue Over the course of this project, I worked to be comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty, and acknowledge that there will be areas I do not understand. And, as I look back on my work, I am the most content in any studio project I have worked on.

These two factors are undoubtedly linked in my mind. A part of what this openness led to was an interest in hearing from as many diverse perspectives as I could. Not only did I talk with professors and other students, I conversed with politicians, architects, developers, and organizations. I learned so much from all these people, and I also grew in my skills as a facilitator, something that I think is a key piece of what it means to be a designer. This has led to discussions which have extended beyond my semester, and I hope continue on into the future, as I grapple with not the concept of mixed affordable homes, but the reality of how to build them, and how to do so in a way that benefits the community.

To return to ambiguity and uncertainty, I think I have also been able to use this approach as a way to recover from some of perfectionist tendencies. Obviously, architecture does require a level of thoroughness and attention to detail which is essential for the success and safety of a building. However, living permanently in a state of stress about the things I will get wrong is not a healthy approach. Neither, for that matter, is working 80 hour weeks. This is not a sustainable way of living. Sustainability is not just about the environment. It must be about people and our health and well being. That is what we are trying to sustain. I believe that I have been able to balance my life and work this year to the best that I have ever before. Again, I am sure this is linked to the higher quality of my work, or at least my greater happiness with it. These questions are ones I continue to grapple with as I move on in to the profession, or perhaps beyond.

On my process and methods, I believe in the response of breaking down a global issue into a local opportunity. I believe this approach is essential, at least for some, in order to connect with our own identity and sense of home, and frame our work with hope rather than fear. Working at a smaller scale also helped me to be more thorough and detailed than I have on other studio projects. For this, and perhaps other reasons, I found myself frequently challenging some of the conventions and assumptions about what a thesis project should be. While this proved frustrating at times, I stand by my work. There are many systems and structures of power which are worth challenging to become more equitable and inclusive, and we should be willing to risk our reputation and privilege for the sake of this goal. Not out of pride, but out of compassion for those around us.

149

150

Endnotes 1. Matthew Desmond, Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (New York: Crown Publishers, 2016), 294.

2. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 28, 2018.

3. Phil Scott, Governor of Vermont, email to author, October 29, 2018.

4. Paul Sarne, City of Winooski, email to author, September 14, 2018.

5. Denise Lamoureux, Vermont Agency of Human Services, email to author, August 31, 2018.

6. “City of Winooski Resident Demographics,” City of Winooski Archives.

7. “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates,” 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates for Winooski, American Fact Finder.

8. “City of Winooski Resident Demographics,” City of Winooski Archives.

9. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” Housing Commission Documents, City of Winooski Archives, July 24, 2016, https://www.winooskivt.org/housingcommission/.

10. “Housing Insecurity Dashboard,” Enterprise, accessed November 16, 2018, http:// housinginsecurity.org/#housingInsecurity.

11. Paul Kupiec and Edward Pinto, “The Government Creates Another Housing Bubble,” Wall Street Journal, May 31, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-governmentcreates-another-housing-bubble-1527807765; Glenn Thrush, “As Affordable Housing Crisis Grows, HUD Sits on the Sidelines,” The New York Times, July 27, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/27/us/politics/hud-affordable-housingcrisis.html; Michael Hobbes, “America’s Housing Crisis is a Ticking Time Bomb,” Huffpost, June 19, 2018, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/housing-crisisinequality-harvard-report_us_5b27c1f1e4b056b2263c621e.

12. Paulina Velasco, “Down and out in Disneyland: Study Finds Most LA Workers Can’t Cover Basic Needs,” The Guardian, May 1, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/ us-news/2018/mar/01/disneyland-california-employees-poverty-homelessnessstudy.

13. “Tesla CEO: More Infrastructure Needed for Company Growth,” AP News, October 11, 2018, https://www.apnews.com/10ab43216a2d44289faaf129faef7005.

14. Samuel Stebbins, “Priced out of the market? Cities where the middle class can no longer afford a home,” USA Today, September 24, 2018, https://www.usatoday. com/story/money/personalfinance/real-estate/2018/08/15/cities-where-middleclass-can-no-longer-afford-home-prices/37105219/.

15. Desmond, Evicted, 47.

151

16. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 28, 2018.

17. “City of Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski Archives.

18. Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” The Atlantic, June, 2014, https://www. theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ 19. Desmond, Evicted, 251.

20. Richard Florida, The New Urban Crisis, (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 114.

21. Leslie Kanes Weisman, Discrimination by Design: A Feminist Critique of the ManMade Environment, (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 2.

22. Desmond, Evicted, 125.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Richard Florida, The Flight of the Creative Class, (New York: Harper Collins, 2005), 186.

26. Florida, The Flight of the Creative Class, xviii.

27. Florida, The New Urban Crisis, 6-8.

28. Ibid, 14.

29. Ibid, 59.

30. Desmond, Evicted, 5.

31. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, (New York: Random House Inc., 1961).

32. Desmond, Evicted, 70.

33. “Gentrification Report,” City of Winooski Archives, Housing Commission Documents, 17.

34. Brandon Formby, “Nearly 10 percent of Texans displaced by Harvey still haven’t gone home, survey says,” The Texas Tribune, August 23, 2018, https://www. texastribune.org/2018/08/23/fema-and-texas-dont-know-how-many-peoplehurricane-harvey-displaced/.

35. Jack Nicas and Thomas Fuller, “Wildfire Becomes Deadliest in California History,” The New York Times, November 12, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/12/ us/california-fires-camp-fire.html; David Benda, Michele Chandler, Jim Schultz, and Alayna Shulman, “Camp Fire killed 9, leveled 6,453 homes. It is now most destructive fire in history,” Record Searchlight, November 9, 2018, https://www. redding.com/story/news/2018/11/09/camp-fire-update-paradise-chico-evacuationcalifornia/1938648002/; “Lost and desperate, Camp Fire’s tent city residents face another evacuation,” Record Searchlight, November 16, 2018, https://www. redding.com/story/news/2018/11/16/camp-fire-evacuation-tent-city-californialooms/2026145002/.

36. Peter Gatrell, The Making of the Modern Refugee, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 11.

37. “Refugee Statistics,” UNHCR, accessed November 16, 2018, https://www.unrefugees. org/refugee-facts/statistics/.

38. Ibid.

39. “Global Population,” Worldometers, accessed November 16, 2018, http://www. worldometers.info/world-population/world-population-by-year/.

40. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” UNHCR, http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/

152

gr2017/pdf/GR2017_English_Full_lowres.pdf, 16.

41. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh Ed., The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 26.

42. Gatrell, The Making of, 203.

43. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” 154.

44. “What is a Refugee?,” UNHCR, accessed November 16, 2018, https://www. unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/what-is-a-refugee/.

45. Gatrell, The Making of, 4.

46. Alexander Betts, “International Relations and Forced Migration,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena FiddianQasmiyeh, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 63.

47. Jérôme Elie, “Histories of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena FiddianQasmiyen, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 27; Randall Hansen, “State Controls: Borders, Refugees, and Citizenship,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. by Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 254.

48. Michael Barnett, “Refugees and Humanitarianism,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 246.

49. Alexander Betts, “International Relations and Forced Migration,” 60.

50. Gatrell, The Making of, 23.

51. Ibid, 64.

52. Ibid, 3.

53. Ibid, 86.

54. Ibid, 90.

55. Ibid, 92.

56. Hansen, “State Controls,” 258.

57. Marie Price and Lisa Benton-Short, Migrants to the Metropolis (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008), http://www.spacesofmigration.org/migration/wordpress/ wp-content/uploads/2011/09/bentonshort_migrants-to-the-metropolis.pdf, 1.

58. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, The Oxford Handbook, 13.

59. Marie Price, Migrants to the Metropolis, 6.

60. Doug Saunders, Arrival City: How the Largest Urban Migration in History is Reshaping our World, (New York: Random House, 2012), 19.

61. Ibid, 41.

62. Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, “The International Law of Refugee Protection,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 43.

63. “UNHCR Global Report 2017.”

64. Ibid.

65. Oliver Bakewell, “Encampment and Self-Settlement,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 129.

66. Loren B. Landau, “Urban Refugees and IDPs,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee

153

and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 144.

67. Ibid, 142.

68. Bakewell, “Encampment and Self-Settlement,” 134.

69. “Refugee Statistics,” UNHCR, accessed November 16, 2018, https://www.unrefugees. org/refugee-facts/statistics/.

70. “Protracted Refugee Situations,” U.S. Department of State, accessed November 16, 2018, https://www.state.gov/j/prm/policyissues/issues/protracted/.

71. James Milner, “Protracted Refugee Situations,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 151.

72. Ibid, 153.

73. Ibid, 155.

74. Katy Long, “Rethinking Durable Solutions,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2014), 476.

75. D. Albadra, D. Coley, and J. Hart, “Toward Healthy Housing for the Displaced,” Journal of Architecture 23, no. 1 (2018): 127, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ pdf/10.1080/13602365.2018.1424227?needAccess=true.

76. “Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework,” UNHCR USA, accessed November 11, 2018, http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/comprehensive-refugee-responseframework-crrf.html.

77. Albadra, “Toward Healthy Housing for the Displaced,” 116.

78. Long, “Rethinking Durable Solutions,” 476.

79. “Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework,” UNHCR USA. 80. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” 19.

81. Ibid, 9.

82. “Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework,” UNHCR USA. 83. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

84. Joanne Vanselm, “Refugee Resettlement,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 512.

85. Pablo Bose and Lucas Grigri, “Refugee Capacity in Context,” (Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, February 6, 2018), http://spatializingmigration.net/wpcontent/uploads/2018/02/RRSC_PR7_Capacity_History.pdf.

86. “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” Refugee Processing Center, October 1, 2017 - September 30, 2018, http://www.wrapsnet.org/admissions-andarrivals/.

87. Ibid.

88. Matthew J. Gibney, “Political Theory, Ethics, and Forced Migration,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena FiddianQasmiyeh, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 55.

89. Pablo Bose, Lucas Grigri, and Sarah Barrett, “Changes to the Temporary Protected Status Program in the United States,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities, August 28, 2018, http://spatializingmigration.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/

154

RRSC_PR8_Changes_to_Temporary_Protected_Status_in_US.pdf, 1.

90. Ibid, 3.

91. Ibid, 1.

92. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” 52.

93. Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, (New York: Harper Collins, 2003).

94. Robert P. Jones, The End of White Christian America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), 12; Diana Eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2001), 302.

95. Ibid, 27.

96. Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (New York: Anchor Books Doublday & Co, Inc., 1969), 164.

97. Bose, “Refugee Capacity in Context.”

98. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: The New Press, 2012), 166.

99. “Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework,” UNHCR USA. 100. Coates, “The Case for Reparations.”

101. Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 33.

102. Raphael Sperry, “Is ‘Justice Architecture’ Just?,” The Aggregate website 2, 2015, accessed September 24, 2018, http://we-aggregate.org/piece/is-justicearchitecture-just.

103. Marcus Fairs, “Don’t Design Yet Another Shelter for Refugees,” Dezeen, December 18, 2017, https://www.dezeen.com/2017/12/18/dont-design-shelter-refugees-kiliankleinschmidt-rene-boer-good-design-bad-world/.

104. Henri Lefebvre, “The Right to the City,” in Writings on Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 151.

105. Daniel Christian Wahl, Designing Regenerative Cultures (Axminster, England: Triarchy Press, 2016), 47.

106. Ibid, 243.

107. Florida, The Flight of the Creative Class, 3.

108. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” 9.

109. Jeffrey Bloem, “Refugees in Rural Communities: A Win-Win?” National Agricultural & Rural Development Policy Center, November 2014, http://www.nardep.info/ uploads/Brief34_RefugeesinRuralAmerica.pdf.

110. Pablo Bose and Lucas Grigri, “Refugee Resettlement Trends in the US,” (Burlington, VT: The University of Vermont, August 15, 2017), http://spatializingmigration.net/ wp-content/uploads/2017/09/RRSC_PR1_US_Resettlement_Trends.pdf.

111. “RRSC: Where are Refugees Being Resettled,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities, http://spatializingmigration.net/why-small-cities/where-are-refugees-beingresettled/; Pablo Bose and Lucas Grigri, “Refugee Resettlement Trends in the Northeast” (Burlington, VT: The University of Vermont, October 15, 2017), http:// spatializingmigration.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/RRSC_PR2_Northeast_ Resettlement_Trends.pdf.

112. “RRSC: Where are Refugees Being Resettled,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities;

155

the number is much higher in the report, but represents the ratio of people to Colchester, the location of the field office of the VRRP. Yet, refugees are spread out around Chittenden County.

113. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 14 2018.

114. “RRSC: Vermonter Polls,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities, http:// spatializingmigration.net/impact-on-host-communities/vermonter-poll/.

115. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 14 2018.

116. Ibid.

117. Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities, http://spatializingmigration.net/.

118. “Refugee Arrivals by Placement State and Nationality,” Refugee Processing Center, October 1, 2017 - September 30, 2018, http://www.wrapsnet.org/admissions-andarrivals/.

119. Ibid.

120. Ibid.

121. Paul Sarne, email to author, September 14, 2018.

122. “Back on the Right Track,” Office of Governor Phil Scott, August 7, 2018, http:// governor.vermont.gov/governor-scotts-blog/back-right-track.

123. Ibid.

124. “S.94 (Act 197),” Vermont General Assembly, May 30, 2018, https://legislature. vermont.gov/bill/status/2018/S.94.

125. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

126. “Vermont Quick Facts,” US Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/ table/vt/AFN120212#viewtop.

127. Ibid.

128. “Population of Vermont Towns, 1930-2016,” Vermont Department of Health, Vermont Population Estimates and Census Data, December 1, 2017, http://www. healthvermont.gov/health-statistics-vital-records/vital-records-population-data/ vermont-population-estimates.

129. “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates,” American Fact Finder, 2012-2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates for Winooski.

130. “Vermont Quick Facts,” US Census Bureau.

131. Art Woolf, “Vermont immigration patterns differ from U.S.” Burlington Free Press, July 14, 2018, https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/money/2014/07/31/ vermont-immigration-patterns-differ-us/13402973/.

132. Alexander Duchac, “The Demographic and Economic Contributions of New Americans to Chittenden County,” CVOEO, http://spatializingmigration.net/ wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Demographic-Econ-contribution-ChittendenCVOEO-2017.pdf.

133. “RRSC: Where are Refugees Being Resettled,” Refugee Resettlement in Small Cities.

134. Bose, “Refugee Resettlement Trends in the Northeast.”

135. Ibid.

136. “Vermont,” Forbes, November 2017, https://www.forbes.com/places/vt/.

137. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

138. Stephen Castles, Hein de Haas, and Mark J. Miller, The Age of Migration, (New

156

York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2014), http://migrationmatters.me/wp-content/ uploads/2016/11/AgeOfMigrationChapter1and.pdf, 13; Price, Migrants to the Metropolis, 6.

139. “From Struggle to Resilience: The Economic Impact of Refugees in America,” New American Economy, June 2017, http://research.newamericaneconomy.org/wpcontent/uploads/sites/2/2017/11/NAE_Refugees_V6.pdf.

140. Matt Weeks, “UGA Report: Minority Groups Driving U.S. Economy,” UGA Today, March 2, 2017, https://news.uga.edu/multicultural-economy-report-17/.

141. Bloem, “Refugees in Rural Communities: A Win-Win?” 142. “Is There a Link Between Refugees and U.S. Crime Rates?” New American Economy, February 7, 2017, https://research.newamericaneconomy.org/report/isthere-a-link-between-refugees-and-u-s-crime-rates/.

143. “Vermont Quick Facts,” US Census Bureau.

144. Weeks, “UGA Report.”

145. “Vermont Quick Facts,” US Census Bureau.

146. Weeks, “UGA Report.”

147. Duchac, “The Demographic and Economic Contributions.”

148. Ibid.

149. Paul Sarne, City of Winooski, email to author, September 14, 2018.

150. Wahl, Designing Regenerative Cultures, 237.

151. Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (Boston: Back Bay, 2000), 3.

152. Denise Lamoureux, Vermont Agency of Human Services, email to author, August 31, 2018.

153. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

154. Paul Sarne, City of Winooski, email to author, September 14, 2018.

155. “Winooski Community Facts,” US Census Bureau, https://factfinder.census.gov/ faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml.

156. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives.

157. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

158. “Community Profiles,” Vermont Housing Data, accessed October 5, 2018, http:// www.housingdata.org/profile/.

159. Ibid.

160. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 14, 2018.

161. “City of Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski Archives.

162. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives, 41.

163. “City of Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski Archives.

164. Amy Demetrowitz, Champlain Housing Trust, phone conversation with author, September 24 2018.

165. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, phone conversation with author, September 7, 2018.

166. Cindy Reid, Cathedral Square, email to author, September 17, 2018.

167. Amy Demetrowitz, Champlain Housing Trust, phone conversation with author, September 24 2018.

168. Phoebe Howe, Efficiency Vermont, email to author, September 17, 2018.

169. Phoebe Howe, Efficiency Vermont, phone conversation with author, September 6,

157

2018.

170. Ashley Andreas, VERMOD, phone conversation with author, September 12, 2018.

171. Ryan Allen, “The Relationship between Residential Foreclosure, Race, Ethnicity, and Nativity Status,” Journal of Planning Education and Research 31, no. 2: 126, DOI: 10.1177/0739456X11398044.

172. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives, 10.

173. “City of Winooski Housing Snapshot,” City of Winooski Archives.

174. “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report, January 25, 2012, https://www.vhfa.org/documents/ecos_housing.pdf, 14.

175. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives, 10.

176. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 14, 2018.

177. “Winooski Housing Needs Assessment,” City of Winooski Archives, 36.

178. “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report, 4.

179. Ibid, 61.

180. “Building Permits,” Vermont Housing Data, accessed October 5, 2018, http://www. housingdata.org/profile/housing-stock/building-permits.

181. “Chittenden County Housing Needs Assessment,” ECOS Analysis Report, 87.

182. Alejandro Aravena, Elemental: Incremental Housing and Participatory Design Manual, (Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz, 2016), 58.

183. Sam Davis, The Architecture of Affordable Housing, (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), 8.

184. Ibid, 13.

185. Ibid, 4.

186. Desmond, Evicted, 301.

187. Davis, The Architecture of Affordable Housing, 17.

188. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 196-197.

189. Davis, The Architecture of Affordable Housing, 18.

190. Eileen Peltier, Downstreet Housing, phone conversation with author, September 19, 2018.

191. Desmond, Evicted, 303.

192. Aravena, Elemental, 19.

193. Alex Lifschutz, ed. “Loose-Fit Architecture: Designing Buildings for Change,” AD 87, no. 5 (2017).

194. Desmond, Evicted, 310.

195. Karen Jacobsen, “Livelihoods and Forced Migration,” in The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies, ed. Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 99.

196. “Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework,” UNHCR USA. 197. Jacobsen, “Livelihoods and Forced Migration,” 99.

198. Ibid, 103.

199. Matt Thompson, USCRI VT, email to author, September 14, 2018.

200. Kate Larose, CVOEO, phone conversation with author, September 12, 2018.

201. Jacobsen, “Livelihoods and Forced Migration,” 108.

202. Ibid, 109.

203. “UNHCR Global Report 2017,” 30.

158

204. Andrew Herscher, “Displacements: Architecture and Refugee,” Critical Spatial Practice 9, (1961), Nikolaus Hirsch and Markus Miessen Eds. 49) 205. David Gissen, Ed. Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2003), 15.

206. “Comprehensive Energy Plan 2016,” Vermont Department of Public Service, https://outside.vermont.gov/sov/webservices/Shared%20Documents/2016CEP_ Final.pdf, 1.

207. Wahl, Designing Regenerative Cultures, 45.

208. Isle Helbrecht and Peter Dirksmeier, ed. New Urbanism: Life, Work, and Space in the New Downtown, (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), 6.

209. Loretta Lees, “Planning Urbanity — A Contradiction in Terms?” in New Urbanism: Life, Work, and Space in the New Downtown, ed. Isle Helbrecht and Peter Dirksmeier (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012) 23.

210. Rolf Lindner, “The Virtue of Diversity,” in New Urbanism: Life, Work, and Space in the New Downtown, ed. Isle Helbrecht and Peter Dirksmeier (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012), 175.

211. Lefebvre, “The Right to the City,” 147.

212. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 196-197.

213. David Harvey, “The Right to the City,” TOC 27.4 (2003), accessed September 10,

2018, 23.

214. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity, (New York: Harper Collins, 1996), 7.

215. Richard Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class, (New York: Basic Books, 2012), xiv.

216. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 312.

217. The Field Guide to Human Centered Design, IDEO, http://www.designkit.org/ resources/1, 9.

218. Tim Brown, Change by Design (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 4.

219. Bjarke Ingels Group, Yes is More: An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution.

Taschen, 2009.

220. The Field Guide to Human Centered Design, IDEO, 21.

221. Wahl, Designing Regenerative Cultures, 29.

222. Ibid, 56.

223. Ibid, 19.

224. The Field Guide to Human Centered Design, IDEO, 21.

225. Stewart Brand, How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 23.

226. Ibid, 178.

227. Ibid, 188.

228. John F.C. Tuner qtd in Design like you give a damn: building change from the ground up, ed. Deborah Aaronson (China: Abrams, 2012), 45.

229. Davis, The Architecture of Affordable Housing, 29.

230. William McDonough and Michael Braungart, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York: North Point Press, 2002), 111.

231. Ibid, 114.

232. Deborah Aaronson ed. Design like you give a damn: building change from the ground up, (China: Abrams, 2012) 37.

159

233. Jonathan Hale, The Old Way of Seeing: How Architecture Lost its Magic (and how it can get it back) (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1994), 59) 234. Joseph F. Kennedy, Buildings Without Borders: Sustainable Construction for the Global Village (Canada: Transcontinental Printing, 2004), 3.

235. Cameron M. Burns, “Sustainable Settlements: Rethinking Encampments for Refugees and Displaced Populations,” in Buildings Without Borders: Sustainable Construction for the Global Village, ed. Joseph F. Kennedy (Canada: Transcontinental Printing, 2004), 168.

236. Herscher, “Displacements,” 43.

237. Davis, The Architecture of Affordable Housing, 84.

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