Redefining Design Process, An Interdisciplinary Approach to Discussing Villa Rotonda, Villa Savoye

REDEFINING DESIGN PROCESS

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH DISCUSSING AND SAVOYE

Contents

I.

Contents

Introduc on

Propor ons and Geometry

Influence and Intui on

Crea on of an Ideal Villa from Informed Intui on Poli cal influence

Environmental Psychology

Role of Ritual and Symbolism

Uncertainty in Novel Architecture Absence of perfec on and precision

Conclusion

List 09

Introduc on

Renaissance buildings need to be understood on their own terms, through the combined knowledge of their learning and ancient culture that included the various arts (Murray, P. 1963). The emergence of the architect as a builder, theorist and designer who used classical architectural forms to respond to poli cal, economic, religious and cultural changes of the period defined the narra ve of Renaissance architectural history.

Andrea Palladio published his theory of propor ons and ra os through illustra ons and texts in Qua ro Libri (Palladio, 1570) which influenced genera ons of architects during and a er the Renaissance period. Rudolf Wi kower’s (1971) analysis suggests that Palladio used superior intellectual framework of harmonic propor ons as the underlying principles for his design, than the func onal or aesthe c goals common at the me.

Colin Rowe (1987) suggested similari es between Palladio’s villas to those designed by Le Corbusier through their physical se ng, similar contrast between ‘geometrical volume and unimpaired nature’ among other observa ons.

Le Corbusier studied buildings of an quity and discussed architecture by decomposing it, to appreciate the individual elements, and developed his design process including the method of making through the studies and trips.

He created a response to the issue of modern architecture by discussing the elemental means of it in the house. This was not a basic dwelling but an idea that one may suggest was an output from his conscious understanding of arts, building construc on and music, but Kevin Murphy suggests that poli cs and influence added to the value of the modern villa as a historic monument (Murphy, K. D., 2002, pp. 68-75).

“Someques onsshouldnevergointerdisciplinary,theylose theirbitethemomenttheydo;somehaveto.”

-HughesFrancesca

Environmental and social psychologists analyse idealogical processes and symbolic meanings in dwelling forms that are a direct or indirect expression of poli cal or social structures. Francesca Hughes (2014) ques ons the pursuit of exclusion of error in architecture and proposes error as a category of architectural thought. There is a possibility that the direct or uninten onal inclusion of error is acceptable to create successful architecture.

This ar cle will explore whether the influence of Andrea Palladio’s Villa Rotonda and Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye is limited to theore cal and ar s c perspec ves or are the limits of their influence extended by the integra on of interdisciplinary parallels such as sociology, poli cs and psychology. Essays and literary works will be reviewed to establish an understanding of the geometrical and propor onal inten on in the design of Villa Rotonda and Villa Savoye. Addi onal sources will be reviewed to link psychological and poli cal aspects with the influence of the Villas.

The first part of this study will focus on Rudolf Wi kower’s text Architecture in the Age of Humanism and Palladio’s Qua ro Libri to evaluate Palladio’s architectural inten ons. Henry Millon (1972) recognised the influence of Wi kower’s observa ons on the interpreta on of Modern Architecture in terms of theories of propor on and views of cultural and societal significance. Colin Rowe’s Mathema cs of the Ideal Villa (1987) will be a suppor ng text to further understand the similarity between the two villas.

The Built Environment and Spa al Form by Lawrence Denise and Setha Low (1990) will be used to analyse the correla on between the symbolic approaches in their design and the evident apprecia on. Addi onally, Wi kower’s Architectural Principles (1971) will help establish an opinion about Palladio’s psychological intent in his designs. Aureli Vi orio’s proposal (2011, pp. 47-83) for an absolute architecture through the unilateral interpreta on of architecture and the city helps interpret the geographical symbolism inherent in the two villas in ques on.

The merits of direct or uninten onal inclusion of error will be explored from The Architecture of Error: Ma er, Measure, And the Misadventures of Precision by Hughes (2014) who cri cally analyses Le Corbusier’s passion for liquid-metal, concrete, and the errors in it. Palladio’s own Qua ro Libri (I, p.50) will allow some insight into his advocacy for breaking of rules. Mitrovic’s opinion (1990) further supports this no on as he highlights the inconsistencies and inaccuracies in the Four books and analysis done by Wi kower (1971) and Rowe (1987).

Fig.1 - Villa Capra-RotondaFig.2 - Villa Savoye

Propor ons and geometry

During the Renaissance period domes c buildings didn’t have a style for their façades and Palladio’s inten on was to re create the façades of houses in form and spirit by applying the temple front to them. He believed temples reflected ‘the appearance of the ancient house’ as he compares the city with a large house and the house with a small city (Palladio, 1570, II). His idea of applying a new mo f to architecture was to transfer units from one class of building to another that might be modified through extension or contrac on.

Wi kower’s ‘Schema sed plans of Palladio’s Villas’ (1971, p.73) illustrate the basic geometric pa erns inherent in the Palladio’s villas. He no ces that the convincing quality in his domes c villas are brought about by the subconscious percep on of the geometrical keynote. He suggests that Palladio’s illustra ons of his own villas in Qua ro Libri were generalised models as similar an que examples of domes c buildings were in-existent. His hypothesis was widely accepted (Ackerman, 1977) that “Palladio

wanted his inscribed measurements to convey ra os of a general character and of universal importance beyond the scope of individual buildings” (Wi kower, 1971, p.128).

Through the detailed examina ons of 8 plans form Book II, Wi kower deduced that harmonic propor ons were the underlying principle of Palladio’s design. As he established that the knowledge of Pythagorean and Platonic theories of musical harmonies in the intellectual circles of Veneto was apparent, it makes Palladio’s knowledge of it more clear.

Palladio consistently applied the temple front on to the wall of the houses. He applied numerous ideas to his villa façades but the underlying pa ern has been generated from the same premise. Howard and Longair (1982) and Mitrovic (1990) further examined all of Palladio’s plans adding to Wi kower’s hypothesis. The concept tested was of harmonic propor on in architecture where each room of a building should be propor onal to the other rooms and the building as a

whole. The results show that through idealiza on of the propor ons of the ground plan of Villa Rotonda in Qua ro Libri, the design achieves harmonic propor ons.

Henry Millon notes (1972) that Peter Smithson suggested Wi kower’s Architectural Principles to be a success in 1948 as issues of propor on were “important to architects”, who at that me looked at Palladian buildings to learn from. Eduard Sekler and Hans Buchwald conducted an exhibi on in Carpenter Center in 1965 tled ‘Propor on, a Measure of Order’ which reflected the analogies and observa ons ques oned by Wi kower.

As Colin Rowe suggested (1987) in his comparison between La Rotonda and Villa Savoye the two are similarly Platonic. They are both “in the round”, as the Rotonda has four iden cal façades and so does Savoye with its panoramic windows on all four side and it is also accessible from all sides on the ground floor. In plan and eleva on Palladio’s focus is emphasised towards the center to the domed salon. Similarly at Poissy there is a ‘dispersal of focus’ caused by the panoramic horizontal windows.

As illustrated in Figure.1 the main focus of the Rotonda is the domed salon, which compares with Savoye’s enclosed terrace on piano nobile. The unique volumes in the roof garden in the la er correspond with the pitched roof and cupola of the former.

Fig.3 - Illustra on of similari es in Villa Rotonda and VIlla Savoye

Both architects’ works have been said to achieve an ideal villa corresponding to a Platonic archetype. Palladio’s Villa achieves an architecture with crea ve nostalgia which combines the Roman propor ons and the ideal in the form of a house as a cube. In spite of his classical adherence, Corbusier’s villas referred to the present and the immediate past that retain their original references to Platonic ideals and mechanical precision but are transformed due to their context. Although the elemental appearance of Villa Savoye might exude casual language, upon close examina on and understanding of the deeper meanings in the design, it can be deduced that it contains a solu on to the modern house of the postwar 1920’s.

Influence and Intui on

Crea on of Ideal Villas from Informed Intui on

PALLADIO

Giangiorgio Trissino who gave Andrea di Pietro da Padova his classical name ‘Palladio’ was greatly inspired by Aristotle and Vitruvius’s works and published several documents portraying his interest in architectural problems and Green revival. Palladio refers to Trissino in Qua ro libri as the “splendore de’ tempi nostri” and the “do ssimo” in his edi on of Caesar.

Through Trissino’s introduc on of Palladio to Vitruvius, trips to Rome to learn about an quity and applica on of theory into prac ce, he assimilated in him the scien fic humanist training.

Trissino was also a part of Villa Circoli that was Palladio’s project. His input helped Palladio develop his architectural language.

Fig. 5- Villa Trissino built by Palladio with the assistance of Gian Giorgio Trissino

Fig. 4 Villa Trissino plan

Crea on of an Ideal Villa from Informed Intui on

CORBUSIER

On his Balkan trip, Corbusier sketched a shop window (Le Corbusier, Carnets, Carnet 1, 56-57) of the Knize store by Loos on the Viennese Graben which was annotated “a very nice store on the Graben”. He read the French transla ons of Loos’ ar cles, “Architektur” and “Ornament and Verbrechen” in 1913 and it was in 1920 when he finally met Loos in Paris.

Although ini ally seeking to begin a regionalist style movement, Le Corbusier later argued that professionals such as engineers, who build using standard objects and do not invent a new aesthe c, represent modern architecture best. This raised a ques on for crea ve ar sts such as himself and the German ar sts in the Werkbund debate in rela on to their contribu on to modern architecture. He envisioned the problem to be resolved through aesthe c compromise and through design from needs. Two solu ons to the problem were suggested In Vers Une

Architecture. One was to change focus from the shape of things to the geometric formal rela onships. This can be understood from his observa ons a er the study of Greek architecture when he interpret the superiority of the Parthenon as a cause of refined geometrical rela onships and profiles as compared to other Greek temples. This approach is reflected in the propor ons of Villa Stein at Garches that were jus fied through regula ng lines. The second method can be seen in the rela onships of meaning through which art is achieved in the entry hall of Villa Savoye. The focus is shi ed from rela onships of form to rela onships of meaning as the washbasin and a ramp were placed inside the building yet in an outdoor space, thus crea ng ‘a ceremonial entry’ (Passan , F., p447)

This focus on rela onships of meaning can be linked to the argument by the French poet Pierre Reverdy in 19171918. He argued that elements in common life constructed poetry and created it with the combina on of

“Voila l’enorme lampe de sacrifice qui s’allume. Et combien il est dur de vivre chaque heure en sacrifiant!” Le Corbusier to Francis Jourdain, 21 December 1913.

distant reali es. Le Corbusier published a photograph of an airplane cockpit in Vers Une Architecture with a cap on that reads: “Poetry is not just in the word. Stronger is the poetry of facts. Objects that mean something, disposed with tact and talent, create a poe c fact.”

Le Corbusier’s architecture of the Villa Savoye and the idea behind it were the cause of a combina on of studies and sketches that he carried out. It came from his observa ons and his no on of a modern vernacular that was influenced from the Balkan trip as well as his associa ons with other ar sts. Ri er had already shared his Ideas of tradi onal vernacular and na onal iden ty which Le Corbusier absorbed and this further informed his experience of the Balkans. The ideas of the tradi onal vernacular integrated into his architecture had been derived from the concepts of Sachlichkeit (Plumb. S, 2006) that were already developed for over a decade in European urban centres. Le Corbusier combined these concepts he absorbed from his trip to ar culate architectural

strategies for the urban popula on.

His famous quote ‘a house is a machine for living in’ has a link with this discovered no on of the modern vernacular, which promoted the connec on of architecture to something external to it and to find this connec on instead of inven ng it.

Le Corbusier’s reference to machines makes it apparent that he advocated the combina on of found standard objects, each with a definite func on that created his architecture.

This openness posed a challenge on the autonomy of architecture as with it came difficulty in refining rou ne design strategies. Le Corbusier successfully managed to apply these approaches to his work and influence the discipline of architecture in the 20th century.

Poli cal influence

PALLADIO

Palladio developed his concep on on architectural composi on and ini ated the Villa Rotonda in 1550. A merchant house was fused with a palazzo to form an ideal villa, a ‘quasibourgeois domus’ (Aurelli, P.V., 2011). An amalgama on of the revival of Roman architecture and the focus on centrality and secular domes c life was seen appropriate by Palladio as universal formal iden ty for the city. The fragmented city was an effect of social, poli cal and cultural division of France post fall of the Roman Empire. He advocated a universal government that would be a secular power and not authorita ve, for a newer Roman Empire (Barbieri, F, 1980).

To promote his project the city and its architecture was priori sed and he chose Roman architecture as the appropriate language in the context of a medieval Gothic city. Palladio’s trips to Rome with the help of Trissino became a key source of his architectural inten on. His method of illustra ng his studies of an quity

were flat orthogonal drawings instead of perspec ves that portrayed architecture as more scien fic than picturesque.

Poli cal influence

CORBUSIER

Andres Malraux, helped preserve Villa Savoye as the French minister of culture during the late 1950s and 1960s. Le Corbusier used his interna onal prominence, when the Villa deteriorated between 1938 and 1959, to preserve its canonical status in modern architecture. Other modernist architects and ar sts showed support for the Villa. Previously, governmentsponsored preserva on gave preference to historic monuments such as Renaissance religious buildings or royal residences. The deteriora on and restora on efforts of the Villa, which was then considered a historic monument, during postwar France helped prove its na onal and interna onal significance.

Le Corbusier’s famous dictum the house is a ‘machine for living’ doubled as a useful social response in the post war world where modernism was based on the rejec on of historicism. This catalysed the belief in a universal aesthe c which was the unifying principle of the Interna onal Style.

Unusual for the me many modernist buildings in the 1970’s were valued as modern architecture of historic importance. Campaigns to preserve Villa Savoye during the post war period were seen to represent the ‘French poli cal autonomy and cultural a ainment in the twen eth century’ (Murphy, 2002, p.71). The acceptance of Villa Savoye as a monument at par with medieval pilgrimage churches advanced it as an ‘emblem of French cultural achievement’ which was supported by important historians and cri cs such as Nikolas Pevsner and Paul Nelson (Murphy, 2002, p.75).

Fig. 7 Sink next to the entrance on ground floor of VIlla Savoye

Fig. 6 Car is inside the boundary yet outside the Villa Savoye

Environmental Psychology

Role of Ritual and Symbolism

Lawrence and Low have contributed to the development of field of psychological research that is interdisciplinary with the built environment. Their research ques ons the rela on between built forms and aspects of culture, the link between built forms and the individual and also the rela onship between built space and power used to reproduce society (Lawrence & Low, 1990).

Built forms can be seen to express culturally shared mental structures. Physical a ributes represent conscious and unconscious associa ons; tangible expressing the intangible. It is in their expressive role that they portray the posi on of an individual within groups.

Symbolic approaches in the built environment express the ideal posi ons of social and poli cal life. Site plans and built forms seem to act as devices that express rela ons between groups through specific symbolic links.

It is suggested that they use symbolic associa ons to communicate rela ons between ‘posi ons held by individuals within a culture’s framework’. Symbolic sites express, through the use of key elements, social rela ons and contain condensed powerful meanings and values. Several poli cal actors manipulate involuted meanings linked with site for various reasons in different contexts.

In their study of the rela onship between housing and individuals or groups, the findings show that a manipula on of the se ngs of dwellings and landscapes communicate class differences.

Both Palladio and Le Corbusier used ritual and symbolism as principle mechanisms that helped ac vate and transform the meaning of the spaces they designed.

Role of Ritual and Symbolism

During the Renaissance, visi ng a church, temple or public building involved several rituals which usually began by walking up many steps leading to the por co or the entrance of the building. This known symbolic ac vity when applied to a private house such as the Villa Rotonda, transformed the meaning of the space as the this act of walking up the steps was associated with dignity and nobility. The linked meaning of the steps from the classical and public buildings was enough to magnify the importance of the La Rotonda to match an ancient building with grandeur and magnificence (Palladio, 1570). The promo on of the Villa in Qua ro Libri helped people visualize and associate its magnificence which led to the apprecia on of the Villa by those who had but also would not have visited it. The owner of the Villa would associate the exclusive feature with a more important building.

Aurelli (2011) associates Palladio’s pilgrim’s guide as his understanding of geographic symbolism of the city. His ability to create architecture to define

the city is dependent on his exper se in marking appropriate loca ons in the city.

According to Lawrence & Low some ‘prescribed symbolic ac vity infuses both animate and inanimate features of cultures with meaning’ (Lawrence, D. Low, S. p. 475).

Le Corbusier included symbols and rituals at the entrance of the Villa Savoye which were affiliated with modern mes. The use of cars during the modern mes was limited to a small percentage of the en re popula on. This mode of transport, catered for in the Villa Savoye, was associated with exclusivity in the populace despite the elemental appearance of the building. The placement of the sink on the ground floor represented a ritual to wash off the worries before entering their home. According to Rudolf Arnheim (1977) buildings mould behaviour.

There was a new spirit. ‘Whatever may be thought of it, it animates to-day the greater part of human ac vity’ (Corbusier. Le., 1989, p.89).

Uncertainty in Novel Architecture

Absence of perfec on and precision

‘It is in the nature of error to spread, to register its cumula ve presence, to occupy a con nuously expanding space as long as it exists unchecked.’ (Hughes, F., 2014, p.2)

PALLADIO

An important aspect of Palladio’s art and theory was his advocacy for the breaking of rules such as the conclusion of rules for the propor on of rooms :

“There are s ll other heights for rooms which fall under no rule, and the architect has to use them according to his judgement and need.”

In the chapter on ‘The Measurements of Doors and Windows’ he specifies the absence of “a certain and absolute rule about their height and width.”

Andrea Palladio’s illustra ons and text in Qua ro Libri contain theory of propor ons and ra os that Rudolf Wi kower suggested were achieved through harmonic propor ons. Although his detailed analysis included only eight of Palladio’s 44 buildings, Deborah Howard and Malcolm Longair (1982) managed to analyse all of them. Where the analysis in most of the room plans in both texts matched, there were some such as Villa Rotonda, that had unique propor ons which did not reflect in any of their analyses. One limita on of their study was the analysis of the ground plan ra o (height /width) without the heights of rooms in it. Mitrovic (1990) proposes an opinion that there exist inconsistencies in Qua ro libri and the certainty in inaccuracies during the building process, although some of his conscious or indirect inten ons can be realised through the analysis of his buildings and texts by including height in the equa on.

His analysis deduces that although Palladio most likely knew about

Absence of perfec on and precision

harmonic propor ons during the process of wri ng Qua ro Libri, his designs do not seem to be idealized to fit a prescrip on of the theory. Despite the inherent propor ons and his affinity to the an quity the descrip ons in his text explain the prac cal condi ons of site and rarely did he discuss in detail ques ons of propor on.

The success of Villa Rotonda as an iconic Villa is undeniable despite the likely inconsistencies inherent in the building. It is probable that at the me such depth in understanding a building would not be expected and the idealized descrip ons would have sufficed to promote it. Although, Palladio’s experience and accumulated knowledge would not limit the cause of his exper se and beau ful architecture to a single theory of propor ons. This would be like expec ng a musician to compose excep onal symphony by knowing harmony and counterpoint.

CORBUSIER

The Villa Savoye was more significant for the clear demonstra on it offered of Le Corbusier’s “Five Points of a New Architecture” (proposed in 1927) than as a func oning shelter. Much of the interior was given over to circula on, in the forms of ramps and stairs, and the building served largely as an intricate stage for viewing the surrounding landscape. The space actually dedicated to habita on was plagued with problems from the early 1930s, but the villa’s role as a demonstra on of Le Corbusier’s developing aesthe c was never in ques on. This point was made repeatedly in the architectural press, which favoured saving the Villa Savoye. (Murphy, 2002, p. 75)

Corbusier was an advocate of the benefits of concrete in construc on bringing precision to transfer a building from a plan straight to reality due to the cancella on of various middlemen such as carpenters. Despite that the shortcomings of the use of concrete were reflected in the years a er it was built and that led to the campaigning

Absence of perfec on and precision

of the Villa for preserva on in the postwar France. The poli cal support received by Malroux ensured its preserva on and its place as a historic monument at the me.

If the Villa had not deteriorated and vacated by the residents, Corbusier’s focus might have been on simply promo ng his five points of architecture or on another project.

Fig. 8 Villa savoye dilapidated

Fig. 9 Abandoned Villa Savoye

This study reasserts the connec on associated between Andrea Palladio’s Villa Capra-Rotonda and Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye, with Palladio’s Villa as a Renaissance work that was a combina on of the Roman and the ideal and Le Corbusier’s villa was a symbol of his interpreta on of an ideal modern countryside villa.

“The me has therefore come to put forward the problem of the house, of the street and of the town, and to deal with both the architect and the engineer.” (Corbusier & Etchells, 1989)

The geometrical similari es in the two works in terms of the Platonic archetype that they achieved in their own respect was pointed out.

To further understand the successful quali es in the two works an interdisciplinary approach was carried out through the associa on of aspects such as poli cs and influence.

The influence aspect beginning with previous works and individuals that

play a role in the fundamental architectural understanding of Palladio, as understood from the men ons of Trissino in Architectural Principles and Qua ro Libri. The influence on Corbusier can be found in his Balkan trip and the already developed opinions and style of Adolf Loos and other German ar sts. A link was also drawn between ‘the machine for living in’ that Corbusier created as the Villa Savoye, and French poet Reverdy’s opinion on rela onships of meaning where a poetry is constructed with common life elements, a representa on of which is visible in Vers Une Architecture.

The a en on to their Villas were redirected through poli cs by Trissino in Palladio’s case and Malroux in Corbusier’s. A similarity is drawn in the two villas that their chosen geographical loca on played a part in the poli cal support in their respec ve me periods. In me they both shaped the percep on of ‘the new architecture’ during their me.

Denise and Low’s interdisciplinary psychological research was used to iden fy intangible aspects of the two Villas, which in Palladio’s case he writes about the magnificence of the temple facade when applied to a countryside villa (Palladio, 1570). One would have gone to such a fundamental low to understand their architecture through geometry and propor ons that they skimmed through the important intangible informa on of their works.

Another aspect rarely studied by architects which reflects in the shortage of sources for this topic is uncertainty in construc on of new architectural ideas. Consciously or subconsciously allowing for errors and imperfec on in design or in its adver sement could be yet another inherent intangible factor to promote crea ve work.

Ackerman, J. S. (1977). Palladio ([2nd ed.]). Penguin. Aureli, P. V. (2011). The Geopoli cs of the Ideal Villa Andrea Palladio and the Project of an An -Ideal City In The possibility of an absolute architecture. pp (47-83) [electronic resource]. MIT Press.

Le Corbusier, & Etchells, F. (1989). Towards a new architecture. Bu erworth Architecture.

Howard, D., & Longair, M. (1982). Harmonic Propor on and Palladio’s Qua ro Libri. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 41(2), 116–143. h ps:// doi.org/10.2307/989675

Hughes, F. 2014. The Architecture of Error : Ma er, Measure, and the Misadventures of Precision, MIT Press. Retreived from: h p://ebookcentral. proquest.com/lib/portsmouth-ebooks/detail.ac on?docID=3339909.

Ibid, .2

Kevin D. Murphy. (2002). The Villa Savoye and the Modernist Historic Monument. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 61(1), 68. h ps:// doi.org/10.2307/991812

Ibid. p.71

Ibid. p.75

Le, Corbusier. (2014). Towards a New Architecture, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, h p://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ portsmouth-ebooks/detail.ac on?docID=1875334.

Lawrence, D., & Low, S. (1990). The Built Environment and Spa al Form. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19, 453-505. Retrieved June 16, 2020, from www.jstor. org/stable/2155973

Millon, H. (1972). Rudolf Wi kower, “Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism”: Its Influence on the Development and Interpreta on of Modern Architecture. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 31(2), 83-91. doi:10.2307/988682

Mitrović, B., & Djordjević, I. (1990). Palladio’s Theory of Propor ons and the Second Book of the “Qua ro Libri dell’Archite ura”. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 49(3), 279-292. doi:10.2307/990519

Oechslin,W. (2015). The Reason for Palladios Success. Retrieved from h ps:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDTsvfZPLVc

Palladio, A. (1570). I qua ro libri dell’archite ura. Venice. Facsimile edi on, Ulrico Hoepli Editore Libraio, Milan, 1990.

Palladio, A. 1581. I qua ro libri dell’archite ura. Venice, Bartolomeo Carampello.

Passan , F. (1997). The Vernacular, Modernism, and Le Corbusier. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 56(4), 438-451.

Rowe, C. (1987). The mathema cs of the ideal villa and other essays. pp (2-27). M.I.T. Press.

Wi kower, R. (1971). Principles of Palladio’s Architecture In Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism. New York. WW Notron & Company.

Ibid. p.73

Ibid. p. 128

Figure. 1 Author’s Own

Bibliography

Damisch, H. (2016). Aujourd’hui, L’architecture In Noah’s ark : Essays on architecture. p 25. Retrieved from h ps://ebookcentral.proquest.com Heynen, H., Cairns, S., & Crysler, C. G. (2012). The SAGE Handbook of Architectural Theory. SAGE Publica ons Ltd.- p.160 Sherer, D. (2004). Le Corbusier’s Discovery of Palladio in 1922 and the Modernist Transforma on of the Classical Code. Perspecta, 35, 20-39. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/1567339

Tim Benton, “Villa Savoye and the Architects’ Prac ce,” in Le Corbusier. Villa Savoye and Other Buildings and Projects, 1929-1930 (New York and London, 1984), ix-xxii.

List of Figures

Fig. 1 Villa Rotonda, Retrieved from h ps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/ Si ng_under_the_shade_in_front_of_Villa_Capra_de a_La_Rotonda.jpg

Fig. 2 VIlla Savoye, Retrieved from h ps://medium.com/@iner acorp/villa-savoyea5cd204f1c6d

Fig. 3 Author’s own

Fig. 4 Villa Trissino plan, Retrieved from h ps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Trissino_(Cricoli)#/ media/File:Villa_Trissino_Cricoli_pianta_Berto _Scamozzi_1778.jpg

Fig. 5 Villa Trissino, Retrieved from h ps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/b/b4/VillaTrissinoTre enero_2007_07_08_02.jpg/800px-VillaTrissinoTre ene ro_2007_07_08_02.jpg

Fig. 6 Car outside Villa Savoye, Retrieved from h ps://i.pinimg.com/ originals/30/36/04/3036049db3ce10d22e3e71a6d4702a04.jpg

Fig. 7 Sink, Retrieved from h ps://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2019/06/sink-savoye. jpg.860x0_q70_crop-scale.jpg

Fig. 8 Villa Savoye dilapidated, Retrieved from h ps://media.springernature.com/original/ springer-sta c/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-030-47979-4_10/MediaObjects/496639_1_ En_10_Fig1_HTML.png

Fig. 9 Abandoned Villa Savoye, Retrieved from h ps://i.pinimg.com/originals/fa/16/c4/ fa16c45480f99d2bfc41c63cc59aed14.jpg

Villa Rotonda plan and sec onal eleva on. Plan shows the centrality of the house and symmetry. Intended for a priest, it was supposed to represent Greek cross in plan.

Villa Rotonda side view showing the temple facades applied to two facades

Retrieved from h ps://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ec/Villa_Rotonda_ side.jpg

Villa Stein by Corbusier

Villa Foscari in Malcontenta was compared with Corbusier’s Villa Stein

Retreived from h ps:// upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/42/ VillaChierica _2007_07_18_2. jpg

Villa ChiericaBuilt later in his career Palladio applied the temple front to this Villa

Retreived from h ps:// upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/42/ VillaChierica _2007_07_18_2. jpg