PUBLIC PAPER Issue: 0815
SUSTAINABLE CITIES FOR OUR FUTURE
PUBLIC PAPER Sustainable cities for our future Written by Sandy Edge and Ruffina Thilakaratne
During the next few decades cities of the developing counties such as Surabay, Sao Paulo, Tianjin and Soweto are projected to absorb all the population growth worldwide.
During the next few decades cities of developing countries are projected to absorb all the population growth expected worldwide (UNDESA, 2006). Our existing cities are already extremely resource hungry. We require more resources to meet our demands than the planet can supply which is critical for the earth’s ecosystems. On the current course, by 2050 humanity will demand twice as many resources as our planet can supply (Hails, Loh & Goldfinger, 2006). There are many solutions to mitigate these impacts and to cope with the rising demand for resources. China is taking initiatives on this front. Dongtan, one of the world’s first eco-cities, is currently being planned on Chongming Island, thirty kilometres to the north of Shanghai in the Yangtze River delta. By many, Dongtan is seen as a timely and needed response to rapidly increasing urbanisation and the environmental impacts of global warming and resource depletion. Dongtan Eco-City shall be displayed as a model for our future cities at the Shanghai Expo 2010 which has adopted the theme ‘Better City, Better Life’. This paper proposes that actions taken at a city level are more conceivable and hence more effectively implemented than actions at national, regional and/or global levels. To understand the need for future sustainable cities, it is important to understand two aspects about our cities: firstly, the excessive demand on resources that our current city models require; and secondly, the rapid urbanisation rate that is occurring globally.
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Cities use four times more resources than rural areas.
Resource hungry urban living Prior to the Industrial Revolution, cities relied primarily on the resources available in their local vicinity for goods and services. When these resources were depleted, the population of the city reduced or moved to better pastures. As global transport systems developed, cities became less reliant on local resources and more dependent on distant or foreign resources. Goods and services and even workers are now imported into cities. This way of life increases resource use through transport miles and also divorces city dwellers from the natural source that sustains their urban lifestyle. Giradet (2007a, p.108) estimates that, “cities currently occupy less than four per cent of the earth’s land surface, but house half of the human population and use eighty per cent of the resources we take from the earth”. This implies that the rural population currently survives on twenty per cent of global resources reflecting a ratio of 4:1 between urban and rural resource consumption. Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the current resource impact of a typical “Business as Usual” city of a developed country with one million inhabitants. This city model is termed ‘linear’ as it consumes excessive amounts of resources to fuel daily life and also disposes a high amount of waste outside the city as an output.
Figure 1. Daily consumption and waste output in a typical European city of a population of one million (linear city). Source: Concept adopted from Rogers (1998, p.31) & Tveitdal, 2004)
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In 2005, our use of the Earth’s resources was 30% higher than the planet’s capacity.
Ecological Footprint Ecological Footprint is an indicator developed by the Global Footprint Network that measures how much land and water is needed to produce the resources we consume, and to absorb the wastes we produce. In 2005, the world’s Ecological Footprint requirement was measured at 17.48 billion global hectares when the actual available productive land and water was 13.59 billion hectares. This means that in 2005 our use of the earth’s resources was thirty per cent higher than the planet’s capacity (Graph 1). In other words it requires one year and four months to regenerate the resources we consumed in a single year. When this is reflected on a per capita basis, 2.1 global hectares were available per person but actual consumption patterns demanded 2.7 global hectares per person. Table 1 presents the Ecological Footprint of some selected countries and cities indicating their drastic overshoot as of 2005.
Graph 1. Resource demand versus biocapacity. Source: Based on Global Footprint Network (2007 & 2008)
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Region Ecological Footprint (global ha/person)
Ecological Footprint (global ha/person)
WORLD
2.7
Africa
1.4
Asia-Pacific
Middle East and Central Asia North America Latin America and the Caribbean
European Union
1.6
2.3 9.2 2.4
4.7
Country/city
Ecological Footprint (global ha/person)
Congo
0.5
Libya
4.3
South Africa
2.1
Australia
7.8
China
2.1
Beijing*
3.1
Shanghai*
3.4
New Zealand
7.7
Japan
4.9
Hong Kong
4.4
United Arab Emirates
9.5
Kuwait
8.9
United states of America
9.4
Canada
7.1
Argentina
2.5
Brazil
2.4
Chile
3.0
Colombia
1.8
Peru
1.6
Finland
5.2
Germany
4.2
UK
5.3
London**
6.6
* data for 2004; ** data for 2000
Table 1. Ecological Footprint of selected countries and cities in 2005. Sources: Global Footprint Network, 2006 & 2008; Hails, Loh & Goldfinger, 2006
Trends in urbanisation For the first time ever, the majority of our global population is now living in urban environments and the trend towards urbanisation is rising steadily. Currently fifty per cent of the population (3.2 billion people) live in urban centres and the number is predicted to increase up to sixty per cent (4.9 billion people) by 2030 (UNDESA, 2006). The amount of people living in rural environments is predicted to stabilise over the next few decades, as demonstrated in Graph 2, while the urban population continues to increase. As the majority of developed countries have a low or zero population growth, as shown in Graph 3, then the major share of future population growth will occur in urban areas of developing countries.
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In 2000, for the first time ever, more than 50% of population lived in cities.
This is clearly demonstrated in China where the rate of urbanisation is increasing at a pace that has never been witnessed before. Driven predominantly by a large salary difference, rural migrants are heading to the cities in the hope of making their fortunes. In China, the urban population is predicted to grow by an additional 340 million by 2030 (UNDESA, 2007). At today’s population levels that is equivalent to adding forty-five Hong Kong’s, seventy-nine Sydney’s, forty London’s or 560 Abu Dhabi’s to China in the next twenty-two years!
At today’s population levels that is equivalent to adding 45 Hong Kong’s, 79 Sydney’s, 40 London’s or 560 Abu Dhabi’s Graph 2. Urban population growth versus rural population growth. Source: Based on UNDESA, 2001, as cited in Tveitdal, 2004)
to China in the next twenty-two years!
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It is time to make some vital choices. Our decisions today will impact on opportunities for future genertations.
According to Giradet, “What is happening in China will affect the whole world because of the sheer number of people involved. In developing countries, large scale urbanisation is profoundly a resource demanding process in terms of both construction and day-to-day running costs. As people in countries like China switch from peasant farming to urban lifestyles, their per capita use of fossil fuels, metals, meat, and manufactured products increases in leaps and bounds� (2007b, p.113). India and Africa are also seeing this growth and are similarly following resource hungry models prevalent in developed nations. This direction will put further strain on the limited resources of the planet. Producing sustainable cities in these countries may be more costly in the short term, but will create cost effective efficiencies in the future and could avert a global disaster. It is time to make some vital decisions: our choices today will impact on the opportunities for the future generations; we can persist with a business as usual attitude or embark upon a sustainable future. Changes that maintain living standards while reducing impacts on the ecosystem will be challenging. The good news is that a sustainable future is possible, although a change of current mindset is required. It requires continuous efforts and commitment starting at an individual level and extending to a global realm.
Graph 3. Total population predicted for developed and developing regions. Based on data from UNDESA (2006)
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An Eco City strikes to strive a balance with nature.
Sustainable cities A sustainable city or an eco-city is an entity developed to minimise its resource requirements and the waste output created by its inhabitants. As much as possible it attempts to strike a balance with nature. The result is a healthier sustainable ecosystem with reduced resource depletion. As discussed earlier, most of our current city models are linear models that do not respect natural ecosystems and are not self-sufficient; levels of consumption and waste generation are way beyond the sustainable limits. City models that are more sustainable have internalised, circular systems where inputs are reduced and the outputs are recycled to minimise waste (Figure 2). Historically, sustainable communities’ efforts have been generated by ‘peoples’ movements’, where like-minded communities reacted to rapid urbanisation and industrialisation and constructed neighbourhoods that were ecologically sustainable. These eco-communities have predominantly been small-scale projects that have evolved from grass root communities. With growing understanding of the adverse environmental consequences of cities, many governments both national and city-based are now taking a top down approach to promoting sustainable cities. These newer eco-cities are much larger scale projects conceived in a ‘build it and they will come’ model, similar to that of the majority of speculative property developments.
Figure 2. A circular city model. Source: Concept based on Rogers (1998:31)
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Action at a city level enables a focus on reducing prevailing deficiencies and exploring community and business strengths. Given the scale of cities, there are many possibilities in implementing sustainable measures, for example, cities can reduce the dependence on private cars through efficient public transportation systems; reduce the use of power for heating and cooling by proper building orientation and use of solar power; and promote sustainable waste management and organic food production systems within their local vicinities. An Ecological Footprint where demand equals biocapacity is a good indicator of a successful eco-city. In order to achieve this there are a variety of parameters and targets that can be measured. Table 2 presents a comparison between a typical “Business as Usual� city and a sustainable city with regard to these parameters. Typical cities (Business as Usual) Demand on resources Food -Food is grown remotely involving a lot of transport miles and energy -Nutrients from the land are flushed into the sea through sewerage -High use of genetically modified (GM) food and canned food -One unit of food energy requires twenty times more energy to produce it Energy -High use of fossil fuel emitting a large amount of heat and waste -Often imported -High use of electricity for cooling and heating buildings -Pollution at the source Water -Bottled water uses seventy times more energy as compared to potable water systems -High stress on water resources due to heavy demand
Transport
-Heavy use of private vehicles and fossil fuels -Roads: 0.75 linear metres of roads per person
Materials
-Often imported
Ecosystem
Sustainable cities/ Eco cities -Local farming: use of advanced farming systems: hydroponics, aeroponics -Return nutrients to the soil -Reduced genetically modified (GM) food and increased organic food
-Low use of fossil fuel; high use of renewable and clean energy sources, e.g. bio-fuel, wind turbines, solar -More efficient cogeneration and trigeneration systems -High energy efficiency and conservation -Dependence on local water sources -Low stress on water resources due to re-use and waste water treatment technologies -Rainwater catchments for agriculture, landscape and other services -Reduced reliance on private transport -Effective shuttle services and public transport networks -Vehicles less dependent on fossil fuels or use green energy -Roads: 0.4 linear metres of roads per person -Use of local, renewable, recycled resources
-High stress on the ecosystem due to uncontrolled population and built densities and high demand on resources -Low eco-efficiency Wastes and emissions Solid waste -High construction and demolition waste -Waste thrown into landfills and limited recycling -30–40% of food waste ends up in landfill
-Low stress on the ecosystem through controlled population and built densities - High eco-efficiency
Greenhouse gases
-Low use of fossil fuels -Use of bio-fuels as an alternative -Good indoor and outdoor air quality
-High use of fossil fuels and high emission of greenhouse gases, private vehicles and inefficient buildings -Poor indoor and outdoor air quality
-Reuse of buildings: low demolition -Increased recycling, reuse and composting: generate energy from waste
Design/planning considerations Land use and built density
-Decisions are often economic and market driven to reach maximum GFA -Repetition of facilities and excessive infrastructure
-Governed by sustainable principles -Repetition of facilities minimised
Response to nature
-High deforestation -Focus is on planting new trees and creating water bodies not preserving natural resources
-Low deforestation -Preserve and nurture existing natural resources and habitats
Table 2. A comparison between typical cities and sustainable cities. Data sources: ASD HK, 2004; BREEAM, 2007; OECD, 2004; Segnestam, 1999; World Wildlife Fund, 2008; Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, 2005
There are two strategies required for creating sustainable cities: strategies for existing cities and strategies for new cities. 1. Existing cities can slow down the environmental impact by integrating or retrofitting sustainable solutions. The C40 Initiative is a leading example. Its aim is to develop and implement a range of actions that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions from existing cities. The Clinton Climate Initiative provides direct assistance by creating a purchasing consortium and facilitating the sharing of information about successful and replicable programs (C40 cities, n.d.). 2. New cities can be developed predominantly based on sustainable concepts and systems. There is opportunity to adopt these systems in developing countries where the urban population growth is greatest. High profile eco-cities currently on the drawing boards are located at: Dongtan, China; Masdar, Abu Dhabi; Mata de Sesimbra, Portugal; Tianjin, China; and Tangshan, China.
Figure 3. Sustainable city initiatives around the world. a. Dongtan, China. Source: ARUP (2007); b. Masdar, Abu Dhabi. Source: Foster + Partners (2008); c. Mata de Sesimbra, Portugal. Source: Pelicano Developers (2003). All reproduced with permission
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Dongtan is a new sustainable model for city life.
Dongtan: A sustainable Chinese city With its double digit economic growth rate over the last twenty years China has been the envy of the economic world. However until recently its development has followed a growth model of ‘develop first, clean up later.’ This has resulted in extreme impacts on the environment, climate and health. China today houses sixteen of the twenty most polluted cities in the world (CBS, 2007), is the world’s largest emitter of sulphur dioxide and the largest emitter of carbon dioxide. The Yangtse River is also one of the largest sources of pollution entering the Pacific Ocean. The Chinese Central Government has noted these adverse environmental impacts and has recently incorporated environmental concerns into their forward planning and development. A new concept of scientific development that includes sustainability has been instigated since late 2006. One of the first examples of the new development model is Dongtan, a satellite city development in Shanghai. Dongtan is a new sustainable model for city life that respects the environmental requirements of the twenty-first century while striving to deliver an aspirational lifestyle for Chinese people. Dongtan, is located on Chongming Island, a low-lying alluvial island situated in the mouth of the Yangtze River to the north of Shanghai. Currently the island is a mainly rural enclave connected to the mainland only by boat. However, a new highway to be completed in 2009 will connect Chongming Island to Shanghai and Jiangsu Province (Figure 4). The Dongtan site is eightyfour square kilometres (8400 hectares) of greenfield located on the eastern side of Chongming Island with no existing infrastructure. To the east of Dongtan is a wetland of international importance that was listed under the Ramsar Convention in 2002.
Figure 4. Location map of Dongtan eco-city
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Drivers for Dongtan The adjacent Ramsar site was also instrumental in inspiring the developer, Shanghai Industrial Investment Company (SIIC), to adopt an environmental approach to the development of the Dongtan city to avoid any impact to the original ecology of the wetland system. The project was supported at the highest levels of the Chinese government. The timing of the project to coincide with the Shanghai Expo 2010 which has a city theme: ‘Better City Better Life’ also spurred the bold move to create a different city model. Interestingly, the Expo will be the first registered World Exposition ever to be held in a developing country and the first to have a city theme. Methodology and design In the initial phases of city planning, the design consultants, Arup, conducted intense discussion on benchmarking and studied other eco-communities formulating a set of planning principles to guide the design. A sustainability assessment tool called ‘SPeAR’ was adopted for the project which assists in the adoption and management of the environmental, social and economic aspects to be considered in the planning mechanism. It assisted in the evaluation of the design options generated against the guideline criteria. A number of design principles were adopted for Dongtan at the outset including the use of a water theme and that the development be specifically a Chinese city built for the local population. The site was laid out with three primary nodes of city development surrounded by parklands, farmland and secondary nodes of suburban development. The shape of the land parcel created a longitudinal city layout and its location next to the Ramsar site informed a role as a buffer for the bird sanctuary.
Figure 5. A view of the town centre from the south. Source: Arup (2007)
The southern development node was identified for initial development which constituted 634 hectares of the land available. This first phase of Dongtan includes three villages and a town centre (Figure 5). The remainder of the Dongtan project will be constructed over a twenty year period to accommodate up to 80 000 people.
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Villages and districts In the first development phase, each of the three villages has a differing character devised around the use of water; one is based on canals, another on ponds, and one on lakes (Figure 6 & 7). This utilises the island location of the city providing a readily available water supply. A town centre is provided to serve the three villages and it includes commercial and cultural aspects. In Dongtan a 1.45 average plot ratio has been adopted with a density of seventyfive dwellings per hectare. This results in a total population of 80 000 people for the eco-city, at a population density of 200 people/hectare. The buildings within the villages are 3–8 storeys in height, which is considered low density in China. Economic activity Peter Head, the Director at Arup who was instrumental in the vision for Dongtan, noted, “we are going to help establish a model of how a sustainable city works, but it must also be a viable financial proposition in the long term to attract international investment” (Kane, 2005). Local employment will create social structures and also reduce transport miles for commuters. Planned industries include research institutes, solar industries, tourism, restaurants, clean manufacturing, hospitals, fishing and farming. Office space is provided to allow companies to relocate to Dongtan and a sustainability research institute has been devised to spur further sustainability research. The existing fishing industries are being provided with upgraded infrastructure to ensure that they are not left behind in the development of the Dongtan economy. Renewable energy SIIC insisted upon the use of 100% renewable energy for the Dongtan project. The renewable energy is made up of the following technologies: – 60% from burning rice husks – 30% wind power – 5% municipal waste to energy – 5% photovoltaics
Figure 6. Water is a theme used for the village design. Source: Arup (2007)
The use of rice husks as the main energy source capitalises on a major waste product of the agricultural sector in China. It is estimated that 250 000 tonnes of rice husk per year will be used.
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The transport structure used for the project had inverted the priorities found within a normal city system.
District heating and cooling is provided and all of the electrical cabling is located underground. The energy allowance for the project equates to twenty-five watts/ m2 for electricity and heating. Each residence shall be provided with individual water and electricity meters to monitor usage. Potable water provided will use seventy times less embodied energy than bottled water. Transport systems The transport structure used for the project has inverted the priorities found within a normal city system. Public transportation, pedestrian systems and the use of waterways are given priority over cars, and large portions of Dongtan will be carfree. The use of a mixed use, medium density planning model has the benefit that everything is located in close proximity. Walking distances have been set so that a village centre is a maximum of 800 metres from any point within the city and only 400 metres to public transportation. Parks are located within three minutes walk of every household. One benefit is the subsequent drop in the amount of road infrastructure required. A typical city adopts approximately 0.75 linear metres of road per person, whereas in Dongtan this figure is reduced to 0.4, creating significant cost savings. One of the boldest initiatives of Dongtan is the restriction of all ‘tailpipe’ transport, where only zero emission vehicles will be allowed in the city. It encourages public transport use or hire of cars, bikes and electric bikes. For those residents who still require cars, vehicle parking is provided in half basements below each residential block, with only one car parking space allowed per every two households. Nature and ecology In Dongtan twenty-seven square metres of green space per person is provided which is well above the World Health Organisation recommendation of eight square metres. An ecology park is provided outside the city as well as extensive farmland. To promote and maintain existing eco-systems, ecological corridors are provided under roads and with the use of land bridges. The ecology has also influenced the layout of the villages. Buildings have been sited to maximise the cooling effect of winds in summer and minimise the heat island effect. Conversely, the cold winter winds are blocked from the development. Waste The waste systems within Dongtan are designed to reduce or recycle most waste products. In addition to conventional waste recycling, organic waste is collected and composted within the city and construction waste is controlled through development guidelines. It is predicted that the adoption of these systems will create a huge reduction in the waste sent to landfills from 30 000 tonnes to 5000 tonnes per annum. Social and cultural aspects Cities such as Dongtan that are being developed on greenfield sites do not have an existing social structure. The future social systems of Dongtan are difficult to predict and it will be interesting to judge this new style of city with future hindsight. Within such a specific eco-development it could be predicted that many of the population attracted to buying apartments in Dongtan will share common ideals regarding sustainability, which could help to galvanise a community spirit. Dongtan’s pedestrian system and numerous public spaces also support the ability for social interaction in the community. A Cultural Sustainability Officer is proposed for the development to assist in the development of social systems.
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Parameters providing diversity and performance All too often in China land is sold in large parcels. With one developer in control, a lack of diversity is the result. In Dongtan, a set of development parameters was created to ensure a diverse and rich city fabric. The parameters are set for each land parcel within the city and include plot ratios, the minimum amount of public accessible space, the building types and land use, site coverage, building height and the minimum number of architects to be commissioned. The parameters also include minimum building specifications requiring energy performance, thermal insulation, building orientation and ventilation. To promote social equity, 30% of the housing in each village will be allocated to affordable housing. The remaining 70% of the households are targeted at the mid–high class of the population. With the parameters in place the acid test of allowing market forces to mould the first phase of Dongtan is now underway. The development parameters are set as regulatory controls in all of the contracts signed between SIIC and property developers. Measuring up Differing aspects of the eco-city have been measured against a ‘business as usual’ (BAU) base case to demonstrate the performance of the city. Arup has also measured the footprint adopted by Dongtan as 2.3 global hectares per person. This is a vast reduction from the footprints of current cities (as cited in Table 1) which average around 5.8 global hectares per person; however, it is still above the current sustainable goal of 1.8 global hectares per person. Dongtan will therefore still rely on the rural population having a reduced footprint to compensate. The success of Dongtan China has the ability to develop contemporary cities for the future challenges that we face. With an overwhelming need for sustainable cities in the developing world, the success of Dongtan as one of the first to be developed is critical. It is hoped that property developers and buyers will be attracted to Dongtan and that it proves commercially, socially and environmentally viable. The success of Dongtan will assist the continued application of the eco-city model for other cities and suburbs throughout the world and in particular China. In order to serve China’s predicted urban population growth of an additional 340 million by 2030, a challenging 4250 Dongtan’s would be required to be built within the next twenty years (Dongtan serves only 80 000 people). Given this challenge, a subsequently large amount of professional expertise and eco-products need to be developed to deliver on the requirement. This presents remarkable opportunities for forward thinking companies, but also raises the question whether this expertise will be available in time. Paradigm shifts towards new ways of living often take a generation to manifest. To support the use of ecocities, more than just developing a city infrastructure is required. Other aspects that require focus include public education regarding the need for a sustainable lifestyle, the teaching of requisite tools and training for professional workers and the development of new products and systems such as renewable energy systems. Adapting to eco-city living for Chinese people is potentially easier than for residents of developed countries, as current Chinese lifestyles are much more sustainable. The Chinese are more energy conscious, have low car ownership levels, and the rural population is more in touch with nature and its cycles. This can only assist the Chinese in adopting a new sustainable urbanism.
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Dongtan has already been very influential on current town planning thinking. Even prior to its construction, Dongtan has caught the imagination of urban designers and town planners worldwode.
Having a single party political system and a lack of well-funded lobby groups wishing to maintain the status quo greatly assists China in the rapid implementation of eco-cities, as there are fewer hurdles to navigate once a clear direction is set. The People’s Republic of China Government is very supportive of constructing a future sustainable infrastructure. Hu Jintao, the President of China, recently noted, “China will quadruple the per capita value of GDP in the coming thirteen years and complete the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects. Moreover, the new goal must be achieved through optimizing the economic structure and improving economic returns while reducing consumption of resources and protecting the environment” (Ying, 2007). Adopting a ‘build it and they will come’ model is not new for town or city developments of this scale. These types of developments are occurring all over China as it rapidly urbanises. Shanghai alone has nine other sub-city developments currently in the design process in an attempt to alleviate the density within the CBD. However there is always speculation as to the success of these types of developments. In the case of Dongtan one expects that some buyers will be attracted to the ideals of the project and its eco lifestyle. Others however will view the purchase of an apartment in Dongtan with a typical buyer’s rationale— weighing up the costs purely against the proposed benefits to themselves. Current estimates of apartment prices in Dongtan reveal a 30–40% premium compared to a ‘standard’ apartment (Shen, 2008). Sustainable aspects aside, Dongtan is still a very attractive living proposition. Central Shanghai is a very large sprawling metropolis, built in a flat river delta with little natural relief in terms of beaches, forests or mountains. Dongtan could therefore appeal to residents searching for a lack of pollution, large amounts of parks and open space, and being part of a community of like-minded people. As an experimental project of sustainable living it is disappointing that Dongtan has not been able to reduce its targeted Global Footprint to the sustainable goal of 1.8 global hectares per person. It shows that our aspirational lifestyles will need to be further pared back to achieve this goal. At the same time new research into technologies, systems and products can assist in reaching this target in the design of future sustainable cities. Dongtan has already been very influential on current town planning thinking. Even prior to its construction, Dongtan has caught the imagination of urban designers and town planners worldwide. It is influencing the way that cities are being planned globally therefore suggesting an initial success factor. Some detractors believe that Dongtan will become a rich person’s satellite suburb of Shanghai. Despite a 30% allocation of affordable housing this may indeed be the case for China’s first eco-city. Yet even as an elite enclave, Dongtan will hopefully still successfully promote the principles of sustainable living and influence future ecocity developments to cater to Chinese people with an average standard of living. In this sense Dongtan is a huge step along the path to a better future. Overall, Dongtan is a bold initiative by SIIC and the Chinese government that shows strong leadership towards a future in balance with our natural world. Dongtan can rightly take its place as a driver towards a sustainable China and promoter of a sustainable global future for all.
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References The information contained within the Dongtan case study was derived from a workshop entitled Towards Urban Sustainability conducted at Schumacher College in September 2007. Special thanks go to the college, the course presenters and other participants for their energy, insight and particularly for the sharing of knowledge. Refer to www. schumachercollege.org.uk
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Shen, R. (2008, June 24). Shanghai maps out plan for carbon-neutral oasis. South China Morning Post, p. A14. Tveitdal, S. (2004). Urban-rural interrelationship: Condition for sustainable development. UNEP Article of the Month. Retrieved April 29, 2008, from http://www.fig.net/pub/monthly_ articles/february_2004/Svein_Tveitdal_ february_2004.pdf UNDESA. (2006). World urbanization prospects: The 2005 revision. Population Division. Retrieved April 25, 2008, from www.unpopulation.org UNDESA. (2007). World urbanization prospects: The 2007 revision. Retrieved October 19, 2007, from http://esa.un.org/unup/p2k0data.asp World Wildlife Fund. (2008). The principles of one planet living. Retrieved April 30, 2008, from http://www.panda. org/about_wwf/what_we_do/policy/ one_planet_living/about_opl/principles/ index.cfm Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy. (2005). 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking national environmental stewardship. Retrieved April 30, 2008, from http:// www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005.pdf Ying, G. (Ed.) (2007, October 15). Hu charts roadmap for China: Sustainable growth, greater democracy. Chinese Government’s official web portal. Retrieved 19 October 2007, from http://english.gov.cn/2007-10/15/ content_776664.htm
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About the authors Sandy Edge Sandy Edge is a Principal in the Hong Kong studio of Woods Bagot. He has been working for major architectural firms in Hong Kong and Australia, and has twenty years of experience. At Woods Bagot, Sandy is the leader of the Green Team in the Hong Kong studio and has been instrumental in ensuring the sustainability outcomes of Woods Bagot’s projects. Sandy has been driving a business unit in the HK studio of Woods Bagot to focus on the production of green cities and green buildings in China. Sandy currently is a member of the Business Coalition on the Environment, the Best Practice Committee of the Harbour Business Forum, and he is In 2008, Sandy was presented an Earth Champion award for his commitment to the built environment in Hong Kong. He is an active member of the Hong Kong Institute of Architects Environment and Sustainable Development Committee.
Ruffina Thilakaratne Ruffina is an architect and an academic with over ten years of international professional experience in the industry and academia with a wealth of design, project management, teaching and research experience. Having earned a PhD in architecture and lead several design and research projects, Ruffina is well versed on the design of learning environments, sustainability, transit oriented mixed use development and seismic resistant design. Prior to joining Woods Bagot, Ruffina was a key member in several large mixed use development projects. Her experience as an Assistant Professor at the University of Hong Kong also complements her career as an architect with her involvement in teaching and campus physical development projects. Sustainable cities for our future Page 19
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