nutrinews.com
SEPTEMBER 2023
MYCOTOXIN LEVELS IN SOYBEAN MEALS p. 4
EXPLORING THE CROSSROADS OF NUTRITION: UNVEILING NEW PERSPECTIVES ON IMMUNITY, TOXINS, AND SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK FEEDING
I
n our dynamic world of animal nutrition, the relentless pursuit of knowledge is paramount for researchers and industry professionals alike. The latest issue of Nutrinews International serves as a lighthouse amidst the vast sea of information, illuminating captivating topics that have the potential to reshape the very foundations of nutrition. This comprehensive exploration reaffirms our steadfast commitment to being an indispensable source of wisdom for all fervent enthusiasts of nutrition science. Spotlight on Recent Events Our coverage begins with an insightful review of the recent American Society of Animal Science annual meeting, which convened in Albuquerque, New Mexico. This gathering was a veritable cornucopia of knowledge, delving into diverse facets of animal science. A prominent focus was placed on companion animal nutrition, with presentations spanning topics such as pet food evaluation, amino acids, alternative ingredients like insect-based food, and the profound impact of feed additives on gut health. This spotlight underscores the burgeoning importance of companion animal nutrition, a field undergoing remarkable evolution. Unraveling the Mycotoxin Enigma We then delve into the pressing issue of mycotoxins in soybean meals and their profound implications for animal nutrition. This exploration emphasizes the critical need for a nuanced approach to feed quality control, ensuring the well-being of our animal counterparts. Additionally, we navigate the intricate relationship between mycotoxins and endotoxins, highlighting the necessity of a multifaceted strategy to ensure the safety of animal feed. Exploring Sustainable Feeding Practices With sustainability taking center stage, we turn our attention to alternative feedstuffs like peas in poultry diets. As the demand for resource-efficient practices grows, we examine how these alternative feed sources can
contribute not only to economic benefits but also to the environmental sustainability of poultry farming. Moreover, we explore the fascinating correlation between feed additives and poultry fatty acid profiles, advocating for a holistic approach that enhances both animal and consumer health.
EDITOR
COMMUNICATION GROUP AGRINEWS LLC
Innovations in Swine Farming Within the realm of swine farming, we engage in a discussion surrounding low-crude-protein diets. This illuminating dialogue provides valuable insights into innovative feeding strategies that strike a delicate balance between protein production and environmental sustainability. We also address the critical issue of the ecological footprint of pig farming, emphasizing the industry’s profound responsibility in championing environmental stewardship. The Complexity of Nutritional Science Our diverse coverage extends to intriguing relationships, such as the interplay between nutrition, urea, and somatic cells in sheep’s milk. Furthermore, we underscore the significance of controlling residual feed intake in dairy cattle, a topic of growing importance in contemporary livestock management. Tackling Methane Emissions Lastly, we investigate the promising field of reducing methane emissions in ewes through a dietary blend of essential oils (EOs) and polyphenols. This innovative approach holds the potential to address a pressing environmental concern while ensuring the health and productivity of our livestock.
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The new issue of Nutrinews International encapsulates the ever-expanding landscape of nutrition science. Each topic explored contributes to a holistic understanding of animal nutrition, guiding informed conversations and propelling the industry toward a sustainable, efficient, and ethical future of food production. Together, we journey toward a nourished and harmonious world.
1 NutriNews International September 2023
04
Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón
30
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University
12
Developments, Implications, and Constraints of LowCrude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming Maykelly da Silva Gomes, Jansller Luiz Genova, Gabriel Cipriano Rocha
Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
Federal University of Viçosa
Prof. Simon Jackson Molendotech Ltd.
40 22
Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University
2 NutriNews International September 2023
Environmental impacts of pig farming Ines Andretta
Professor and researcher at UFRGS
48
Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
62
Gabriela Miotto Galli1, Aleksandro Schafer da Silva2 e Ines Andretta1
Department of Animal Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. 2 Department of Animal Science, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina-UDESC, Chapecó, SC, Brazil
Alberto Stanislao Atzori
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.
1
54
70
Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition Iglesias BF 1, Charrière MV 1, Gaggiotti M2, Fain Binda V 1, Chale J1, Prieto GM3. Poultry Section, INTA-EEA Pergamino; 2 Forage Laboratory, INTA-EEA Rafaela; 3 AER Arroyo Seco, INTA-EEA Oliveros. 1
A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a Balance Fernando Bacha NACOOP, S.A.
76
Nutrition, urea and SCC in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships Alberto Stanislao Atzori
Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.
nutrinews.com 3 NutriNews International September 2023
MYCOTOXIN LEVELS IN SOYBEAN MEALS
nutrition
Edgar O. Oviedo Rondón1 , Anneliese Mueller2 and Bettina Behler-Wöchtl3 1Prestage Department Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA 2DSM firmenich, Getzersdorf, Austria 3DSM-firmenich, Getzersdorf, Austria
M
ycotoxin evaluation is frequent in feed mills for grain sources like corn, wheat, and barley or products like peanuts and cottonseed. However, soybean meal, the most common protein source in feed for all animal species, needs more attention in this critical quality aspect. 4 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
Several studies have indicated that soybean meal appears to be less susceptible to mycotoxin contamination than most grains. However, significant differences can be observed in contamination with mycotoxins among sources of soybean meal.
Previous reports have indicated that the main mycotoxins eventually observed in soybean meals can be:
Fumonisins (FUM) Deoxynivalenol (DON)
Aflatoxins (Afla)
Ochratoxins (OTA)
Trichothecenes (T2)
However, several publications suggest
Global evaluations of samples are necessary
some variability per region. That effect
since soybean meals have considerable trade
should be clarified to determine if
worldwide. Relevant differences in nutrient
contamination relates with:
and processing quality have been reported
nutrition
Zearalenone (ZEN)
among countries of origin.
The location where samples were
The data reported here also indicate
collected or The origin of production and manage risks according to these factors.
differences among sources of soybean meal on mycotoxin contamination.
DESCRIPTION OF THIS WORLDWIDE MYCOTOXIN SURVEY The data on mycotoxin levels in soybean meal presented in this article are part of the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey. The increasing sample size over the
Starting in 2004, it is the longestrunning and most comprehensive data set on mycotoxin occurrence and allows studying variation in mycotoxin
years gives detailed insights into the incidence of the six major mycotoxins in the agricultural commodities used for
occurrence worldwide.
livestock feed.
Dsm-firmenich offers mycotoxin
This information aids in identifying the
analysis to customers as a service to identify mycotoxin risk in their raw commodities and final feeds.
potential risks posed to livestock animal production per region or in imported feed ingredients. 5
nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
METHODS USED Most results included in the survey are obtained using methods like ELISA, HPLC, or state-of the art LC-MS/MS-based multimycotoxin methods. Samples that tested positive for one of the main mycotoxins are also presented as the percentage of contaminated samples. The average and median of positives are calculated in ppb of all positively tested samples. The maximum levels are also described. Such high levels are seldom observed, but still, they occur and underline the
nutrition
importance of testing for mycotoxin occurrence.
SOYBEAN MEAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES China, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and India are leading soybean meal producers. The 27 European Union countries may produce more soybean meal together than India, but not as individual countries. Considering the production volume and the data in the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey that can track the origin of the soybean meal, we looked at the results of soybean meal samples from China, USA, Brazil, Argentina, and India analyzed from June 2022 to June 2023.
6 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
nutrition
RESULTS OF THE MYCOTOXIN SURVEY
The most significant number of samples evaluated were from Argentina and Brazil,
The results of this study are summarized
and the lowest was from India.
in the following Table and the prevalence of each mycotoxin per
Variability in the number of samples
country in the Figures.
per country corresponds to all samples received from each origin for mycotoxin screening this year.
The contamination levels of all soybean samples worldwide are always lower than reported in grains, confirming what scientific papers have indicated. However, they are present in this feedstuff and may occasionally
The most frequent mycotoxins observed were ZEN, FUM, and DON. They indicated contamination with Fusarium molds is the most common in soybean meals worldwide.
contribute to total feed contamination. It is evident that the differences among soybean meal-producing countries on types of mycotoxins and levels of contamination observed.
7 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES
100% 80% 60%
86%
40% 20%
57%
46%
29%
0%
0%
Afla
ZEN
DON
7%
T2
FUM
OTA
Figure 1. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from China
In China (Figure 1), Argentina
(Figure 4), and India (Figure 5), 86% or 82% of the samples were positive for ZEN; however, in India, 97% of the samples analyzed were positive for OTA and 92% positive for T2 (Figure 5).
% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES
nutrition
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 5%
28%
Afla
ZEN
42% 12%
0%
DON
5% T2
14% FUM
OTA
Figure 2. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from the United States United States soybean meal (Figure 2) had
Aflatoxins were the second most common
the lowest percentage of samples positive
mycotoxin observed in Argentinian soybean
for ZEN (28%) among all five countries
meals, with 63% of the 1,459 samples
studied and the lowest average and median
evaluated being positive (919 samples).
concentration (17 and 15 ppb) or maximum level (38 ppb) of ZEN.
However, contamination levels were around 2-3 ppb in Argentinian
In all other countries, the ZEN levels
soybeans, and similar levels
observed were almost three times (2.3
were observed in the
to 3.6) higher. The highest levels of ZEN
Chinese and Indian soybean
(Table 1) were observed in samples from
meals, with 29 and 26% of the
Argentina and Brazil (1000 and 809 ppb).
samples positive for Afla.
8 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES
100%
673) and the USA (2 out of 43) had Afla
60% 40% 20%
44%
2% Afla
However, the median concentration of Afla in Brazilian samples was
meal were positive for OTA (Figure 3), indicating low or no contamination with Penicillium molds in these samples.
% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES
No samples of Brazilian soybean
OTA
60% 40% 20%
82% 47%
63% 19% Afla
No T2 was observed in the Chinese of 56) were positive for DON.
FUM
80%
0%
samples (Figure 1), but 46% (26 out
T2
DON
100%
samples reached a median of outliers and hard to observe again.
ZEN
0%
Figure 3. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from Brazil
4 ppb. In comparison, the two USA 45 ppb, which could be considered
5%
10%
0%
(Figures 3 and 2).
9%
nutrition
A few samples from Brazil (13 out of
80%
ZEN
DON
T2
19%
1%
FUM
OTA
Figure 4. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from Argentina
% CONTAMINATED SAMPLES
100% 80% 60%
82%
40% 20%
63%
47% 19%
0%
Afla
ZEN
DON
19% T2
FUM
1% OTA
Figure 5. Prevalence of mycotoxins detected in soybean meal samples from India 9 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
The United States soybean meals positive for mycotoxins generally had the lowest average and median concentrations of DON, T2, FUM, and OTA observed worldwide (Table 1). Using only the median values of positive samples, the US soybean meal had 7.1 to 17.6 times less DON, 2.8 to 4.4 times less T2, 6.6 to 23.4 times less FUM, and 2.0 to 18.0 times less OTA than other countries. China and the USA soybean meals had similar number of samples positive for FUM (Figures 1 and 2) and similar median concentrations (Table 1).
nutrition
China
USA
Brazil
Parameter
Afla
ZEN
DON
T2
FUM
OTA
Number of samples
56
56
56
14
14
14
Average of positives (ppb)
3
49
581
96
10
Median of positives (ppb)
3
49
600
37
10
Maximum (ppb)
4
88
1160
0
306
10
Parameter
Afla
ZEN
DON
T2
FUM
OTA
Number of samples
43
43
43
43
43
43
Average of positives (ppb)
45
17
97
8
127
2
Median of positives (ppb)
45
15
34
8
38
2
Maximum (ppb)
90
38
309
11
1058
4
Parameter
Afla
ZEN
DON
T2
FUM
OTA
Number of samples
673
603
672
95
683
17
Average of positives (ppb)
4
48
485
28
873
Median of positives (ppb)
4
37
438
26
350
Maximum (ppb)
14
809
1700
59
13224
10 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
0
India
Afla
ZEN
DON
T2
FUM
OTA
Number of samples
1459
1555
451
1205
383
537
Average of positives (ppb)
3
53
359
32
1161
4
Median of positives (ppb)
2
49
280
22
890
4
Maximum (ppb)
30
1000
1090
179
3760
4
Parameter
Afla
ZEN
DON
T2
FUM
OTA
Number of samples
38
38
38
38
38
38
Average of positives (ppb)
10
61
2328
36
332
35
Median of positives (ppb)
4
34
240
35
250
36
Maximum (ppb)
33
794
6720
91
590
89
nutrition
Argentina
Parameter
Table 1. Results of the dsm-firmenich World Mycotoxin Survey in soybean meal samples collected from June 2022 to June 2023 and classified by country of origin.
CONCLUSIONS Based on the median concentration of these mycotoxins and the number of positive samples within the survey, the United States soybean meal is currently the safest source to avoid multi-mycotoxin contamination. However, monitoring mycotoxins in
Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals DOWNLOAD ON PDF
all soybean meals every year is always advisable because concentrations of mycotoxins may occur due to annual weather fluctuations. 11 nutriNews International September 2023 | Mycotoxin levels in soybean meals
ENDOTOXINS IN
ANIMAL FEED AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP WITH
MYCOTOXINS mycotoxins
Prof. Simon Jackson, Molendotech Ltd., Devon, United Kingdom
WHAT ARE ENDOTOXINS? Endotoxins are major components of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Endotoxins are composed of a lipid anchor known as lipid A and a repetitive polysaccharide unit, giving them the alternate name of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) (Figure 1).
12 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
Central region
O-specific chain
Acyl chains
Lipid A
Inner core
Outer core
Repetitive polysaccharide
Endotoxins elevate the negative charge of the bacterial cell membrane, providing stability to the overall membrane structure. As a result, they create a robust permeability barrier that effectively repels small and hydrophobic molecules. This inherent resistance to various antimicrobial agents makes Gram-negative bacteria naturally resilient. While the overall structure of endotoxins is comparable among Gram-negative bacterial species, variations in the composition of polysaccharides (such as
mycotoxins
Figure 1. Structure of E. coli endotoxin (adapted from Abate et al., Journal of medical microbiology, 2017).
Apart from their role in maintaining bacterial stability and identification, endotoxins play a significant role in human and animal diseases, particularly in relation to immune and inflammatory responses.
WHAT IS THE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF ENDOTOXINS? The biological activity of endotoxins is linked to the lipid and polysaccharide components of lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
specific O chains or O antigens) create a
Lipid A is linked to toxicity.
diverse array, distinguishing them between
Immunogenicity is associated with
different bacterial strains.
polysaccharide components.
The O antigen plays a crucial role in identifying particular strains of enteric bacteria, such as E. coli (e.g., E. coli O157), with the “O” indicating the presence of the O antigen.
13 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
Lipid A is a potent modulator of the biological response and can stimulate the immune system of mammals. It binds the endotoxin molecule in
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENDOTOXINS AND EXOTOXINS?
the outer membrane of bacterial
Endotoxins, by themselves, are not as toxic
cells, exerting its biological
as other toxins, such as exotoxins.
effects when the endotoxin is released from the cells. This detachment during bacterial growth or when bacteria are lysed due to autolysis, complement attack, phagocytosis, or certain
EXOTOXINS
can happen through natural Exotoxins are proteins that specific strains of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria produce and secrete. They usually target specific cells where they induce toxic effects, such as
antibiotics.
altering metabolism and leading to cell death.
mycotoxins
It is crucial to understand that endotoxins are exceptionally
For instance, in the case of entero-
heat-stable and cannot be eliminated
toxigenic E. coli (ETEC), it generates
through standard autoclaving or heat
a heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) that
inactivation methods. Furthermore,
attaches to receptors on enterocytes
unlike bacteria, endotoxins are
in the intestine, causing disruption to
unaffected by antibiotics and can still
ion and water transport, leading to
induce their toxic effects even in the
severe diarrhea.
ENDOTOXINS
absence of viable bacteria.
In contrast, endotoxins are released upon bacterial lysis and do not have specific target cells. The immune system “detects” them as signals of Gram-negative bacterial infection, triggering an innate inflammatory immune response.
14 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
specialnutrients.com
HOW DO ENDOTOXINS STIMULATE THE IMMUNE SYSTEM?
Endotoxins also activate the Complement system and trigger the blood coagulation
The “toxicity” associated with
system (Figure 2).
endotoxins is a result of the host’s
FEED
immune response. Endotoxins are recognized by the immune system as signals of an infection caused by Gram-negative bacteria, triggering an innate inflammatory immune
COMPLEMENT ACTIVATED
IMMUNE CELLS ENDOTOXIN
COAGULATION
response. Even minimal amounts of endotoxins (<1ug) in the bloodstream, which is typically sterile, can induce a
mycotoxins
significant inflammatory response.
Immune cells, such as macrophages and monocytes, have surface receptors known as Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4),
Inflammatory gene expression TNFα, IL-6, IL-1, Lipid mediators (PAF)
INFLAMMATION
Figure 2. Endotoxins found in animal feed can activate the host’s immune system, leading to an inflammatory response that can potentially harm tissues and organs, ultimately leading to animal death.
which recognize endotoxins. The attachment of the endotoxin to TLR4 triggers a series of
This further stimulates inflammatory
cellular signaling events that
responses, allowing a rapid activation of
result in gene expression and the
the innate immune system to combat any
synthesis of proteins that induce an
bacteria before the infection progresses
inflammatory response:
too far.
Cytokines: Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and
Nevertheless, the strong
TNFα.
inflammatory response must be
Inflammatory mediators: Plate-
regulated and “switched off” to
let-activating factor (PAF) and
prevent harm to the host.
Interleukin 1 (IL-1).
16 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
HOW ARE ENDOTOXINS DETECTED? Throughout evolution, the response to This balance is achieved by producing
endotoxins has been preserved, bestowing
anti-inflammatory mediators,
our ancestors with a survival advantage in a
such as interleukin 10 receptor
world full of Gram-negative pathogens.
antagonists and interleukin 1 receptor antagonists, along with proteins that bind to endotoxins, like lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP). Additionally, immune cells such
In fact, a response to endotoxins has been observed in ancient marine creatures like the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), which has been on Earth for millions of years (Levin and Bang, 1968).
as macrophages and neutrophils can help eliminate endotoxins by the lipid A portion of the endotoxin molecule.
The liver also plays an important role in this process.
The identification of an immune clotting response to endotoxins in horseshoe crabs paved the way for the creation of a remarkably sensitive test to detect bacterial endotoxins. This test utilizes the blood cells (amebocytes) of these organisms and is known as the Limulus
mycotoxins
producing enzymes that degrade
Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) test (Figure 3).
In the event of a substantial influx of endotoxins into the bloodstream or their delayed
ENDOTOXINA
clearance, the inflammatory response may intensify, causing a “cytokine storm” that overwhelms the regulatory capacity of anti-inflammatory mechanisms. This can result in damage to the host’s tissues and organs.
This condition is known as sepsis and can lead to a high mortality rate.
As a result, the presence of endotoxins in the bloodstream can be fatal, and measures must be taken to minimize their entry.
Figura 3. illustrates the principle of the LAL test, which is utilized to detect bacterial endotoxins. In this process, endotoxins from Gram-negative bacteria bind and activate Factor C in Limulus amebocytes, initiating a series of enzyme reactions that culminate in the formation of a blood clot (coagulin). The addition of a chromogenic substrate enables the reaction to produce a colored product.
C FACTOR
ACTIVATED C FACTOR
ENZYMES OF THE COAGULATION CASCADE
COAGULIN CHROMOGENIC SUBSTRATE
COLORED PRODUCT
17 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
Nevertheless, intestinal injuries, a diet The LAL test is a standard procedure in the
rich in fats, pharmacological treatments,
pharmaceutical industry, ensuring that all
infections, or immaturity (e.g., neonates)
medications and medical devices, including
can facilitate the translocation of
pacemakers, catheters, and other invasive
endotoxins through the membrane and
instruments, are free from endotoxin
into the systemic circulation.
contamination. This stringent testing is essential as the inadvertent introduction of endotoxins into the human body could trigger
In animals, impairment of intestinal
potentially fatal immune reactions (sepsis)
barrier function is also a concern, and
(Abate et al., 2020).
stress in pigs or subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) in cattle can facilitate the entry of endotoxins into the bloodstream, resulting in pathological
Molendotech Limited researchers have created a modified LAL
mycotoxins
test capable of analyzing environmental samples to detect endotoxin levels, including bacterial or fecal contamination in water, food, and animal feed.
consequences. Low doses of endotoxins have been shown to induce SARA symptoms, including inflammation, decreased ruminal pH, and alterations in the microbiota (Jing et al., 2014). Therefore, inhalation or ingestion of endotoxins can trigger severe disease in young animals. Gram-negative bacteria, particularly
HOW CAN ENDOTOXINS ENTER THE BLOODSTREAM? The intestine is a massive reservoir of
E. coli, are extensively utilized in recombinant technology for producing feed additives such as amino acids and vitamins.
Gram-negative bacteria and consequently contains large amounts of endotoxins that can enter the bloodstream through intestinal absorption. The body has developed
If endotoxins from contaminated
compartmentalization as a protective
bacteria enter the additives, it may
mechanism to prevent excessive
pose a risk to both animals and
amounts of endotoxins from entering the
workers handling the additives, as
bloodstream.
well as consumers.
18 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
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workers exposed to inhaled endotoxins
CAN MYCOTOXINS INFLUENCE THE RESPONSE TO ENDOTOXINS?
from poultry house dust or other sources
Mycotoxins are toxins produced by fungi
present clinical symptoms, including
(molds) that grow on crops or feed
decreased lung function (Health Council of
ingredients during storage. They can cause
the Netherlands, 2010).
a range of adverse health effects and pose
It has been documented, for example, that
a serious threat to the health of humans and livestock. Mycotoxins commonly found in feed While farm animals are consistently exposed to endotoxins from their
include aflatoxins, zearalenone, T2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin A.
mycotoxins
environment, including feed, diets with elevated endotoxin levels
Feeds contaminated with mycotoxins
carry a risk. Even small doses that
and endotoxins lead to the
manage to cross the intestinal
simultaneous presence of both
barrier can lead to serious diseases
substances in the gastrointestinal tract
(Mani et al., 2013).
of production animals. Studies have revealed that this combined presence exerts synergistic adverse effects on
Hence, it is prudent to restrict the inclusion of feed ingredients
animal health, causing subsequent economic impacts.
containing endotoxins in animals with compromised gastrointestinal barrier function (Wallace et al., 2016). Animals are also expected to react to inhaled endotoxins present in feed and poultry dust similarly to human workers. However, there are few studies on animal
As mentioned earlier, an intact intestinal barrier is crucial to reducing the incorporation of endotoxins into the bloodstream and preventing their inflammatory consequences.
exposure to inhaled endotoxins, and
Furthermore, a well-functioning immune
exposure limits are uncertain.
system and liver play a crucial role in regulating the level of endotoxins in the bloodstream. Mycotoxins damage the intestinal epithelium, allowing more intestinal contents, including endotoxins, to enter the bloodstream.
20 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
Additionally, mycotoxins impact the functioning of immune cells and cause liver damage, resulting in heightened inflammatory responses and reduced
HOW CAN WE MITIGATE THE PRESENCE OF ENDOTOXINS AND MYCOTOXINS IN ANIMAL FEED?
elimination mechanisms for endotoxins (Figure 4). Thus, mycotoxins present in animal feeds act synergistically with endotoxins, causing severe
In order to mitigate the effects of
consequences for the health of animals
endotoxins and mycotoxins in feeds,
that consume contaminated feeds.
it is essential to treat them with
Young animals, especially during
substances that can bind and remove
the weaning phase, are particularly
these molecules (Boyacioglu, 2019), and
vulnerable (Wallace et al., 2016).
it is crucial to validate their efficacy in eliminating endotoxins.
Detoxification mechanisms
Liver
Endotoxin
Gut epithelium barrier
Mycotoxin
mycotoxins
Additionally, feed samples can undergo
Immune cells
testing to assess the presence of Gram-negative bacteria and endotoxins.
Tests for various mycotoxins do exist, but they tend to be more complex. However, there are promising developments in the pipeline, and soon, general screening for fungal contamination should become more accessible with the availability of new tests.
Endotoxin
Figure 4. Mycotoxins affect immune cells and the liver, hindering the production of endotoxin detoxification enzymes and other anti-inflammatory molecules. They can also alter the intestinal epithelial barrier, which typically prevents the entry of endotoxins into the bloodstream.
Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
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21 nutriNews International September 2023 | Endotoxins in animal feed and their relationship with mycotoxins
COMPANION ANIMAL NUTRITION AT THE AMERICAN ANIMAL SCIENCE MEETING
pet nutrition
Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University
T
he annual meeting of the American Society of Animal Science
was held between July 16 and 20 at the Albuquerque Convention Center in New Mexico. This annual scientific event brings many
animal nutrition sessions, among many other topics such as breeding, genetics and genomics, precision livestock farming and management, health, growth and development, physiology and reproduction, teaching, training, and extension.
22 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
These presentations covered a great variety of topics that included: Feeding and weight control Amino acid digestibility and metabolism Evaluation of feedstuffs and pet food products Alternative ingredients, including insect food Trace mineral and vitamin nutrition Fiber utilization are sections for ruminant and monogastric nutrition.
Methodologies to determine energy and digestibility values for pet food
However, in the past years, the
Impact of diverse feed additives on gut
companion animal nutrition section has
health
been growing. This year, four sessions were dedicated to companion animals, and nutrition was the primary focus. Additionally, 30 posters were presented on topics related to pet food.
pet nutrition
In animal nutrition, there
Governmental regulations, pet owner consumer trends Implications of processing and handling on the functionality of plant and animalderived products for pet food
This meeting delved into numerous captivating aspects of companion animal nutrition. Yet, given our article's space constraints, we've opted to summarize specific papers focused on amino acid digestibility, requirements, and metabolism, due to the importance of these nutrients for dogs and cats.
23 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
AMINO ACID DIGESTIBILITY FOR PET FOOD INGREDIENTS Estimating the amino acid digestibility of protein sources for pet foods is challenging. Nutritional research in companion animals has many limitations compared to farm animals. Precisionfed customized rooster assays are used to obtain digestibility since correlations between rooster and dog data are high, r = 0.90 for total essential amino acids and r = 0.92 for total amino acids. These data are used to estimate the digestible indispensable amino acid score or DIAASlike values. These DIAAS values provide
pet nutrition
the amino acid quality of food proteins based on ileal digestibility studies rather than total tract digestibility, and values for each amino acid may be calculated.
This is the formula used to estimate DIAAS-like (%)
DIAAS-like (%) =
100 x mg of digestible AA in 1 g of the dietary protein mg of the same AA in 1 g of reference protein
Pigs are recognized as an
the amino adequacy of the meal may be
appropriate model to determine
calculated.
DIAAS for human food proteins, and rooster digestibility data is currently the model for pet food. Considering that digestibility values for amino acids in individual food proteins are additive in mixed meals, DIAAS values for mixed meals may be calculated. By comparing the DIAAS values of mixed meals to the requirements for digestible indispensable amino acids,
DIAAS-like calculations estimate the protein quality of each ingredient. The limiting amino acid of each ingredient is identified using references like the National Research Council, 2006, NRC; the Association of American Feed Control Officials, AAAFCO, or the European Pet Food Industry, FEDIAF, for each life stage (growing, adult) and species (dog, cat).
24 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
A research group from the University of Illinois led by Dr. Patricia Massae used this technique to evaluate the digestibility of amino acids in the microbial protein (MP) produced by Calysta (https://calysta.com/) for pet food.
Dr. Van Straten from Alberta also presented a study to evaluate the apparent total tract
Their study also included an
digestibility (ATTD) of extruded vegetarian
evaluation of corn gluten meal,
dog foods in pigs and adult dogs. There were
chicken meal, pea protein, and
two diets: low protein containing 24% crude
black soldier fly larvae as a reference.
protein, including 35% field pea flour and 15% lentil flour, and high
In this study, corn gluten meal had the highest amino acid digestibilities. However, the MP
protein containing 43% crude protein,
evaluated had digestibilities higher than 85%
including 50% pea
for all indispensable amino acids. The lysine
protein concentrate
digestibility of MP was 92.3%, higher than all other ingredients. The MP tryptophan
and 20% lentil protein concentrate.
gluten meal and pea protein. Methionine was a limiting amino acid for MP. In conclusion, the MP is a highly digestible, high-quality protein source for companion animal diets in almost all life stages evaluated. However, to estimate additional potential effects, palatability, stool quality, and other health outcomes should be evaluated in dogs and cats.
pet nutrition
digestibility was 97.2%, higher than corn One of the objectives of this project was to compare the digestibility of both species. The results indicated that pigs have higher digestibility than dogs. The prediction for ATTD of organic matter was R2 = 0.90 and R2 = 0.89 for crude protein. Consequently, pig digestibility values can be used to predict dog digestibility. In the same study, an enzyme blend containing four enzymes: phytase (12-17 thousand U/kg of diet), cellulose (480-510 thousand U/kg of diet), xylanase (360-680 thousand U/kg of diet), and protease (960-1,360 thousand U/ kg of diet), was added to both diets before and after extrusion. The addition of enzymes did not increase the digestibility of these dog foods. Still, it did reduce fecal quality, increasing moisture and impacting fecal metabolites, increasing acetate, propionate, glucose, and xylose.
25 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
pet nutrition
AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS AND UTILIZATION
For example, tryptophan and tyrosine are
Dr. Julia Pezzali from Iowa State discussed
anxiety-related and agonistic behavior
functional amino acids in dogs and cats and their implications for overall health and methods to assess requirements and utilization of sulfur amino acids. Amino acids have diverse roles beyond protein synthesis and may affect their behavior, cognitive capacity, feed intake control, activity, and health.
Dr. Julia Pezzali presenting functional amino acids in dogs and cats.
precursors of serotonin and catecholamines, respectively. They may reduce stress in dogs. The surplus of arginine may improve cognitive function in aging dogs, likely by enhancing nitric oxide synthesis. Supplementation of branch-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) may also improve the ability of senior dogs to sustain cognitive performance during exercise.
Cognitive dysfunction in dogs could be related to amino acid deficiencies.
26 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
In adult cats, phenylalanine may delay gastric emptying and promote satiety. These effects could be interesting in controlling appetite and preventing feline obesity. On the other hand, low phenylalanine and tyrosine plasma levels due to low dietary intake can cause
pet nutrition
reddish hair coat in black cats.
Changes in hair color in black cats due to tyrosine and phenylalanine deficiency.
The DL-Methionine can help to acidify urine in cats and dogs, avoiding urinary stones. However, excess (1g DL-Methione/kg of body weight per day) can cause hemolytic anemia with a marked increase of methemoglobin (MetHb) concentration and Heinz-body formation in cats. Methionine excess can also cause hyperhomocysteinemia with the same harmful implications in cardiovascular disease, some brain issues, and behavior changes observed in other animal species.
27 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
Based on this information, it is clear that estimating optimum levels of methionine for dogs and cats
pet nutrition
is critical. Dr. Pezzali discussed this topic in her second presentation. The metabolism of the four
Unlike dogs, cats cannot
sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine, cysteine,
further metabolize cysteine to
homocysteine, and taurine is highly related.
taurine, making the latter an
Methionine can be used in protein synthesis or to produce homocysteine, which can be remethylated
indispensable amino acid for the cat.
to methionine or irreversibly catabolized to cysteine. The differences in metabolic pathways can be observed in Figure 1.
Figure 1. General pathway of taurine synthesis in the liver from sulphur amino acids. The activities of the enzymes cysteine dioxygenase and cysteinesulphinic acid decarboxylase are low in cats, which severely restricts synthesis of taurine. Cysteine is largely metabolised to pyruvate, which provides an energy substrate whereas taurine cannot be oxidised by cats.-KG,ketoglutarate; GLU, glutamate.
28 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
Dr. Pezzali presented the results of her research using amino acid oxidation while feeding practical Cats have a greater need for sulfur
experimental diets to
amino acids due to differences in
estimate the methionine
their metabolism.
requirements. Applying this technique, her research team observed higher methionine requirements
Felidae family use methionine and cysteine to produce a unique sulfur amino acid called felinine. Felinine is synthesized in the liver and is excreted in the urine of all cats but is found in the highest concentration in the urine of adult, intact males. The urine of intact tomcats contains felinine concentrations up to six-fold greater than those found in castrated males and intact females. Male intact cats may have a greater requirement for the sulfur amino acids than sterilized female and male cats.
for adult cats, Labrador, and Beagle dogs, but not for Dachshunds, compared to the recommendations proposed by the NRC
pet nutrition
1 First, cats and other members of the
(2006) and AAFCO (2023). These results and others recently published also indicate differences in sulfur amino acid metabolism among dog breeds. Under specific dietary conditions, these changes can make taurine indispensable for some dog breeds. Julia highlighted the need to standardize methodologies to investigate the effects of nutritional factors on the metabolism of sulfur amino acids.
2 Second, felines need to maintain a thick hair coat and have a higher need for methylation reactions during a higher rate of phospholipid synthesis than other mammalians. Increased phospholipid synthesis in cats could be necessary to absorb and transport the high-fat level usually included in a cat’s diet. Lastly, the cat’s requirement for
Several other research contributions presented at this event have significant practical applications, and we encourage our readers to review them in the Journal of Animal Science or to attend the next Animal Science meeting in Calgary in July 21-25, 2024.
dietary taurine increases the need for sulfur amino acids. Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
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29 nutriNews International September 2023 | Companion Animal Nutrition at the American Animal Science Meeting
DEVELOPEMENTS, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONSTRAINTS OF
LOW-CRUDE-PROTEIN DIETS IN SWINE FARMING Maykelly da Silva Gomes, Jansller Luiz Genova, Gabriel Cipriano Rocha
Nutrients
Federal University of Viçosa
Introduction Feeding programs in pig production are usually divided into three phases: nursery, growth, and finishing (Rostagno et al., 2017). In each of these phases, it is essential to provide an adequate supply of dietary crude protein (CP) to meet the requirements for essential amino acids and nitrogen (N) for non-essential amino acid synthesis (van Milgen and Dourmad, 2015).
30 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
Consequently, the emphasis has shifted
Experimental studies have shown that
towards supplying a comprehensive
even lower levels of CP can be achieved
array of amino acids rather than solely
by supplementing amino acids such as
focusing on CP, as this approach is
Histidine, Leucine, and Phenylalanine.
more widely acknowledged (Millet et al., 2018).
Nonetheless, excessively low levels of crude protein can adversely impact swine performance due to the reduction of non-essential amino acids, intact protein, and essential
five essential amino acids
bioactive compounds such as peptides and isoflavones in the diet.
(Lysine, Methionine, Threonine,
Indeed, altering the CP level in the
Tryptophan, and Valine) are
diet, even while keeping the ideal
being utilized, enabling the
ratios of essential amino acids with
formulation of diets with
Lys, has shown negative effects on
reduced CP levels.
Moreover, the inclusion of the amino acid Isoleucine in diets depends on its economic value and the specific feeding program.
swine performance.
Nutrients
Presently, in swine nutrition,
The objective of this review is to examine the advancements and consequences of low-crude-protein diets that are wellbalanced for all essential amino acids and assess their influence on swine performance.
Methionine
31 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
Benefits and Limitations of Low-Crude-Protein Diets ndpoint:
From a performance sta
of low-CrudeThe economic efficiency depending on Protein diets can vary the animals ingredient prices and how respond to the diet. ts have wellLow-crude-protein die al benefits due to established environment ion. reduced nitrogen excret rotein diets Balanced low-crude-p ential amino acids supplemented with ess enhance intestinal have been employed to health in swine.
Nutrients
of soybean Through the reduction e-protein diets meal content, low-crud of indigestible exhibit decreased levels e and raffinose) carbohydrates (stachyos (glycinin and and antigenic proteins known as β-conglycinin), which are antinutritional factors. rotein diets Additionally, low-crude-p l to reduce the may have the potentia nic bacteria and proliferation of pathoge stinal tract, including toxins in the gastrointe es. ammonia and polyamin
However, some studies have reported a decline in swine performance when decreasing the CP level in the diet, even when the diets were balanced for essential amino acids.
While research has focused on ensuring sufficient provision of essential amino acids, the literature provides explanations for the detrimental effects on swine performance when low-crude-protein diets are employed.
32 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
The synthesis of non-essential amino acids from essential ones may pose a limiting factor in swine performance when utilizing low-crude-protein diets (Peng et al., 2016). Pigs fed low-crude-protein diets have exhibited decreased blood levels of non-essential amino acids, especially Arg, Gln, Glu, and Pro (Zhang et al., 2013). As a result, certain non-essential
Additionally, the supplementation of industrial amino acids allows for the reduction of protein sources like soybean meal, which contains biologically active compounds such as isoflavones, saponins, and bioactive peptides that are essential for maintaining performance (Rochell et al., 2015). Furthermore, bioactive peptides have been suggested to possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory activities (Hou et al., 2017).
amino acids may become functionally essential and, thus, deficient in low-Crude-Protein diets. Under such circumstances,
Nutrients
supplementing these nonessential amino acids may be necessary to maintain swine health and growth.
Hence, when formulating low CP diets, it is essential to consider a minimum CP level to prevent the restriction of other nutrients that could become deficient if CP is reduced below a certain level.
Meta analysis Due to discrepancies in the literature and the practical implications for swine formulation strategies, a meta-analysis was conducted to determine the minimum CP level that would not compromise swine growth performance.
A database was co mpiled from 46 publi cations, comprising a total of 60 experiments. Th e primary criteria used to select articles we re as follows: Assessment of vario us levels of crude pro tein. Comparable standard ized ileal digestible lysine (SID Lys) and metabolizable energ y (ME) between contr ol and low-crude-prot ein treatments. Ensuring all essentia l amino acids in the diet met or surpassed the ideal ratio with Lys (NRC, 2012). Clearly documented
performance outco
34 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
mes.
The meta-analysis study utilized the NLIMIXED procedure of SAS (SAS, Inc., Cary, NC, USA) and employed a nonlinear statistical model.
1 Nursery phase According to NRC (2012) and Brazilian
The suggested minimum CP level for
Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017), a corn
nursery pig diets is lower than the levels
and soybean meal-based diet for 7 kg
recommended by NRC (2012) and
body weight pigs typically contains
Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017),
approximately 20.5% CP.
suggesting that CP levels lower than
According to the current metaanalysis, the estimated breakpoint for
those provided in the Tables can be used for diet formulation in this phase.
CP was 18.4%, below which average
Moreover, the study also estimated
daily gain (ADG) would be reduced.
the highest levels of industrial
Taking into account feed efficiency,
lysine that could be supplemented
the estimated level was 18.3% CP.
without compromising ADG and feed
Nutrients
efficiency, which were 0.42% and 0.43% L-lysine, respectively. This is equivalent to 0.54% L-lysine HCl (78.8% purity) or 0.71% L-lysine sulfate (60.0% purity).
The utilization of the SID Lys:CP ratio can serve as a reliable indicator of the degree of CP reduction (Millet et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019). By considering the SID Lys:CP ratio, it was determined that 6.6% is the upper threshold beyond which both average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency would be compromised.
35 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
Nutrients
Lysine
2 Growth phase
In contrast to the nursery phase, diets in the growth phase are formulated with a lower crude protein level. According to the statistical model used in
For a similar phase, NRC (2012) and Brazilian
the current meta-analysis:
Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017) suggest 15.7% and 18.9% CP, respectively. The result found in the present study falls within these CP ranges.
In the growth phase, it is possible to decrease the CP (crude protein) content to levels of 16.1% and 16.3% without negatively impacting ADG (average daily gain) and feed efficiency.
During the growth phase, it was challenging to establish a specific point for L-lysine supplementation breakpoint or the SID Lys: CP ratio’s influence on performance. However, the average highest level of L-lysine supplementation during this phase reached 0.42, which corresponds to 0.53% L-lysine HCl or 0.70% L-lysine sulfate supplementation.
36 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
3 Finishing phase Protein is an expensive nutrient, and
These levels are within the range
due to the increased feed intake in the
recommended by NRC (2012) for pigs in
finishing phase, nutrient utilization
the first (12.1% CP) and second (10.5%
efficiency directly impacts production
CP) finishing phases, likely due to the
costs.
consideration of both phases in our
As per the Tables (NRC, 2012;
model.
Rostagno et al., 2017), a diet for the
On the other hand, the suggested
initial finishing phase (70 to 100 kg)
levels are lower than the
can be formulated with around 12.3%
recommendations provided by the
CP, whereas a diet for the second
Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017)
finishing phase (100 kg to slaughter)
for pigs in the finishing phase.
with approximately 11.0% CP, all the while maintaining the suggested concentration of essential amino acids.
Thus, lower CP levels than those recommended in the Brazilian Tables (Rostagno et al., 2017) can be used without compromising
Nutrients
zootechnical performance. Taking into account the average daily Aligned with this, the statistical model indicated that reducing the CP level by as much as 11.6% and 11.4% wouldn’t lead
gain (ADG), it is possible to supplement up to 0.24% L-lysine, which is equivalent to 0.30% L-lysine HCl or 0.40% L-lysine sulfate supplementation.
to any compromise in terms of ADG and feed efficiency, correspondingly.
37 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
Conclusions In conclusion, there is a minimum level of crude protein that compromises swine performance, even when diets are balanced for all essential amino acids. Evidently, there exists a critical threshold of CP below which non-essential amino acids, bioactive compounds, and other nutrients become limiting factors. Based on the meta-analysis, considering ADG and
Nutrients
feed efficiency, the minimum crude protein levels were estimated as follows: 18.4% and 18.3% for nursery pigs, 16.1% and 16.3% for growth, and 11.6% and 11.4% for finishing pigs, respectively. Furthermore, it was estimated that the highest levels of L-lysine (100% purity) to be supplemented without compromising performance were 0.42% in the nursery phase and 0.24% in the finishing phase. Additionally, a maximum supplementation level of 0.42% L-lysine is suggested for growing pigs. Finally, the study revealed that a SID Lys:CP ratio of 6.6% is the point at which ADG and feed efficiency of nursery pigs are compromised.
Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
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This report is based on the article “Rocha, G. C., Duarte, M. E., & Kim, S. W. (2022). Advances, Implications, and Limitations of Low-CrudeProtein Diets in Pig Production. Animals, 12(24), 3478.”
38 nutriNews International September 2023 | Developments, Implications, and Constraints of Low-Crude-Protein Diets in Swine Farming
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PIG FARMING:
YET ANTOHER EXAMPLE THAT WE CAN
ONLY IMPROVE WHAT WE MEASURE!
sustainability
Pig farming in the context of global food demands Meeting the rising global food demand is undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges we will face in the coming decades. The productive sector (including agriculture and livestock) will need to feed an increasingly larger population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
Ines Andretta Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. ines.andretta@ufrgs.br
However, there is still room for improvement when it comes to environmental sustainability. In this regard the old saying “we can only improve what we measure”, becomes truly relevant.
their own needs. In other words, the development of sustainable agri-food systems is a mandatory requirement. Pig farming already demonstrates high levels of performance and plays a crucial social role in ensuring food security for the planet.
40 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
How to assess environmental impacts?
Every product has some level of
The environmental impacts of pig farming
environmental impact, whether it is
have generally been analyzed in isolation (e.g.,
associated with its production process,
focusing on the animal) or limited to direct
the raw materials it consumes, or its
associations (e.g., emissions in the animal’s
use and final disposal. In the case of
environment).
pig farming, a finished animal ready for slaughter is obtained after a long chain of
These indicators are useful when the chain’s pollutant emissions have a local
events and phases (crop harvesting, grain transportation, farrow-to-wean, feeder pig
environmental effect and are often used to
or nursery, finishing, breeding stock, and
assess the emission of substances such as:
farrow-to-finish, etc.). In each stage of this production chain, energy is consumed, and pollutants are generated.
nitrates
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a widely
sustainability
ammonia
recognized tool in the context of global phosphates
environmental impact analyses. This technique permits the assessment of a particular system (be it a
However, pig farming is a complex chain,
service or a product) through a
and therefore, environmental impacts
systematic analysis of the flows and
can be better understood through
environmental consequences linked to
multidisciplinary approaches that consider
its complete life cycle ( (“from cradle
its entire production cycle.
to grave” - from the initial stages to its eventual disposal), under the
Global assessment techniques generate
premise that each source or unit of
more representative environmental
energy utilized within the system
indicators as they consider not only
carries an environmental impact.
the direct impacts of the activity but also the emissions associated with the raw materials used throughout the production chain.
41 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
Throughout the analysis, all
Life cycle assessment can be employed to
noteworthy emissions or
pinpoint areas within the chain that hold
energy consumptions across
potential for enhancement in terms of
the life cycle are combined and
environmental sustainability. Furthermore,
represented in relation to the
it can serve as a proactive tool for aiding
selected functional unit (e.g.,
decision-making and strategic planning.
1 ton of feed or 1 ton of pig; as
This, in turn, aids in diminishing the impact
illustrated in Figure 1).
stemming from the production of goods of
Transport
sustainability
societal significance, such as meat production.
Soybean crops
Production of other ingredients
Feed production
Processing
Corn crops
Piglet production
Nursery
Growth & finishing Waste management
Energy, seeds, machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, and other substances.
Emissions to air, soil, and water
Functional unit: 1 ton of live pigs ready for slaughter
Figure 1. Illustration of stages encompassed within a life cycle analysis
42 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
LCA applied to pig farming A systematic literature review was recently
Argentina
1
conducted (Andretta et al., 2021; DOI: 10.3389/
Brazil
8
Spain
6
France
5
China
4
other categories of environmental impact,
Denmark
3
such as:
Netherlands
3
Belgium
2
Canada
2
Cuba
2
fvets.2021.750733), which identified 55 studies applying life cycle assessment to pig farming (Figure 2). In addition to the potential for climate change, LCA studies also considered
Eutrophication Acidification Energy use Land use
Germany
2
Italy
2
Japan
2
Sweeden
2
USA
2
Greece
1
Norway
1
Portugal
1
UK
1
Figure 2. Countries whose pig production systems were investigated in life cycle analysis studies.
Changes in feeding practices (diet
sustainability
composition or feeding programs) were studied in 25% of the articles. This is because the relative contribution of feed production (which includes the life cycle, manufacturing, and transportation of each ingredient) is quite high, accounting for up to 76% of the total potential climate change impact associated with swine
Contribution of feed to the total impact, %
production (Figure 3).
100 75 50 25 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 29 3 Available studies
Figure 3. Relative impact of feeding on the total climate change potential associated with pig production in various scientific articles
43 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
Contribution of feed to the total impact, %
28 29 29 30 31 32 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 Available studies
sustainability
Figure 3. Relative impact of feeding on the total climate change potential associated with pig production in various scientific articles
In a context where most of the ingredients
The prevalent instance of this cross-
used for feed production have global markets,
continental impact distribution, as discussed
it is important to highlight that the impacts
in the previously mentioned studies,
associated with a particular product are
revolves around the use of imported
practically shared among several countries
soybeans from South America, with Brazil
involved in international trade.
being the primary source (making up 49% of the studies). Under such scenario, it is possible to infer that part of the impacts associated with swine production in China or Europe also occur in Brazil. Considering that the South American country is one of the major producers of this main ingredient for pig diets.
44 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
Feed composition in terms of the
Feeding practices as mitigation tools
ingredients, is also a way to reduce nutrient excretion and, consequently, the composition of waste. Hence, the selection of ingredients demands careful consideration,
The environmental sustainability of
concentrating not solely on their source but
pig farming is closely linked to the
also on the nutritional value of the product.
optimization of feeding practices. Strategies that reduce nutrient excretion are crucial for mitigating As a result, numerous strategies can
environmental impact.
be recommended to mitigate this these strategies revolves around the transportation of ingredients and feeds. The geographical separation between the feed ingredient production site and their intended utilization can be regarded as a significant factor influencing the choice (or substitution) of ingredients.
sustainability
environmental impact. A portion of Several examples could be cited here, such as the use of: Exogenous enzymes Synthetic amino acids that partially replace traditional protein ingredients Diets with lower levels of crude protein and minerals This discussion is common when it comes to economic impacts but is also extremely valid for environmental issues. Shorter distances betweeen producers and consumers, result in reduced transportation requirements, subsequently leading to decreased costs and emissions.
Modifying feed formulation methods and adopting precision feeding techniques are also very important tools in this context. In more straightforward terms, precision feeding can be defined as the practice of supplying the appropriate quantity of feed with the correct composition, tailored to meetl the requirements of each animal within the herd.
45 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
Each animal has unique growth and consumption characteristics, therefore, it is also unique in its nutritional
In the context of Brazil, a research
requirements. Furthermore, these
undertaken by Andretta et al. (2018;
requirements shift dynamically and, in a
DOI: 10.1017/S1751731117003159)
comprehensive framework of precision
demonstrated that substituting
nutrition, should be understood and
traditional feeding practices (where
addressed in “real-time.”
the same feed is given over multiple days) with daily feeding (involving daily adjustments of nutrient supply in diets)
Technological progress and the enhancement of scientific knowledge in this domain now enable the
could potentially curtail eutrophication impact by 4% and acidification impact by 3%.
customization of nutrient supply, precisely aligning it with the real-time nutritional requirements of the animals.
Mitigation was even greater (up to 6% for climate change and 5% for
sustainability
eutrophication and acidification) when the nutrition program was adjusted for Although these production models are still limited to research centers, the most recent results are quite promising. In practical application, augmenting the number of phases can be regarded as a preliminary move towards precision feeding, alongside the practice of rearing animals in more uniform groups.
each animal (daily and individually). In both scenarios, the main advantage of precision feeding programs lies in the greater efficiency in nutrient utilization. In other words, the same amount of product (e.g., pig) is produced using fewer resources (e.g., lysine).
Even with the diversity observed across the studies existing in the literature, the role of feed in the overall impact of animal production holds substantial importance and warrants further emphasis within strategies aimed at mitigating environmental impact.
46 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
sustainability
Final Considerations Pig farming has undergone substantial evolution, and numerous practices outlined in this text are already being implemented by nutritionists and producers. Recognizing these environmental benefits, which encompass those already integrated into production systems, offers an alternative way to enhance the value of the production chain and acknowledge its strides toward sustainability. Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
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47 nutriNews International September 2023 | Environmental impacts of pig farming: Yet another example that we can only improve what we measure!
FEED ADDITIVES AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP WITH FATTY ACID
PROFILES IN POULTRY Gabriela Miotto Galli1, Aleksandro Schafer da Silva2 e Ines Andretta1 Department of Animal Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. Department of Animal Science, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina-UDESC, Chapecó, SC, Brazil
1 2
BROILER PRODUCTION OVERVIEW phytogenics
The use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal production has been the subject of numerous discussions over the past decade. Taking into account that rising antimicrobial resistance, presents a major public health problem at a global scale. Under such context, the use of natural feed additives as antioxidants in poultry, represents a promising alternative for the improvement of fatty acid profiles in chickens. The European Union banned the use of antimicrobial growth promoters in 2006. Following suit, Brazilian authorities established a partial ban on some of these drugs in 2018 and 2020. Even under the context of AGP use during the ’70s, researchers already claimed that chicken meat was more prone to lipid oxidation compared to other meats (Gene and Pearson, 1979). Affecting its nutritional and sensory qualities. In an effort to reduce the impact of oxidation, the animal feed industry has incorporated artificial antioxidants into feed formulations, with the goal of attaining nutraceutical benefits and extending the shelf life of meat products (Castañeda et al., 2005).
48 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
There are reports of carcinogenic effects associated with the use of synthetic antioxidants in humans. As a result, investigations have been conducted since the 1990s to assess natural antioxidants and their viability in substituting synthetic substances (Chen et al., 1992).
Phytogenics
As a result of the ban on conventional growth promoters in certain countries, alternative commercial products have come to the forefront:
Phytotherapeuticals
Herbal compounds to replace pharmaceutical products
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FEED ADDITIVES AND POULTRY MEAT Natural antioxidants are generally regarded as safe, thus being an alternative to synthetic antioxidants (Hang et al. , 2018). In a study conducted by Daneshyar et al. (2011), it was confirmed that incorporating turmeric into broiler diets led to reduced levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs). Particularly, this decrease was observed in palmitic acid and C18:1 n-7 (monounsaturated fatty acids – MUFAs) within the thigh muscles. This phenomenon can be attributed to a decline in the liver’s de novo synthesis of fatty acids.
phytogenics
Essential oils
This yields a positive impact by diminishing myristic and palmitic acids, which are linked with elevated levels of LDL cholesterol and, subsequently, the development of cardiovascular disease.
Upon introducing curcumin to the broilers’ diet, Hang et al. (2018) witnessed elevated proportions of linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and total omega-six polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). As a result, an accumulation of linoleic acid in breast meat was noted. Furthermore, over a span of three months of storage, no alterations were detected in omega-3 fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is advantageous. This also underscores the protective effect that curcumin provides for these fatty acids.
49 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
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Regarding the poultry production cycle, it led to a decrease in the proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) present in breast meat (P = 0.001; Figure 1). Conversely, there was an observed rise in the proportion of overall polyunsaturated fatty acids (P=0.001; Galli et al., 2020b).
Ciftci et al. (2010) found that cinnamon oil can increase the proportion of PUFAs and decrease the SFAs in chicken meat. This is due to the hypolipidemic properties of cinnamon oil. The addition of glycerol monolaurate (GML) to the diet of chickens decreased the waterholding capacity of meat (Fortuoso et al., 2019), while chickens presented a lower lipid content in their meat (Valentini et al., 2019).
This study also demonstrated that the inclusion of 200 and 300 mg/kg of FFM in the diet can reduce the total number of saturated fatty acids while increasing the number of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Valentini et al. , 2019). Which is a desirable effect and property for meat consumers. Consumption of phytogenics containing:
Thymol
Carvacrol
Cinnamaldehyde
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
a
P<0.001 CP FI
CN
b
b a
a
b
SFA Total fatty acid profile
PUFAs
phytogenics
In their study, Hashemipour et al. (2013) incorporated thymol and carvacrol into the chicken diet, resulting in reduced levels of saturated fatty acids (SFAs). Simultaneously, they noticed a rise in omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids within the thigh region.
% of fatty acids in meat
!
Figure 1 illustrates the composition of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the meat of broilers. These broilers were provided with a basal ration (CN), a combination of antibiotic and coccidiostat (CP), and a phytogenic blend containing thymol, cinnamaldehyde, and carvacrol (FIT). Similar letters indicate no significant differences according to Tukey’s test (P > 0.05).
! Additionally, it resulted in a decrease in the quantities of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). This was coupled with an elevation in the presence of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) within breast meat (GALLI et al., 2020a; Figure 3). These findings indicate that the incorporation of curcumin acted as a safeguard against lipid peroxidation, preserving the integrity of fatty acids.
51 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
The addition of 100 mg/kg of curcumin in broiler diets reduced SFAs (P=0.05). It also increased PUFAs (P=0.02) compared to the group supplied with growth promoters (Galli et al., 2020a; Figure 2).
% of fatty acids in meat
CP
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
31,5a
30b
SFA
29
27,5b
Fatty acid profile
P<0.05 CU
PUFAs
phytogenics
Figure 2 displays the composition of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) within the meat of broilers. These broilers were provided with antibiotics, coccidiostat (CP), and curcumin (CU). Similar letters indicate no significant differences based on Tukey’s test (P > 0.05).
It is widely acknowledged that substances categorized as phytogenics, which encompass: Herbal extracts Fatty acids and various feed additives, possess the ability to modify the fatty acid composition within meat. However, the precise mechanism by which they accomplish this remains undisclosed. There is a proposition that the decreased proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) within meat could stem from a decline in the liver’s de novo synthesis of fatty acids and/or an elevation in the activity of the lipogenic enzyme Δ 9-desaturase (stearoyl-CoA desaturase). This particular enzyme is recognized for its role in regulating fatty acid biosynthesis by converting saturated fatty acids into monounsaturated fatty acids (Poureslami et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier, this aspect holds advantages, given that saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are accountable for elevating levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. This type of cholesterol conveys cholesterol from the liver to the veins, where it accumulates and contributes to the development of cardiovascular disease.
ROS, TBARS
SOD, tióis
antioxidant enzymes and shelf life.
Figure 3. The addition of curcumin reduced lipid peroxidation in meat, thereby mitigating the harm induced by reactive oxygen species in muscle tissue. This enhancement contributed to an extended shelf life and elevated quality of the end product. Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
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Feed additives lead to a rise in the proportion of overall polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) within meat. The likeliest reasoning behind this phenomenon is an augmented synthesis of desaturase enzymes A5, A6 (Mendoza et al., 2019), and A9 (Kumar et al., 2020), along with elongases. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (FAs) hold advantageous implications for human well-being. Nutrition experts recommend and promote the intake of products that are rich in these specific fatty acid types. In turn, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play a role in regulatory mechanisms within the cardiovascular and immune systems (GRASHORN, 2007). Additionally, they play a part in cell membrane synthesis and contribute to favorable impacts on skin, hair, and vision.
52 nutriNews International September 2023 | Feed additives and their relationship with fatty acid profiles in poultry
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NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
PEAS AND THE EFFECTS OF
MICROWAVE DEACTIVATION
FOR ITS USE IN POULTRY
NUTRITION
raw materials
Iglesias BF1, Charrière MV1, Gaggiotti M2, Fain Binda V1, Chale J1, Prieto GM3. 1 Poultry Section, INTA-EEA Pergamino; 2 Forage Laboratory, INTA-EEA Rafaela; 3 AER Arroyo Seco, INTA-EEA Oliveros.
INTRODUCTION Feed accounts for approximately 55% of total production costs in poultry (Nahara, 2018). This sector currently faces a new and challenging scenario: rising prices of traditional ingredients.
In the last 24 montshs, International corn and soybean prices increased 88% and 57% respectively. (IndexMundi, 2022). This scenario has created the need to look for alternative ingredients that help reduce production costs.
54 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
Their protein content is mainly composed of albumins and globulins. They are deficient in sulfur amino acids and tryptophan, but rich in lysine. Peas, (Pisum sativum) represent a viable
The digestibility of protein and amino acids
alternative to be used as a replacement for
is similar to that of soybean meal. They
conventional ingredients in animal feed.
have low fat content and a high starch
Argentina’s INASE (National Seed Institute,
content (42-51%) (de Blas et al., 2019).
2022) has more than 87 registered
The most common cultivars in Argentina, are: Viper (green peas) and Yams (yellow peas) (Prieto, 2009). Pea grains have the potential to be considered as ingredients for animal feed. They are characterized by:
Generally speaking, legumes are characterized by the presence of anti-nutritional factors, such as: Trypsin inhibitors Phyto-hemaglutinins
raw materials
varieties.
Cyanogenic glycosides
High crude protein content (20-26%)
Saponins
Good palatability
Alkaloids
Low content of antinutritional factors
Non Protein Amino Acids (Cubero &
(Galméus, 2012; de Blas et al. , 2019).
Moreno, 1983; Monari, 1996), which negatively impact bird performance (Iglesias & Azcona, 2012).
Most of these anti-nutritional factors can be deactivated with heat (extrusion, steam and hot air). The application of heat treatments, such as the extrusion of peal meal, has been shown to improve starch digestibility in trout. (Burel et al., 2000). A similar effect was achieved using microwaves at a laboratory level (Chale et al., 2017).
55 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was also determined through the Goering and Van
OBJECTIVES
Soest method (1970), with the addition of α-amylase. Acid detergent fiber (ADF) was determined according to Van Soest
Characterize the nutritional composition of two different pea cultivars(green and yellow). Assess the effects of microwave deactivation.
methodology(1963). In addition, urease activity and trypsin inhibitors were measured. To complement the chemical characterization, true metabolizable energy (TME) was determined (Sibbald, 1976), as well as its nitrogen correction
MATERIALS & METHODS
(TMEn), using 6 roosters per sample.
Pea samples were taken from the Viper
raw materials
and Yams cultivars, from the 2019 and 2020 campaigns grown in Argentina. The following parameters were determined: Dry Matter Crude Protein (CP) through the
A 200 g sample of raw peas in the form of a monolayer was placed on a microwave
Kjeldahl method
dish with a 900 Watts
Ether Extract (EE) extracted through
at 70% power for different
the use of hexane
cooking times (0, 3, 5, 6,
Crude Fiber (CF)
power output. It was cooked
7 and 9 min), in 3 batches (repetitions) (Chale et al.,
Ashes
2017). This process was carried
Starch
microwave deactivation.
out to evaluate the effects of
A completely randomized design with 6 treatments and 3 repetitions each was employed.
56 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
The analyses performed on the sample were: Dry matter Crude protein using the Kjeldahl method Urease activity (UA) Protein solubility (PS)
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Insoluble nitrogen in acid detergent (INAD) True metabolizable energy through the Sibbald method (1976). 3 roosters were used per repetition.
Nutritional Composition of Viper and Yams peas from the 2019
variance (ANOVA). When the degree of
and 2020 campaigns, as well as the pea
significance was less than 5%, the mean
values published on FEDNA tables (de
comparison was performed through the
Blas et al., 2019).
minimum significant differences test (Di Rienzo et al., 2020). Viper
Table 1. Treatments Data standardized to 88% DM, except dry matter. GE: Gross energy; TME, True metabolizable energy; TMEn: True metabolizable energy corrected by nitrogen. *Source: (de Blas et al., 2019).
Yams
FEDNA *
Parameter (%)
2019
2020
2019
2020
2018
Dry matter
90,88
92,47
90,12
88,81
88,10
Crude protein
19,15
17,18
19,32
19,54
20,58
Ether extract
0,84
1,20
0,86
1,17
1,40
Ashes
3,02
2,58
2,77
2,70
2,80
Crude fiber
3,83
5,16
4,20
8,98
5,99
NDF
23,83
17,27
13,98
16,75
12,09
ADF
16,90
7,68
6,66
8,52
7,39
Starch
40,22
43,65
45,32
44,70
42,45
Calcium
0,20
0,49
0,12
0,53
0,08
Phosphorus
0,13
0,08
0,13
0,07
0,40
Urease Act. (▲pH)
0,04
0,07
0,05
0,07
Trypsin inhib. (UTI/mg)
1,32
0,79
1,10
1,76
CE (kcal/kg)
3883
3885
3884
3867
TME(kcal/kg)
2774
2816
2670
2821
TME/ CE
74,1
73,0
69,5
73,0
TMEn (kcal/kg)
2639
2655
2543
2548
TMEn / CE
68,0
68,9
66,2
65,9
57 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
raw materials
Table 1 shows the composition results
The data was subjected to an analysis of
Although a statistical analysis was not carried out due to small number of samples; there were no significant differences between cultivars nor between campaigns. The parameters that were most affected by the cultivar, as well as by the campaign, were those related to fiber. Including: CF, NDF and ADF. In regards to EE, significant differences were only observed between campaigns, but this did not affect CE values.
raw materials
When comparing local cultivars with those tabulated by FEDNA (de Blas et al., 2019), the parameters which differed the most, were the same: CF, NDF,ADF and EE. However, the yellow variety (Yams) presented greater similarity to the values expressed on these tables.
Effect of microwave deactivation Table 2 shows the results of pea deactivation through the use of microwaves.
Table 2. Effect of microwave deactivation on chemical parameters.
Cooking time (min)
*Standardized data to 88% DM. MS: Dry matter;CP, Crude protein; UA, Urease activity; SP, KOH soluble protein 0.2%; ADIN: Acid detergent insoluble nitrogen. Means with different superscript differ statistically (p≤0.05).
DM
CP*
UA
SP
ADIN
%
%
▲pH
%
%
0
88,74f
24,05
0,06a
71,77a
2,19b
3
90,62e
22,56
0,04b
71,77a
3,74b
5
92,54d
23,67
0,03bc
55,62b
3,23b
6
c
94,14
25,03
cd
0,02
c
43,80
3,39b
7
95,01b
25,10
0,02cd
35,94d
4,93b
9
a
96,39
24,72
d
0,01
e
24,01
12,76a
Probability
<0,01
0,16
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
Linear effect
<0,01
0,49
<0,01
<0,01
<0,01
Cuadratic effect
0,31
0,33
0,24
<0,01
<0,01
CV (%)
0,4
3,9
26,8
8,2
38,0
58 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
the sample's humidity decreased. This lead to a linear increase in
Table 3. Effects of microwave deactivation on energy parameters.
DM percentag (p≤0.05) as it was expected.Whereas, the percentage
Cooking time (min)
TME
TME / CE
kcal/kg
%
0
2738cd
70,63b
3
2793cd
72,06b
5
2942a
75,54a
In regards to urease activity, a linear
6
ab
2901
74,12ab
effect was found due to cooking
7
2812bc
71,93bc
time (p≤0.05). This also occurred for
9
d
2702
68,69d
Probability
<0,01
<0,01
of protein standardized to 88% DM was not affected by the cooking time (p>0.05).
SP in KOH. However, a quadratic effect was
Linear effect
0,85
0,53
also found for this last parameter
Cuadratic effect
<0,01
<0,01
CV (%)
2,2
2,0
(p≤0.05.), This could be due to the lack of differences between 0 and 3 min of cooking (p>0.05). Meanwhile, this value decreased significantly with a cooking
raw materials
As the cooking time increases,
Effect of microwave deactivation on energy parameters. Standardized data to 88% of DM. TME: True metabolizable energy; GE: Gross energy. 9 Means with different superscripts, differ statistically (p≤0.05).
time of 5 minutes (p≤0.05), and continued to do so in each of the subsequent times that were evaluated (6, 7 and 9 min).
In the case of ADIN, there was a quadratic response (p≤0.05). However this parameter proved to be less sensitive, considering that a significant difference was only found after 9 min of cooking (p≤0.05).
Table 3 shows the energy values according to the different cooking times.
59 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
Regarding the energy analysis, as the
Improvements were observed in energy parameters (+204 kcal/kg in TME and +4.9 percentage points in TME/CE, after 5 min of cooking).
cooking time increased, the sample’s TME increased significantly (p≤0.05), reaching a maximum at 5 min of cooking time (+204 kcal / kg with respect to crude oil)/ Similar to what
This may not only be due to the deactivation of the antinutritional factors, but also due to other effects like the denaturation of protein and starch chains. Which makes them less refractory to enzymatic action (Kakade et al., 1973).
happens with the use of GE (TME / GE), which evidenced a clear quadratic response for these parameters (p≤0, 05,
Table 3 and Figure 1). A similar situation was observed with soybeans, but the time needed to achieve optimal microwave deactivation was 6 min (Chale et al.,
raw materials
2017).
78
3000
76 2900
74
TME (kcal/kg)
70
2700
68 66
2600
64
2500 2400
TME / CE (%)
72
2800
62 0
1
2
3
4 5 6 Cooking Time (min)
7
8
9
10
60
TME
Figure 1. Effect of microwave pea deactivation on true ME and gross energy utilization.
TME / CE
60 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
CONCLUSIONS Nutritional characterization of peas No major differences were found between pea cultivars, nor between crop campaigns (2019 and 2020). The parameters that varied the most were CF, NDF and ADF.
raw materials
Effects of microwave deactivation Although peas have low levels of antinutritional factors, a beneficial effect was found when applying a thermal process using microwaves. It was established that the best results for TME and GE use, were achieved with a cooking time of 5 min at 70% power in a microwave of 900 watts.
Bibliography available upon request
Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
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61 nutriNews International Septemeber 2023 | Nutritional characterization of peas and the effects of microwave deactivation for its use in poultry nutrition
A DIETARY BLEND OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND POLYPHENOLS TO REDUCE METHANE EMISSION IN SMALL RUMINANTS
feed additives
Alberto Stanislao Atzori Dipartimento di Agraria, Sezione di Scienze Zootecniche, Università di Sassari, viale Italia 39, 07100 Sassari, Sardinia, Italy
Introduction Decreasing the emission of enteric methane
Methane production in the rumen fulfills
(CH4) by ruminants is crucial because it
these animals’ basic physiological needs by
represents a significant contributor to global
maintaining the ruminal environment’s redox
warming. Most Archaea bacteria that reside in
potential (Moss, 2002).
the rumen produce CH4 by aerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, and the fermentation byproducts of other microbes in the rumen also contribute to methane production.
62 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
The fermentation of the organic matter of
Some of these additives are hydrogen
feed is responsible for about 90% of the CH4
acceptors, such as polyunsaturated
produced in the rumen (Murray et al., 1976), and
fatty acids and nitrates, which decrease
Archaea reduce CO2 to CH4 using electrons
the level of electrons needed for
derived from hydrogen (Hook et al., 2010; Nolan et
CO2 reduction (Lind et al., 2021). The
al., 2010). This represents a loss of 6 to 10% of gross energy (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). It is also
mitigating effect of dietary lipids on
assumed that preventing this energy loss can
when these lipids account for 3.5 to 7.0%
increase feed efficiency and energy use and
of total dry matter, and this mitigation
decrease production costs at the farm level
depends on the amount of fat, fatty acid
(Hristov et al., 2013).
composition, and composition of the
CH4 production ranges from 12 to 38%
basal diet (Lind et al. 2022; Patra, 2013; Martin et Many additives can decrease in
al., 2016).
vitro fermentation and mitigate CH4
feed additives
production (Pirondini et al., 2012). Several in vitro and in vivo trials have quantified the CH4 emission potential of feeds and examined the effects of different bioactive compounds on ruminal fermentation and gas production
(Asanuma et al., 1999; Eckard et al., 2010).
A nitrate additive can decrease CH4 production by up to 30% (Feng et al.,
2020; Lind et al., 2021), but its use is limited due to the risk of nitrite toxicity (Lee and Beauchemin, 2014). The investigation of natural compounds that can have an inhibitory effect on enteric CH4 production is critical, and a vast amount of literature exists on this topic, even if the results are often not univocal.
Different classes of bioactive substances can modify metabolism in the rumen, such as polyphenols (Vasta et al., 2019) and essential oils (EOs) (Belanche et al.,
2020). Polyphenols (such as tannins) and EOs decrease enteric CH4 production by interfering with the metabolism of microorganisms in the rumen.
63 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
Tannins from Recent studies showed that the tannin-mediated decrease in CH4 emission was related to their ability to decrease fiber degradation, which prevents the attachment of microorganisms to plant cell walls, inhibits microbial enzymes, and thereby alters the function of ruminal microorganisms (Vasta
et al., 2019). Recent reviews and tests showed that inhibitory effects on fiber degradability were observed with high doses of tannins or blends with other bioactive compounds, whereas limited amounts reduced
chestnut (Castanea sativa L.) are the most commonly extracted hydrolysable tannins from temperate plants, and these tannins are efficient in decreasing CH4 emissions from ruminants (Hassanat and Benchaar,
2013; Aboagye and Beauchemin, 2019). However, the effect of this decrease is highly variable, ranging from 4.3% to 70% in vitro and from 6.0% to 68% in vivo (Aboagye and Beauchemin 2019).
emissions without adverse effects on digestibility (Lind et al.,
feed additives
2021; Foggi et al., 2023).
Some studies have used flavonoids, the largest class of phenolic compounds, to decrease CH4 emissions by enteric microorganisms, and their effect depends on the chemical structure of the specific flavonoids (Oskoueian et al., 2013). Tannins have anti-methanogenic effects mainly due to their effects on microbial populations in the rumen because they are toxic to some strains of bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and Archaea (Patra and Saxena, 2011). The results of in vitro and in vivo studies consistently indicated the potential efficacy of tannins in mitigating enteric CH4 emissions from ruminants, and hydrolyzed tannins with little structural variability are incredibly influential
(Aboagye and Beauchemin 2019).
64 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
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EOs are widely used as a feed additive and an alternative to antibiotics because of their antimicrobial activity (Patra et al., 2017). Several studies showed that EOs modulate rumen metabolism by improving microbial fermentation and decreasing CH4 production due to their inhibition of Archaea (Benchaar et al., 2008; Benchaar and
Greathead, 2011).
Materials & Methods Twenty-four dry Sarda ewes were allocated to two homogenous groups: control (CNT) and treatment (TRT) groups. Both were fed
An advantage of EOs is that they are
with a total mixed ration (TMR), and the TRT
natural compounds. Several studies
group was supplemented with one gram/
showed that EOs decreased CH4
ewe/day of EOP blend.
production and had no adverse effects on feed intake or productivity (Belanche et
feed additives
al., 2020). However, very few studies have evaluated the effects of EOs and their
In particular, the EOP
constituents on CH4 emissions in vivo.
consisted of a coated blend
Specific studies are needed to confirm the
of EOs, mainly from clove
effect of EO blends after an initial period
(Syzygium aromaticum),
of rumen adaptation (Belanche et al., 2020).
coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum), and geranium (Pelargonium cucullatum); tannins (CT) from chestnut
In addition, different compounds (EOs, flavonoids, and tannins) can act with different mechanisms as methane production modulators. Using their mix could have a synergistic effect. Using in vivo experiments on commercial farms to
(Castanea sativa); and bioflavonoids (BF) from olive (Olea europea). The EO:CT: BF ratio was 1:2.5:0.1, and the blend (EOP) was a commercial product (Anavrin, Vetos Europe SAGL,
via delle Industrie 18, 6593 Cadenazzo, Switzerland).
quantify CH4 emissions from ruminants is essential. Dietary modification may be a relatively simple and effective way to mitigate climate change.
66 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
Each animal followed a 20-day adaptation period before methane emission measurements. Methane emissions were measured using a ventilated hood system equipped with a digital gas analyzer (GMS810 SICK S.p.A., Vimodrone, MI, Italy) for 24 24-hour measurement period (Figure 1). The ventilated equipment of the experimental barn of the University of Sassari (Italy) was used to perform direct measures of methane emission and indirect calorimetry of small ruminants using sheep as animal models. Lind et al. (2022)
feed additives
report a more detailed hood description.
Figure 1. Metabolic cage with installed Ventilated Hood for gas collection and the digital gas analyzer located at the Experimental farm of the University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
67 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
Results & Discussion The dietary EOP blend used in this study indicated that a low dose (1 g/day/ewe) led to significant reductions in the production of CH4 by ewes when calculated as g CH4/kg dry matter intake, g CH4/kg Organic Matter Intake, and g CH4/kg digested Organic Matter and had no impact on intake or
Ewes that received the EOP blend had
The EOP blend at a daily dose of 1 g/day
a 13% lower methane yield than ewes
per ewe decreased methane yield under the
that received the control diet (22.4 vs.
experimental conditions described in this
25.5 g of CH4 per kg of dry matter intake;
work. Thus, feeding an EOP dietary blend
P < 0.05; Figure 2). Otherwise, the EOP
to ewes can decrease methane emissions.
blend did not impact daily methane
These results were obtained in vivo with
emission when calculated as
typical farm conditions, suggesting a similar
g CH4/ewe or g CH4/kg body weight.
response may occur in field conditions.
Methane emission, gr of CH4/gr of DMI
feed additives
digestibility.
26 26 25 25 24 24 23 23 22 22 21 21
25.5 a
22.4 b
TRT
CNT
This entry is a summary of the following scientific article in press in Animal Production Science, where all the cited literature is available contacting the author (asatzori@uniss.it): Atzori A.S., Porcu M.A., Fulghesu F., Ledda A., Correddu F. 2023. A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emissions in small ruminants. Animal Production Science, In press. https://www.publish.csiro.au/ AN/justaccepted/AN23070 For more information you may contact the author at: asatzori@uniss.it
Figure 2. Methane emission from sheep supplemented with one g/d per ewe of Essential oils and polyphenol blend (TRT) and Control (CNT) groups. Letters, a and b indicate a difference for p < 0.05 between groups.
A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
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68 nutriNews International September 2023 | A dietary blend of essential oils and polyphenols to reduce methane emission in small ruminants
CONTROLLING RESIDUAL FEED INTAKE: MAINTAINING A BALANCE (PART I)
research
Fernando Bacha Baz Nacoop, S.A.
T
he progress of the animal production sector has delivered noteworthy enhancements in the efficiency of
food consumption, owing to advancements in genetics, technology, and management practices. Livestock production, viewed as a business endeavor to obtain one or multiple products, requires the use of measuring tools to assess ongoing outcomes. This evaluation helps ascertain the accomplishment of objectives, rectify deviations, facilitate strategic adjustments, and formulate new plans.
70 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
Production records can be defined as: A systematic format for gathering information about the origin, management, behavior, and destination of animals, with the goal of assisting the producer in decision-making
Among the methods of regulation is the computation of “Residual Feed Intake” (RFI), delineating the variance between projected and actual feed consumption. This calculation takes into account:
Supplying feed to animals constitutes the main cost across all animal production systems. Nonetheless, the benefit lies in its straightforward quantification.
body size weight change milk production making it a valuable measure for
Practical trial on residual feed intake For instance, during a study, Sainz and Paulino
research
understanding feed efficiency.
Clearly, the animal with higher efficiency would yield greater profits.
(2004) from the University of California, Davis, discovered that: Two calves with identical intakes (7.43 kg) exhibited a difference of more than 50% in their average daily gain: 1.51 kg versus 0.98 kg,
However, in the same trial, two animals with nearly identical growth rates (1.5 kg/day) had significantly different feed intakes (7.43 kg versus 9.22 kg/day).
respectively. Obviously, the animal with the same growth rate and lower feed intake would be much more profitable.
This phenomenon arises when animals fail to ingest sufficient feed to fulfill their nutritional requirements, potentially resulting in adverse impacts on their health, growth, and overall productivity.
71 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
Feeding activity/behavior
Digestive efficiency No change Potential difference in microbiota
Basal metabolism
Selection for lower RFI Very lean Slightly lower growth Lower meat quality
Reduction in extra caloric production. Modification of lipid distribution with high-fiber diets. Lower maintenance needs of the gastrointestinal tract.
Decrease in standing behavior. Decrease in social interaction with other animals. Decrease in eating behavior.
Responses to stressors (lactation, heat stress, inflammation) No disadvantages identified.
Protein metabolism Energetic metabolism (glycolytic, oxidative, lipid) Almost no interaction between dietary energy sources. Different metabolic processes within the muscle influence energy balance.
research
Figure 1. Impact of reducing RFI on major physiological functions.
Not clear Increase the requirements of AA/kg of feed.
GIT= Gastrointestinal tract; AA = Amino acids
The utilization of nutrients by an animal encompasses intricate biological mechanisms and interactions within its environment
(Figure 1). Moreover, this process is further complicated by the strong correlation between feed intake, body size, and production level. To address these challenges and establish a connection between feed intake and production system efficiency, several metrics (Archer et al., 1999) can be categorized as
RFI is a measure of feed efficiency
follows:
in beef cattle which is independent
gross efficiencies partial growth
from: production level, body size, and growth rate. It serves as a valuable metric
maintenance
for exploring the physiological
maternal/offspring
variations in feed efficiency.
mechanisms that contribute to
RFI
72 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
Physiological factors of variation Five physiological processes contribute to Among a range of factors to be taken into
its variation:
account, the genetic aspect influencing
Feed intake
the diversity in these physiological processes still lacks conclusive
Digestion
resolution. Numerous studies have
Metabolism (including variations in body
indicated that the intricacies of these
composition)
interconnected physiological processes are associated with hundreds of genes.
Physical activity Thermoregulation
Residual feed intake represents an individual measurement
The distribution of variation in these processes is elucidated by:
derived from extended feeding trials (lasting a minimum of 70 to 84 days), wherein animals are accommodated either in individual enclosures or in collective settings.
research
In certain studies where calves were categorized according to RFI levels, scientists noted that heat generation from metabolic processes, body composition, and physical activity accounted for 73% of the variation in RFI.
It emphasizes the need to perform measurements for both daily feed
Protein turnover,
offerings and rejections,
Tissue metabolism, and stress (37%)
gains. In group settings, these
in addition to daily weight measurements are typically
Digestibility (10%),
averaged.
Heat increment and fermentation (9%), Physical activity (9%),
Research has supplied evidence that
Body composition (5%); and
points to considerable individual diversity in projected feed intake,
Feeding patterns (2%)
accounting for factors such as body weight and growth, within both
Nevertheless, elucidations for recognized
higher and lower ranges.
physiological mechanisms are grounded in a limited number of studies and typically involve small sample sizes.
73 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
This, along with the fact that individuals of the same body weight require significantly different amounts of feed for the same level of production, establishes the scientific foundation for measuring RFI.
Measurement techniques In recent times, methods utilizing electronic devices for the identification of individual animals have emerged. Individual feed intake is assessed in animals housed within group settings.
In one of the experiments, three diets varying in forage type and quantity were analyzed, with all three trials featuring lactating Holstein cows:
[n = 27 (trial 1) or n = 16 (trials 2 and 3)] The interventions encompassed diverse feed quantities to achieve a daily per-cow rejected feed volume of either 5% or 30% of the provided feed. Additionally, for trial 1, a rate of 15% was incorporated.
research
While this approach can be adopted, slight disparities have been noted when contrasting these two housing methodologies.
Therefore, obtaining RFI data is labor-intensive and costly, which has limited its dissemination as a measure of feed efficiency.
The actual rejection rates achieved were very close to the target values, averaging 7.1%, 15.0%, and 28.3%, respectively.
There was no variation in dry matter intake between treatments for cows fed with either of the two low-forage silage-based diets (trial 1), or for those fed a chopped hay-based diet (trial 2).
Ad libitum intake is achieved by providing a diet in quantities surpassing the projected intake. However, the degree of surplus can
Nonetheless, the intake of dry matter was 39% greater than the highest feeding rate for cows fed a high-forage silage-based diet (trial 3).
impact the consumption of specific diets and give rise to queries regarding the exact definition of ad libitum intake. In trials with the aim of gauging feed intake, milk
Neither milk production nor the composition of the feed refused per cow per day differed with the treatment.
production, and the composition of lactating cows, various surplus feed levels were employed by offering total mixed diets.
74 nutriNews International September 2023 | Controlling Residual Feed Intake: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
Final considerations Offering excessive amounts of feed can result in elevated intake. Assessing the suitability of the 10% rejection rate recommendations for maximal intake is crucial within diverse diet types, feeding systems, and climatic conditionss, both in research and commercial feeding scenarios. In the upcoming editions of our magazine, Part 2 will explore further dimensions related to residual feed intake.
Controlling Residual Feed Consumption: Maintaining a balance (Part I)
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NUTRITION, UREA AND SOMATIC CELLS
IN SHEEP’S MILK:
INTERESTING RELATIONSHIPS
animal health
Alberto Stanislao Atzori Department of Agricultural Sciences, Section of Animal Science, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy.
A
nimal nutrition greatly influences milk composition, which can be controlled
to improve its milk characteristics for human nutrition. However, it is also true that milk composition is an excellent indicator of the animal’s nutritional status. Some changes in macro-components can also be related to the animal’s immune response.
76 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
Some insights into the relationships between nutrition and somatic cells in milk were recently presented in a paper in the journal “Small Ruminant Research” by the Animal Science Section of the University of Sassari, Italy.
The true protein of milk, the synthesis of which is under high genetic control, is much less influenced by animal nutrition than milk fat. In contrast, the non-protein nitrogen fraction of milk is primarily influenced by nutritional factors.
animal health
The solubility and degradability of dietary protein and energy availability in the rumen can particularly influence milk urea.
Milk urea concentration is known to be a good indicator of protein excesses and deficiencies in the ration but also of energy metabolism, whereby low urea levels are associated with fermentable carbohydrate deficiency in the rumen (Giovanetti et al., 2019).
77 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
P value
animal health
Milk yield, g/d x head
0-999
1000-1499
1500-1999
>2000
SEM
Milk Yield
Urea
Milk Yield X urea
< 0.001 < 0.001
0.748
Milk Urea, mg/dl
<43
>43
<43
>43
<43
>43
<43
>43
N
121
90
169
185
136
194
57
142
SCC, score
3.82
3.16
3.38
2.68
3.11
2.55
2.99
2.32
0.023
SCC, n x 1000
6668 A
1435 BC 2410 B 480 D 1285 C 335 D 982 C
208 E
140
Table 1. Relationship among milk urea and somatic cell count (SCC) within different classes of milk yield observed from 11 to 165 DIM in primiparous sheep (n = 72) fed a diet with 16.5% of crude protein on DM basis.
Urea concentration in milk is also
Furthermore, data on milk production
associated with adverse effects on health,
and composition of 72 ewes fed dry
reproductive performance, and immune
unifeed (with a constant protein content
response in dairy ewes.
of 16.5 percent on SS fed from parturition
It is particularly interesting to note that urea concentration in milk is inversely
to 165 days of lactation; Atzori et al., 2019) were specifically analyzed.
associated with somatic cell count
Urea was negatively associated with
(SCC) in ewes and cows.
SCC (r = -0.57; P < 0.001), and this was independent of milk production
Surprisingly, when urea concentrations of Sarda sheep milk analyzed by the Farmers Regional Laboratory in Sardinia (today LAORE LAB; more than 150,000 milk samples in 2017) were correlated
In ewes that produced more than 1.0 L/day of milk, urea values above 43 mg/dL were associated with values below 500,000 SCC/mL (Table 1).
with milk composition parameters, a robust negative relationship between urea and SCC was observed.
78 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
Indeed, milk production only partially explains the effect of the lactation stage on milk SCC content, and this result agrees with previous evidence reported in dairy cows (Godden et al., 2001; Hojman et al., 2004; Aguilar
et al., 2012).
However, analysis of 1,500 determinations in individual milk
It is emphasized that these reports refer to physiological processes that need to be clearly explained and generate
from Sarda sheep showed that with an increase in urea, there was a paradoxical improvement in milk
confusion in using urea and SCC as
coagulation parameters, probably due
nutritional indicators.
to the negative relationship between urea and SCC. However, laboratory cheese yield in bulk milk, measured as detailed by
Manca et al. (2016), decreased as urea increased.
animal health
Indeed, as a consequence of increases in the N fraction of milk due to changes in urea concentration, a deterioration in the technological properties of milk is expected
79 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
Other errors in sheep nutrition, by
Numerous experimental trials are
unbalanced formulations in composition
accumulating on the positive effects
or inappropriate feeding behavior,
of polyphenols on milk SCC. On
may predispose the mammary gland to
legume-rich pastures (76% Medicago
inflammation and thus a higher likelihood
polymorpha L.), administration
of mastitis occurrence, thus increasing SCC.
of chestnut tannin extract led to a significant reduction in SCC of
Frequent dietary errors that could influence milk SCC include energy
Sardinian ewes compared with the control group (Pulina et al., 2010).
deficiencies (Ingvartsen and Moyes, 2013), imbalance in the energy/protein ratio
(Kehrli et al., 2006), protein deficiencies and excesses of NPN in the diet (Kehrli et al., 2006), and dysmetabolic such as
Specific nutritional deficiencies of
sub-acidosis or sub-acute ketosis
Mn, Fe, vitamin A, beta-carotene, and
(Leslie et al., 2000).
vitamin C, could be linked to mammary
mineral micronutrients, such as Se, Zn,
animal health
gland health and milk SCC. Several micronutrients are components of antioxidant enzymes that play an essential role in protecting cell membranes and the cell integrity of the Again, an increase in plasma
immune system.
beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentration, a marker of subclinical
Therefore, in case of infection, enzyme
ketosis, has been found to correlate
deficiency worsens the bactericidal
with an increased incidence of mastitis
activity of PMN leukocytes and
and a reduction in bactericidal
consequently reduces the defense
activity of polymorphonuclear
against intramammary infection
neutrophils (PMNs) against mammary
(Sordillo et al., 1997).
pathogens (Grinberg et al., 2008). Adequate mineral and vitamin supplementation positively affects milk SCC, as observed in sheep. This study summarizes several experiments in which vitamin A administration reduced milk somatic cells.
80 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
Supplementation with Se is beneficial when ewes are fed mainly hay or silage, which can suffer substantial losses of betacarotene and vitamin E during storage.
Ex: i) 5 mg vitamin A/kg body weight and 0.1 mg Se/kg body weight three days before parturition -53% SCC and reduction of leukocyte PMN -43%, Morgante et al.,
In conclusion, this highlights that appropriate nutritional management can improve sheep milk composition. To some extent, some milk compounds can be used to monitor animals’ nutritional balance and
animal health
ii) synergistic effect of vitamin E 400 IU/head×day + Se 0.3 mg/head×day, from two weeks before parturition until 60 DIM, reduced SCC compared to vitamin E supplementation alone; Pauselli et al., 2001.
health status.
Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
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These reports are critical, especially considering that there are several Se-deficient areas in Italy, as confirmed by the high incidence of white muscle disease in lambs
(Sfacteria et al., 2009).
This note is a summary of the following scientific article published in Small Ruminant Research where all the cited literature is given: Anna Nudda, Alberto Stanislao Atzori, Fabio Correddu, Gianni Battacone, Mondina Francesca Lunesu, Antonello Cannas, Giuseppe Pulina, 2020. Effects of nutrition on main components of sheep milk, Small Ruminant Research, 184: 106015, G.C. Fthenakis - Editor, special issue in Small Ruminant Research in the theme of ‘Mammary health - Production of quality and safe milk from sheep.’
Effects of nutrition on main components of sheep milk
READ ARTICLE Complete reference list is available by contacting the author: asatzori@uniss.it
81 nutriNews September 2023 | Nutrition, urea and somatic cells in sheep’s milk: interesting relationships
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