Esri 2015 proceedings

Educational Symposium for Research and Innovations

ESRI

FEBRUARY 28, 2015 GW MARVIN CENTER

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Dear ESRI Conference Participant, Thank you for choosing to participate in the 12th annual Educational Symposium for Research and Innovations (ESRI) at The George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development. ESRI is a student-led academic conference that highlights student and alumni research and innovations in education. Our 2015 conference includes a variety of sessions devoted to scholarly papers, research and practice-oriented symposia, and poster presentations.

In addition to student-led research, ESRI includes a variety of events, including faculty and staff facilitated scholarship development panels and professional development seminars. The theme for the opening session on Saturday, February 28th is Community Organizing as a Catalyst for School Reform. Our keynote speaker is Dr. Mark R. Warren, an associate professor of public policy and public affairs at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. He is the author of A Match on Dry Grass: Community Organizing as a Catalyst for School Reform (2011) and Transforming Public Education: The Need for an Educational Justice Movement (2014). Complimenting the keynote address, GSEHD’s Drs. Arshad Ali and Brian Casemore will offer a closing session describing their own community-engaged research agendas. We hope the conference theme inspires rich discussions during the conference and beyond.

Congratulations are in order to the 2015 recipients of the Best Paper Award and Emerging Scholar Awards. A complete list of the honorees and publication titles are published on p. 7 of the Conference Program and will be showcased throughout the ESRI 2015 conference.

Finally, a big thank you is in order to the presenters, paper discussants, volunteers, and the ESRI Leadership Team that made ESRI 2015 possible. The Graduate School of Education and Human Development has the potential to be a prominent voice in the national dialogue on education and our emerging scholars will certainly be leaders in the conversation.

Sincerely,

Dr. Michael J. Feuer Dean, Graduate School of Education and Human Development

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ESRI Purpose and Vision Educational Symposium for Research and Innovations (ESRI) provides strategic and significant support for the advancement of academic excellence and professional development for students and alumni of The George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development. The mission of ESRI is to foster scholarly and professional development of students and alumni of the Graduate School of Education and Human Development.

Through an annual conference ESRI accomplishes this mission by providing: • A safe and nurturing environment wherein GSEHD students and alumni can present and receive feedback on their scholarly work for eventual submission to national conferences and refereed journals.

• Support for the advancement of academic excellence in educational research among graduate students.

• An academic homecoming in which students and alumni can learn from each other, and where alumni can reconnect with their scholarly interests and rekindle friendships with faculty and colleagues.

• An opportunity for prospective students to engage with faculty, students, and alumni; to learn about the GSEHD community and our scholarly endeavors; and to discover why they should join us for fulfillment of their educational goals.

ESRI Leadership Team Christopher Harriss, Student Chair, ESRI 2015 Tyler Dickinson & Christian Chan Co-Chairs, Communications

Marjorie Cook, Matthew McCabe, & Ian Paul Mulhern Co-Chairs, Registration

Jeremy Shumpert Chair, Marketplace of Ideas/Poster Session

Audrey Peek Chair, Proposal Review Process

Gianna Miller & Jacynta Brewton GSEHD Staff Liaison

Rick Jakeman GSEHD Faculty Liaison

Contributors Peer Reviewers Allison Gulamhussein Amy Berman Anne Lackritz Ariel Sewell Brian Keilson Carrie Gillispie

Deanna Carr Drew Atchison Elisabeth Kutscher Emily Lehman Katina Velentzas Lauren Hunter

Mariela Campuzano Mary Ann Gorman Megan Shaine Oliver Crocco Reina Guartico Robert Zeglin

And all members of the ESRI Leadership Team

Staff Support – The GSEHD professional staff were exceedingly helpful in providing logistical and administrative support to the ESRI Leadership Team.

Meg Holland Chief of Staff, Special Assistant to the Dean Maggie Appel-Schumacher Executive Assistant of Communications Bonnie Lewis-Sheehan Executive Associate Gareth Strope Web/IT Administrator Nancy Gilmore Assistant Dean of Students Gianna Miller Senior Advanced Degree Program Coordinator Valin Jordan Advanced Degree Program Coordinator Rachel Dorfman-Tandlich Senior Advanced Degree Program Coordinator Sarah Lang Director of Admissions and Marketing Christopher Landino Associate Director, Office of Career Services Robin Cleveland Executive Director, Office of Student Life Jacynta Brewton Director, Development and Alumni Relations Joyce Moreland Executive Associate, Department of Educational Leadership Cora White Executive Assistant, Department of Educational Leadership

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Faculty Discussants & Participants Dean Michael J. Feuer

Dean, Graduate School of Education and Human Development

Arshad Ali

Assistant Professor of Research Methods

Brian Casemore Bernhard Streitwieser Carol Kochhar-Bryant Christine Morano Magee Delishia Pittman Elisabeth Rice

Associate Professor of Curriculum and Pedagogy Assistant Professor of International Education Senior Associate Dean for Academic Affairs & Professor of Special Education and Disability Studies Visiting Assistant Professor of Bilingual Special Education

Elizabeth D. Tuckwiller Iris C. Rotberg

Assistant Professor of Counseling and Human Development Chair, Special Education and Disability Studies & Associate Professor of Special Education and Disability Studies Assistant Professor of Special Education and Disability Studies Research Professor of Education Policy

James Tucker

Visiting Assistant Professor of Education Administration

Jay Shotel Jennifer Clayton Joel Gomez Linda Lemasters

Emeritus Professor of Special Education Assistant Professor of Education Administration Chair, Department of Educational Leadership & Associate Professor of Educational Leadership Associate Professor of Educational Administration

Lindsey Malcom-Piqueux

Assistant Professor of Higher Education Administration

Lionel Howard Maria Cseh Marian Robinson Maxine Freund

Assistant Professor of Educational Research Associate Professor of Human and Organizational Learning Visiting Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership Associate Dean of Research & Professor of Special Education and Disability Studies

Natalie Milman

Associate Professor of Educational Technology

Nicholas Paley Peng Peng Phoebe Stevenson Ralph O. Mueller

Professor of Educational Foundations Assistant Professor of Special Education and Human Development Administrative Dean and Chief of Operations, GSEHD Dean, College of Education, Nursing and Health Professions University of Hartford

Rebecca Thessin

Assistant Professor of Educational Administration

Rick Jakeman

Assistant Dean of Academic Services & Assistant Professor of Higher Education

Roger Whitaker

Professor of Higher Education Administration & Sociology

Sharon Dannels

Associate Professor of Educational Research

Sylvia Marotta-Walters

Professor of Counseling

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Keynote Speaker

COMMUNITY ORGANIZING AS A CATALYST FOR SCHOOL REFORM Dr. Mark R. Warren

The persistent failure of public education in lowincome communities and communities of color constitutes one of our nation's most pressing civil rights and social justice issues. In this talk, Mark Warren shows how community organizing represents a promising approach to school reform as part of a broader agenda to build power for low-income communities and address the profound socio-economic and racial inequalities that affect the education of children. Drawing from examples of organizing efforts across the country, Warren shows how organizing groups build the participation and leadership of parents and students so they can become powerful actors in school improvement efforts. They also work to overcome divisions and create the collaborations between educators and community residents required for deep and sustainable school reform. In the end, community organizing provides a key foundation for a broader movement to create the kind of transformational change necessary to advance educational equity and a robust democracy.

Mark R. Warren is Associate Professor of Public Policy and Public Affairs at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. He is lead author of A Match on Dry Grass: Community Organizing as a Catalyst for School Reform, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011) and author of “Transforming Public Education: The Need for an Educational Justice Movement,� (New England Journal of Public Policy, 2014) available at: http://scholarworks.umb.edu Copies of A Match on Dry Grass: Community Organizing as a Catalyst for School Reform will be raffled during this session. Book copies were generously donated by the Higher Education Student Association (HESA). Thanks HESA!

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CLOSING CONFERENCE SESSION The Realities of Conducting Community-Engaged Research in Education: A Conversation with Drs. Arshad Ali and Brian Casemore.

Drs. Ali and Casemore provide an overview of common problems faced by community-engaged educational researchers. The panelists discuss their personal research projects, including research designs and theoretical frameworks as well as strategies for community engagement. The conversation will illustrate multiple modes of inquiry responsive to the needs of local communities. Audience members are encouraged to share their perspectives and questions about community-engaged research.

Dr. Arshad Ali, Assistant Professor of Educational Research Dr. Ali is multi-disciplinary educator, youth worker, and scholar who studies youth culture, race, identity, and democratic engagement in educational practice. He examines how youth identities are mediated by macro economic, political and social realities.

Dr. Brian Casemore, Associate Professor of Curriculum and Pedagogy Dr. Casemore teaches courses in curriculum theory, English education, human development, and social diversity. Brian is the co-director of Community-Engaged Teaching (CET), a program option in Secondary Education that prepares teachers to foster community in classrooms and schools through academic study and engagement with larger civic and social spheres. His research focuses on autobiographical inquiry and psychoanalytic conceptions of educational experience.

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Improvisational Leadership: A Descriptive Case Study of the Complex Problem-Solving Experiences of a High-Functioning Federal Government Interdisciplinary Team Kyrone J. Davis Research purpose This study described the symbiotic relationship between shared leadership, organizational improvisation, and symbolic interactionism in generating improvisational leadership vis a vis the complex problem-solving experiences of a high-functioning federal government interdisciplinary team of six veterinarians. The study had a dual goal orientation: (a) to describe members’ experiences of complex problem-solving; and (b) to describe how members shared leadership during these experiences. The grand tour question for this study was: What is the nature of improvisational leadership via the complex problem-solving experiences of a high-functioning federal government interdisciplinary team?

Summary of methods, population, and sampling This qualitative case study (Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2009) described the nature of improvisational leadership via the complex problem-solving experiences of a high-functioning federal government interdisciplinary team. The researcher employed a purposeful sample (Creswell, 1998; Merriam, 2009) of professionals, who are members of a single interdisciplinary team to: (a) describe their experience of complex problem-solving; and (b) describe how they shared leadership during this experience. While empirical confirmation was essential in explaining how shared leadership and organizational improvisation are complimentary, this study was designed to describe how they both symbolically interact. Maxwell (2005), in direct correlation with other researcher contentions (Miles & Huberman, 1984; Creswell, 1998; Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2009), referenced four boundary conditions to consider: the participants (who will be observed or interviewed), the setting (where the research will be conducted), the events (what will the participants be observed doing or interviewed regarding) and the process (the emerging nature of the events undertaken by the participants within the setting). This case study was designed with respect to these four boundary conditions. To provide plausible answers to the study’s research questions, a qualitative single-case study (Yin, 2009; Merriam, 2009) design was selected. Relative to the study’s purpose, the sample size was determined by specific criteria at two levels of analysis: (a) case level; and (b) within-case (Merriam, 2009). As a result, a federal government interdisciplinary team (FIT) was selected for this case study. The federal government interdisciplinary team (FIT) was selected because (1) the team has been in existence for twenty-five years; (2) the researcher was a federal government employee, which optimized accessibility to members and data collection; (3) the participants are exemplary practitioners experienced in shared leadership and complex problem-solving, thus adding value to the study; and (4) the team represents a mélange of traditional sub-communities of practice (Brown & Duguid, 1991) consisting of applied and social sciences; all of whom elicit some manifestation of shared leadership. This study employed an approach of naturalistic inquiry, which contends that “data processing is a continuous ongoing activity, making possible the meaningful emergence or unfolding of the design and the successive focusing of the study” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 11). Sources of data informing this study comprised a focus group, semi structured interviews with federal government interdisciplinary team (FIT) members, observations of routine meetings and discussions, and review of relevant documents and artifacts. In addition to transcribing the focus group, all individual interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were used as the primary source of data analysis. The observations and document review served as complementation and verification for the transcripts. The transcripts were coded based upon factors perceived as fostering shared leadership in complex problem-solving experiences. Throughout the coding process, the focus was placed upon the team as the unit of analysis. Thus, no disparity was made between team members irrespective of their formal status within the

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team. Content analysis, relative to the constant comparative method, was used to identify recurrent themes and subthemes perceived to foster shared leadership during a complex problem-solving experience.

Theoretical Framework The constructs for this study were shared leadership (anchor) relative to organizational improvisation (supporting) using a symbolic interactionist approach. The conceptual representation of these constructs manifest as competencies of a high-functioning interdisciplinary team (Nancarrow, Booth, Ariss, Smith, Enderby, & Roots, 2013). Pearce and Conger (2003) hold that shared leadership is a process by which strategic decisions are carried out within a broad setting, which each member of the group contributes in selecting what is best concerning the greater aggregate, as opposed to decisions made and proclaimed by a solitary individual as a method of influence or control over the group. This scheme is consistent with the egalitarian, collaborative, more mutual, less hierarchical nature of leader-follower interactions (Fletcher, 2010). “Organizational Improvisation can be described as the conception of action as it unfolds, by an organization and/or its members, drawing on available material, cognitive, affective, and social resources� (Kamoche, Cuhna, & Cuhna, 2002, p. 99). A symbolic interactionist approach is an appropriate consideration for understanding shared leadership and organizational improvisation. Blumer (1966) maintains that acknowledging the process of interpretation and definition in human interactions has fundamental implications for gaining insight of the human being, human action, and human association. The symbolic capacity of humans implies they have thoughts and think (Dewey, 1991), rationalize symbols intrinsically (Senge, 1990), and as a result develop a self both cultivated by and entering into the social process; thinking, in this regard, occurs in the form of internal conversation utilizing symbols that were socially constructed (Berger & Luckmann, 1967; Blumer, 1966; Dewey, 1991; Mead, 1932; Stryker & Vryan, 2006).

Findings and Implications This study observed that by virtue of their interdisciplinary-interdependent expertise, members were perpetually engaged in interactive knowledge exchange. The research revealed that the medium for these exchanges was polylogue or concurrent, multidirectional, ongoing conversations among the members. The study determined that through this level of discourse and interactivity in real-time, the foci remained on the situation specific needs and in turn placed the needed expertise in the leadership position/role. Relative to this shift in the leadership paradigm, further research is needed on methods for raising organizational IQs in various contexts through collective awareness and implementation of these findings.

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Exploring the Relationship between Advising Satisfaction and Continued Enrollment for TraditionalAged Community College Students Enrolled Exclusively in Online Courses

Bradley Coverdale Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between levels of online post-secondary satisfaction and continued enrollment for traditional-aged community college students who enroll exclusively in online courses for at least one semester. This study is needed because others have not investigated traditional-aged students as a particular segment of population which enrolls in online courses at community colleges. While online education mostly caters to non-traditional students who may have family and/or work responsibilities, more students who recently completed high school choose to enroll in online courses at community colleges. It is important to understand if the findings obtained from studies on online education at four-year institutions, often focusing on non-traditional students, also apply to younger students enrolled at community colleges. The primary research question in this study explored the relationship between level of satisfaction with online postsecondary experience and continued enrollment for traditional-aged community college students who enrolled in exclusively online courses for at least one semester, after controlling for entry characteristics, and online adaptability level.

Summary of Methods, Population, and Sampling This survey used a cross-sectional design using a cross-sectional web survey for collecting data via SurveyMonkey and analyzed via quantitative path analysis. Through survey research, researchers are able to measure the results of a sample and generalize them to a larger population (Creswell, 2014). Because students who take classes in an online environment need to be familiar with using a computer, as well as navigating a web page to find course materials and discussions, conducting surveys using the Internet is an appropriate method of data collection. Using a web survey can provide participants with an anonymous environment to comment about their online learning experiences without concern for possible repercussions. Path analysis provides this study with the ability to see if correlations exist between variables (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006; Olobatuyi, 2006).

The participants in this study were students who graduated from high school between 2009 and 2013 and are between the ages of 18 and 22, also known as traditional-aged students (Tinto, 1993). These students enrolled exclusively in online classes for at least one semester while pursuing a degree at a community college in the Mid-Atlantic Region (Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia). Eight community colleges that reported having at least 5% of their students enrolled exclusively in online classes during the Fall 2012 semester agreed to participate in this study. Approximately 10,000 emails were sent out to qualifying students. However, given that only 10% of the students checked their email from September to October 2014 and that students may still have active email accounts after they are no longer enrolled at a community college, the sampling size for determining response rate should be approximately 1000 students. 360 students completed the survey, returning a response rate than the expected 20% noted for most online surveys (Hyllegard et al., 2008; Muse, 2003).

Students who completed the survey had the opportunity to submit their email address on a separate survey for a chance to win one of three $50.00 Amazon.com gift codes. Duplicate email addresses were removed from the list and then winners were chosen using a random number generator. Students were emailed an introductory letter by their host institution or by the researcher’s GWU account with the link to the survey. Follow-up letters were sent to non-respondents three times after initial delivery. Responses were analyzed for missing values and entered into appropriate path models for further analysis.

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Theoretical Framework The conceptual framework that will be used for this study is the Model of Online Community College Student Satisfaction and Continued Enrollment (MOCCSE). This model is adapted from both Tinto’s (1993) Theory of Student Departure (TSD) and Kember’s (1995) Model of Dropout in Distance Education (MDDE). Both TSD and MDDE examine factors that determine whether or not students continue their studies towards a postsecondary credential. These factors include entry characteristics and interactions with faculty and staff. Students will decide whether or not to continue in college based on the strength of these interactions. TSD has been used in many research studies that have explored student retention of traditional-aged students. However, while TSD is widely cited and acknowledged, critics argue that theories similar to it do not apply to community colleges.

Combining factors of both TSD and MDDE into MOCCSE allows for Tinto’s use of academic and social integration that was created to understand decisions made by traditional-aged students to integrate with Kember’s factors that were designed to understand the behaviors of online students. Further, this model explores the persistence of traditional-aged community college students enrolled in online courses. The MOCCSSE establishes five criteria: (1) entry characteristics, (2) satisfaction with academic advisor, (3) online adaptability level, (4) satisfaction with post-secondary online experience, and (5) persistence via continued enrollment.

Implications Given the increased popularity of online courses at community colleges combined with the low completion rate of students who take them compared to those who enroll in courses on campus, a thorough understanding of what causes students to be satisfied with their academic advisor as well as their online postsecondary experience could help institutions provide supports for these students that may increase their rate of retention and satisfaction. Results from this research will contribute to understanding the impact of online learning on higher education. Additionally, more research that examines online education offered by community colleges will help ensure that best practices carried from the four-year institutions are still relevant in the two-year sector.

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Motivation to Learn in the Workplace: Perspectives from Different Adult Populations Oliver Crocco, Vivian Awemey, and Stephanie Holder Abstract The American workforce is increasingly diverse (Greco, 1998; Beaver & Hutchings, 2005; Meister & Willyerd, 2010; Clark & Ghent, 2010). As workplaces become more knowledge based, it is important to understand the factors that may affect the ability of distinct populations to learn. Specifically, the importance of motivation in workplace learning is underexplored, especially in light of trends in the changing workforce (Vanthournout, Noyens, Gijbels & Van den Bossche, 2014). This review of the literature focuses on identifying the motivation to learn in three populations of adult workers, each constituting a significant and growing presence in the landscape of the American workforce: older adults, aged 50 and older; post-9/11 veterans entering the civilian workforce; and millennials, those born between 1980 and 1995. The literature suggests that some factors influencing the motivation to learn may differ across the three targeted populations. This literature review identifies similarities in the motivation to learn across the three populations and suggests the need for further research to create a framework of workers’ motivation to learn that is inclusive of the multiple populations active in today’s workforce.

Research purpose and main questions supported by this literature review The purpose of this paper is to investigate the literature related to motivation to learn in three distinct populations of adult workers, each constituting a growing presence in the landscape of the American workforce: older adults, U.S. military veterans, and millennial. The research questions to be addressed are: How is the motivation to learn of each of the targeted populations presented in the literature? What are the similarities across populations regarding the motivation identified in the research? What gaps emerge in understanding motivation to learn for the three populations of adults and what are the implications for future research?

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study The theoretical framework for this study comes in part from the work of Houle (1961), Shillingford and Karlin (2013), McClusky (1963), Vallerand (1989), and Wlodkowski (2008). The literature review includes examining motivation theories such as McClusky’s (1963) theory of margin and Wlodkowski’s (2008) integrated levels of adult motivation. Kooij, de Lange, Jansen, Dikkers (2008) point to the paltry data around the motivation of older adults in the workforce despite projections that 30 percent of the workforce will be aged 50 to 65 by 2050.

Post-9/11 veterans’ motivation to learn while serving in the U.S. armed forces is drastically different than their motivation to learn after their service is completed. Despite their unique personal and work experiences and needs, research tends to group veterans into a general non-traditional student category (Kenner & Weinerman, 2001; Jovita, 2011). Despite the growing numbers of millennials in the workforce, Holyoke and Larson (2009) find that little research exists that reviews the adult learner through a generational lens. This literature review will be conducted using the George Washington University research database and is limited to English language articles from peer-reviewed journals. Search terms include aging, older adults, older workers, motivation, motivation to learn, workplace motivation, post-9/11 veterans, military, service member, millennials.

Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question The initial literature review shows that current theories are useful for understanding the motivation of adults to learn in general, but that there is a dearth of research specific to motivation to learn for adults in the workplace, particularly related to age, life stage, and defining experiences. Hegarty and Del Vecchio (2012) suggest that

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motivation changes over the course of adulthood depending on circumstances and recommend a Life Continuum Framework, though currently there is little data specific to different populations of adults to populate such a framework. The multiple role changes required for military members - from service to civilian employment - can be explored through a lens of motivation and adult learning, mentorships and communities of practice as well as theories of transition in adult education and transition (Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995). In addition, millennials appear to have different values than previous generations (Schullery, 2013). In motivating today's human capital, organizations have to engage employees’ minds and captivate their hearts (Njoroge and Yazdanifard, 2014). Better understanding the potentially unique motivations to learn of different populations within a diverse workforce is critical.

The implications of this literature review include a research agenda to determine what motivation to work factors are unique to a significant cross-section of today’s American workforce: older workers, post-9/11 veterans, and millennials. One application of the findings of such research could be the creation of onboarding and retention strategies that take into account how different populations are motivated to learn. This would likely encourage more inclusive and effective workplaces.

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Review of the literature: Internationalization Through the International Branch Campus.

Bradley Beecher Abstract: International branch campuses (IBCs) are one of the riskiest forms of internationalization that a higher education institution can pursue. There is literature that describes implementation and cross-cultural considerations for managing an IBC, but scant literature describing how decisions are made to pursue an IBC strategy.

Research purpose and main research question supported by this literature review: The purpose of this literature review is to gain a deeper understanding of the opportunities and risks IBCs offer universities. There are many factors that lead higher education institutions to choose an IBC strategy including, be it their attempts to reach new populations of students, provide their students with cross-cultural experiences, or their desire to seek revenues in new markets. Organizations like the World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank create policies that facilitate the trade of education across various modes of trade.

IBCs require significant investment of institutional resources even when deciding to pursue this internationalization strategy. Universities must invest the time of senior leaders, outside consultants, its funding, and its institutional brand. The risks associated with this investment include working across time zones, cultures, and ensuring that curriculum is appropriately localized for the host country and still meets the accreditation needs of the home institution.

This review of the literature will take a multi-disciplinary approach utilizing literature from the higher education, education policy internationalization, and business literatures. The main research question for this review: How do top leaders (e.g., directors of international programs, deans, provosts, presidents) at four-year public universities describe their decision-making process when pursuing an international branch campus strategy?

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What College Students with Physical Impairments Say About Discourses of Disability on Campus Christopher Stone Research Purpose/Question This investigation utilized Discourse Analysis (DA) to analyze the lived experiences of students with physical impairments, the messages received, and interpretations of those messages, so as to provide greater understanding and perspective on the language and conversations surrounding disability. It may be argued higher education is constructed to be most inclusive for the able-bodied, wherein assumptions are held "that all students entering and all faculty teaching will be able-bodied" (Evans, Herriott, & Myers, 2009, p. 113). The majority of campus constituents experience little difficulty moving freely throughout the environment, engaging with others in a variety of settings and situations, and utilizing public spaces and services. However, for particular populations, such as those with physical impairments, engaging in what may be considered a normal manner can be challenged by the difficulties they experience. While it can be assumed many of the barriers which exist (environmental and behavioral, alike) are not deliberate acts of discrimination but are instead attributes of a lack of recognition for the impact felt by persons with impairments, it would be an oversimplification of a deeper seeded and pervasive concern. The research question was: What do college students with physical impairments say about the discourses of disability on campus?

Summary of Theoretical Perspective & Methods The study employed Discourse Analysis as both a theory and methodological approach.

Discourse Analysis is ultimately a theory of language-in-use, “about saying-doing-being” wherein meaning comes from the ““game” or practice it is part of and enacts” (Gee, 2011, p. 11). It recognizes all language is political because all language is about the allocation of social goods such as power, money, and other resources which cause inequities of some individuals and groups, raising the status and authority of some while minimizing the position and possibility of others.

As a research method, discourse analysis aims to investigate language-in-use, what Stubbs (1983) characterized as “language above the sentence or above the clause” (p. 1). Critical discourse analysis moves beyond a descriptive approach, though one element en route to criticism is first locating an understanding of language.

Instead, it seeks to “speak to and, perhaps, intervene in, social or political issues, problems, and controversies” (Gee, 2011, p. 9). This theory of discourse analysis stipulates all language involves the distribution of social goods, and is therefore always political, and even acts describing language-in-use speak to issues. As such, one might argue that because we have the tools and skills to analyze discourse, we are responsible for both examining how language operates and intervening in the issues to which it contributes.

In a discourse analysis it is difficult to establish at the outset the analytic questions guiding the investigation.

That is, one cannot determine what to ask of the data without knowing what data is available. However, based on the research question, identity was employed as an analytic lens as an initial step to analyze what students with physical impairments say about the discourses of disability.

Semi-structured interviews were used because the researcher intended to follow a line of inquiry but wished to allow the discussions to deviate as a result of what emerges as participants respond. It provided some necessary organization at the onset, yet enough flexibility for the investigator to adjust as participants touched on a topic not anticipated prior to questions being devised.

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Population/Sample Purposive sampling sought students self-identifying as embodying a physical impairment enrolled at one of three participating universities. Additionally, in an effort to target individuals best positioned to reflect upon their experiences after substantial time and exposure to the higher education setting, those partaking also had to have completed a minimum of one academic year at their institution prior to study involvement.

Summary of Findings Close examination and subsequent interpretation of transcripts and the actual audio recordings suggests that in comparison to the understanding participants have of what might be considered the typical college experience, their experiences bear only minimal resemblance with regard to social engagement, activities, and interactions.

Using the perceived “normal” situation as a standard, it allows for the argument that the discourse of disability is particularly serious—seriously academic; seriously medical or health related; and serious with regard to feelings of responsibility as an advocate, mentor, and educator—compared to non-disabled students.

Additionally, it can also be interpreted that the narrative employed by participants discloses a deeper complexity to their situations, despite assertions of general positive college experiences.

Implications These interpretations suggest ways in which higher education institutions may create more inclusive environments and encourage the involvement of students with physical impairments. Additionally, they highlight the complex life of the college student with a physical impairment, and suggest legal accessibility and compliance standards are but one of many factors impacting decisions being made with regard to their choices being made on a daily basis.

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The Role of Organizations in Creating Spaces for Transformative Learning for Under-Represented Employees: A Literature Review Mariella Campuzano, Javier Lopez, Alicia Williams and Fabiola Vatel Abstract Transformative learning spaces are essential for personal and professional progress and organizations hold the potential to create these spaces for their employees. However the lack of learning environments for underrepresented employee groups may impede overall organizational change (Debebe, 2011; Mathis, 2010; Moon, 2010). Under-represented employee groups include: people of color, aging employees, veterans, and women.

The purpose of this literature review is to identify the knowledge gap in the role of organizations creating transformative learning spaces for the aforementioned under-represented employees.

Research Purpose and Questions The purpose of this literature review is to explore current research around the role of organizations in creating transformative learning spaces for under-represented employees. The following key terms were used in the research process in connection with transformative learning and organizations: female, women, aging employees, older workers, aging work force, ethnicity, culture, race, veterans, and civilian employment.

Sources were drawn from The George Washington University Library online databases including: ArticlesPlus, EBSCO Host’s Academic Search Complete, and JSTOR peer-reviewed English language articles. The research question addressed in this literature review is: Why should organizations create transformative learning spaces for under-represented employees? How should organizations go about creating transformative spaces for underrepresented employees?

Introduction to Theoretical and Research Foundations Transformative learning theory centers on the development of the whole person and everyone is invited to partake of that transformation (Jarvis, 2009, 2012). The impact of transformative learning for under-represented employees in organizations is in need of further critical examination (Taylor, 2007). This literature review sets out to identify the knowledge gap in the role of organizations creating transformative learning spaces for underrepresented employee groups such as: people of color, aging employees, veterans, and women.

Synthesis and Integration of Literature to Research Purpose and Questions A successful workplace transformative learning experience embraces an inclusive, individualized and collaborative meaning making experience (Mezirow, 1991). Yet, people of color are missing from the current transformative learning literature that is mostly focused on white, Western male adult learners (Bridwell, 2012).

Transformative learning can raise the level of consciousness and ultimately enhance adult development (Freire, 1970). Mezirow asserted that “finding one’s voice for free full participation in discourse includes elements of maturity, education, safety, health, economic security, and emotional intelligence,” (Mezirow, 2000, p.15). Literature reveals that when organizations embrace cultural and ethnic diversity, people of color feel valued and organizations experience enriched decision making, creativity and innovation, communication, development of cross-cultural competence, and recruitment and retention of the most qualified candidates (Stevens, Plaut, & Sanchez-Burks, 2008).

Transformative learning is a learning process that takes place throughout a person’s life, particularly in the adult stages, which is noted to differentiate this type of learning from other learning orientations (Merriam and Bierema, 2014). The literature also notes that, in recent years, transformative learning efforts have primarily focused on middle class seniors. An opportunity still exists to create transformative learning spaces for aging

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employees among all socioeconomic SES levels (Formosa, 2010). The attention granted to senior employees tends to focus on retirement, pension plans, and healthcare. However, a need still exists to facilitate transformative learning experiences for this group within organizational settings. Literature by Lawton & La Porte (2013) and Formosa (2010), among others, supports the need to facilitate workplace lifelong learning of aging employees. This population carries a lifetime of experiences that has the potential to foster crossgenerational collaboration through storytelling, self-rediscovery, and empowerment. Lawton (2013) makes the argument that creating proper transformative spaces for seniors will help them to continue learning for a benefit greater than their own.

Civilian employment may prove problematic for veterans with physical and psychological difficulties (Ostovary & Dapprich, 2011). Creating learning spaces that consider the needs of both veterans as well as the organization (Burnett & Segoria, 2009) improves veterans’ chances of succeeding within the organization and allows for transformative learning to take place. Current literature on veteran transformative learning suggests that veteran support teams and collaborative relationships with veteran support programs focused on achieving goals for both the employer and the employee can be beneficial for change (Burnett & Segoria, 2009; Ostovary & Dapprich, 2011).

Organizations great and small cannot afford to neglect investing in the transformative learning of its female workforce (Cooley, 2007; Debebe, 2011). Empowering female employees by helping them make meaning of their experiences is key for their professional development and for organizational change (Debebe, 2011). The current literature on female-specific transformative learning asserts that “one of the primary ways in which women learn is through connection” (Cooley, 2007). Once women are connected to one another, they can collaborate more effectively to solve organizational issues (Debebe, 2011). Thus Debebe suggests that creating safe spaces for women to connect helps her to openly share gender-related concerns, feel valued and affirmed, and remove fear of rejection or negative self-presentation (2011). Since “internal change is a critical aspect of fostering women’s leadership growth,” (Debebe, 2011) more scholarship is needed to research systematic methods for organizations to go about producing female-specific spaces or "enclaves" (Cooley, 2008) in the workplace.

The implications of this literature review include a research strategy to identify the role of organizations in creating transformative learning spaces for the following under-represented employee groups: people of color, aging employees, veterans, and women. One application of the findings of such research could be the creation of effective transformative learning space criteria. Further implications for practice will be discussed in the final paper.

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The Role of Situated Learning in Training and Education Settings Abdul Alanzy, Annette Miner and Ed Balfour Abstract: Situated learning theory states that knowledge is not acquired in one setting, then easily transferred to practice. Rather, learning happens within the context of authentic, work-based activities (Lave, 1988; Brown and Duguid, 1991). Through this literature review, the application of situated learning is explored in three areas: mentoring in organizations, cross-cultural education in organizations, and American Sign Language interpreter education. An initial review of the literature indicates that situated learning is under-utilized in these three areas.

Research purpose and main question supported by this literature The purpose of this literature review is to investigate the application of situated learning, and specifically, its use in mentoring in organizations, cross-cultural education in organizations and American Sign Language interpreter education. In each of these areas of education, situated, work-based learning is important for development of real world work performance. Examination of these areas leads to insights about situated learning and whether or not the promise of situated learning, as suggested by Wilson (1993), is being fulfilled.

This literature review was conducted using the George Washington University and Gallaudet University research databases and was limited to empirically based journal articles from scholarly publications, and written in English. Search terms included the following: situated learning, cross-cultural learning, situated cognition, mentoring, professional development, and interpreter education.

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study Immersion in experiential activity is one way that adults typically learn. It is supported by situated cognition theory and can include communities of practice, cognitive apprenticeships, authentic learning activities and scenario-based learning. The concept of situated cognition was first described by Lave (1988) in her study of teaching mathematics. She found that when students applied math in the real world settings of the grocery store and Weight Watcher’s meetings, they were more successful in solving problems than learning through traditional pencil and paper tasks in the classroom. Learners do not just learn something in a classroom and then easily transfer it to the contexts where they are supposed to apply their knowledge (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). For real learning and understanding to happen, learners need to learn with the social interactions, tools, activities and culture of the setting where the knowledge is to be applied (Hansman & Wilson, 1998; Kim & Merriam, 2010).

Since the concept of situated learning emerged in the late 1980’s (Lave, 1988; Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989), it has been incorporated into writing classrooms, art classrooms, computer classes and has been used in technology to create virtual realities as a context for learning (Hansman & Wilson, 1998; McLellen, 1996; Kim & Merriam, 2010). Situated learning can be integrated into learning environments in many forms. For example, context-based experiences and authentic activities are seen as central to situated learning (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989), and types of activities can vary widely. Communities of practice are another form of situated learning, in which newcomers to a field join a community of members from their profession, share information and experiences, and thereby develop expertise (Wenger, 2000). Finally, cognitive apprenticeships (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989) occur through the guidance of a master teacher, through modeling and coaching during a real-world task.

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Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question To understand the current application of situated cognition, the authors examined three educational areas to determine to what degree situated learning was incorporated into training and education. Situated learning approaches in three settings were investigated: organizational learning, learning in cross-cultural interactions, and interpreter education.

Mentoring in Organizations Many organizations have a process for the professional development of their employees. Mentoring often plays a role in this professional development. The way individuals transfer skills from context to cognition in an organization is through this situated learning approach of mentoring. In mentoring mentees have to make sense and use out of their mentor’s experience. Elsbach, Barr and Hargadon (2005) use 15 years of case studies to evaluate situated learning in many organizations. They developed a framework that identified the interaction “during sense- making processes to give rise to momentary perceptions that we call situated cognitions”. Initial literature reviews shows how situated learning has helped organizations in many areas. However there is a lack of studies of using situated learning to enhance mentoring in organizations. It is important to understand the link between situated learning and how it can assist with mentoring and moving employees forward in their work.

Cross-Cultural Education in Organizations An environment where cross-cultural interaction takes place provides an opportunity for the use of situated learning. Individuals who are exposed to learning by traveling and interacting with different cultures most likely will gain a deeper knowledge. Cross-cultural interaction is an opportunity for learning. This process of learning by interacting with an unfamiliar culture would be one form of situated learning. Cross-cultural learning is described as an interaction between person and culture (Yamazaki, 2014). In most cases, mangers learn to administer across cultures without being involved in an educational setting or having training in cross-cultural competences. Cross-cultural interaction as a means of learning that occurs in an informal learning system falls into a category of experiential learning (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991; Kolb, 1984; Kolb & Wolfe, 1981). With the current globalization of organizations, the need for cross-cultural training has become an important element toward the success of globalized organizations. “Diversity training in organizations represents a growing and important area of research and practice.” (McGuire D & Patterson, N. 2014) Cross-culture training in organizations is commonly conducted through a form of diversity training. “Through seeking to address workplace inequalities, diversity-training programs provide a vehicle for examining issue of power and privilege bringing a positive difference to the lives of organizational employees” (McGuire D & Patterson, N. 2014). Experiential learning was used as early as 1960 in cross cultural training to prepare individuals to be more aware of cultural differences when traveling overseas (Fowler, 1994). Based on this review of the literature, we found that the overall concept of experiential learning is used in organization training to a greater extent than specific situated learning activities.

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American Sign Language Interpreter Education In general, educators in the field of American Sign Language/English interpreting have begun to demonstrate the use of the situated learning but have yet to maximize the full potential that situated, context-based learning experiences have in preparing learners in these areas to become competent practitioners. Most interpreting programs do include a required internship and some have mentorships (Godfrey, 2010), some use roleplay activities (Metzger, 2000), and some incorporate service learning (Shaw, 2013) These approaches allow learners to experience, in whole or in part, real world activities, tools, interactions and culture, the critical features of situated learning. However, the field is ripe for a better understanding of situated cognition and conscious planning of situated learning within the entire curriculum of interpreter education.

Based on this literature review, recommendations are made for an integration of situated learning into curriculum development in mentoring in organizations, cross-cultural education in organizations, and American Sign Language interpreter education.

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Decision Making in the Urban Dialogic Classroom: A Proposal for Research Exploring Teacher and Student Perceptions in Classroom Discussions of Literature Allison Gulamhussein Abstract This paper advances a proposal for an interactional ethnography of classroom discussions of literature in urban schools. This study is spurred by the consistent finding that classroom discussions of literature increase student reading comprehension (Applebee, Langer, Nystrand, & Gamoran, 2003; Murphy, Wilkinson, Soter, Hennessey, & Alexander, 2009; Nystrand, Gamoran,Kachur, & Prendergast, 1997) and arguments by various theorists that dialogic pedagogy is more liberating and democratic than current teacher-centered, objectivedriven practices (Friere, 1970; Lyle, 2008). The call for dialogic pedagogy is even more pronounced in urban schools, where research shows this pedagogy is virtually non-existent in secondary English classrooms (Nystrand et al., 1997), and where the accountability movement (as enacted in draconian policies such as school turnaround and school closings) has created powerful incentives for test-aligned, didactic instruction.

Increasing the use of dialogic pedagogy in urban English classrooms requires more than ideology; it requires that teachers know how to create, maintain, and support classroom discussions. Unfortunately, this knowledge in research is sparse. Most research addressing the processes of classroom discourse is housed in math and science education (Mercer & Hodgkinson, 2008), fields with drastically different epistemologies than English education. Furthermore, discussion studies often advance a singular, myopic lens to the complex process of discourse, leading to findings that fail to illuminate how various constructs (such as cognitive and social processes) work synergistically to influence participant participation.

Research purpose & main question This study aims to explore the perspectives students and teachers in urban high schools take during classroom discussions of literature in English classes. Student and teacher reported perspectives will be compared to videos and transcripts of classroom discussions to explore the relationship between participant perspectives and classroom discourse practices in an attempt to understand how various theorized influences on discussion (cognitive processes, social processes, identity, culture, and stance towards the text) work concurrently (or not) to drive student and teacher decision making. Participant perspectives and classroom discourse will be examined to answer the following question: What influences students’ and teachers’ decision making in classroom discussions of literature?

Research paradigm/design overview This study is based on social constructivism paradigm, using qualitative methodology. Specifically, this study uses the methodology of interactional ethnography, a combination of discourse analysis and ethnographic methods to capture the culture of literacy developed in a classroom through dialogue (Rex, 2006).

Brief introduction to theoretical foundations and theoretical constructs of the study This study is grounded in the theory of dialogic teaching. Dialogic teaching draws on multiple theorists, such as Bakhtin, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Gee, to articulate a process of teaching where teachers and students work together to construct and refine their own understandings of text through dialogue (Lyle, 2008). In dialogic teaching, learning is not the mastery of a fixed set of facts, but instead is constructed through group dialogue which makes visible and propagates the group’s culture of thinking in interaction with texts (Lyle, 2008). In the dialogic classroom, it is these patterns of interaction that construct what counts as valid learning and knowledge for students (Lyle, 2008; Castanheira, Crawford, Dixon, & Green, 2001). Not only has dialogic teaching been

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advanced as a form of a pedagogy which is more liberating for students (Friere, 1970), but it has also been show to increase reading comprehension outcomes (Applebee, Langer, Nystrand, & Gamoran, 2003; Murphy, Wilkinson, Soter, Hennessey, & Alexander, 2009; Nystrand, Gamoran,Kachur, & Prendergast, 1997).

Population/sampling strategy Recruitment will focus on classrooms from high schools serving predominately urban youth a large Southern city. Classrooms will only be included if classroom discussions are a routine pedagogical approach (discussions occur at least once a week for a duration of thirty minutes or longer). Identifying these classes will happen through my contacts in the district, referrals, and snowball recruitment. In total, three high school English classes will be recruited (n=3) to ensure diversity in pedagogy and perspective, while also allowing for an indepth analysis of cases.

Summary of methods (instrumentation, data collection, analysis steps) Methods of inquiry will include ethnographic field notes, participant interviews, surveys, and transcripts and videos of classroom discussions. I will spend a semester in each classroom, taking field notes, and video recording every class for later transcription. At the end of each class where there’s a discussion of literature, students will be given a survey soliciting their perspectives on the discussion. The survey will including quantitative scales asking students to rate their experience in the discussion as well as qualitative questions asking: (1) how did you feel about the discussion today? and (2) why did you participate or not participate in the discussion today? Additionally, at the end of each class where there’s a discussion of literature, the teacher will be given a survey soliciting his or her perspective on the discussion. Like the student survey, this survey will include quantitative scales asking the teacher to rate her experience of and perception of the discussion, as well as qualitative questions asking: (1) How did you feel about the discussion today? and (2) how did you decide to lead the discussion? An emergent design will allow me to use observations and surveys to determine focal students for weekly interviews throughout the semester, along with weekly interviews of the teacher. Video segments will be used during these interviews to take students and teachers back to moments in the discussion to further probe their perspectives and decision-making processes during moments in the discussion. Weekly, videos and field notes will be reviewed for open, emic coding, helping inform the emergent design of the study.

Open coding will help identify portions of classroom discussion that will be transcribed for discourse analysis.

Finally, comparing emergent codes with major themes in the literature review will allow me to develop more selective coding to create the storyline for the findings of the study (Creswell, 2013).

References Applebee, A., Langer, J. A., Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (2003). Discussion-based approaches to developing understanding: Classroom instruction and student performance in middle and highschool English.

American Educational Research Journal, 40 (3), 685-730.

Castanheira, M. L., Crawford, T., Dixon, C. N., & Green, J. L. (2001). Interactional ethnography: An approach to studying the social construction of literate practices. Linguistics and Education, 11 (4), 353-400.

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.).

Washington D.C.: Sage.

Friere, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

Lyle, S. (2008). Dialogic teaching: Discussing theoretical contexts and reviewing evidence from classroom practice. Language and Education, 22 (3), 222-237.

Mercer, N. & Hodgkinson, S. (2008). Exploring talk in schools. Washington, D.C.: Sage.

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Murphy, P. K., Wilkinson, I. A. G., Soter, A. O., Hennessey, M. N., & Alexander, J. F. (2009). Examiningthe effects of classroom discussion on students’ high-level comprehension of a text: A meta-analysis.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 740-760.

Nystrand, M., Gamoran, A., Kachur, R., & Prendergast, C. (1997). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Rex, L. A. (2006). Discourse of opportunity: How talking in learning situations creates and constrains.

Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

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Gestalt Therapy Groups for Students in Higher Education Maya Georgieva Abstract

There has been an increase in suicide, depression, and violence among college students. There is scarce research on the use of gestalt groups in higher education. The purpose of this paper was to review literature on the mental health needs of college students, and the outcomes of gestalt group therapy. The findings showed that gestalt group therapy has a significant potential to serve as a prevention method against risk factors for college students’ well-being by enhancing their relational skills and self-awareness, and facilitating their adjustment to new roles, and organization of experiences. Implications for counselor educators are discussed.

Need for Study There has been an increase in suicide, depression, and violence in higher education. Specifically, shootings on college campuses are becoming a prominent social problem drawing significant national attention.

Research has linked increased rates of mental health concerns and risk behaviors among college students to impaired attachment patterns formed in childhood (Marmarosh, 2009). Further, students who avoid or are unable to develop close relationships can improve their abilities in group therapy which serves as a social microcosm (Harman, 1975). Groups are an opportunity for college students to discover who they are and to exercise self-acceptance. According to the American Counseling Association (2014), counselors and counselor educators are obligated to engage in prevention efforts. Considering the gravity of risk factors for college students’ well-being, examining gestalt group therapy as a solution is not only worthwhile but also urgent.

Gestalt Groups for College Students Literature review findings suggested that gestalt group therapy would be beneficial for young adults because it provides a safe area for peer-acceptance, adult leadership, and fostering moral and social-emotional development (Delucia-Waack, 2009). Gestalt therapy is likely to be more attractive than other types of therapy to college students who are generally resistant to therapy (Marmarosh, 2009). In addition, gestalt therapy can be a powerful tool to facilitate the identity development of college students. Further, gestalt groups have significant potential to enhance student’s social skills.

References American Counseling Association. (2014). Code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Delucia-Waack, J. (2009). Helping group leaders sculpt the group process to the unique needs of college students. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 59,(4), 553-562. doi: 10.1521/ijgp.2009.59.4.553 Harman, R. L. (1975). Gestalt interactional groups. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 54(1), 49-50. doi: 10.1002/j.2164-4918.1975.tb04176.x Marmarosh, C. L. (2009). Multiple attachments and group psychotherapy: Implications for college counseling centers. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 59(4), 461-490. doi: 10.1521/ijgp.2009.59.4.461

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A Narrative Inquiry Employing the Method of Currere: In Search of Self Shauna Myers Introduction The word ‘curriculum’ is an infinitive verb that refers to “the inward journey.” (Slattery, 1995, p.56) It’s Latin derivative, ‘currere’, signifies the physical execution of that expedition.

More precisely, currere is the means by which a student of the curriculum is able to study the influence of the coupling of academic knowledge with life history, specifically regarding their shared impact on the construction of self-concept, self-identity and self as a representation of society (Pinar, 1998, p. 129). This concept, introduced and developed by William Pinar, allows the individual to examine curriculum at the site of self, in order to afford the self recognition of personal, structural, contextual, and sometimes subconscious indicators that formed the self in the past, manipulate the self at present, and fashions the self of the future. Self-investigation through currere occurs in four stages: the regressive, progressive, analytical, and synthetical phases of inquiry (Pinar, 2004, p. 35). In order to engage in currere, the individual must commission an autobiographical inquest, in which the presence of the past and the future are acknowledged as they trespass on the present.

In the primary regressive stage, the individual attempts to “capture” the past as it “hovers above the present.” (Pinar, 1975, p.6) This is in an effort to decipher the complex relationship between past and present, by identifying the ways in which they coercively co-exist.

Pinar argues that without understanding how the past directs the present, the individual is powerless to truly inhabit the present space, as instead, they are constrained to infinitely re-live the patterns of their past. The progressive phase allows the individual to unearth how, in much the same way as the past, the future forms the present. In the analytical stage, the individual erects boundaries to confine “what is, what was, and what can be” in order to “be loosened from it” and made free to choose the present, and the future (Pinar, 1975, p.11). In the final synthetical phase, there is an evaluation of the interplay of the three forms of present existence: the present, the past that remains present, and the future that shapes the present condition. By completing this process, Pinar argues that the subject is able to hone a critical consciousness, which loosens the unconscious adherence to social convention, and more accurately develops the perception value of the self.

Currere analysis through narrative inquiry also prevents the collapse of self into subject matter (Pinar, 1998, p.130), as it delineates the formation of identity from the informing of the self, and instead scrutinizes the interaction between the curriculum and the self at the interior locus (Pinar, 1998, p.129). Accessing the interiority of man is equivalent to gaining admission to the fullness of his authenticity, conviction, and convolution. If as curriculum researchers, we hope to thoroughly deduce the impact of the curriculum, the most comprehensive account we can attain is in evaluating its imprint on the human form. In so doing, we are able to observe the mechanisms by which it configures the human mind, and dictates the human life. Through autobiographical analysis, the self is able to achieve this level of insight. In this essay, I will employ narrative inquiry in an effort to illustrate the impact of my formal academic curriculum on me. Through autobiographical analysis, I will recount my experience in engaging with the process of currere, using the study of a seminal literary work as a lens through which to consider how my identity and self-concept were shaped by that particular curriculum (Casemore, 2008, p.6). This exploration was initiated for the purpose of responding to one fundamental question: How has the general exclusion of afro-caribbean figures from my curriculum impacted the

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formation of my identity and self-concept as an afro-caribbean woman? Latta and Kim introduced the analytical frames of ‘situatedness’ and ‘thoughtfulness’ as probes through which to harness an understanding of the cultivation of self through curriculum (Latta & Kim, 2011, p.680). They describe situatedness as “deliberately attending to the particulars of students, contexts, and subject matter,” and thoughtfulness as “intention[ally]… assuming and seeking relatedness and connectedness among teacher/student subject matter.” (Latta & Kim, 2011, p.680) I used both conceptual frames as a schema for answering my research question-- I reviewed the text to assess my situatedness by consistently asking how and when I located myself within the text, and I uncovered my thoughtfulness throughout the text, as I interpreted how the content of the text impinged on the way I viewed myself. Though some argue that autobiographical analysis is imprecise, or even inherently prejudiced, this method of curriculum inquiry invites us to willfully invest in the impossibly intricate work of determining how the curriculum entrenches, devastates, and restores the self—I accept this charge.

The Study I selected the text Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) by Jean Rhys as a lens through which to indirectly examine myself. I mentioned earlier that the text was of seminal importance because of its contextual significance in the catalogue of my curriculum, rather than its contribution to the field of literature at large. On reflecting, I discovered that I had read the text twice as an official curriculum requirement: once as a sixteen year old in the tenth grade, and once as a nineteen year old in my sophomore year of undergraduate studies. Ironically, the text had been my point of entrance into the world of Caribbean literature on both occasions: it was my first sighting of texts that represented the Caribbean experience in high school at the American International School I attended in Jamaica, and my initial encounter with Caribbean writing as a tertiary-level student in Richmond, Virginia. In both instances, I was the only student in the room who identified as a person of afro caribbean descent, and further, the only West Indian in the classroom period. In the case of my high school brush with a work of Caribbean fiction, the foray was an unplanned excursion. Though the high school was physically located in Jamaica, it did not offer a Jamaican curriculum. The student population was nearly exclusively children of diplomatic representatives who preferred to study a more widely-recognized curriculum, so that they would not be disadvantaged as they continued to move from place to place. With that said, our scheduled analysis of the popular text by Charlotte Bronte, Jane Eyre (1847), was as lengthy as it was informative. By the end of it, we had been drawn into a foreign world, and left destitute by it closing us back out again. As a reward for our endurance and thoughtful commentary, we were offered the opportunity to explore a response to the text that had originated from within the Caribbean. I can recall that this was unsettling notion for the class, as we considered Bronte’s work to be serious literature, and Caribbean literature to generally be garishly unrefined.

We approached Rhys’ writing with an unfounded but certain condescension.

Unlike the other literature we read in my tenth grade course, Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) was improvised into the syllabus. I had approached the task of reading Jane Eyre (1847) with great trepidation—a stark contrast to my disposition in preparing to read Wide Sargasso Sea (1966). I can remember the ominous feeling I had on attempting to read the verbose Jane Eyre (1847)—I reasoned that if I was able to read it through to the end, I would be shrewder for it. Conversely, the task of reading Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) seemed hardly a task at all, since I convinced myself that I was more sensitized to the discrete themes of Jane Eyre (1847) than Jean Rhys would have been, as I had the privilege of studying the work from the within the boundaries of its western pedagogical context, and not as a crude attempt to cross cultural barriers. I had no exposure to Caribbean authorship within academia, and I had accepted, however subliminally, that Caribbean writing had been rightly eliminated from my curriculum because of its uselessness and inferior quality.

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Transition and Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Nicole Wright-Guise Abstract In the past 10 years there has been negligible improvement across the country in outcomes for students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, Wagner and Davis). This includes abysmal drop out rates, early involvement with the criminal justice system and high unemployment and underemployment rates. This speaks to the need for a closer analysis of how we support the transition of this population. This study will address the gap in the literature as it relates to transitions that occur within the secondary setting from restrictive therapeutic settings to a public day program.

Research purpose and main questions This research project will seek to understand how students with emotional and behavioral disorders describe and understand the transition from a separate, therapeutic setting to their public day program. The purpose of this study is to bring to the surface impacting elements of transitional practices for students with emotional disabilities to inform further research and development of protocols to promote success in their public school setting.

Research paradigm/design overview This research is based on a constructivist research paradigm whose purpose is to “understand how people make sense of their lives and their experiences” (Marriam, 23). Utilization of a qualitative methodology and interview methods supports our ability to access this phenomenon. The students will be randomly selected from a population of former graduates or non-attendants diagnosed with an Emotional or Behavioral disorder who were privately or school placed in separate, therapeutic settings during their secondary career. From this population, sample participants will be chosen from those that were identified as most able to articulate their experiences coherently as determined by initial interviews. The researcher will then randomly select from the remaining sample.

Brief introduction to theoretical foundations and theoretical constructs of the study It is understood that in basic interpretive design, the theoretical constructs are inductive. Therefore, as the research progresses the impacting constructs will be revealed to further inform the theoretical framework for the study. Perls’s modification of Gestalt’s change theory, Paradoxical Theory of Change, is foundational in the process of what occurs during transition. It requires roles of the researcher and participant to eventually become shared. It melds the integration of who you are currently with interactions of varying aspects of society. Also, this structure speaks to the acceptance of individual participants as they are. (Beisser, 1970) Population/sampling strategy The study population will be randomly drawn from sample populations of former students attending 1 Northern Virginia public school system. These students would have graduated or discontinued attendance between 1 and 4 years previous. The students who have experienced a transition from a restrictive, therapeutic setting to their public day program at any point during their secondary career will be included in the sampling population.

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Summary of methods (instrumentation, data collection, analysis steps) This research will utilize qualitative analysis techniques to ascertain how the participants interpret the experiences within the separate therapeutic and public day settings. The semi-structured interview model will be employed as a method of data collection. The utilization of preliminary interviews and visual imagery will allow a wider access to the experience and reflections of the participants. Additionally, analysis of public records to determine the institutional profiles for each setting will place in perspective the two locations in the study. Also, interview data analysis and coding, audio recording of interviews, multiple interview methods and probing, field notes, memoing all speak to strengthening of the data analysis process,. An essential analysis steps includes ‘describing the psychological meaning of the participant’s self interpretation ‘ (Giorgio, 1997).

Design issues Furthermore, regarding the sample, some students may present as less able to share reflections on past experiences, which increases the possibility that they may be excluded from the overall data. If this data were to be included, my interpretation of their drawings may lead to validity issues barring elaboration on product by participant.

The interview methodology is the primary tool that supports the capture and interpretation of the phenomenon by the participants. The proposed generalizability of the findings will be limited by the predicted small sample population, due in part to the use of 1 school district within a given time span that have experienced the phenomenon.

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Teaching Assignments and Their Connection to Teacher Retention, Attrition, and Tracking: A Literature Review Daina Lieberman Abstract The bulk of the teacher retention literature pointed to job satisfaction and working conditions as reasons teachers leave their building or the profession (Cha & Cohen-Vogel, 2011; Clotfelter et al., 2007; Gardner, 2010; Grissom & Keiser, 2011; Horng, 2009; Loeb et al., 2005). The literature on teaching assignments made connections to testing (Brummett & Gershenson, 2012; Cohen-Vogel, 2011; Osborne-Lampkin & CohenVogel, 2014), unions (Cohen-Vogel & Osborne-Lampkin, 2007; Koski & Horng, 2007; Strunk & Grissom, 2010), teacher quality (Cohen-Vogel & Smith, 2007; Harrell, 2010; Kalogrides, Loeb, & Beteille, 2012; Karelitz, Fields, Levy, Martinez-Guadapakkam, & Jablonski, 2011), and leadership theory (Brown & Wynn, 2009; Carlyon & Fisher, 2012; Jackson, 2012; Leech & Fulton, 2008; Odhiambo & Hii, 2012). The body of literature fails to include a qualitative study of the process of the distribution of teaching assignments at the secondary level. This literature review explores this gap in relation to teacher retention, attrition, tracking, and sorting.

Research purpose and main question supported by this literature review The purpose of this study is to examine the teaching assignment process by asking the following: What strategies and rationales are employed by secondary school administrators in the process of the distribution of teaching assignments? Specific teaching assignments in American education, especially at the secondary level, often determine a teachers’ workload and may contribute to teachers’ working conditions and job satisfaction, in turn affecting their desire to stay at or leave a school. A qualitative study examining teaching assignment would illuminate how and why administrators distribute teaching assignments and the resultant effects on teachers, enabling an improvement of the assignment distribution process to improve teacher retention rates and reduce the potentially negative effects of teacher tracking on struggling students.

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study The theoretical framework for this study comes from organizational theory’s metaphor of institution of domination and Bourdieu’s theories of capital and symbolic violence. Critical theorists believed schools were a means of reproducing and maintaining the social and cultural capital of the upper classes. The education system has often acted as an institution of domination, helping majority groups to achieve while preventing minority groups from advancing in socioeconomic status despite the illusion that school is about upward mobility and equal access. Bourdieu (1984) argued that the goal of schools was social and cultural reproduction of the dominant culture, reinforcing inequalities in the system through transmission of dominant culture while presupposing students’ possession of instruments of appropriation. The system of schooling became a place for cultured, socially connected families to confirm their monopoly of instruments of cultural appropriation and of their culture.

This theoretical framework will help put the teaching assignment process into perspective. Given the negative effects of teacher tracking and sorting, the organizational theory metaphor of institution of domination will help to explain how administrators distribute teaching assignments to teachers in a way that often disadvantages low-income, special needs, and minority students. In addition, it could be argued that certain teachers in a school possess social capital that influences administrators to provide them with their course preferences despite potential negative consequences for students. Administrators may be subconsciously supporting the dominant culture through their distribution of teaching assignments by taking social capital into

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account. Principals and assistant principals have the power to set the course of organizational culture, in part through the distribution of teaching assignments, the rationales they use, and their transparency throughout the process.

Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question There was a paucity of qualitative research on teacher retention and its contributing factors. Researchers pointed to the importance of teaching assignments in teacher retention and attrition (Andrews & Quinn, 2004; Donaldson & Johnson, 2010; Feng, 2010; Gardner, 2010; Loeb et al., 2012) but did not analyze the process.

While many studies have connected teaching assignments to testing (Brummett & Gershenson, 2012; CohenVogel, 2011; Osborne-Lampkin & Cohen-Vogel, 2014), teacher quality (Cohen-Vogel & Smith, 2007; Harrell, 2010; Kalogrides, et al., 2013; Karelitz et al., 2011), collective bargaining agreements and district policies (Cohen-Vogel & Osborne-Lampkin, 2007; Koski & Horng, 2007; Strunk & Grissom, 2010), and leadership theory (Brown & Wynn, 2009; Carlyon & Fisher, 2012; Jackson, 2012; Leech & Fulton, 2008; Odhiambo & Hii, 2012), only one recent study conducted in New Zealand specifically examined the process of teaching assignment distribution in elementary schools (Carlyon & Fisher, 2012). This body of literature demonstrated a clear need for more qualitative research on this topic and for an analysis of how administrators distribute teaching assignments at the secondary level in the United States. If this complex process could be more clearly understood, researchers would be able to make more concrete policy recommendations for school-based administrators on equitable distribution of teaching assignments that would keep high-quality teachers in schools where they are needed. The gaps in the literature revealed that a study of the process of administrative distribution of teaching assignments including both administrative and teacher voices was needed to understand this process and its effects on teachers.

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Cultivating Growth Mindset and Social Emotional Well-Being in Special Education Zachary Weingarten Abstract Psychological interventions that have focused on teaching students about a growth mindset have had success in improving academic performance and social-emotional well-being (Yeager & Dweck, 2012).

Psychological interventions may be especially helpful for students with disabilities who often struggle in academic environments and may be more susceptible to developing a fixed mindset. Factors that may negatively impact the psychological outlook of students with disabilities include negative stereotyping, school failure, and isolation. Research in the area of social affective neuroscience is demonstrating that emotional and social processes are of central importance to learning (Immordino-Yang, 2011). These two fields of research point towards a focus on psychology and social-emotional well-being as being central factors in improving outcomes for students with disabilities.

Research purpose & main question supported by this literature How can psychological research on mindset and social affective neuroscience research on the role of emotion in learning be combined to create better learning experiences for students with disabilities?

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study Current psychological research is showing that students’ mindsets are predictive of their academic and social outcomes. Fixed beliefs about intelligence or personality impact student outcomes and have been linked to significantly lower academic achievement and higher rates of school failure. In contrast, a growth mindset is founded on the belief that intelligence and personality are malleable and can be developed through effort.

Students with a growth mindset demonstrate greater resilience when faced with challenging situations and have better academic and social outcomes (Yeager & Dweck, 2012; De Castella & Byrne, in press; Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007) Social affective neuroscience is showing that emotion is the foundation for learning. Rather than viewing emotion as a distraction from learning, this work shows that emotion is the basis for higher-level cognition. Additionally, social and cultural factors are key elements of learning that influence our ability to make good decisions and transfer our knowledge to real world situations. (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007; Immordion-Yang & Faeth, 2010; Immordino-Yang, 2011).

Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose / question Mindset has been shown to have an impact on both high and low performing students (Yeager & Dweck, 2011; De Castella & Byrne, In Press). For students with disabilities, a fixed mindset may be a significant contributor to low academic performance and negative outcomes. Much of the idea of learned helplessness that is often discussed in regard to students with disabilities may be linked to a fixed mindset regarding intellectual ability or other personality traits (De Castella & Byrne, in press). Additionally, students with disabilities are likely to receive negative messages about intelligence that may lead to a fixed mindset among individuals in this group. De Castella and Byrne (in press) describe how low performing students may get caught in a cycle in which their fixed beliefs about intelligence create avoidant behaviors towards learning, which then lead to low performance, and thus support for their beliefs about intelligence. This cycle is likely to apply to students with disabilities who frequently demonstrate low performance in academic environments.

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By focusing on the social and emotional components of learning, teachers can help students make connections to what they learn and create more positive learning experiences. For students with disabilities, it seems likely that a focus on emotional and social connections to learning could be especially important due to the challenges experienced by these students in academic environments. By attending to the social and emotional climate of the classroom, teachers can more successfully engage students in learning and build academic and social skills (Immordino-Yang & Faeth, 2010).

References Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child development, 78(1), 246-263.

De Castella, K. & Byrne, D. (in press). My intelligence may be more malleable than yours: Personal implicit theories and links with achievement, motivation, and student disengagement.

Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. (2007). We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind, brain, and education, 1(1), 3-10.

Immordino-Yang, M.H. & Faeth, M. (2010). Building smart students: A neuroscience perspective on the role of emotion and skilled intuition in learning. Mind, brain, and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom, 66-81.

Immordino-Yang, M.H. (2011). Implication of affective and social neuroscience for educational theory.

Educational Philosophy and Theory, 43(1), 98 -103.

Immordino-Yang, M. H., Christodoulou, J. A., & Singh, V. (2012). Rest is not idleness implications of the brain’s default mode for human development and education. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(4), 352-364.

Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in education They’re not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 267-301.

Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314.

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The Debate Over Course Copyright in the Online Learning Era Sarah McMahon Abstract Online education has sparked a debate between faculty and administrators regarding the ownership of online courses. The Copyright Act’s ‘works for hire’ provision gives employers (i.e. the university) ownership of works created in the course of employment; however, academic precedent and persuasive court dicta have created a ‘teacher exception’, which grants faculty ownership of their scholarly works. An investigation of the factors affecting policy formulation and an analysis of stakeholders’ claims and concerns sheds light on the complexities of the policy development process, while an examination of noteworthy models identifies key trends and helps inform future online ownership policies.

Introduction/Overview of Policy Faculty and administrators disagree about who should retain the copyrights of online courses. Longstanding academic president has granted faculty ownership of their scholarly works; however, the emergence of online learning has called that tradition into question. Administrators claim that online courses are distinctly different than their face-to-face counterparts in terms of investment and development and, thus, the institution is entitled to course ownership. Faculty argue that they should retain the copyrights as the course authors and that institutional ownership is a gross violation of their academic freedom. Ambiguous legal statues and the absence of institutional policies have only contributed to the tensions. Today, the issue remains controversial as institutions begin to experiment with different models of ownership.

Policy History Arguments for the ownership of online courses are based upon the Copyright Act of 1976, which grants ownership of a creative work to the author - the person who translated the idea into a tangible expression (DiRamio & Kops, 2004). Works for hire, on the other hand, are not owned by the author if they are produced during the course if his or her employment and, instead, are owned by the employer (17 U.S.C. Section 101). Contrary to these policies, persuasive court dicta have upheld a ‘teacher exception’ to give academics ownership of the works and publications they create during the course of their employment (Blanchard, 2010; McMichael, Bonner, Pomea, & Kelley, 2002). This practice has been widely accepted in higher education for decades.

Policy Analysis and Critique The emergence of online learning has disrupted the status quo and legal issues regarding copyright of online courses have created a “tug of war” between administrators and faculty (Ubell, 2002). Their dispute has resulted in a continuum of policies, ranging from total faculty ownership to complete institutional control with a variety of joint-ownership models in the middle (DiRamio & Kops, 2004).

A variety of factors influence the type of policy institutions choose. External factors include shifting market demands and increased competition as the growing number of online students has prompted more universities to get involved in online learning (DiRamio & Kops, 2004; Talab, 2007). Online learning has also been seen as a cost savings option by universities facing increased operating costs and declining state funding (Rubin, 2013; Talab, 2007). Internal factors include structural variables within the university - including the degree of

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centralization, standardization, formalization and specialization - as well as the organizational approach to implementation.

An analysis of the stakeholders’ claims and concerns sheds light on the motivations behind such policies. Faculty argue that they should retain the copyrights because they are the course authors and point to the 'teacher exception' to the Copyright Act as further proof of their claim (Blanchard, 2010; Zhang & CarrChellman, 2006). And they contend that institutional ownership infringes upon the faculty’s academic freedom, limiting their intrinsic scholarship rights (Talab, 2007).

Administrators disagree and argue that online courses are collaborative works, invalidating the faculty’s claim to authorship and, thus, negating the ‘teachers exception’ (Kranch, 2008). Moreover, faculty use substantial institutional resources to produce online courses and, given the amount of money and manpower spent on course development, administrators argue that faculty should not expect to retain the rights to such courses (Zhang & Carr-Chellman, 2006). Administrators also insist that institutions have a vested interest in owning the copyrights to online courses because it allows them to optimize course offerings and prevents faculty from taking online course materials to a competing college or university (Hoyt & Oviatt, 2012).

An examination of notable emerging models along the policy spectrum illustrates the range of possibilities, the advantages and drawbacks of certain policy types and provides valuable information for institutions looking to develop or reform their own online copyright policies.

References Blanchard, J. (2010). The Teacher Exception Under the Work for Hire Doctrine: Safeguard of Academic Freedom or Vehicle for Academic Free Enterprise? Innovative Higher Education, 35(1), 61–69. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.bu.edu/10.1007/s10755-009-9124-1 DiRamio, D. C., & Kops, G. C. (2004). Distance Education and Digital Intellectual Property Issues. Planning for Higher Education, 32(3), 37–46.

Hoyt, J. E., & Oviatt, D. (2012). Faculty Incentives, Compensation and Course Ownership in Online Education: 2012 National Survey of Doctoral-Granting Universities. Report from the BYU Division of Continuing Education. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/dla/presentations/DLA_2012/Jeff%20Hoyt/Academic%20Policy%20S ummary%20Report.doc McMichael, J. S., Bonner, K., Pomea, N., & Kelley, K. B. (2002). Intellectual Property, Ownership and Digital Course Materials: A Study of Intellectual Property Policies at Two and Four Year Colleges and Universities. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 2(2), 255–266. doi:10.1353/pla.2002.0035 Rubin, B. (2013). University Business Models and Online Practices: A Third Way. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (1), Vol.16(1).

Talab, R. (2007). Faculty Distance Courseware Ownership and the “Wal-Mart” Approach to Higher Education.

TechTrends, 51(4), 9–12.

Ubell, R. (2002). Who Owns What? Unbundling Web Course Property Rights. Educause Quarterly, 24(1), 45– 47.

Zhang, K., & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (2006). Courseware copyright: Whose rights are right? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(2), 173–186.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder in the US: Differences in Definition Across Federal Agencies and Implications for Services Carrie Gillispie Abstract This research paper examines the definition of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) across federal agencies, the process for establishing eligibility for services, and implications for youth with ASD. It describes the increasing numbers of youth with ASD receiving special education services administered by the U.S. Department of Education (ED) and receiving child Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits provided by the Social Security Administration (SSA). It compares the definition of ASD used by ED for establishing eligibility for services to the definition used by SSA, and compares the evidence required by each agency for establishing existence of ASD. This paper examines the relationship between eligibility requirements and socioeconomic status, and its impact on efficient service delivery.

Research purpose This paper was written as the final project of a 2014 summer fellowship for Mathematica Policy Research’s Disability Research Consortium. This paper investigates the following questions: 1) What is the definition of ASD used by the U.S. Department of Education (ED) for establishing eligibility for special education and related services? 2) What is the definition of ASD used by the Social Security Administration (SSA) for establishing eligibility for child Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits? 3) How many children are receiving services by ED and SSA for ASD? 4) What are the implications of this on ED’s and SSA’s service provision, and on youth with ASD and their families? 5) How does socioeconomic status (SES) affect these findings and implications?

These questions are relevant and urgent due to the increased prevalence of ASD, resulting in an increasing number of youth with ASD transitioning out of special education and child SSI benefits. This investigation provides a foundation for further research regarding how ED and SSA can optimize their service delivery to provide financially efficient and effective services for youth with ASD and their families.

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study Socioeconomic status and the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype contribute to a complex foundation upon which the author analyzes the way in which SSA and ED determine eligibility of services for youth with ASD. At transition age, youth with ASD are at increased risk for unemployment. A recent study (Shattuck et al., 2012) showed that youth with ASD had the lowest rates of employment participation and the highest rates of no employment participation compared to youth with other disabilities. The study also showed that over half of youth with ASD who had left high school in the previous two years had no participation in employment or education. 55.1% of youth with ASD maintained paid employment throughout the six years after they exited high school, and 34.7% had attended college during that period. The researchers suggested that youth with ASD from low SES families were at particular risk for poor outcomes (Shattuck et al., 2012).

Socioeconomic status has an important impact on families’ access to ASD services through a child’s lifespan, and therefore on the federal government’s ability to provide services to this population. There is growing evidence that SES has an effect on families’ access to ASD diagnosis and health care services (Pettygrove et al., 2013).

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Furthermore, the nature of ASD is unique in that it is characterized by difficulties in social communication, which can be a particularly complex characteristic to recognize and assess as such impairment can be subtle yet profound. The growing subpopulation of transition-age youth with high-functioning autism (HFA) (Lai et al., 2014) presents an important group for early intervention. If SSI severity measures are not sensitive to the particular functional challenges for those with HFA, SSA will reduce its chance of promoting successful transition of youth with HFA to higher education and employment, thereby increasing the risk of these youth entering SSA as adult SSI applicants and recipients. By serving youth with ASD before they transition into adulthood, SSA can promote economic independence in people with ASD. Due to the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype, one child with ASD may function vastly differently than another. Therefore, IDEA and SSI’s definitions and guidelines of severity are particularly impactful on eligibility. These social communication difficulties create unique challenges in the ability to learn, perform daily living skills, and work, and in real-life school and job scenarios these deficits are barriers to success.

Synthesis of the main findings/results of the study Findings in this paper include the demonstration of a sharp increase in service delivery to youth with ASD from both agencies; distinctive evidence required from each agency for establishing existence of ASD; and compelling support in the literature for ways in which SES may affect both agencies’ service delivery.

The author of this paper analyzed IDEA and SSA data to produce descriptive data and report trends in service delivery to youth with ASD. The author found that the percent of the total U.S. population of youth ages zero to 21 served by SSI and/or IDEA for autism has increased. From 2001 to 2011, the number of students served under IDEA Part B for ASD more than quadrupled (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). In the same time span, the number of children receiving SSI payments for ASD has more than tripled (Social Security Administration, 2012). This paper includes several data analyses by the author showing trends in ASD versus intellectual disability; percent of children served for autism under SSI and IDEA by age range; percent of the total U.S. population of youth served under SSI and IDEA for autism; number of youth served under IDEA and SSI for autism over a ten-year period; and the ratio of children receiving benefits under SSI for ASD to children receiving IDEA services.

While definitions of ED and SSA have many similarities, the difference between the two definitions is more apparent in their treatment of severity threshold for determining eligibility. Evidence required for IDEA is different than evidence required for SSA eligibility in ways that have important effects on families of lower SES and that create redundant costs for the federal government. Furthermore, due to the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype, IDEA and SSI’s definitions and guidelines of severity are particularly impactful on eligibility.

For all of these findings, the author describes implications for service delivery and transition outcomes, and makes recommendations based on the findings.

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References Lai, M., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet, 383(9920), 896-910.

Pettygrove, S., Pinborough-Zimmerman, J., Meaney, F.J., Van Naarden Braun, K., Nicholas, J., Miller, L., Miller, J., & Rice, C. (2013). Predictors of ascertainment of autism spectrum disorders across nine U.S. communities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(8), 1867-1879.

Shattuck, P., Narendorf, S.C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P.R., Wagner, M., Taylor, J.L. (2012).

Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder.

Pediatrics, 129 (6), 1042 - 9.

Social Security Administration. (2012). SSI Statistical Report, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/ssi_asr/2011/index.html U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). Digest of Education Statistics, 2012 (NCES 2014-015), Chapter 2.

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Social Identity Experiences as a First-Generation College Student Michelle Jacobs Abstract First-generation college students, those whose parents have not earned a degree from a four-year institution, often pave the way for their families in the higher education landscape as the first to not only earn a degree but also enroll in a college or university. These students cannot rely on their parents having similar experiences with this type of education and must navigate the college-going process on their own and with support outside of the home. The students who identify as first-generation college at this urban, mid-Atlantic, private, selective, research institution always assumed they would attend college and largely relied on a mentor or mentors as opposed to their parents and family members during the college process. When discussing this process, transition, and experience, identities in addition to that of first- generation college student play a prevalent role.

Research purpose & main question The purpose of the study was to understand how students who identify as first-generation experience the identity development process during their transition to college. The study aimed to fulfill the purpose by answering the research question: How has identifying as a first-generation student influenced the identity development process of undergraduate students?

Brief introduction to theoretical foundations and theoretical constructs of the study Arthur Chickering’s (1969) theory of identity development, updated by Chickering and Riesser in 1993 and influenced by Erikson’s discussion of identity and intimacy, is founded on the idea that the identity formation process is the single most important developmental issue students face during college (Evans, Forney, GuidoDiBrito, Renn, & Patton, 2009). This theory includes seven vectors, environmental influences, and admonitions that have a role in the identity formation process. This analysis focuses on the developing competence, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, and establishing identity vectors. Intersectionality expressed through the model of multiple dimensions of identity (Abes, Jones, & McEwen, 2007) captures students’ identity as first-generation college students and other significant identities that come into play in students’ predisposition, search, and choice for college.

Population/sampling strategy All participants met the selection criteria of being a full-time undergraduate college student and self- identifying as a first-generation college student. All working at the institution during summer 2014, participants were chosen by opportunistic sampling.

Summary of methods (instrumentation, data collection, analysis steps) To address the research question, one-time, face-to-face semi-structured interviews with three undergraduate college students from an urban, mid-size, selective, private, research university in the mid- Atlantic were conducted during the summer 2014 semester. The interviews were conducted in private locations on-campus and were audio-recorded. Open coding allowed for patterns in the data to be recognized, reflected upon, and re-integrated as a part of the data analysis process. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis techniques and using Chickering’s theory of identity development as an interpretive lens, consistent with basic interpretive qualitative research design.

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Converging Towards Complexity: A Review of Research on Classroom Discussions of Literature in Urban Schools Allison Gulamhussein Abstract Research consistently shows a link between classroom discussions of literature and increased student reading comprehension (Applebee, Langer, Nystrand, & Gamoran, 2003; Murphy, Wilkinson, Soter, Hennessey, & Alexander, 2009; Nystrand, Gamoran,Kachur, & Prendergast, 1997). Perhaps most exciting is that these gains have been strong among traditionally underserved student populations, such as second language learners (Murphy & Edwards, 2005; Van de Branden, 2000). However, while the causal link between discussions of text and reading comprehension is firmly established, the “magical” process that creates these discussions remains poorly understood. Increasing discussions in English classrooms means understanding what influences the development of classroom discourse practices so practicing teachers know how to facilitate, foster, and nurture a classroom space that is dialogic. This review of the literature explores the efforts of the research community to fill that gap.

Research purpose & main question supported by this literature The purpose of this study is to create a literature review for use in future research on literature discussions that captures the multiple lenses used to explore classroom discussion, both in the field of English education and in other disciplines. To do so, this study asks the following: What literature has explored classroom discussion?

What have those studies illuminated about classroom discussion? What limitations do those studies’ findings present for research work exploring discussions of literature in English classrooms in urban schools?

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study Research on classroom discussion is exceptionally fragmented, contributing to findings which fail to illuminate the ways in which influences on classroom discourse are synergistic (i.e. concurrent cognitive and social processes). Instead of adopting a multi-faceted view of the factors influencing discussion, various camps have used a singular lens to explore classroom talk. For instance, some researchers have focused on the cognitive dimensions of discussion, interested in cognitive processes such as reasoning, argumentation, and comprehension. Cognitive studies have found that solicitation of student elaboration and use of higher-level questions in discussions are linked to higher student achievement (Nussbaum, 2008). In the study, “What the discourse tells us: Talk and indicators of high-level comprehension” (Soter, Wilkinson, Murphy, Rudge, Reninger, & Edwards, 2008), the authors propose the following as cognitive indicators of productive talk based on their exhaustive review of the literature: “quality of teacher and student questions, the presence of elaborated explanations, the presence of ‘key’ or reasoning words, and the presence of exploratory talk” (p. 373).

However, cognitive features alone do not fully represent the dynamics at play in classroom discussions. Other studies have explored the social processes and relationships that influence class discourse. In terms of social processes, studies have found the building of group norms, targeted practice, and a collaborative, as opposed to argumentative, classroom culture are key to successful discussions (Nussbaum, 2008). This line of research has also revealed the ways in which social relationships, specifically peer-to-peer relationships, influence the course of classroom discussions, finding peer-to-peer relationships often deter equitable participation. Lewis’ (1997) study of middle school literature circles found students “work[ed] to create solidarity and delineate boundaries [and] vie for power” (p. 163), excluding the voices of some students. These findings suggest that cognitive moves alone cannot account for what happens in discussions. Beyond just cognitive and social lenses, some researchers have made the case that classroom discussions depend on a tool that is inherently cultural—

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language. That recognition has influenced study of culturally specific communicative practices (Heath, 2006), examining how those practices are honored or rejected in classroom discussions, influencing student participation (Ford, 2013; Thomas, 2013). For example, in her study of the practices of a white teacher who was not from the same community as her African-American students, Ford (2013) found the teacher integrated culturally congruent discourse patterns, such as “verbal ping pong” into discussions. Unfortunately, these findings are not widespread. Instead, many studies find students’ culturally specific communicative practices are not only under-utilized, but are also are misunderstood (Ford, 2013). For example, language play, verbal battles, call and response, and signifying (moves some argue are a part of African-American communicative practices) have been shown to be misconstrued by white teachers as aggressive, insults, or put downs (Ford, 2013). Many have called the research community to consider how race and culture influence classroom discourse practices (Heath, 2006; Rex, 2006; Thomas, 2013). These findings are particularly important for studies of discussion in urban schools, where a predominately white teaching staff teaches mostly youth of color.

As the studies above reveal, discussion, as a social pedagogy, cannot ignore the identity of participants. This is true not only in terms of a discussion participant’s culturally specific communicative practices, but also in terms of the myriad other aspects that make up a participant’s identity. In fact, linguists studying discourse practices have long argued that conversation is identity performance (DeFina & Georgakopoulou, 2001). This lens has informed studies of discussion examining student positioning during discourse, considering the ways in which student participation reveals both identity performance and identity construction. For instance, in his study of discussions of same-sex marriage in a high school social studies classroom, Beck (2013) found students actively managed their identities in conversation, where students in a group against same-sex marriage would monitor the assumption of heterosexuality in the group through conversation. Lastly, studies of discussion have taken on a curricular focus, exploring how disciplinary practices are conceived and constructed in discussions. In the field of English, seminal studies quickly showed how teacher beliefs in a single, correct reading of a piece of literature influenced the teacher’s use of close-ended questions (Nystrand, Gamoran, Kachur, & Prendergast, 1997). However, the spectrum between one authoritative reading and multiple interpretations is wide, resulting in an array of curricular practices enacting different stances towards texts in discussions. In their meta-analysis of different forms of literature discussions, Murphy, Soter, Wilkinson & Hennessey (2009) found three different stances towards text in discussions of literature: 1) critical analytical stance, where students interrogate the underlying arguments and evidence presented by the text, 2) efferent stance, where students’ primary goal is getting information from the text, and 3) expressive stance where students are encouraged to live through the text, privileging emotive and affective responses. Studies focused on the unique disciplinary practices of English are exceptionally illuminating, as experts in English education overwhelming recognize that the subjective plays a role in reading (Langer, 2011; Probst, 2004). This stands in stark contrast to math and science education, where discussion serves as a mechanism for consensus on expert principles found in an established body of knowledge (Nussbaum, 2008). This nuance, unfortunately, adds another layer of complexity to discussion research, as the vast majority of cognitive research in the field has been done in math and science education (Nussbaum, 2008).

Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question Discussion research has come a long way from looking merely at outcomes, as several researchers have aimed to explore how discussions occur. For practicing teachers, though, the myopic focus of these lines of research obscures how these influences work in concert to affect students’ participation in class discussions. Recently, experts in the field have acknowledged this tendency, creating conceptual frameworks that integrate these influences (Elizabeth, Ross Anderson, Snow, & Selman, 2012) and arguing for theoretical triangulation in studies (Drie & Dekker, 2013). This literature essay joins that call in order to craft a rationale for an interactional ethnography exploring participant perspectives in order to begin work towards exploring how

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these influences work together to affect the participation choices of teachers and students during literature discussions in urban high schools.

References Applebee, A., Langer, J. A., Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (2003). Discussion-based approaches to developing understanding: Classroom instruction and student performance in middle and high school English. American Educational Research Journal, 40 (3), 685-730.

Beck, T. A. (2013). Identity, discourse, and safety in a high school discussion of same-sex marriage. Theory and Research in Social Education, 41 (1), 1-32.

De Fina, A., & Georgakopoulou, A. (2012). Analyzing narrative: Discourse and sociolinguistic perspectives. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Elizabeth, T., Ross Anderson, T. L., Snow, E. H., Selman, R. L. (2012). Academic discussions: An analysis of instructional discourse and an argument for an integrative assessment framework.

American Educational Research Journal, 49, 1214-1250.

Ford, A. C. (2013). “Verbal ping pong” as culturally congruent communication: Maximizing African American students’ access and engagement as socially just teaching. Equity and Excellence in Education, 46 (3), 371-386.

Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Langer, J. A. (2011). Envisioning literature: Literary understanding and literature instruction. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Lewis, C. (1997). The social drama of literature discussions in a fifth/sixth-grade classroom. Research in the Teaching of English, 31 (2), 163-204.

Murphy, P. K., & Edwards, M. E. (2005, April). What the studies tell us: A meta-analysis of discussion approaches. In M. Nystrand (Chair), Making sense of group discussions designed to promote high-level comprehension of texts. Symposium presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada.

Murphy, P. K., Wilkinson, I. A. G., Soter, A. O., Hennessey, M. N., & Alexander, J. F. (2009). Examining the effects of classroom discussion on students’ high-level comprehension of a text: A meta-analysis.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 740-760.

Nussbaum, M. E. (2008). Collaborative discourse, argumentation, and learning: Preface and literature review.

Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 345-359.

Nystrand, M., Gamoran, A., Kachur, R., & Prendergast, C. (1997). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Probst, R. E. (2004). Response and analysis: Teaching literature in secondary school (2nd ed.).

Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Rex, L. A. (2006). Acting “cool” and “appropriate”: Toward a framework for considering literacy classroom interactions when race is a factor. Journal of Literacy Research, 38 (3), 275-325.

Soter, A. O., Wilkinson, I. A., Murphy, P. K., Rudge, L., Reninger, K., & Edwards, M. (2008). What discourse tells us: Talk and indicators of high-level comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 47, 372-391.

Thomas, E. E. (2013). Dilemmatic conversations: Some challenges of culturally responsive discourse in a high school English classroom. Linguistics and Education, 24, 328-347.

Van de Branden, K. (2000). Does negotiation of meaning promote reading comprehension? A study of multilingual primary school classes. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 426-443.

Van Drie, J., & Dekker, R. (2013). Theoretical triangulation as an approach for revealing the complexity of a classroom discussion. British Educational Research Journal, 39 (2), 338-360.

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Citizen Teachers: A Forgotten Leadership Role for Teachers in School Reform Jeremy Shumpert Abstract Educators, policy makers, business leaders, and politicians have been debating the purposes of schooling and the “right” curriculum in America for more than a century. Underlying these debates was always the assumption that the most important mission of public schools was to prepare students to become citizens—better known as the civic mission of schools. But along the way, this mission has gotten lost in the often heated philosophic debates and eventually drowned out by the “economic mission of schools” in an increasingly interconnected world (Mirra & Morrell, 2011). Mirra and Morrell define the values of the current models of school, and by extension models of teacher leadership, as individualism, consumerism, and passivity. This is evidenced first by the national response to A Nation at Risk (1983) with its subsequent focus on standards and testing in the 1990s; and more recently by No Child Left Behind (2001) and Common Core/Race to the Top (2009). The dominant audit/accountability discourse of school reform being driven by corporations today would have us see schools through the business model, measuring the worth of a school and teacher through grades, test scores, and other numbers. In this model, teacher leaders are primarily utilized as managers (Little, 2003) and are tasked with carrying out top-down reforms—a profoundly undemocratic practice. Furthermore, there is a lack of research showing that the current roles of teacher leadership are even successful in influencing student achievement (York-Barr & Duke, 2004; Yoon, et al., 2007). Setting aside the “school as business” model and seeing schools as communities offers a chance to remember a forgotten role for teacher leadership in school reform efforts— teachers as civic leaders. Empowering teachers as citizens and civic leaders in schools requires a return to local, “bottom-up” collaborative action not the usual top-down, disconnected, and numerous teacher leadership efforts that pervade American schools today.

Research Purpose and Main Question The past two decades of school reform raise important questions about schooling in America and the role(s) of teachers in educational reform: Are schools, businesses or are they communities? What areas of leadership do or should we expect from teachers in improving schools? How these questions are answered is essential to understanding the role and success (or failure) of teacher leadership in school reform efforts and perhaps even the schools themselves in promoting the “civic mission”—to develop the nation’s future citizens. There are many bridges between the literature on civic engagement and teacher leadership to see civic leadership as an appropriate and additional role to instructional and managerial leadership in school reform efforts. In fact, remembering this role may work to transform these current roles and more successfully sustain educational change.

Brief Introduction to Theoretical and Research Foundations This paper explores three areas of research literature to establish a foundation for exploring the research question: themes of civic engagement, civic mission of schools, and teacher leadership. My brief review of the research and literature on civic engagement uncovered eight themes: collective commitment, representation of efficacy, sense of duty, praxis of action and knowledge, public discourse, critical thinking and reflection, and active construction of a civic identity. The writings of Levinson (2012), Maxine Greene (1982), and Butts (1989) are used to explore the decline of the “civic mission” of schools in favor of an economic mission. The increasingly dominant economic mission is evidenced by A Nation at Risk (1983) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001). Grumet (2010) and Mirra & Morrell (2011) have made recent calls to support the civic leadership and voice of teachers. Finally, this paper looks at the current literature on teacher leadership and reform

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including Little (2004), York-Barr & Duke (2004), Frost (2012), Hargreaves & Fink (2003), Katzenmeyer & Moller (2009), Servage (2008), and DuFour & Eaker (1998).

Synthesis and Integration of Literature to Research Purpose/Question Four themes of civic engagement create clear bridges between the civic identity of teachers and teacher leadership/school reform: collective commitment, efficacy, praxis of action and knowledge, and public discourse. These themes mirror the key goals of professional learning communities (PLCs) and an emphasis on the “local”—an important part of civic engagement and teacher civic leadership. While Greene (1982) and Butts (1989) issued early warnings about the retreat of the “civic mission” of schools, Grumet (2010) explicitly called for teachers to re-seize civic or political leadership to democratically remake schools. Mirra & Morrell (2011) support a vision of the “Teacher as Civic Agent” as a model for teacher leadership and path for school change efforts. Current literature on teacher leadership supports this civic leadership role of teachers. Little (2004) called for “collective initiative” by teachers in using their “civic voice” to criticize or actively oppose misguided reform efforts. Frost’s (2012) reconceptualization of teacher professional development recognizes the significance of the local context and collective inquiry. The five key characteristics of sustainability in educational change identified by Hargreaves & Fink (2003) are met by the visions of teacher civic leadership proposed by Grumet, Mirra & Morrell, and Butts. Although Katzenmeyer and Moller (2009) view teachers as advocates of change, their model of teacher leadership doesn’t go far enough to explicitly identify civic leadership as one of the “many faces of teacher leadership.” Most promising in teacher leadership and reform literature are professional learning communities (PLCs) developed by DuFour & Eaker (1998). PLCs promote a “bottom up” or local impetus over “top down” school actions and reform. It imagines members of a teaching community coming together to define a common vision, recognize local problems, determine contextualized solutions, and act collectively to work towards common goals. Servage (2008) sees the potential of PLCs for transformative change in schools.

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Students with emotional disturbance: Can neuropsychology and Neurobiology offer new insight?

Elisabeth Kutscher Abstract Despite decades of controversy regarding the special education classification of emotional disturbance, the federal definition has not changed since 1977 (Department of Education, 2006; Hanchon & Allen, 2013; Merrell & Walker, 2004). While this definition, put forth in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), has remained static, our understanding of the biological underpinnings of emotional and behavior disorders has developed significantly. Studies within the past decade using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) have shown differences in brain structure and activation in adolescents with antisocial behavior and/or symptoms of psychopathology (Byrd, Loeber, & Pardini, 2014; Harenski, Harenski, & Kiehl, 2014; Vijayakumar et al., 2014). Additionally, the use of salivary biomarkers such as cortisol and alpha amylase have provided insight into the interaction of stress with externalizing and internalizing behavior (Bauer, Quas, & Boyce, 2002). This literature review seeks to examine the consistency between IDEA’s definition of emotional disturbance and recent literature on the neurological and biological characteristics of children with emotional and behavioral disorders.

Research purpose & main question supported by this literature review The purpose of this literature review is to examine the federal definition for emotional disturbance as it relates to current research on neurobiological factors contributing to emotional and behavioral disorders. This paper will ask the following questions: How well does the federal definition of emotional disturbance align with current neurobiological research? How might neurobiological research inform our understanding and identification of children with emotional disturbance? What gaps in the literature exist regarding the identification of children who require additional behavioral and/or emotional support?

Brief introduction to theoretical & research foundations of the study The classification of emotional disturbance has been considered controversial for decades (e.g., Department of Education, 2006; Forness & Kavale, 2000; Merrell & Walker, 2004) and has been criticized for its ambiguous definition with vague eligibility criteria (Hanchon & Allen, 2013). Meanwhile, brain imaging techniques have significantly enhanced our understanding of brain differences in children with various emotional and behavioral disorders. For example, higher levels of aggression in adolescents have been correlated with less cortical thinning in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior cingulate cortex (Vijayakumar et al., 2014).

Literature on reward and/or punishment processing in adolescents with antisocial behavior showed differences in the activation of the amygdala, striatum, orbitofrontal cortices, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Byrd et al., 2014). Additionally, studies on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) indicate that children exposed to chronic stress may exhibit behaviors similar to those of children who are identified as emotionally disturbed. In general, over-activation of the HPA and SNS are associated with internalizing behaviors, such as anxiety and depression, while under-activation of the HPA and SNS are associated with externalizing behavior, such as conduct disorders (Bauer et al., 2002).

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Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question While there is a solid literature base that questions the efficacy of the emotional disturbance definition (e.g., Forness & Kavale, 2000; Hanchon & Allen, 2013), little work has been done to explicitly connect neurobiological factors with this special education classification. The US Department of Education noted, “Historically, it has been very difficult for the field to come to consensus on the definition of emotional disturbance, which has remained unchanged since 1977” (2006, p. 46550). The Department of Education cited the lack of consensus when it again declined to make changes to the definition in 2006. This literature review seeks to explore if neurobiological factors could provide a starting point in building consensus regarding the identification of this population of vulnerable children.

References Bauer, A. M., Quas, J. a., & Boyce, W. T. (2002). Associations Between Physiological Reactivity and Children’s Behavior: Advantages of a Multisystem Approach. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 23(2), 102–113. doi:10.1097/00004703-200204000-00007 Byrd, A. L., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. a. (2014). Antisocial behavior, psychopathic features and abnormalities in reward and punishment processing in youth. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(2), 125–56. doi:10.1007/s10567-013-0159-6 Department of Education. Assistance to States for the Education of Children With Disabilities and Preschool Grants for Children With Disabilities; Final Rule (2006). Retrieved from http://www.parentcenterhub.org/wp-content/uploads/repo_items/IDEA2004regulations.pdf Forness, S., & Kavale, K. A. (2000). Emotional or behavioral disorders : Background and current status of the E / BD terminology and definition. Behavioral Disorders, 25(3), 264–269.

Hanchon, T. a., & Allen, R. a. (2013). Identifying Students With Emotional Disturbance: School Psychologists’ Practices and Perceptions. Psychology in the Schools, 50(2), 193–208. doi:10.1002/pits.21668 Harenski, C. L., Harenski, K. a., & Kiehl, K. a. (2014). Neural processing of moral violations among incarcerated adolescents with psychopathic traits. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 181–189. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.002 Merrell, K. W., & Walker, H. M. (2004). Deconstructing a definition: Social maladjustment versus emotional disturbance and moving the EBD field forward. Psychology in the Schools, 41(8), 899–910. doi:10.1002/pits.20046 Vijayakumar, N., Whittle, S., Dennison, M., Yücel, M., Simmons, J., & Allen, N. B. (2014). Development of temperamental effortful control mediates the relationship between maturation of the prefrontal cortex and psychopathology during adolescence: a 4-year longitudinal study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 30–43. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2013.12.002

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“Meeting the Obama Administration’s 2020 Goal for Educational Attainment Using International Higher Education Cost-Sharing Models” Abstract A global shift in the growth of jobs that require advanced skills has made postsecondary education a necessity for a large share of the workforce. At the same time, many postsecondary education systems have increased the portion of costs that must be borne by students and decreased the portion that is subsidized by public funds.

This study examines the relationship between countries’ degree attainment rates and postsecondary financing policies, with an emphasis on cost-sharing. This study offers an overview of the major trends in educational attainment rates and financing strategies used by the OECD countries with the most educated populations: South Korea, Canada, Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Next, these countries’ cost-sharing policies are analyzed using evaluative criteria that reflect the values of the American higher education system. Finally, the feasibility of implementing these policies in the United States is discussed, and suggestions for adapting them to the American context are provided.

Purpose and Main Research Questions The purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of cost-sharing policies on educational attainment in the United States. The Obama Administration’s “2020 Goal” to increase the portion of the population with a postsecondary credential to 60% has placed a great deal of focus on remaining competitive in the global economic market. International comparisons are less commonly viewed as a source of policy alternatives for improvement. Given the similarity between the postsecondary systems, social, political and economic pressures faced by many developed countries, international comparisons could provide a wealth of ideas for improvement.

This study addresses that gap by examining the strategies used by other countries to increase educational attainment rates using the analytical framework of comparative institutional policy analysis. The main research questions addressed in this study are: • How have cost-sharing policies changed over time?

• What cost-sharing policies do countries with high attainment rates commonly use? How might these policies be applied to the US higher education system?

Research Paradigm and Design Overview This proposal is based in a postpositivist research paradigm and uses quantitative and descriptive methodologies.

Theoretical Foundations The Obama Administration’s “2020 Goal” to increase the portion of the population with a postsecondary credential to 60% has placed a great deal of focus on remaining competitive in the global economic market.

International comparisons are less commonly viewed as a source of policy alternatives for improvement. Given the similarity between the postsecondary systems, social, political and economic pressures faced by many developed countries, international comparisons could provide a wealth of ideas for improvement.

Comparative institutional analysis is an analytical framework that relies on comparisons of diverse institutional arrangements to find or create policy solutions, and that requires an in-depth understanding of how policies

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work in their source contexts. Drawing on the views of new institutionalism, analysts focus on institutions, social norms and expectations in order to understand the relationships between outcomes and institutional arrangements as well as the feasibility of policy reforms.

Burton Clark (1983) outlines four common values that drive higher education policy reform in a variety of cultural contexts: social justice, competence, liberty and loyalty. The diversity of higher education systems, including institutional hierarchies, sector segmentation and government regulations and rewards, can be a helpful means of managing these value conflicts.

Data and Methodology Data from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are used to compare educational attainment rates, student fees and government financial aid funding from 1991-2011 in the five countries with the highest postsecondary educational attainment rates: South Korea, Canada, Japan, Ireland and the United Kingdom. These comparisons are followed by descriptions of each country’s higher education system structure and comparisons of cost-sharing policies with Clark’s four common values. The cost-sharing policies used in each case are then arranged in a matrix according to these values and applications to the American higher education system are considered.

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Toward a Paradigm of Whiteness: White Racial Identity and Social Justice Matthew Mueller Abstract Within Counselor education and the counseling profession, there is a call for cultural competence when working with clients. The conceptualization of social justice presents itself as a goal for culturally competent counseling.

Social justice advocacy can be integrated into work with all clients. The current state of the literature implicitly illustrates the importance of counselor advocacy with white clients to reach a state of societal justice. A thematic analysis of the literature found 79 articles related to whiteness, with 48.1% of the articles relating to racial identity and multicultural competence (N= 38) Utilizing Helms’ (1995) White Racial Identity Model as a framework, these studies can be used to create a foundation for working with white clients in a culturally competent manner. With an understanding of higher racial identity statuses as a central component to mental health and social justice, the counseling profession can work towards fulfilling its ethical and social commitment.

Research purpose The purpose of this study is to create a foundation for understanding white clients in a cultural context. A review and synthesis of pertinent literature will frame the argument in terms of strengths and gaps within counseling scholarship. Utilizing this foundation, arguments for reframing counseling strategies for white clients, in a cultural context, will be made as well as implications and areas for further research. This area of study is important because of the importance of cultural competence, namely knowledge, skills, and awareness, within the counseling profession. The American Counseling Code of Ethics (2014) calls for counselors to take a client’s cultural context into perspective, which includes all clients, not just perceived “multicultural,” read non-white, clients. Through the usage of racial development models and literature related to privilege and microagressions inside and outside of the therapy room, a reconceptualization of whiteness can begin to enter mainstream scholarship.

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study The theoretical foundation of this study revolves around: worldview in terms of culturally-specific manifestations of behavior; culture as the fourth force in counseling; developmental models of racial groups and moral consciousness. The research foundation is holistic and critical on topics of multicultural counseling, social justice, along with a dialogue with ACA code of ethics with prevailing discourse surrounding the topics of whiteness and cultural competence in the literature. This research will be founded and grounded in theory and empirical data, while simultaneously synthesizing the information to expound on the literature to articulate implications and set groundwork for future work.

Synthesis of the main findings/results of the study The main findings of this literature review and synthesis is that there remains a large gap when working with white clients from a cultural perspective. Utilizing white racial identity models, there are practices in which a white client can develop their whiteness in a socially productive way. White privilege can be perceived by a racially developed white client and can then be a player in challenging their social schema. The purpose for such interventions is related to ACA calls for social justice and multicultural awareness. In order to proverbially balance the scales, all cultural groups must have a part in the discussion regarding equity in life chances for people.

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Using Experiential Learning Approaches to Address Bullying in Schools Jaime S. Alvis Bullying is a prevalent problem in schools across the United States and approaches have fallen short to address the issue long term. The application of experiential learning theory by utilizing activity and adventure-based learning shows promise to guide a sustainable change in behavior among the bully and victim alike. Research has shown that experiential learning can be an effective approach to addressing bullying in schools.

Specifically, the individual skills as well as the teambuilding gained through adventure-based learning, utilizing experiential learning theory, can prevent the negative effects of bullying behavior among participants. In this research paper, the problem of bullying will be defined and the efficacy of existing approaches to address this problem in schools will be examined. The approach of experiential learning theory will then be explained and its use will be suggested to mitigate the problems caused by bullying behavior.

Defining Bullying Kipp and Shaffer’s (2014) explanation of the development of aggression is informative as a beginning to define bullying. They define aggression as “behavior performed with the intention of harming a living being (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014, p. 494).” The primary point is the intentionality of the behavior, not its consequences. A child who kicks something or someone is displaying aggressive behavior, even if he or she misses the target. The two types of aggression are hostile and instrumental. Hostile aggression refers to behavior that is intended to harm and injure a victim (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014). Instrumental aggression is behavior with the goal of gaining access to objects or privileges (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014). Aggression is normal in younger children, and becomes lesser as the children grow up. By middle childhood, it is rare for children to display physical or verbal aggression.

Aggressive behavior in middle childhood is usually an indicator of a developmental concern (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014). Aggression is displayed differently among girls and boys. A girl often displays direct, relational aggression; or, acts that attempt to damage someone’s self-esteem such as starting rumors and social exclusion (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014). Boys often display more indirect aggression to express their anger, such as theft, truancy and sexual misconduct (Kipp & Shaffer, 2014). Aggressive behavior is associated with high self-esteem in preadolescents, since aggressive children learn to value the rewards of aggression and belittling others. As explained by Kipp and Shaffer (2014), proactive aggressors believe that their behavior will gain them control and domination over other children, and reactive aggressors are suspicious of others and must deal with others in a forceful way. Aggressive behavior that children display between the ages of three and ten is a good indicator of inclinations later in life.

The National Education Association (NEA; 2014) defines bullying as “systematically and chronically inflicting physical hurt and/or psychological distress on another.” Similarly, according to the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2014), bullying is “unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. The behavior is repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time.” The common characteristics among children who exhibit bullying behavior include repetitive, unprovoked and intentional physical, verbal or psychological aggression towards an individual with less power.

Bullying often takes the form of physical fighting, stealing, name calling, teasing, giving dirty looks and spreading rumors (Ayers, Wagaman, Geiger, Bermudez-Parsai, & Hedberg, 2012).

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The Problem: Bullying in Schools Victims of bullying often suffer from low self-esteem, anxiety and depression that can be short or long-term.

Bullies and victims alike may have suicidal ideation, substance abuse and anti-social behavior later in life (Hong, 2009). Bullying causes negative academic and emotional consequences, such as poor attendance and decreased performance. The consequences experienced are not limited just to the person who is bullied.

Bullying also causes mental, physical and emotional damage to bystanders (NEA, 2014).

Most teachers seem to agree that bullying is a major problem in school. Teachers witness bullying frequently and students report it in large numbers. Research has shown that for NEA member teachers, 62% “indicated that they had witnessed bullying two or more times in the last month and 41 percent indicated that they had witnessed bullying once a week or more” (Bradshaw, Evian Wassdorp, O’Brennan, & Gulemetova, 2011, viii).

Current Approaches There are two approaches most commonly used to date in schools to address bullying. The first is a problemsolving approach that uses mediation and counseling to focus on positive peer interaction rather than blame.

The other is a zero-tolerance approach that uses rules and sanctions to punish bullies in an attempt to deter bullying behavior. Results of the effectiveness of these approaches are mixed, and according to a study of school-based bullying intervention, an alternative social-ecological approach works best (Ayers et al., 2012).

This approach recognizes that in order to adequately address the problem with the student, the school must examine the multiple systems of the student including at school, home and with peers and their immediate community.

Studies have indicated that zero tolerance approaches do not work, although those are the solutions made popular by the media and advocacy groups, and have had widespread implementation in schools since the early 1990s (Skiba, 2008). Zero tolerance approaches use immediate suspension or expulsion from school to punish the bully. These policies are shown to actually deter children and adults alike from reporting bullying behavior they observe. They also do not adequately take the student’s home environment, culture or socioeconomic status into account and send them out of school into an environment that may not be able to support them.

Experiential and Adventure-Based Learning Experiential learning theory states that we learn by reflecting on what we do. Developed by David Kolb in 1984, the experiential learning approach utilizes Jean Piaget’s theories of cognitive development and John Dewey’s theories on reflective thought and action. Piaget theorized that cognitive development, or the development of knowledge, occurs through a specific set of biological maturation stages as well as a series of environmental experiences (Brainerd, 1996), while Dewey argued that learning takes place through experiencing and interacting with the curriculum through a social environment (Hohr, 2013). Drawing on these theorists, the four stages of Kolb’s experiential learning theory are,“…(1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences (McLeod, 2013).”

Another important aspect of Kolb’s experiential learning theory is the importance of recognizing different styles of learning. There are four different styles of learning. The first is diverging, which refers to students who look at things from different perspectives, observe others and use their imagination to solve problems. The second learning style is assimilating, where the student is looking for the most concise, logical approach. This student is concerned more with ideas than people. Similarly, in the third learning type, converging, students use their knowledge to solve problems and are not concerned with the interpersonal aspects of learning. Finally, in Kolb’s fourth learning style, accommodating, the student relies on intuition rather than logic. Kolb emphasized

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that educators should utilize diverse approaches to enhance the learning experience for all students (McLeod, 2013).

Adventure-based learning is a kind of experiential learning that utilizes outdoor experiences to promote changes in behavior (Boyle River Outdoor Education Center, 2014). The experiences entail low challenge course activities such as lawn games or games on the ground, as well as high challenge course elements, such as a ropes course or games above the ground. The activities provide a set of challenges for students to experiment with different ways to achieve a goal together in a safe and supported environment. As an essential part of experiential learning theory, at the end of each activity students explore how they achieved the goal or task and reflect on the different challenges they faced as a team and on an individual level. Since the activities represent new and risky challenges, and reflection takes place immediately following the activity, the learning that takes place is often profound and unique to the individual participant (Beightol, 2009).

Experiential and Adventure-Based Learning Applied to Bullying Prevention The teambuilding skills and unique individual learning that takes place through experiential, especially adventure-based, learning could be used in addressing challenges specific to the incidence of bullying in schools since they can help to develop protective factors, such as resilience, to handle challenges and conflicts.

Resiliency is a “pattern of behaviors that help students cope with, recover from and overcome adversity (Green, Kleiber and Tarrant, 2000, p. 77).” In a study of the development of resiliency among low-income minority youth through an adventure-based recreation program, the authors found significant increases in protective factors among the participants (Green, et al., 2000); therefore, showing that this approach can have a positive effect on coping with bullying behaviors.

Battey and Ebbeck (2013) studied the use of experiential and adventure-based learning in a bully prevention curriculum in a middle school setting. A Masters level graduate student developed the Bully Prevention Challenge Course Curriculum (BPCCC) in 2006 for using with 7th grade middle school students, with the hypothesis that participants would “develop a greater sense of self, increased social support, and a more positive affect (p. 206),” and decrease victimization. Students who participated in the BPCCC were “placed in a novel physically and/or emotionally challenging situation where they must rectify the challenge within themselves with the understanding that they are in a supportive environment (Battey & Ebbeck, 2013, p. 205).” The students attended for one school day and went through a series of challenge course activities designed to “metaphorically represent a type of bullying behavior or a means to combat bullying behaviors (Battey & Ebbeck, 2013, p. 206).” Discussions were facilitated after the activities to reflect on the activity, feelings and emotions, and “how their behaviors relate to being a bully, victim, or bystander (Battey & Ebbeck, 2013, p.

206).” The results supported the hypothesis that victimization, or bullying, would be decreased among the students who participated in the BPCCC. The participants reflected on their experience in focus groups one week and one month following the program. They expressed enhanced communication among the students, improved trust, a greater awareness of bullying behaviors, and a “common language for students and teachers to dialogue about the topic of bullying (Battey & Ebbeck, 2013, p. 203).”

Beightol, Jevertson, Gray, Carter, and Gass (2009) assessed an alternative program called the “Anti-Bullying Initiative” developed for an elementary school setting and designed to promote resiliency, reduce bullying, and create a safe classroom environment. The initiative consisted of ten in-school sessions, including role plays and problem-solving activities, as well as a three full-day experiences at a high ropes challenge course facility. Their findings indicated “participation in the adventure education experience may reduce the risks of negative consequences often associated with bullying by increasing resilience traits (Beightol, 2009, p. 422).”

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Limitations While the potential for effectiveness is there, as proven by several studies cited, there is much more research to be done to prove that experiential learning approaches can prevent bullying behavior among the adolescents who participate, as well as mitigate the negative effects of bullying. More longitudinal research is needed to test experiential learning, particularly adventure-based, approaches to bullying prevention. While the studies cited in this paper indicate positive results for the experiential learning approach, participants should be observed for a much longer period of time, especially as the students get older and are integrated into different school environments and experience new challenges. The programs should be repeated over time with the same group.

The sample size should be vastly increased, and more participants should be observed using the model and surveyed. While optimistic about this approach, the few studies on utilizing experiential learning is too limited to be scientifically significant and prove the broad level of effectiveness.

Implications for Practice Rather than emphasize a zero tolerance approach and tackle bullying behavior at only one system-level, in the school environment, approaches need to be developed and tested that are much more holistic and utilize a multisystem approach. Children and adolescents who display aggression and bullying behavior may also be a victim at home. All children need help at multiple levels to learn ways of coping with challenges in a positive way, rather than be rewarded for using aggressive behavior to gain control. Through an experiential, adventure-based learning approach, the shared experience among participants has proven to enhance learning and develop positive protective behaviors, thereby preventing the use of aggression or bullying to relate to peers and achieve a specified goal.

Conclusion School counselors handle issues of bullying regularly among their students. While they should be leaders in their school culture to protect victims of bullying, they are also ethically obligated to use effective approaches in preventing bullying behavior. This research is informative but school counselors can go even further by conducting their own studies to determine how experiential learning theory can inform their practice. The theory must be used in a culturally relevant way, and considering the specific needs and challenges the students they work with have who are victims of bullying behavior, as well as the bullies themselves.

While more research is needed, experiential learning theory and the adventure-based learning model has the potential to make a significant and long-lasting impact on the way students relate to themselves, each other, their teachers, families and community in a more positive way. The teambuilding and individual growth that is fostered through this learning approach alleviate the negative effects of being a victim of bullying and discourage bullying behavior.

References Ayers, S., Wagaman, M. M., Geiger, J., Bermudez-Parsai, M., & Hedberg, E. E. (2012).

Examining school-based bullying interventions using multilevel discrete time hazard modeling. Prevention Science. 13(5). 539-550.

Battey, G. J. L. & Ebbeck, V. 2013. A qualitative exploration of an experiential education bully prevention curriculum. Journal of Experiential Education. 36(3). 203-217.

Beightol, J., Jevertson, J., Gray, S., Carter, S., Gass, M. 2009. The effect of an experiential, based "anti-bullying initiative" on levels of resilience: A mixed methods study.

Journal of Experiential Education. 31(3). 420-424.

adventure-

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Boyle River Outdoor Education Center. (2014, October 13) What is adventure based learning?

Retrieved from http://www.boyle.org.nz/infoforschools/What+is+Adventure+Based+Learning.html Bradshaw, C.P., Evian Wassdorp, T, O’Brennan, L.M., and Gulemetova, M. (2011). Findings from the National Education Association’s nationwide study of bullying: Teachers’ and education support professionals’ perspectives. Retrieved from National Education Association website: http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/Nationwide_Bullying_Research_Findings.pdf.

Brainerd, C. F. (1996). Piaget: A centennial celebration. Psychological Science, 7. 191-195.

Clark, R. W., PhD., Ewing, J.C., PhD. & Threeton, M.D., PhD. 2010. The potential of experiential learning models and practices in career and technical education & career and technical teacher education. Journal of Career and Technical Education. 25(2). 46-62. Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JCTE/v25n2/pdf/clark.pdf Green, G. T., Kleiber, D. A., & Tarrant, M. A. (2000). The effect of an adventure-based recreation program on development of resiliency in low income minority youth.

Journal Of Park & Recreation Administration, 18(3), 76-97.

Hohr, H. (2013). The concept of experience by John Dewey revisited: Conceiving, feeling and 'enliving'. Studies In Philosophy & Education, 32(1), 25-38.

Hong, J. S. (2009). Feasibility of the olweus bullying prevention program in low-income schools. Journal of School Violence. 8. 81–97.

Kipp, K. & Shaffer, D.R. (2014). Developmental psychology: Childhood & adolescence (9th ed.).

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning experience as a source of learning and development.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

McGuckin, C., & Minton, S. (2014). From theory to practice: Two ecosystemic approaches and their applications to understanding school bullying. Australian Journal Of Guidance & Counselling, 24(1), 36-48.

McLeod, S. A. (2010). Kolb - Learning Styles. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html National Education Association. (2014, October 11) How to identify bullying. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home/53359.htm.

Skiba, R. J. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools?: An evidentiary review and recommendations. American Psychologist, 63(9), 852-862.

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2014, September 22) Bullying definition.

Retrieved from http://www.stopbullying.gov/what-is-bullying/definition/.

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Social Identity Exploration of Combat Veteran Students Sydney Morris Abstract As the Post 9/11 GI Bill was introduced to qualified service members in 2009, it provides 36 months of educational benefits to attend a participating higher education institution. As more veterans retire and take advantage of the Post 9/11 GI Bill, Student Affairs practitioners are seeing an influx of veterans enrolling as first time college students. Veteran students enroll both online and at physical campuses creating issues for student affairs practitioners to fully understand the needs and development processes of students who have been in the military. Students with military experience present a special challenge for college and universities, not only because of their increasing enrollment numbers, but also because of the difference between traditionally aged students and their unique characteristics associated with military experiences (Schlossberg, 2011).

Research Purpose Most previous research focuses mainly on how to better understand veteran students, and discusses topics such as federal assistance programs, rather than on the individual transition from service member to student and the impact on their social identity development. Thus, many aspects of the transition from military service member to student are not very well understood by faculty, staff and administrators (DiRamio et al.). In this study, the development and social experiences of veteran students, more specifically combat veteran students who returned from war zone deployments, were explored and analyzed.

For the purpose of this study, the research question that will be addressed is, “How does identifying as a combat veteran student influence the identity development process throughout the transition to an undergraduate student?” It is important to understand how combat veteran students are impacted by their transition from a combat warzone, back into society. As student affairs practitioners provide support to students on campuses, in order to understand veteran students’ experiences, administrators and faculty members must first better understand such a unique group of students.

Introduction to Theoretical and Research Foundations of the Study The theoretical framework that will be applied to the research findings will be Chickering’s theory of identity development, which examines the process of identity development and does so by introducing seven vectors of development, several of which will be applied to the research findings.

Synthesis of the Main Findings/Results of the Study As millions of men and women plan to leave the armed forces and join college campuses across the country, student affairs practitioners are attempting to grasp a better understanding of the transition process from active duty to college for combat veteran students. In order to provide the best learning environment for veteran students and assist them in their transition from a combat zone environment to a college campus and through several social identities, it is important to understand how this transition impacts their development. Through my research I hope to have a better understanding of how veteran students develop new social identities, and how new social identities are impacted by the transition out of the military, and how institutions of higher education can better aid in the transition to campus.

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Teaching Social Studies with Historical Photographs Tristan Brosnan Abstract Many students self-identify as visual learners and request teaching that employs multi-modal formats.

Consequently, social studies teachers are opting to use more historical photographs in the classroom (Coohill, 2006). Can the use of historical photographs in social studies classes help students advance historical understanding? Theory on memory models demonstrates how visual information, such as photographs, are encoded and then represented in the long-term memory (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013). Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory suggests that verbal and visual information are stored in separate systems in the long-term memory, but can be tied together by referential connections (Paivio, 1986). When verbal historical information accompanies visual information, memory retention and recall increases, advancing the construction of historical knowledge (Wiseman et al., 1985).

Research Purpose The main question posed by this paper is, can the use of historical photographs in social studies classes help students learn historical knowledge? The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the use of historical photographs in social studies classrooms and whether they advance historical knowledge, defined as cognitive schemas in the long-term memory. Additionally, the paper also addresses the question, does the combination of historical photographs with factual and conceptual knowledge advance historical learning?

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study: The memory model originally developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (Eggen & Kauchak, 2013) illustrates how verbal and visual information is transferred from the sensory memory, to the working memory, and then to the long-term memory. Various encoding techniques allow subjects to accurately deposit information into the long-term memory for future recall. Alan Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory (DCT) postulates that that long-term memory is made up of two distinct systems that deal with verbal and visual cognitive processes (Paivio, 1986). While the two systems are independent, they often work in tandem and can be linked by referential connections (Clark & Paivio, 1991).

Synthesis of the main findings/results of the study Conclusive evidence suggests that long-term memory capacity for visual information, including historical photographs, is vigorous and “quite robust (Vogt & Magnussen, 2007).” With the use of effective encoding techniques, photographs and other visual information can be encoded in the long-term memory for future recall.

Verbal information can then “trigger” visual information represented in the long-term memory, and vice-versa (Paivio, 1986), exemplifying word-to-image referential connections described by Dual Coding Theory. When visual information, such as photographs, are presented alongside verbal information, memory recognition and recall significantly improves (Wiseman et al., 1985). Therefore, the development of historical schemas are greatly improved when photographs are presented to students with corresponding verbal information.

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The Place of Single-Sex Education in US Public Schools: Where does it fit?

Emily Langhorne Abstract: Title IX regulations effectively ended all public single-sex schooling in the United States; however, the changes to these regulations under the No Child Left Behind Act created a space for single-sex schools in the public sector. In the aftermath of the well-documented “girls’ crisis” of the 1990s (Datnow, Hubbarb, & Woody, 2005), and the media backlash focusing on the “war on boys” (Salomone, 2003) in the early 2000s, educators used this space to re-examined single-sex schooling as a route to closing the achievement gaps between the genders. This paper attempts to investigate the results of their efforts by separating political rhetoric from the qualitative results of post-No Child Left Behind single-sex education in the U.S public schools. The discussion explores the psychological and academic effects of single-sex education on boys and girls from a diverse range of socio-economic backgrounds, and addresses the place of single-sex education in the growing school choice movement.

Research purpose & main question supported by this literature review The purpose of this study is to explore the space that single-sex education should occupy in the U.S. public school system by answering the following: What does the literature say about the legality of public single-sex education? What literature supports/ opposes the creation of single-sex institutions in the public sphere and why? What does the literature report in terms of qualitative and quantitative research about the success of students in public single-sex education programs?

Brief introduction to theoretical & research foundations of the study The intersection of science and education has been of growing importance in educational studies as educators attempt to differentiate lesson plans to meet every student’s needs. Neurological and biological studies have reported a difference between the way boys and girls learn; however, have these difference been exaggerated by the media and political agendas? How much of this biology is actually a result of the environments in which children spend their early years? This paper attempts to look at the intersection of biological, sociological, and educational studies that examine the experiences of boys and girls in school; furthermore, it takes into account cultural differences that influence gender “norms.” By drawing on previous research from Spielhagen (2013), Solomone (2003), Rivers & Barnett (2011), and others, this paper gives a broad view of single-sex education in the United States public schools, and analyzes the sociological, cultural, and academic effects of single sex education as critical factors in determining its place in the current school choice movement.

Synthesis and integration of literature to research purpose/question Because single-sex schooling is the norm in many countries, the effects of single-sex education have long been debated at the international level; however, changes to Title IX regulations have only recently permitted the implementation and study of single-sex education in the United States. This paper focuses on those studies conducted within the United States public school system. Because the study of education is often intertwined with political agendas, this review attempts to separate research literature from political rhetoric. In doing such, the paper reviews the history of public education in the United States, answers the question of single-sex education as regards its legality, analyzes the consistent problems with the quantitative research studies on single-sex education, investigates the case for single-sex education as based on qualitative research findings, investigates the case against single-sex education as based on qualitative research findings, and uses this literature and the research findings as the basis for asserting an opinion about the place single-sex education should occupy in the U.S. public school system.

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Caution Tape at the Gate: Barriers to Success for Undocumented College Students Casey Crisp Abstract This poster will examine the current issue of the growing population of undocumented students on college campuses, the challenges to their persistence and graduation, and the ways in which higher education professionals can support their success. The number of undocumented college students has increased due to legislative and private efforts to improve access. As more undocumented students gain enroll in colleges and universities, unique financial and social challenges prove to be barriers to their persistence and success. These barriers must be examined and addressed to insure students are able to not only continue to access, but complete their post-secondary education.

Organization/Outline of presentation My poster will be organized into four different sections, listed below.

1. Background: This section would define the undocumented population and its growth in the United States. I would then outline the history of undocumented student access to higher education and the current legislative issues effecting students. I would also include a graphic that illustrated increased enrollment of undocumented students.

2. Financial Barriers to Persistence: This section would outline the major financial barriers for undocumented students, focusing largely on the correlation between a student’s lack of financial aid and access to work study positions to their inability to persist.

3. Social Barriers to Persistence: This section would focus on the social consequences that an undocumented student’s immigration status can have on their ability to socially engage with their peers in college. Additionally, it would include the research on the racial and societal factors that impact social acceptance for students.

4. Recommendations for Student Affairs Administrations: This section would outline the various recommendations that have been made for staff working in higher education to support undocumented students’ success on their campuses.

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College Students with Chronic Illness: A Literature Review Meaghan Wilson Abstract Advances in modern medicine have made continuing from secondary school to higher education possible for many students with chronic illnesses. However, as Maslow and his colleagues have analyzed, a key national study found that this population is half as likely to graduate when compared to their healthy peers (2011). This literature review will examine factors affecting persistence in college students with chronic illnesses. This literature review will also explore students’ varying chronic illnesses and the varying resources needed to cope with them.

Research purpose & main question supported by this literature review The purpose of this review is to distinguish the experience of chronically ill college students from that of their healthy classmates by asking: What literature discusses the challenges and coping mechanisms used by this group? What gaps in the literature exist that prevent practitioners from understanding these students’ persistence?

Brief introduction to theoretical & research foundations of the study Much literature is devoted to the development and persistence of college students on a macro-level. However, the emerging population of chronically ill college students faces many unique challenges alongside the transition to university life. In addition, students’ chronic illnesses can take physical or mental forms, and a significant minority deal with both simultaneously (Herts et al, 2014). The broad spectrum of these physical and/or mental illnesses also poses a challenge to scholars and practitioners. Because these students have such varied symptoms and needs, studying them as a population can create logistical problems for research.

However, Bramlett and colleagues successfully used a “non-categorical” approach in their own study (2009).

By focusing on the presence of illness, treatment, and age of diagnosis, the researchers could effectively study one group for broad similarities of experience.

Preliminary findings This literature review aims to identify the key factors affecting these students’ adaptation and success so that practitioners may apply this understanding to better support students through campus resources. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that specialized treatment “continue uninterrupted” in young adults with chronic illnesses (2002). However, this recommendation is at odds with the reality found by researchers. Herts and colleagues found that less than 17% of the chronically ill students in their study had registered with the university’s disability support services, and less than 13% had a local physician (2014). To better serve these students, researchers must understand why this disconnect exists. Once practitioners understand why students do not receive or seek assistance, they can better recruit them to using support services.

References American Academy of Pediatrics. (2002). A consensus statement on health care transitions for with special health care needs. Pediatrics, 110, 1304-1306.

young adults

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Bramlett, M. D., Read, D., Bethell, C., & Blumberg, S. J. (2009). Differentiating subgroups of children with special health care needs by health status and complexity of health care needs. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 13(2), 151-163.

Herts, K. L. & Wallis, E. & Maslow, G.(2014). College freshmen with chronic illness: A comparison with healthy first-year students. Journal of College Student Development 55(5), 475-480.

Maslow, G. R., Haydon, A., McRee, A. L., Ford, C. A., & Halpern, C. T. (2011). Growing up with a chronic illness: Social success, educational/vocational distress. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 206212.

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The Benefits of Postsecondary Education in U.S. Prisons Emma Stone The United States has the largest prison population in the world, with approximately 1.6 million people incarcerated as of 2013 (Carson, 2014). Inmates overall have lower levels of educational attainment than the general population (Ewert & Wildhagen, 2011), making post-release employment difficult and re-arrest likely (Cooper, Durose & Snyder, 2014). Recent meta-analyses of correctional education programs indicate a correlation with lower rates of recidivism and increased rates of employment, resulting in potential long-term cost effectiveness (Davis et al., 2013). Despite these findings, critics argue that education funding should not be diverted to prisons and overall state and federal funding for postsecondary education programs in prisons has declined since 2008. Partnership initiatives with colleges, such as the Cornell Prison Education Program and Bard Prison Initiative, have the potential to bridge the gap in government funding and create sustained institutional relationships. This work examines the benefits of U.S. postsecondary correctional education, raises criticisms of the approach, and highlights the success of existing programs. Based on the findings from available reported data, analyses and case studies, policymakers and institutions of higher education are urged to consider expanding educational access within prisons.

References Carson, E. A. (2014). Prisoners in 2013. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5109 Cooper, A. D., Durose, M. R., Synder, H. N. (2014). Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4987 Davis, L. M., Bozick, R., Steele, J. L., Saunders, J., Miles, J. N. V. (2013). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Correctional Education. RAND. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html Ewert, S. & Wildhagen, T. (2011). Educational Characteristics of Prisoners: Data from the ACS [American Community Survey]. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, Washington, DC, March 31-April 2, 2011.

Ewert, S. & Wildhagen, T. (2011). Educational Characteristics of Prisoners: Data from the ACS [American Community Survey]. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, Washington, DC, March 31-April 2, 2011.

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Examining Elementary School Principals’ Understanding of What Data Driven Decision Making Means and How it is Implemented: Is There a Misunderstanding and Misuse of Data?

Anh-Thy T. Nguyen Overview of the Project: The No Child Left Behind’s (2001) accountability mandate on states has forced states to utilize and analyze student achievement data. Marsh, Pane, and Hamilton (2006) of RAND Education stated: The broad implementation of standards-based accountability under the deferral of No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) has presented new opportunities and incentives for data use in education by providing schools and districts with additional data for analysis, as well as increasing the pressure on them to improve student test scores. (p.2) Accountability decisions made within each school must be valid based on appropriate and accurate data, with the decisions made in support of student learning and academic achievement. The use of data and assessment have become a part of a school principal’s decision-making process to steer instructional approaches; however, “without the availability of high-quality data and perhaps technical assistance, data may become misinformation or lead to invalid inferences” (Marsh, Pane, & Hamilton, 2006, p.3).

Richard Dufour (2004) coined the term DRIP syndrome to describe schools that are experiencing “data rich and information poor.” Shen and Cooley (2008) and Scott and Martinek’s (2006) findings have shown that a principal’s lack of data discernment and analytic skills have a negative impact; therefore, although understanding assessments and making decisions based on data to drive teaching and learning are fundamental aspects for school principals, principals must use data in the most effective and efficient way possible. For continuous academic improvement, schools need to review student data gathered from myriad of data resources.

Principals gather and assess information, particularly data associated with student achievement. Utilizing the inferences gathered from examining the data, principals convert the information to form action plans to address the instructional and academic needs of their school. Processing this information is critical for making decisions (Taylor, 1986). Marsh, Pane, and Hamilton (2006) referenced data-driven decision-making (DDDM) in education as “systematically collecting and analyzing various types of data, including input, process, outcome and satisfaction data, to guide a range of decisions to help improve the success of students and schools (p. 1).” DDDM was beginning to emerge in the 1980’s as schools were looking more closely at the data that were available and has become an element of empirically supported interventions for students who are academically at-risk (Marsh et al, 2006).

With the pressures of state and federal accountability systems since the enactment of NCLB (2001), school districts are examining and analyzing data to help them determine areas of strengths and challenges as they relate to student academic achievement. Halverson, Grigg, Pritchett, and Thomas (2005) argued that the current accountability climate is pushing the model of school leadership to be beyond just the traditional areas of instruction, management, and school transformation. Wayman and Stringfield (2006a) found principal leadership crucial for setting expectations and creating supportive environments for teachers to review and analyze data. The literature does not, however, examine the congruence or incongruence of what is known, what is not known, nor the inhibiting loops, threatening problems, barriers, and conditions that add to the discrepancies. As principals continue to examine the data and make decisions based on them, it is not known if principals have had training to become more literate in assessment and data to make data-guided decisions nor if their understanding of DDDM is aligned with those of the organization.

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Description of Presentation Materials: Research will be presented in a poster format.

Type of Practice or Innovation to be Showcased: This poster presentation will highlight key points and areas of my current research’s literature review. It will include an abstract, research purpose and main research questions, and the theoretical framework.

Target Audience: The targeted audience is school and school district-level leaders and/or administrators.

Venues in Which Innovation/Practice Might be Used or Was Implemented: The research is best used and implemented by school districts and schools by principals and central administration leaders.

Applicability of Practice or Innovation: This poster presentation is designed to highlight current research related to the use, misuse, and understanding and misunderstanding of data by school administrators as part of their data-driven decision making process; therefore, the information presented will help provide additional insight into where challenges might occur for school leaders tasked with making decisions that impact student achievement.

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The Impact of Institutional Neglect on Sexual Assault Reporting in the American Higher Education System Morgan Resnick Abstract Sexual assault has long been a challenge for university stakeholders but has become a hot topic in higher education due to the increase of female students and media scrutiny on the issue. In a Sam Houston State University report (Bouffard, Smith, & Wilkes, 2014; Cullen, Fisher, & Turner, 2000), researchers estimated between 20-25% of female students will experience attempted or completed sexual assault, but less than five percent will report their attack. This is a crucial topic because of the prevalence of sexual assault at universities and the amount of underreporting that is occurring. Many reporting barriers can be attributed to institutional negligence and this poster aims to explore a connection between that neglect and underreporting of sexual assault. On the poster there are examples of neglect, perceptions of survivors who have experienced negligence, and recommendations for the future. The presentation material will be a printed poster. Ideally, the target audience would be anyone who works or attends a higher education institution.

References Fisher, B.S., Cullen, F.T., & Turner, M.G. (2000). The sexual victimization of college women.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Retrieved September 20, 2014, from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf Smith, M., Wilkes, N., & Bouffard, L. (2014, January 1). Sexual assault on college campuses: Perceptions and approaches of campus law enforcement officers. Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http://dev.cjcenter.org/_files/cvi/Campus%20Sexual%20Assaultfor%20web.pdf

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Strategic thinking practices of virginia superintendents: a context-responsive leadership study Casey M. Roberts Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the extent that Virginia school superintendents apply the three cognitive skills of strategic thinking practice: systems thinking, reframing and reflection (Pisapia, Reyes-Guerra, & Coukos-Semmel, 2005) relative to the varying organizational, environmental, psychological contexts (Bredeson, Klar, & Johansson, 2011) of the Virginia K-12 school superintendency. The job-embedded contexts that will be addressed in this study include: (a) school district size, (b) organizational culture, (c) geographical location, (d) financial situation, and (e) political climate.

Population: 132 Division Superintendents of the Commonwealth of Virginia Research Questions 1. To what extent do superintendents think strategically using the following cognitive skills: system thinking, reframing, and reflection (Pisapia et al., 2005) in the Commonwealth of Virginia?

2. What is the relationship between the practice of strategic thinking skills and job-related contexts (Bredeson et al., 2011) of the superintendency?

3.

Conceptual Framework School superintendents, by profession must lead strategically (Bjork & Gurley, 2005; Carter & Cunningham, 1997; Hodgkinson & Montenegro, 1999). The interrelation of strategic thinking skills within the dynamics of different job related contexts that school superintendents’ experience is loosely addressed within the literature.

Torset (2001) states, “’thinking’ as an executive skill is one of he least studied aspects of strategic processes and almost ignored in most academic conceptualizations” (p. 3). The conceptual framework is comprised of two frameworks. First, strategic thinking as defined by Pisapia et al., (2005), distilled from the literature on strategic thinking into three discernable cognitive skills: (1) systems thinking, (2) reframing, and (3) reflection. Second, context-responsive leadership theory developed by Bredeson et al., (2011), contends that leadership is both embedded in and influenced by context, and is categorized in five contexts that shape a superintendent’s behavior: (a) school district size, (b) organizational culture, (c) geographical location, (d) financial situation, and (e) political climate.

Method Data will be collected using a three-part questionnaire. Part one will gather basic demographic data that will be used to categorize participants and draw definitive trend lines and sublevels. Part two is an existing survey entitled the Strategic Thinking Questionnaire (STQTM) developed by Pisapia et al., (2005) (used with permission) that is designed to measure a leader’s ability to use systems thinking, creative reflection, adaptive reflection, and reframing skills to process information when faced with difficult contexts. The survey utilizes a likert scale. Part three is a researcher-designed instrument that was developed from the qualitative research of Bredeson et al., (2011) into a quantitative instrument. The survey is designed to measure the level of responsiveness using a likert scale measure to the five contexts: (a) school district size, (b) organizational culture, (c) geographical location, (d) financial situation, and (e) political climate. Small-scale testing/refinement has been conducted to test validity and reliability.

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Engaging New Students Through a Peer Facilitated Leadership Retreat Matthew McCabe Overview of the Project As emerging student leaders enter the campus community, it is important for an institution to provide a launching point for new students to develop and define their potential. To help facilitate their future success, partnering with current student leaders can serve as one of the most effective ways in promoting student engagement during their time as an undergraduate.

Through this session, attendees will explore the success of a student planned and peer facilitated 3-day leadership development retreat and gain a framework to begin developing a similar leadership program within their own campus community. Join me for an in-depth look at the planning process that empowers current student leaders, curriculum development, an assessment of the program and how students attending have been positively influenced.

This presentation will specifically highlight an annual program, I.M.P.A.C.T (Individuals Maximizing Potential And Creating Tomorrows) Leadership Retreat, coordinated under the direction of the University of Miami’s Butler Center for Service and Leadership. This 3-day leadership development retreat takes place at an off campus resort and is facilitated by current student leaders. Since 2005, the retreat has been aimed to engage new students, allow them to consider new opportunities and perspectives, and challenge them to make a positive impact on their communities. This program has become a launching point and catalyst for many new students future success. Emerging new student leaders are empowered to take an active role in their personal development through analytical discussion, hands-on leadership development activities, reflection, strengths assessments, and new connections with others.

Presentation Materials This presentation will only utilize a poster, using visuals, discussion, and first hand experiences to engage the audience.

Type of Practice This poster presentation showcases a work site experience that led to the yearly implementation of peer lead leadership retreat for emerging student leaders.

Target Audience This presentation specifically targets college and university administrators interested in fostering leadership abilities in first and second year student populations. Utilized previously by a university department for service and leadership, it can certainly be applied in any department working with students.

Venues for Implementation This type of program can be implemented in many venues on and off campus. It does require a large conference room; the size necessary depends on the amount of participants. Outdoor space would also contribute strongly to the program.

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Applicability This type of leadership programming is very relevant given college and university administrator’s constant goal to foster development within their student populations. It is a tool that many institutions could utilize.

Invisible Students: Cultivating LGBTQ Student Success in American Community Colleges Marjorie Cook Issue/Problem to be addressed For many young lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) Americans, the road to higher education is paved with challenges. Whether those challenges are personal, academic, or social, these factors significantly affect student’s social support networks, academic performance, and overall identity formation.

When four-year institutions offer LGBTQ students some form of social or political community, they are able to develop their identity, find a sense of safety, and thrive academically. Many community colleges do not have student unions or student organizations, and LGBTQ students lack strong peer support at these institutions.

Unfortunately, many of the destructive and dangerous environments that exist in our nation’s high schools persist in community colleges and universities. As a result, retention and academic success may suffer. Without prominent student unions or a strong presence of student organizations, colleges can support their LGBTQ students through an emphasis on positive campus climate, inclusive language in codes of conduct, and the presence of LGBTQ faculty and staff.

Overview of relevant theory or scholarship Although there is a growing body of research on LGBTQ students, their identity formation, and the effects of campus climate (Rankin et al., 2010; Espinoza, 2012), this research focuses primarily on students within fouryear public and private institutions of higher education. Although the complications are clear in the inherent difficulty of studying LGBTQ individuals, focusing this research in community college environments may pose more of a challenge.

Extrapolating data trends from American public schools indicate potentially “chilly climates” for community colleges. Further research should focus on community college resources for LGBTQ students and retention in those environments.

Individual contributions There is one presenter for this project, and the project will be divided into two sections. The first section will develop an understanding of existing research and data relating to LGBTQ student success in American public schools and four-year public and private institutions. The second section will explore community college environments, compare and contrast those environments with campus climates at public schools, and suggest areas of improvement for community college LGBTQ student resources.

Practice-based solutions and implications: This project aims to identify ways in which community colleges can incorporate anti-discrimination policies, LGBTQ faculty and staff, as well as student involvement initiatives to improve LGBTQ student matriculation and retention. The implications of targeted research for improving community college campuses for LGBTQ students is in line with overarching student success theories that aim to create holistic campus learning environments for students. Specifically researching solutions to improve

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LGBTQ student success is important for the field as a whole, demonstrating the importance of studying an otherwise invisible population.

The Middle Child: Second Year Students and Their Challenges Presentation Ian Paul Mulhern Abstract Second-year students struggle to socially engage, and to remain academically effective, much like their first year peers. Even so, student affairs practitioners have paid little attention to these needs. Often, support wanes after that pivotal first year. Sophomore students face increasingly challenging classwork, tough decisions about majors, and a general lack of motivation that leads to a high drop out rate. This “sophomore slump” identifies the disengagement and attrition issues that plague sophomore students as a result of these issues (Tobolowsky, 2008). Many different initiatives are being implemented to combat the slump, but more must be done.

Comprehensive knowledge of what these students need followed up by programming initiatives that target these needs are essential to retaining students through to graduation.

Factors Influencing Preschool Teachers’ Perceptions of Behavior Support Strategies for Addressing Young Children’s Emotional and Behavioral Problems Pongsuda Rattanamasmongkol Research has clearly indicated significant improvement in the outcomes for children who are at-risk for or have emotional and behavioral problems if early identification and intervention are in place. Preschool teachers play important roles in the process of early identification and intervention for young children who display emotional and behavioral problems. Research suggests that various factors may impede or promote preschool teachers in initiating the process of early identification and intervention for young children with emotional and behavioral problems. This study explores potential factors and determines their relations to preschool teachers’ perceptions of the importance and feasibility of behavior support strategies for emotional and behavioral problems in young children.

This study will use quantitative methods to investigate early childhood education factors that influence preschool teachers’ perceptions of behavior support strategies for addressing young children’s emotional and behavioral problems. Participants are general and special education teachers most directly responsible for classrooms that serve children ages 3-5 years. The teachers will complete a comprehensive survey called “Addressing Preschool Emotional and Behavioral Problems Questionnaire”, which includes demographic sections and other validated measures regarding teachers’ opinions on identification and intervention for problem behaviors in young children. Data will be analyzed to examine influencing factors on teachers’ addressing young children emotional and behavioral problems. Identifying the influencing factors that affect preschool teachers’ perceptions on early identification and intervention is an initial step in developing effective systems to increase the teachers’ effectiveness in addressing young children’s emotional and behavioral problems. The results of this study can help inform educational practice and professional development by identifying necessary factors to support teachers’ sustainability of implementation and the outcomes for young children involved and to develop training for behavior support strategies in early childhood education settings.

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False Hope? For Profit Universities, Access, and Debt Leslie Stepler Abstract Amid growing criticism of the cost of higher education, the reality is that a college degree is essential in providing career stability and advancement, and usually provides a positive return on investment (ROI). People with four-year college degrees made 98 percent more an hour, on average in 2013, than people without a degree (Leonhardt, 2014). However, a positive ROI is not always the case, and depends on the institution providing the degree and the level of debt accrued. With the rapidly growing for-profit university sector providing access for underserved populations, there are more choices for students than ever before. While providing access for these populations is a noble goal, in reality it is debatable how well the for-profits have actually served these students. For example, students attending for-profits borrow greater sums of money when compared to students attending private non-profits and public universities. According to the Project on Student Debt, for 2008 graduates with bachelor’s degrees, for-profit students were in debt by $32,700 as compared to $17,700 for private non-profits, and $22,400 for those in public institutions. (as cited in Mettler, 2014, p. 36).

The basic question that needs to be answered is: do students who attend for- profit institutions have positive career and financial outcomes? While there is no doubt these institutions have provided access, they have also left many of their students in dire financial situations, leaving them with massive levels of debt, no degree, often underemployed or unemployed, and underpaid. Earlier attempts at reform of the for-profits have been mostly unsuccessful; ultimately, legislative reform will be required to make for-profit institutions beneficial to the students they intend to serve, instead of predatory.

References Leonhardt, D. (2014, May 26). Is College Worth It? Clearly, New Data Say. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/27/upshot/is-college-worth-it-clearly-new-datasay.html?abt=0002&abg=1&_r=0 Mettler, S. (2014). Degrees of inequality: how the politics of higher education sabotaged the American dream.

New York, NY: Basic Books.

Transition Practices Focused Towards Military and Veteran Students Ben Blanchfield As more military and veteran students begin to attend college, more focused transition efforts are needed. Military and veteran students are a quickly growing unique student population on campuses across the country. Frequently, veteran students are several years removed from formal education and will need to manage different demands (Callahan & Jarrat, 2014). Universities need to take special consideration when creating transition programs tailored to military and veteran students. The perceived barriers veteran students feel tend to be cultural (Hollis, 2009; Tomar, 2014). However, what other challenges exist for student affairs professionals attempting to serve service members? This poster will explore the current practices of student affairs professionals, research and future practices, and any challenges associated assisting military and veteran student transition.

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References Callahan, R., & Jarrat, D. (2014). Helping Student Servicemembers and Veterans Succeed. Change: The Magazine Of Higher Learning, 46(2), 36-41.

Hollis, Michael. "Breaking Down Cultural Barriers to Military Entry into Higher Education." (2009): 22. Print.

Tomar, N., & Stoffel, V. (2014). Examining the lived experience and factors influencing education of two student veterans using photovoice methodology. American Journal Of Occupational Therapy, 68(4), 430-438. doi:10.5014/ajot.2014.011163 Access, Fraud, and the Ethics of Using International Student Recruitment Agents Anna Bryan International student enrollment at US colleges and universities is at an all-time high of over 800,000 students (Institute of International Education, 2013). As institutions across the country compete to attract these students, some have turned to the services of commission-based recruitment agencies for help. Approximately 19% of US higher education admissions offices use agents to recruit international students (Jaschik, 2014). This number will likely increase following the National Association for College Admission Counseling’s decision last year to allow their use among member institutions (Redden, 2013). However, while common in countries like Australia and the UK, the practice of using commissioned agents is still quite controversial in the US. Proponents argue that agents can provide the local insight and support necessary for more institutions to gain access to global markets, while opponents claim the system encourages abusive practices and application fraud. This poster will provide a more detailed examination of the benefits and challenges of using commissioned international recruiters and present a recommendation for their ethical use.

References Institute of International Education. (2013). Open doors report on international educational exchange.

Retrieved from http://www.iie.org/opendoors Jaschik, S. (2014, September 18). More pressure than ever: The 2014 survey of college and university admissions directors. Inside Higher Ed Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/morepressure-ever-2014-survey-college-and-university-admissions-directors Redden, E. (2013, September 23). Giving agents the OK. Inside Higher Ed Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/09/23/admissions-association-lifts-ban-commissioned-agentsinternational-recruiting “The Lack of LGBTQ Resource Centers at American Colleges: Why Colleges Need to Promote Tolerance and Support” Delaney Stucki Abstract Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer or Questioning (LGBTQ) students are very much present on college campuses; support services for these students on American college campuses are almost nonexistent.

Out of the 3,500 “traditional” college campuses (American Council on Education, 2007), fewer than 200 have an LGBTQ resource center (Consortium of Higher Education LGBT Resource Professionals, 2014).

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LGBTQ resource centers are a needed entity on college campuses. There is strong evidence to suggest that LGBTQ students are far more likely to suffer from mental health issues, and have historically been the victims of extreme bullying in college settings (Meyers 1995; Worthen 2012). Intergroup Contact Theory highlights that there is a correlation between contact with marginalized groups and a reduction of prejudice (Pettigrew, 1998). Research suggests that having an LGBTQ resource center, which promotes tolerance and diversity, is beneficial to every student (Schuh, Jones, Harper, Komives, 2011).

Every college campuses that received federal financial support should be required to have an LGBTQ resource center. The centers should focus on three goals: first, creating a safe space and community for LGBTQ students and allies, second, providing resources and support that will benefit LGBTQ students’ mental health, and third, creating programming to teach all students how to be supportive and tolerant community members.

Implementing these goals will help create a more healthy campus climate for all.

Advising the College Student Athlete in an Ethically Turbulent Time Kate Moore Abstract In light of the recent academic fraud scandal at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, athletic academic advisors are under scrutiny. Recent concerns surrounding unethical behavior including plagiarism, grade changes, and other unfair academic practices highlight the importance of academic advisors practicing ethical and effective advising that help student athletes graduate and be successful in their career paths, and not just meet academic eligibility. It is imperative that academic advisors make ethical decisions in line with the mission of its perspective university when advising student-athletes. Related research suggest methods such as separating academic support services from the athletics department, implementing an intentional/intrusive advising model, and utilizing the NCAA Graduation Risk Overview Model as means to improving academic advisor accountability to college student athletes and related stakeholders.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder in the US: Differences in Definition Across Federal Agencies and Implications for Services Carrie Gillispie Abstract This research paper examines the definition of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) across federal agencies, the process for establishing eligibility for services, and implications for youth with ASD. It describes the increasing numbers of youth with ASD receiving special education services administered by the U.S. Department of Education (ED) and receiving child Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits provided by the Social Security Administration (SSA). It compares the definition of ASD used by ED for establishing eligibility for services to the definition used by SSA, and compares the evidence required by each agency for establishing existence of ASD. This paper examines the relationship between eligibility requirements and socioeconomic status, and its impact on efficient service delivery.

Research purpose This paper was written as the final project of a 2014 summer fellowship for Mathematica Policy Research’s Disability Research Consortium. This paper investigates the following questions: 1) What is the definition of ASD used by the U.S. Department of Education (ED) for establishing eligibility for special education and related services? 2) What is the definition of ASD used by the Social Security Administration (SSA) for establishing eligibility for child Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits? 3) How many children are receiving services by ED and SSA for ASD? 4) What are the implications of this on ED’s and SSA’s service provision, and on youth with ASD and their families? 5) How does socioeconomic status (SES) affect these findings and implications?

These questions are relevant and urgent due to the increased prevalence of ASD, resulting in an increasing number of youth with ASD transitioning out of special education and child SSI benefits. This investigation provides a foundation for further research regarding how ED and SSA can optimize their service delivery to provide financially efficient and effective services for youth with ASD and their families.

Brief introduction to theoretical and research foundations of the study. Socioeconomic status and the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype contribute to a complex foundation upon which the author analyzes the way in which SSA and ED determine eligibility of services for youth with ASD. At transition age, youth with ASD are at increased risk for unemployment. A recent study (Shattuck et al., 2012) showed that youth with ASD had the lowest rates of employment participation and the highest rates of no employment participation compared to youth with other disabilities. The study also showed that over half of youth with ASD who had left high school in the previous two years had no participation in employment or education. 55.1% of youth with ASD maintained paid employment throughout the six years after they exited high school, and 34.7% had attended college during that period. The researchers suggested that youth with ASD from low SES families were at particular risk for poor outcomes (Shattuck et al., 2012).

Socioeconomic status has an important impact on families’ access to ASD services through a child’s lifespan, and therefore on the federal government’s ability to provide services to this population. There is growing evidence that SES has an effect on families’ access to ASD diagnosis and health care services (Pettygrove et al., 2013).

Furthermore, the nature of ASD is unique in that it is characterized by difficulties in social communication, which can be a particularly complex characteristic to recognize and assess as such impairment can be subtle yet

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profound. The growing subpopulation of transition-age youth with high-functioning autism (HFA) (Lai et al., 2014) presents an important group for early intervention. If SSI severity measures are not sensitive to the particular functional challenges for those with HFA, SSA will reduce its chance of promoting successful transition of youth with HFA to higher education and employment, thereby increasing the risk of these youth entering SSA as adult SSI applicants and recipients. By serving youth with ASD before they transition into adulthood, SSA can promote economic independence in people with ASD. Due to the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype, one child with ASD may function vastly differently than another. Therefore, IDEA and SSI’s definitions and guidelines of severity are particularly impactful on eligibility. These social communication difficulties create unique challenges in the ability to learn, perform daily living skills, and work, and in real-life school and job scenarios these deficits are barriers to success.

Synthesis of the main findings/results of the study Findings in this paper include the demonstration of a sharp increase in service delivery to youth with ASD from both agencies; distinctive evidence required from each agency for establishing existence of ASD; and compelling support in the literature for ways in which SES may affect both agencies’ service delivery.

The author of this paper analyzed IDEA and SSA data to produce descriptive data and report trends in service delivery to youth with ASD. The author found that the percent of the total U.S. population of youth ages zero to 21 served by SSI and/or IDEA for autism has increased. From 2001 to 2011, the number of students served under IDEA Part B for ASD more than quadrupled (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). In the same time span, the number of children receiving SSI payments for ASD has more than tripled (Social Security Administration, 2012). This paper includes several data analyses by the author showing trends in ASD versus intellectual disability; percent of children served for autism under SSI and IDEA by age range; percent of the total U.S. population of youth served under SSI and IDEA for autism; number of youth served under IDEA and SSI for autism over a ten-year period; and the ratio of children receiving benefits under SSI for ASD to children receiving IDEA services.

While definitions of ED and SSA have many similarities, the difference between the two definitions is more apparent in their treatment of severity threshold for determining eligibility. Evidence required for IDEA is different than evidence required for SSA eligibility in ways that have important effects on families of lower SES and that create redundant costs for the federal government. Furthermore, due to the heterogeneity of the ASD phenotype, IDEA and SSI’s definitions and guidelines of severity are particularly impactful on eligibility.

For all of these findings, the author describes implications for service delivery and transition outcomes, and makes recommendations based on the findings.

References Lai, M., Lombardo, M. V., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Autism. Lancet, 383(9920), 896-910.

Pettygrove, S., Pinborough-Zimmerman, J., Meaney, F.J., Van Naarden Braun, K., Nicholas, J., Miller, L., Miller, J., & Rice, C. (2013). Predictors of ascertainment of autism spectrum disorders across nine U.S. communities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(8), 1867-1879.

Shattuck, P., Narendorf, S.C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P.R., Wagner, M., Taylor, J.L. (2012).

Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder.

Pediatrics, 129 (6), 1042 - 9.

Social Security Administration. (2012). SSI Statistical Report, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/ssi_asr/2011/index.html U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). Digest of Education Statistics, 2012 (NCES 2014-015), Chapter 2.

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Composite Portrait of Unaccompanied Minors and Challenges for School Districts & ESL/ESOL Professionals Gerald B. Ndikintum Problem In this presentation I examine the latest problem facing schools in the Northern Virginia Region: Unaccompanied Minors (UAM) coming into K-12 schools. I examined the geopolitical situation in Central American and South American countries that is causing this massive exodus and the challenges being faced by teachers. I also open a window on a few practices that have worked elsewhere where school districts were better prepared and end with suggestions about how this situation could be handled differently.

Genesis of the problem Early last spring 2014 it was all over the news: unaccompanied minors crossing the South Eastern US border in greater numbers than had ever been seen. Politicians immediately jumped on the influx for short-term gain or to bash federal government. What many people only gave a cursory look at was the impact this recent wave of immigration was going to have on schools and other educational facilities. In the NOVA region educational planners seem to have been caught flat-footed and so are playing catch-up, trying to recruit teachers, provide funds and space. However, these planners are forgetting the most important thing: educating teachers and other education personnel about the differences between these new students and traditional immigrant students. That is what this presentation sets out to accomplish.

Suggested solutions In the Northern Virginia Region school districts were making projections for the new school year based on student numbers from fall 2013 and winter 2014. For this reason several schools lost teaching positions especially in English as a Second Language (ESL) /English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) departments. When schools resumed this fall, districts were faced with an unprecedented rise in high school ESOL enrollments and to a lesser degree, middle school ESOL enrollments. All enrollment projections for this year went down the drain as more and more students enrolled as a result of Virginia Statutes ยง1.241 regarding the education of homeless children, ยง1.28 regarding the education of illegal aliens, ยง1.3 regarding compulsory attendance, and the No Child Left behind (NCLB).

References Aronson Fuentes, L. (2010). Child Abuse issues with refugee population pt. 1: Recognizing suspected child maltreatment in culturally diverse refugee families. Retrieved October 15, 2014 from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/BRYCS-Webinar-I-3-17-2010.pdf Bishop, M. E. (2013). Site-based leadership (Personal Communication) George Washington University, fall 2013.

FCPS. (2014). Reunification of immigrant families. Retrieved October 15, 2014 from http://www.fcps.edu/cco/fam/reunification.shtml Holder, Frank, 2014. Public insecurity for Latin America. Retrieved October 8, 2014 from http://www.fticonsulting.com/global2/media/collateral/united-states/2014-latin-america-securityindex.pdf http://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children

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Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Mongeau, L. (n.d.) Unaccompanied minors bring hope, past trauma to American Schools. Retrieved January 5, 2015 from http://hechingerreport.org/unaccompanied-minors-bring-hope-past-trauma-american-schools/ Sanchez, C. (2014). New Orleans schools face a surge of unaccompanied minors. Retrieved October 10, 2014 from http://www.npr.org/blogs/ed/2014/10/02/351438375/new-orleans-schools-face-a-surge-ofunaccompanied-minors TCenter for Applied Linguistics. Seven principles of effective instruction for English Learners.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate in Mixed-Ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Zausmer, J. (2014). Counties look at cost of educating unaccompanied minors who crossed border. Washington Post. Retrieved October 10, 2014 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/counties-lookat-cost-of-educating-unaccompanied-minors-who-crossed-border/2014/10/09/1f883fdc-4e6c-11e4-8c24487e92bc997b_story.html

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