ENGLISH LANGUAGE A LEVEL DIGITAL FILE This is what, page for page, your ‘real world’ file should contain. If you miss a class, simply print off the notes you’ve missed, complete the exercises, and add to your own file
Welcome to English Language A level During the next two years you’ll study four units: Language in Context and Language and Identity followed by Child Acquisition of Language in your first year. In your second year you’ll study Diachronic variation (the history of English) and do an exciting investigation into a topic are of your choice from Language and Power, English as a Global Language and Language and Identity. We hope you’ll enjoy this exciting and thought provoking course, and perhaps even go onto study a related degree such as Linguistics or Advertising and Marketing. But whatever you do, in taking this course you’ll become a better receiver (hear, read and analyse) and a better producer (writer, speaker) of English.
September 1, 2015
Contents 1. Scheme of Work/ Contents What you’ll be doing throughout the year
Pages 2 and 3
2. Language Frameworks a) Open word classes. Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Adjectives b) Closed word classes. Pronouns Determiners Conjunctions Prepositions c) Phrasing and Modification: Premodification Postmodification d) Clause Elements Subject Object Predicator Adverbial Complement e) Clause Types Subordination Non finite Clauses Relative Clauses ‘That’ Clauses Conditional Clauses Main Clauses f) Sentence types Minor Simple Compound Complex Compound complex
4 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 14 15 17 19 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 30 31 32 33
3. Language and Context Language and Persuasion 1. Advertising 2. Politics 3. Law Language and Information 1. Broadcast news 2. Print Journalism 3. Travel Writing 4. Blog writing 5. Websites
Page 35 38 42 43 45 46 48 50
4. Language and Identity
Branding Copy writing Autobiography Biography
52 54 56 58
5. Child Acquisition of Language Constructivist theories Nativist theories
60 64
6. Glossary of Terms 7. Past Questions 8. Example Answers Term 1 Introduction to English Language A level
67 70 77 Term 2
Term 3
2) Copywriting
Piaget
3)Autobiography
Terms Revision
MOCK EXAM
Exam Revision
HALF TERM
HALF TERM
4) Biography
OA Level
Child Language Acquisition
Original Writing
Chomsky
Genre Study: Crime Fiction
Piaget
Genre Study: Travel Writing
Introduction to Grammar Language and Context 1)Advertising 2) Law HALF TERM 3) Politics Language and Identity Other Theories 1) Branding
LANGUAGE FRAMEWORKS a) OPEN CLASS NOUNS
(naming words)
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
refer to physical things like people, objects and places. They are things that can be observed and measured: This is my guitar I bumped my head on the table.
refer to ideas, processes, occasions, times and qualities; they cannot be touched or seen: sadness / month / birth / entrapment
Hint: Imagine owning a large hooped ring. Most of the time, if you can place the noun inside the ring it is concrete, if not, it is abstract. For example, sadness (abstract) cannot go into the ring but tears (concrete) can. Proper nouns
Common nouns
refer to names of specific people/places: Danny Smith / Wales / Britain / Batman
Collective nouns Are singular in form but refer to groups of people/animals/things:
classify things into general types or categories. These make up the majority of nouns: car / table / chair / folder
Plural nouns Plural nouns refer to nouns which are more than one in number: cars/ stories/ hooves / teeth
crowd / committee (Note that some nouns can be both: eg: joy / the joys of Spring)
Count nouns refer to nouns that can be counted. They can take the plural form: car (two cars) pot (three pots)
Non-count nouns refer to nouns that cannot be counted. They have no plural form and do not follow the indefinite article (a): silver / information
TASKS
Identify the nouns used in the following sentences. Write the type of noun underneath each one (note there may be more than one answer for some):
1. Emily loves Michael Jackson; she listens to his albums.
2. His car runs like a dream. His family can now enjoy a quiet journey.
3. My frustration and anger surprised the band.
VERBS express actions and states
Dynamic Verbs express a wide range of actions which may be physical. They can be used as commands and occur after the verb to be with an –ing ending: Eg: to buy – buy – buying to jump – jump – jumping to kick – kick - kicking
Stative Verbs express states of being or processes in which there is no obvious action. They are not often used as commands and do not usually occur after the verb to be with an – ing ending Eg: to know / to believe / to remember / to realise / to suppose / to appear
Auxiliary and Lexical Verbs These are the two main types of verbs: lexical and auxiliary Auxiliary Verbs can be used to construct different timescales, questions and negatives, to add emphasis or give information about the mood or attitude of a speaker/writer. They ‘support’ the main verb. Eg: I can not travel. I have been watching you. You will not help that man. (Note that more than one auxiliary verb can be used in a verb phrase) Primary Verbs The primary verbs to be, to have and to do can act as auxiliary or lexical verbs. Lexical Verbs express the meaning in a verb phrase. They are also known as ‘main’ or ‘full’ verbs: Eg: The man ran up the hill She kicked the ball. You will not help that man.
For the Nouns and Verbs voiced over Powerpoint click here
Modal Verbs Modal verbs convey a range of attitudes and moods about the likelihood of an event taking place. There are 9: can / could / may / might / must / shall / should / will / would
Transitive Verbs Transitive verbs have to be followed by an object (the person/thing to which the action of theverb is being done) to complete their meaning: Eg: I carried the baby They found the ring We can make a Christmas cake
Intransitive Verbs Intransitive verbs do not need to be followed by an object to make sense. Many verbs describing position (like to sit and to lie) and motion (like to run and to go) are intransitive. The verb will often be followed by a description of place/destination. Eg: It happened. The children laughed.
ADJECTIVES
(provide extra information about nouns)
They give details of physical qualities like colour and shape, and of psychological qualities like emotions. They also provide evaluative judgements.
Grading Adjectives can be graded so that nouns can be compared: Comparative adjectives Superlative adjectives offer comparisons adding –er or more + adjective: add –est or most+adjective: eg: happiest / longest / eg: happier / longer / more fortunate most fortunate (Note that some adjectives are irregular: good/ better/ best) Position of adjectives
Attributive adjectives refer to adjectives that premodify (come before) nouns: Eg: the blue sea / the happy children
Predicative adjectives refer to adjectives that come after the noun (and before copula verbs such as to be or linking verbs like to seem and to become): Eg: the sea is blue / the children are happy The sea became blue; the children seem happy
TASKS Identify the comparative or superlative adjectives (you can write the type of adjective underneath):
Welcome to SupermarketsSpecial.co.uk. We offer the finest products at the best prices. We offer a unique online service that allows you to order your choices. Shopping this way is quick and reliable. It is the fastest way to shop you’ll find. SupermarketsSpecial.com: we put the ‘ping’ in shopping.
Identify whether the following adjectives are attributive or predicative: Welcome to SupermarketsSpecial.co.uk. We offer the finest products at the best prices. We offer a unique online service that allows you to order your choices. Shopping this way is quick and reliable. It is the fastest way to shop you’ll find. SupermarketsSpecial.com: we put the ‘ping’ in shopping.
ADVERBS
are modifying words
Adverbs give information about time place and manner and can express a speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of what is being said.
Adverbs can modify: Verbs: The car drove slowly Adjectives: The house was very pretty Other adverbs: They painted particularly carefully this time. Sentences: Certainly, the work will be completed on time. I went home; my friend, meanwhile, stayed to chat.
Circumstance adverbs modify verbs giving details of circumstances like time, manner and place: Time: You must go to school now Manner: He was sleeping well / the cat was fighting furiously Place: I lost my wallet downstairs (and frequency: I always visit the pub on Monday; I never stay at home.)
Sentence adverbs modify whole sentences. They can express speakers’/writers’ attitudes, allowing them to comment on what is being said or written and they can be used to link sentences:
Degree adverbs modify adjectives or adverbs. Degree: It is very good to see you / I really missed you. / I’m so glad to be back. (note these examples can also be called intensifiers)
Attitude: I could perhaps go to work, but surely you could call someone else. Linking: Firstly, I intend to leave; however, I will write to you.
TASKS
Identify the adverbs: 1. Robert was extremely quiet.
6. Try harder in future.
2. I often have toast for breakfast.
7. I misplaced my card recently.
3. The ballerina performed beautifully.
8. Drive slowly on the roads.
4. The temperature dropped considerably during the night.
9. He runs incredibly quickly.
5. I can see the point of that now.
10. You need to leave quietly.
b) CLOSED CLASS PRONOUNS A pronoun is a word that stands in place of a noun. Pronouns help to eliminate the repetition of nouns within a text. Personal Pronouns Subject Pronouns are used when it is clear who the actor of the sentence is: eg. ‘Gemma visited today. She was in a good mood.’ First person singular: I Second person singular: you Third person singular: he/she/it
First person plural: we Second person plural: you Third person plural: they
Object Pronouns replace the noun that receives the action of the verb (the object): eg. ‘The delivery men promised to carry the parcels indoors but they left them outside’:
First person singular: me Second person singular: you Third person singular: him/her/it
First person plural: us Second person plural: you Third person plural: them
Possessive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns are used to show possession of something: eg. ‘It is mine’: First person singular: mine Second person singular: yours Third person singular: his/hers
First person plural: ours Second person plural: yours Third person plural: theirs
Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns are used when the same person is the actor (subject) and receiver of the action (object) in a sentence. They can also be used for emphasis, for example: You really should take more care of yourself. First person singular: myself Second person singular: yourself Third person singular: himself/herself/itself
First person plural: ourselves Second person plural: yourselves Third person plural: themselves
Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative pronouns ‘point’ to the relationship between the speaker and the person or thing. There are four: 1. this 2. these (close to the speaker) 3. that 4. those (something more distant)
Interrogative Pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions: 1. what 2. which 3. who 4. whom 5. whose
Relative Pronouns Relative Pronouns follow directly from the nouns they describe. There are five forms: 1. that 2. which 3. who 4. whom 5. whose
Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns have a less certain reference point than other pronouns. There are two types: 1. of pronouns: all of / both of / either or / neither of / some of 2. compound pronouns: everything / something / anything / nothing / everybody / nobody / somebody
DETERMINERS Determiners are placed before nouns to determine definiteness, quantity, number or possession. There are five main types: 1. Articles 2. Possessive determiners 3. Demonstrative determiners 4. Indefinite determiners 5. Numbers
Articles Articles can be definite (the) or indefinite (a or an). The former specifies something particular, while the latter does not. Possessive Determiners These are used to suggest ownership of a noun. There are seven forms: 1. my 2. your 3. his 4. her 5. its 6. our 7. their Demonstrative Determiners They express a contrast, establishing either a close or more distant relationship. Like demonstrative pronouns, there are four demonstrative determiners: 1. this 2. these (close to the speaker) 3. that 4. those (something more distant) For example:
This week is going by so quickly Shall I keep these coupons aside for you? That man is tall. Those buildings are miles away!
Note demonstrative determiners are all a part of noun phrases here (‘this week’ / ‘these coupons’ / ‘that man’ and ‘those buildings’). Indefinite Determiners Indefinite determiners show a range of meanings. The most common examples are: all, some, any, no; every, each, either, neither, one, another; both, several, enough; many, more, most, few, little, fewer, less, fewest, least. Numbers When numbers precede (come before) a noun they are functioning as determiners.
when placed before nouns, one, two, three, etc. are known as cardinal determiners when placed before nouns, first, second, third, etc. are known as ordinal determiners
For example: She has two chances to hit the target (cardinal determiner). He was the third athlete to win the prize. (cardinal determiner).
QUICK TASKS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
What is the first person singular subject pronoun? ______ What is ‘my’? _____________________________ Identify the underlined pronoun: ‘their car is fast’. _____________________________ What is ‘me’? ____________________________________________ What is special about the pronoun ‘you’?_____________________________________
PREPOSITIONS describe relationships that exist between elements in sentences.
Particles
Prepositions convey the following relationships:
look like prepositions. A particle along with
Place: at / on / by / opposite
a verb in a phrasal verb forms a single unit:
Direction: towards / past / out of / through
Eg.
Comparison: as...as / like
He kicked in the door
Source: from / out of
We ran up a bill
Purpose: for
Time: at / before / in / on
Decide whether the words underlined in the following sentences are prepositions or particles: 1) Judith ran into the bedroom. 2) Will you carry on preparing the meal? 3) The warring factions gave in to the demands of the United Nations. 4) The sea rolled inexorably towards the defensive wall. 5) The car broke down at the traffic lights. 6) The plane rose high above me, but I could still remember the moment of take-off. 7) It’s difficult to be a single-parent family and to bring up two children alone. 8) I turned to my companion and we went down to the basement. 9) They cleared out the attic ready for moving-day. Complete the grid by identifying the prepositions and the type of prepositions in the following extract: Pete left his bag on the table and shuffled towards the door. He was not like his brother. He would not come home in the evening. Pete reached for his key, lifted it out of his pocket and slotted it into the keyhole.
Preposition
Type of Preposition
ON
Place
CONJUNCTIONS are joining words. 2 main types: co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions
Conjunctions are joining words; there are two types: co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions. We also speak of correlative conjunctions and relative pronouns.
Co-ordinating conjunctions link lexical units of equal value. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to link balanced words, phrases, and clauses. Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause. Relative Pronouns begin a subordinate clause and connect that clause to another noun that precedes it in the sentence. The most important of these (for the moment) are co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions: Co-ordinating conjunctions The mnemonic device FANBOYS (below) can help you to remember co-ordinating conjunctions.The most important ones to remember are: And, Or and But: F
A
N
B
O
Y
S
for
and
nor
but
or
yet
so
Sample Sentences: We have tickets for the symphony and the opera. The orchestra rehearses on Tuesday, but the chorus rehearses on Wednesday.
What is being linked? noun phrase + noun phrase sentence + sentence
Have you seen or heard the opera by Scott Joplin? I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early.
verb + verb sentence + sentence
Subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause: Sample Sentences: The subordinate clauses are underlined: We are going out to eat after we finish taking the test.
Since we have lived in Atlanta, we have gone to every exhibit at the High Museum. While I was waiting in line for the Matisse Exhibit, I ate my lunch. Although the line was long and the wait over two hours, the exhibit was well worth it Even if you have already bought your ticket, you will still need to wait in line. I love Matisse's works because he uses color so brilliantly.
Subordinating conjunctions can indicate: Time
Cause and Effect
Opposition
Condition
after
Because
although
if
Before
Since
Though
Unless
When
Now that
Even though
Only if
While
As
whereas
Whether or not
Since
In order that
while
In case (that)
until
so
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to link balanced words, phrases, and clauses. Sample Sentences:
What is being linked?
Correlative conjunctions:
subject+subject
both...and
noun+noun
either...or
subject+subject
neither...nor
sentence+sentence
not only...but also
Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven. Neither the orchestra nor the chorus was able to overcome the terrible acoustics in the church Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of their concerts.
Relative pronouns
List of all relative pronouns: who whom whose which that what whoever whomever whichever whatever
Relative Pronouns begin a subordinate clause and connect that clause to another noun that precedes it in the sentence. Sample Sentences: It is a book that is difficult to ignore. The dog, which is a terrier, is four years old. I will consider renting or buying, whichever works out best. ‘that’ relative pronouns do not change the form with gender, person, or number. Only ‘who’ changes form with case: Subjective: ‘who’ Objective: ‘whom’ Possessive: ‘whose’
Sample Sentences: The girl who told me the story lives down the street. The girl whom I chose will get a present. I am not sure whose that is.
TASK
Identify whether the following sentences use: co-ordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or relative pronouns: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Michael sat down and waited for David to arrive. _______________________________ *This is the shop that I was talking about. __________________________ You’re going nowhere until you wash up. ___________________________ Until you wash up you’re not going out. ________________________________ I don’t watch football but I like rugby. ______________________________ I do the lottery whereas Danny saves his money. _________________________ Natasha and I went to the beach while it was sunny. ________________ &_______________
*What is interesting about the use of ‘that’ in sentence 2? p11
ANSWERS Nouns: Answers Identify the nouns used in the following sentences. Write the type of noun underneath each one: Note that those that are not proper nouns can also be labelled common nouns: 1. Emily loves Michael Jackson; she listens to his albums. Emily: proper noun Michael Jackson: proper noun albums: plural concrete noun
2. His car
runs like a dream. His family can now enjoy a quiet journey. car: concrete noun dream: abstract noun family: collective noun journey: abstract noun
3. My frustration and anger surprised the band. frustration: abstract noun anger: abstract noun band: collective noun
For links to further online tasks press CTRL and click here
Adjectives: Answers Identify the comparative or superlative adjectives. Identify whether adjectives are attributive or predicative. ‘finest’ = attributive + superlative
Welcome to SupermarketsSpecial.co.uk. We offer the finest products at the best prices. ‘best’ = attributive + superlative
We offer a unique online service that allows you to order your choices. Shopping this way ‘unique’ = attributive ‘online’ = attributive
is quick and reliable. It is the fastest way to shop you’ll find. SupermarketsSpecial.com: we ‘quick’ = predicative ‘reliable’ = predicative
put the ‘ping’ in shopping.
‘fastest’ = attributive + superlative
Adverbs: Answers Identify the adverbs: 1. Robert was extremely quiet. 2. I often have toast for breakfast. 3. The ballerina performed beautifully.
For links to further online tasks press CTRL and click here
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
The temperature dropped considerably during the night. I can see the point of that now. Try harder in future. I misplaced my card recently. Drive slowly on the roads. He runs incredibly quickly. You need to leave quietly.
Pronouns and Determiners: Answers 1. What is the first person singular subject pronoun? __I____ 2. What is ‘my’? ___first person singular possessive determiner__ 3. Identify the underlined pronoun: ‘their car is fast’. __third person plural possessive determiner_______ 4. What is ‘me’? __first person singular object pronoun___________ 5. What is special about the pronoun ‘you’? _It can be:____singular/plural/object/subject_____ Decide whether the underlined words in the following sentences are prepositions or particles: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)
Judith ran into the bedroom. Preposition Will you carry on preparing the meal? Particle The warring factions gave in to the demands of the United Nations. Particle The sea rolled inexorably towards the defensive wall. Preposition The car broke down at the traffic lights. Particle The plane rose high above me, but I could still remember the moment of take-off. Preposition It’s difficult to be a single-parent family and to bring up two children alone. Particle I turned to my companion and we went down to the basement. Preposition They cleared out the attic ready for moving-day. Particle
Identify the prepositions used in the following extract and identify what types of preposition are used: Pete left his bag on the table and shuffled towards the door. He was not like his brother. He would not come home in the evening. Pete reached for his key, lifted it out of his pocket and slotted it into the keyhole.
Prepositions and type of prepositions: on: place / towards: direction / like: comparison / in: time for: purpose / out of: source / into: direction Conjunctions: Answers Identify whether the following sentences use: co-ordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, or relative pronouns: 1. Michael sat down and waited for David to arrive. ___co-ordinating conjunction_____ 2. *This is the shop that I was talking about. _______relative pronoun___ 3. You’re going nowhere until you wash up. _____subordinating conjunction_____ 4. Until you wash up you’re not going out. ___(foregrounded) subordinating conjunction___ 5. I don’t watch football but I like rugby. ________co-ordinating conjunction_____ 6. I do the lottery whereas Danny saves his money. _____subordinating conjunction____ 7. Natasha and I went to the beach while it was sunny. __co-ord conj__&_subord. conj__
*What is interesting about the use of ‘that’ in sentence 2? The relative pronoun ‘that’ is sometimes ellipted (omitted): ‘This is the shop that I was talking about’.
Click on the image below, or here, to watch The Importance of Grammar.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES: - 10 questions on Grammar from the BBC website - BBCs ‘6 minute grammar’ lessons: learn grammar in 6 minutes pod casts!
TEST YOURSELF!
Identify whether the following are concrete or abstract nouns: 1. tree _____________________ 2. sadness ______________________ 3. apple ____________________ 4. joy ___________________ 5. mind _____________________ 6. brain ____________________ 7. button ____________________ 8. depression ______________________ 9. love _____________________ Identify whether the following words are common or proper nouns:
10. tree ________________________ 11. England _______________________ 12. pear _________________________ 13. book ______________________ 14. Sheila _____________________ 15. woman _____________________ 16. The Lord of the Rings _______________________