Habs History Magazine issue 3, 2021
Cultural
Interactions
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A note from the editors Welcome to this years issue of the History Magazine! This Jessica Wilde years issue is on the theme of cultural interactions and we shares how to overcome have chosen this theme because it explores ablock. range of writer's Story on p. 20 periods in history as to how different cultures have either benefitted or have been disadvantaged from interacting. This theme really allows our writers to think creatively and to explore a different period of history in a new perspective than they had before. All of the articles in the magazine have responded in diverse and creative ways to the theme of cultural interactions. There are some articles on early interactions starting in the 1200s to modern interactions in the 20th century. We have loved reading and editing all of the articles and are so thankful to all of our editors who have helped along the way. I have thoroughly enjoyed designing the magazine, even with some frustrations at time, it has turned out much better than I could have imagined! Thank you, Lauren and Lexi
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Thanks to all our editors and contributors this year, especially Lauren for formatting the magazine. Students have responded to our theme this year in lots of interesting ways. Enjoy and discuss! Mr Heyman
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CONTENTS Habs History Magazine Articles Cargo cults- when isolated cultures meet the
Jessica Wilde shares how to overcome writer's block. world......By Madison Sinclair Story on p. 20
Cultural Conflict in Hong Kong ............... By Amelia Howie The Dreyfus affair, 1895: a symbol of injustice which split France along deep cultural divides for decades....... By Hannah Haskel
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The Golden State: How much Immigration made California the most diverse state in the US ............... By Ellie Thomson
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Historical Migration to the UK..... By Claudia Caisley
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How have African American artists responded to and influenced the civil rights movement in america in the 1960s-70s? .......By Scarlett Harrison Maurer
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How Sino-Indian relations have affected the Indian and Chinese Cultures Today............ By Sia Kulkarni
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The impact of colonialism in causing the Rwandan Genocide....... By Jasmine Calder
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Impact of Missionaries on indigenous cultures in East Asia ............... By Lauren Frankal
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The Principle of Secularism in France ............... By Talia Rubin
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CARGO CULTS- WHEN ISOLATED CULTURES MEET THE WORLD BY MADISON SINCLAIR There are many thousands of islands in the Pacific Ocean, It was once the war ended and supplies dropped that the though few are actually inhabited. These inhabited islands cargo cults arose. The islanders tried to imitate the range from places like Papua New Guinea, which has a behaviour of the Americans in hope that the deities and/or population of close to 9 million, to islands like Pitcairn which ancestors would send cargo again. The islanders built has an estimated population of only 50. Population size is not aeroplanes using materials they had with them, for example the only thing that varies between the islands; so does wood and coconut shells. Islanders also fabricated control religion. Some islands have religious practices which are towers and waved landing signals while standing on the unique and unfamiliar to us, others are well known. Easter runways, in hope of getting new supplies. Island for example is scattered with large stone heads, Moai, which are thought to represent the spirits of ancestors, However, the Melanesian islands, though the most famous chiefs, or other high-ranking males. More common are example, was not the first cargo cult. The first cargo cult islands practising Western religions such as Christianity, a recorded was the Tikka Movement. In this cult, islanders consequence of the large movement of Christian missionaries mimicked the behaviour of their colonisers dating back to around two hundred years ago across the Pacific. 1874 when Fiji became a British crown colony. They hoped in this way to ‘return to a golden age of ancestral potency’. One religion is of more recent origin: cargo cults. A cargo cult Cargo cults have been recorded in New Guinea and other is a name given to religious groups who believe ritual worship countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and the West Pacific will cause a more technologically advanced society, which will Ocean. There is even a Prince Philip cargo cult practised by bring them material wealth (cargo). the Kastom people on the southern island of Tanna in Vanuatu who believe that Prince Philip is a divine being. This The most famous example of a cargo cult, indeed the belief dates from his official visit to Vanuatu in 1974 when a phenomenon which led to the coining of the term ‘cargo cult’, few villagers had the opportunity to see Prince Phillip from a is that founded by the Melanesian islanders. It wasn’t until distance. 1945 that they came into contact with Western civilisation when the American military during World War II visited the A few cargo cults have survived to this day, the Vanuatu cargo island. The islanders were exposed to the vast quantities of cult is one example. The cult is part of the John Frum supplies, delivered by plane and parachute drop, which the Movement who worship a spirit that was reinforced during soldiers had brought with them. The soldiers were happy to WWII when US forces landed with significant amounts of cargo. trade spare supplies with the islanders and the new supplies In 2007 it celebrated its 50th anniversary, which marks the changed the expectations of the islanders. formal establishment of the John Frum movement. It also
recognizes the day when villagers raised the American flag for the first time in this isolated corner of the South Pacific. Villagers believe that the spirit of John Frum sent the US military to their island with the cargo and that he instructed the villagers to rebel against the teachers of Christian missionaries and instead have faith in their own customs.
'Figure 1: the aeroplane the islanders built, made from wood and coconut shells
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'Figure 2: John Frum Movement ceremonial cross, Vanuatu cargo cult, Tanna Island
Cargo cults show how religion can be formed with the unknown provisions of goods combined with the absence of a scientific method to explain where they came from. Humanity often uses religion, worship and Gods, as a way to fill a void for things they cannot explain. From an outside perspective, it is clear that the cargo came from soldiers from WWII. However, to an isolated society that has never come across technology like that, it is easy to assume that there must a deeper, religious reason to why this cargo and people with ‘magical powers’ and resources arrived on the island.
Remains from Cargo Cult now for public viewing
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CULTURAL CONFLICT IN HONG KONG BY AMELIA HOWIE
From conflict in the 19th century, to the recent riots starting in 2019, the history of Hong Kong is full of complex cultural interactions, often resulting in drastic changes to its governance. Despite this, many of the people of Hong Kong are dedicated to preserving their rights and freedoms, leading protests that often have disastrous consequences in an attempt to prevent influence from the Chinese government. In the 18th century, Britain bought a lot of tea from China, but China did not buy much in return. To balance the trade, Britain began selling the addictive drug opium. As more and more Chinese people became addicted, China banned the import of opium, leading to what became known as the First Opium War. China lost the war and as a result, was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking and the Treaty of the Bogue, giving up Hong Kong Island and allowing it to become a British colony in 1841.
Hong kong became prosperous under British Rule Over the next half-century which included a Second Opium War, Britain gained control over the remaining main regions of Hong Kong: the Kowloon Peninsula and finally the New Territories which form the majority of Hong Kong today. The New Territories were leased to Britain for 99 years, after which China would regain control of its leased lands on July 1, 1997.In the meantime, Hong Kong became very prosperous under British rule and became one of the wealthiest countries in the world. As the end of the treaty grew closer, it became clear that separating the New Territories from the rest of Hong Kong was impossible. Consequently, in 1984 Margaret Thatcher and China’s premier Zhao Ziyang signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which agreed that China would give Hong Kong some control over its own governance through a one country, two systems policy for 50 years.
This is not due to expire until 2047, but the Hong Kong government attempted to allow extradition to Taiwan and mainland China after a man murdered his girlfriend on holiday in Taiwan and fled back to Hong Kong to escape justice. This caused riots and civil unrest as people feared that it would give China too much control over their politics and legal systems. However, their unhappiness was not limited to this one particular law, as even after the bill was withdrawn due to the severity of the situation, the protests and riots did not stop, with one of the most violent being on the anniversary of the transfer of Hong Kong from British to Chinese rule. This occasion is usually marked by a peaceful protest, but in 2019 this turned violent, with the siege of the Legislative Council by thousands of protesters who believed that the government was not doing enough to prevent unfair incidents. These protests quickly gained momentum and have continued with people now feeling unable to express their political views in public without fear of attack. Many people are now trying to avoid being arrested for leading protests and many innocent bystanders live in fear of being caught up in the dangerous riots. Through the example of Hong Kong, we can see how cultural interactions can bring prosperity to a country but can also lead to conflict when very different cultures come together. Although China is not due to take control over Hong Kong for another 30 years, it is evident that many of the people of Hong Kong feel that they China is already beginning to have too much influence over their society. Although nobody knows how the situation will unfold it is clear that cultural interactions will continue to play a crucial role in Hong Kong’s future.
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THE DREYFUS AFFAIR, 1895: A SYMBOL OF INJUSTICE WHICH SPLIT FRANCE ALONG DEEP CULTURAL DIVIDES FOR DECADES BY HANNAH HASKEL January 1895, in the centre of the École Militaire in Paris, Jewish Captain Alfred Dreyfus had his French army decorations torn from his chest, having been wrongly convicted of treason and sent to ‘Devil’s Island’ to be imprisoned. Unbeknownst to onlookers at the time, this case, which became known as the ‘Dreyfus Affair’, would divide France for decades to come. 25 years earlier, in 1870, Napoleon III’s Second French Empire was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War and Prussia, which became Germany, imposed heavy reparations on France. Following this defeat, the Second Empire collapsed and was replaced by the Third Republic of France. A deep division emerged in France, between hard nationalists, who longed to avenge France against Germany and restore the monarchy, and pro-Republicans, who embraced the new Republic, and the democratisation that came with it. This desire for revenge in the nationalist sect, termed ‘Revanchism’, was embedded deeply in many sects of society, including Catholic traditionalists and the army, which was strongly ethnically nationalist.
A famous depiction of Deyfus's Military Degradation in 1865
This revanchist, or vengeful nationalist sentiment which was embedded in the army, caused a deep suspicion of minorities, especially Jews such as Dreyfus, who were suspected to be disloyal to France. This meant that when there was someone leaking French military secrets to Germany, Dreyfus, a high-ranking Jewish officer, was immediately suspected. Dreyfus was convicted by a closed military court in 1894, with dubious evidence, and sentenced to life imprisonment on the remote ‘Devil’s Island’, despite maintaining he was innocent.
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One year later, in 1896 when fresh evidence emerged identifying a lowlevel French aristocrat as the actual spy, the army sought to conceal it, determined to protect themselves from embarrassment. However, by this time, rumours started to circulate that Dreyfus had been wrongly imprisoned, and many pro-Republicans, who became known as ‘Dreyfusards’, campaigned for his release. However, they were opposed by ‘anti-Dreyfusards’, who, as ethnic nationalists and revanchists, saw Dreyfus as a symbol of Jewish disloyalty to France and accused the Dreyfusards of attempting to smear the army’s reputation. In 1898, Parisian novelist Emile Zola published an open letter entitled ‘J’accuse…!’, in which he accused the Army of prejudice, and demanded Dreyfus’s release, but was forced to flee to England after being prosecuted as a result. By this point, the dispute about the Dreyfus affair had become nationwide and reached a boiling point, culminating in hundreds of violent anti-Jewish riots across France, in support of the ‘anti-Dreyfusard’ campaign and the army. This demonstrates how the Dreyfus Affair gave rise to a deeper dispute about A depiction of a Jew, in 1893, on the front cover of ‘La Libre Parole’, an antiSemitic newspaper published by Edouard Drumont, a leading antiDreyfusard French identity and national pride and brought with it violence and anger.
Zola's 'J'accuse...! published on the front of his newspaper in 1898
As pressure mounted, Dreyfus was brought back to France for a retrial in 1899, yet despite the evidence which had exonerated Dreyfus, he was found guilty again by the military court, who were desperate to preserve the army’s reputation. In an attempt to appease the Dreyfusards and diffuse the deep conflict, the French President offered Dreyfus a pardon, on the condition that he publicly accepted guilt for passing military secrets to Germany. Dreyfus, who feared that he would die if he returned to Devil’s Island, accepted the plea, saying “The government of the republic has given me back my freedom. It is nothing for me without my honour”. It was not until 1906, over two decades after Dreyfus was publicly stripped of his army decorations in Paris, that he was publicly declared to be innocent and despite the treatment he had received, Dreyfus re-joined the army, fighting for France in World War One.
A depiction of a Jew, in 1893, on the front cover of 'La Libre Parole', an anti-semitic newspaper published by Edouard Drumont, a leading anit-Dreyfusard
The Dreyfus Affair embodied the clash between the two rival cultures of Revanchism and pro-Republicanism in France, exacerbating the deep cultural effects of the Franco-Prussian War. It also poignantly shows that in cultural clashes, innocent minorities are often subject to the most harm. If you are interested in learning more about the Dreyfus Affair, I would recommend listening to the ‘History: In Our Time’ Podcast Episode entitled ‘The Dreyfus Affair’ or reading Robert Harris’s fictional account of the Dreyfus Affair, entitled ‘An Officer and a Spy’.
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THE GOLDEN STATE: HOW IMMIGRATION MADE CALIFORNIA THE MOST DIVERSE STATE IN THE US BY ELLIE THOMSON California, America’s Golden State, has had a longstanding reputation for being a cultural hub for different ethnic backgrounds. This is for good reason: until 2010, the number of foreign-born residents exceeded the figure for those born in the state. Of state residents, 39% are Latino, 37% are white, 15% are Asian-American, and 6% are black, with the remainder being of multiracial or Pacific Island descent. In this melting pot of cultures, people live side-by-side, and have managed to convert a previously predominantly Caucasian area into one of vivacious diversity. Mexican immigration has, undoubtedly, left the biggest impression on Californian society and culture. Hispanic influences are seen all over the state: from Spanish street names, to numerous taco trucks and barrios. However, Hispanic influence was present long before mass immigration into the state. In fact, in 1821, when Mexican Independence was won back from Spain, California became a Mexican province, and its ethnic makeup was wholly Latino. It was only in 1826 when the first US citizens ventured into California, led by pioneer Jedediah Smith. Unfortunately, this occupation only lasted so long, as following the Mexican-American War of 1846-48, Mexico was forced to surrender any control of the state to the US, and Americans migrated West, draining the population of its Hispanic majority. Later, in the 1920s, 500,000 Mexicans migrated to the United States partially in search of refuge from the decade-long Mexican Revolution, and also because of the strengthening American economy. 30% of these immigrants settled in California, and their presence in agricultural, manufacturing, and domestic sectors quickly thickened. Regrettably, this influx was accompanied by a strong anti-minority sentiment, and immigrants were forced into segregated housing, with most Mexicans ending up in the ‘barrios’ of East Los Angeles.
Although this blatant racism has simmered down in the present day, Mexican Americans still find it difficult to win public office positions due to anti-immigration attitudes which are still present in more rural zones, and have only been reinforced by public figures, such as Donald Trump, who expressed strong prejudices against Mexicans throughout his time as President.In spite of this, many say that without Mexicans, California would fall apart. Hispanic residents keep the state running; not only in regard to their strong work ethic, but also their cultural presence in cities like Los Angeles and San Francisco. Olvera Street in Los Angeles is renowned for its celebration of Mexican culture and cuisine, and it’s a place that all of California’s residents, of any ethnic background, can enjoy.
Asian immigrants, without a doubt, have also shaped California’s current reality. Anti-Communist attitudes reigned the US in the early decades of the 20th century, and Asians were prohibited from gaining American citizenship. After the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the American government gathered up 93,000 Japanese Californian residents and relocated them to camps to keep ‘national security’ intact. Later, after realising their actions were vastly immoral, the federal government made efforts to compensate those who had been displaced: after 40 years of exclusion of Asian immigration into the US, in 1965, immigration policy was changed to include them. In the years after, Asian immigration into the Golden State soared, with around 40% of all Asian immigrants in the US living in California by 1990. There are countless examples of the impact of Asian culture in Los Angeles: Little Tokyo, Filipinotown, Chinatown, and Koreatown.
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African American immigration is a story of hardship, not unlike that of Mexican and Asian immigrants, and also one of triumph. Black Americans first began to migrate into California during the Great Migration, which began in 1916, and eventually ended in the 1970s. During the Second World War, there was a rush of black migration from the South to the West, which offered better opportunities in terms of work, and it seemed, in terms of racial equality. This, however, was not the case. Although racism was less obvious in California, it was still very much alive. Racist real estate policies forced African Americans into what some would call ‘spatial ghettos’, which were culturally segregated neighbourhoods, much like the ‘barrios’ occupied by Mexican immigrants at the time. Conditions here became dire quickly, as so many people were living in close proximity, and fights between residents began to break out. In addition to this, when black people ventured into white neighbourhoods, they were often attacked violently. The existence of white supremacy, along with racist policies constructed by the state government, are some of the main reasons for black gang formation in California, something that has categorised the African American population there for decades. In any case, black migrants in California have formed a proud, supportive community, one that spans time or distance. One can see black influences in West Coast rap music, a genre infamous for its slow, melodic beats and shrewd lyrics, or geographically, in areas like Leimert Park in LA, which is known for its stance on black activism and as a cultural hub for music and art.
The immigration history of California is one that is messy and imperfect, with many faults and blemishes. However, it’s one of immense victory as well, as the Golden State has managed to form for itself a reputation that will outlive time: one of community. California’s cultural diversity is one that other states in America should strive to follow. It determines California not only as the lively, artistic, and often glamorous place it’s known to be, but also as the pinnacle of 21st century living: the integration of ethnicity is the reality of modern-day life, and the Golden State represents this throughout. If one really wanted to witness the diversity of California first-hand, all you’d need to do is cycle an hour South West from Chinatown, and you’d pass Little Tokyo, Olvera Street, and Leimert Park all in succession.
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HISTORICAL MIGRATION TO THE UK BY CLAUDIA CAISLEY Migrants make up around 9% of the total UK population and net migration the UK every year is a huge 270,000 people. This migrant population is largely concentrated in London, with 37% of Londoners being foreign-born. We are fortunate to be able to witness the effects of living in such a culturally diverse city and in this article, I will discuss a range of events which have contributed to these now constant cultural interactions in the UK. Cultural interactions date back much further than we would think. As early as AD43, the Romans established control in Britain which led to the adoption of Roman culture and customs, such as sharing Greek myths and iconography in Latin literature and art. The capital city of Londinium became an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Empire, including people from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. The immersions of Roman culture into British society can still be clearly observed today, proving the powerful and almost permanent cultural impact of migration events. Skipping ahead to 1881, when Russian, Polish and German Jews suffered persecution in their home countries. For example, antiJewish pogroms began occurring after Imperial Russia acquired territories with large Jewish populations from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ottoman Empire during 1772 to 1815. This led to many Jews migrating to Britain, in order to escape, and settling in the Spitalfields area of London. By 1900, Jews accounted for around 95% of the population in the Wentworth Street district of Spitalfields. However, this caused problems such as overcrowding and poor sanitation, but nevertheless illustrates a more recent example of cultural interactions in London. After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1947 (the First Kashmir War), following the independence of India and subsequent partition of Pakistan and Bangladesh, many Asians migrated to the UK. They took up jobs such as working in corner shops, restaurants, textile factories and the NHS. This represents a clear interaction of cultures, in all aspects of British life, especially amongst the working population. Consequently, 6.9% of the UK population identified as Asian in the 2011 United Kingdom census. This represented a national demographic increase from a 4.4% share of UK population in 2001, as a result of natural increase, but also Asian Britons encouraging the widening of the Asian diaspora.
The Somali Civil War of 1991 A large-scale example of a post-war, post-WWII migration event came when 108,000 Somali migrants moved to the UK following the Somali Civil war, and subsequent political instability and severe droughts in the region. Over the 30 years of conflict between various competing fractions after the overthrow of Somali General and President, Siad Barre, 500,000 Somali lives were taken, forcing many to flee in fear of their livelihoods. The lasting effects of the war also triggered continuous famines and rising food prices, causing many Somalians to leave in search of a higher quality of life and food security. This migration actually resulted in multiple cultural interactions because many Somali asylum seekers fled to neighbouring countries initially, such as Ethiopia, before settling in the UK. Somalian migrants had a plethora of effects on the UK demographic and culture; they now figure among the top ten largest country of origin groups of people seeking asylum in the UK. This has brought changes to British culture, in terms of music, media and sport. For example, the BBC Somali service was created and the radio station is now transmitted in the Somali language around the world, and is also played Somali shops, restaurants and mosques in the UK.
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HOW HAVE AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTISTS RESPONDED TO AND INFLUENCED THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN AMERICA IN THE 1960S-70S? BY SCARLETT HARRISON-MAURER In this article I will discuss three artists who I have researched, and who have influenced the civil rights movement. These artists are Jacob Lawrence (1917-2000), Wadsworth A. Jarrell (1929- current) and Emory Douglas (1943- current). I will then conclude in explaining how a range of African American art has influenced the movement in the 1960/70s. I have selected these three artists because they spread across different times and styles, covering narrative, propaganda and art that connects with the community. These artists highlight the different ways artist responded to civil rights issues and how they reacted to it. All three were activists politically, and they all used their art to represent their culture and their perspectives. Emory Douglas, also known the freedom artist, was born 24th May 1943 and was originally Minister of Culture in the Black Panther Party in the 1960s. This party was a collective group of African American activists who believed in non-peaceful protesting. Emory’s images were printed on the covers and interiors of the organisation’s newspaper, The Black Panther. His art depicts African Americans as revolutionary soldiers, instead of victims. His illustrations of pigs to symbolise the police and politicians, made Douglas a heroic figure in his community and even sparked the attention of the United States government in 1969. He was known for his graphic arts, which were very dynamic and featured bright, eye catching colours and slogans. Through his art he projected his views on racism and segregation, making his voice heard. His quotes were known throughout the African American community, and he became a very well renowned activist in his time. One of his most famous quotes is: “You can murder a revolutionary, but you can’t murder revolution”,- just after the death of Martin Luther King Jr, in 1968. Douglas’ work was used as propaganda, to magnify how African Americans were persecuted and killed, as a result of segregation and political discrimination.Douglas influenced the civil rights movement by advertising to the community for the Black Panther group, who fought for black culture in American society.
Wadsworth A. Jarrell was a painter, sculptor and AFRICOBRA co-founder. He was born in Georgia on November 20th, 1929 and raised on a working farm. He got his inspiration from the evening post newspaper and knew from a young age that he wanted to be an illustrator. This is how he wanted to inform people about segregation and how important it was for it to be stopped. Wadsworth then became interested in art shown in museums, he wanted his art to be up there. Back in his home town in Georgia, during the 1960s to 1970s black people weren’t allowed their art in museums. Seeing the incredible artwork his people had made in Chicago inspired Jarrell. Wadsworth developed many distinct bodies of work including sculptures inspired by the African cultural traditions and a series dedicated to black jazz musicians. He also created a 300ft mural in, for the public to see, illustrating his views and perspectives on racism. His work was then noticed and sought after by many cultural museums such as the Museum of African American History. He then formed the AFRICOBRA organisation in 1968, where he and many others used their art to reflect the pain their people went through, and teach the rest of the world why racism is the biggest issue we have ever faced. AFRICOBRA was an organisation of artists who came together to make art inspired by their feelings about racial prejudice. His art is now still shown all over the world. You can tell that Wadsworth used his murals as a way of reaching out to the community, by making them extensive and detailed, catching the attention of his people.
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Jacob Lawrence was one the most revolutionary African American artists of his period. He was most known for producing narrative collections, like the Migration Series and War series for example, he often illustrated the African American experience using vivid colours set against Black and brown shaded figures. He was born on the 7th September 1917, he grew up in Harlem and attended free art classes at the Utopia Children’s house, where he excelled among the other students there. His hometown is frequently portrayed in his artworks, showing that he used real life experiences to inspire him. Created many artwork series, including Migration of the Negro in 1940, arguably his most prominent collection, which illustrates how African Americans were forced from their home countries, and were enslaved. You can tell by this that Jacob Lawrence influenced the civil rights movement through narrative, his art stood out because it was a visual representation of the repression African Americans had been through, it then became well known throughout America in the 1970’s-80’s. The similarities between each of these artists is how they have shown the prejudice that they have experienced. From art featuring slavery and the exploitation of black people, to sculpting and creating amazing murals, each artist has influenced the civil rights movement in their own unique way. Each had a different style, and portrayed their art in different ways, but they all showed passion for their culture and their people. Their art is shown where it wasn’t shown before due to racial segregation, but now it is shown in some of the world’s best know museums. Wadsworth A. Jarrell had his art featured in the Tate Modern, Jacob Lawrence had his art showcased at the Whitney Museum of art and Emory Douglas has had his shown in all of the societies in the world whom to this day are still facing segregation.Artists globally have been inspired by these artists to broadcast their views. The political figures have noticed the art and too have been inspired, including Barack Obama, who has also mentioned how influential art has been to him in terms of his culture. This is how art has influenced the civil rights movement.
"Angela Davis" made in 1979 By Wadsworth A. Jarrell
"The Business Men" made in 1947 By Jacob Lawrence
"Revolution in our time" made in 1969 By Emory Douglas
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HOW SINO-INDIAN RELATIONS HAVE AFFECTED THE INDIAN AND CHINESE CULTURES TODAY BY SIA KULKARNI With turbulent relations between India and China in recent years, it may be easy to forget their peaceful coexistence that had been maintained in the past. This article will be exploring the complex history of Sino-Indian relations, and how this affected the cultural transfers between the two major powers we see today. Historically, India and China had been very culturally intertwined, impacting the religious and social development in both countries. One of the most ancient and revered texts in Indian literaturethe epic Mahabharata, 4 BCE- contains many references to China’s tribal strength, whilst the Silk Road allowed the spread of Buddhism from India to China- a religion still practised by a fifth of its population today. As well as religious influences, the two countries have shared ancient ideologies and scholars. It is thought that India’s Vedic and China’s Shang-Zhou civilisations had each been influenced by the others’ culture. Additionally, the famous Chinese scholars, such as Xu Fancheng and Xuan Yang, had relocated to India to learn and study. Evidently, these countries have shared a great deal of influential people and religions in the past- partly owing to their development today. Contrasting this open relationship enjoyed in the early years of the first millennium, modern day India and China have a much more complicated relationship. By 1950, each country had gained independence, and their centralised governments, a direct contrast to their ancient civilisations, were hostile towards each other. This was mainly due to land disputes and divergent political views: the communist People’s Republic of China, in contrast to the capitalist India. This inconsistent relationship severely affected interactions. With some attempt at reconciliation in the 1950s, there were periods of increased cultural transfers. For example, in 1955, the Bandung Conference was held in the hope of strengthening India and China’s cultural relations, and following this conference, an Indian film festival was successfully held in over 20 Chinese major cities. However, this high was only temporary, with intergovernmental relations deteriorating again by 1959. During this time, cultural flows were greatly constricted. For a government exchange programme, devised in 1955, there was an agreed upon quota of 10 students to study in the other country.
However, in 1959 India sent four students to China, and China sent only one. Not only were the Indian students denied of some learning materials, but heavy antiIndian propaganda circulated Chinese media at the time. This, one example out of many, was a drastic reversal of the cultural progress seen just four years earlier- a direct consequence of poor Sino-Indian relations. With relationships fluctuating for the remaining 20th century, renewed and conscious reconciliation efforts began by 2000. Since then, despite some clashes (such as the Doklam Plateau dispute) both countries have attempted to maintain civil terms. The result is amplified cultural interactions, for example China was a co-sponsor of International Yoga Day in 2017, supporting the long-standing cultural practice in India. However, the objectives of these improved relations may not be for the most noble reasons. By strengthening relations, both countries see an advantage. For China, the benefit is possible communist expansion, perhaps explaining their concentrated attention on the Indian Communist Party. For India, the benefit is an economic one. In 2008, China was India’s leading trading partner, and has remained a prominent figure since. So, whilst the Indian and Chinese governments may be improving relations to enhance cultural interactions, it seems unlikely that this is the driving motivation.
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Overall, regarding China and India’s modern relationship, there is a clear correlation between international relations and cultural transfers. When times were amicable, the most rapid and fruitful interactions occurred, such as the exponential popularisation of Bollywood in China in the 1980s, causing a peak of Chinese tourists in India. This followed improved intergovernmental policies. Consequently, when times were hostile, cultural flows halted, consistently following the dates of wars and border disputes. Of course, this is only applicable to the modern day. In ancient times, when the lands were controlled by factions rather than a central power, cultural relations were mainly dictated by the Indian and Chinese people. The flow of Buddhism to China, and Chinese scholars to India, was not orchestrated by powerful organisations, but by the unrestricted free-flow of individuals. Now, it seems as though cultural relations have become the by-product of a race for economic and political dominance. It seems unlikely that they will return to the people-oriented cultural interactions of the past, so for now, the Indian and Chinese people must accept their position in the large hands of their powerful governments.
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THE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM IN CAUSING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE BY JASMINE CALDER The first Rwandan Genocide began on the 7th April 1994 and lasted until the 15th July 1994. During those 100 days, as many as 800,000 people died and 250,000 to 500,000 women were sexually assaulted. It was a humanitarian crisis that often goes unspoken about by the rest of the world, however the main cause for the massacre was the conquest of Rwanda (and the rest of Africa) by foreign powers. A memorial held in 2019 at UN Geneva to commemorate victims of the genocide During the 1800s, the area now called Rwanda was colonised by Germany for its natural resources and slaves. The two main tribes inhabiting the area were the Tutsi and Hutu. Despite having minor differences of interest, the two tribes had lived in peace since 700 BC, even sharing the same language and traditions. In fact, before German colonisation in 1884, members regularly moved between the Tutsi and Hutu. German colonists and missionaries moved into the region from 1897, and the official borders of Rwanda were established in 1900. The Germans enforced their culture onto the submissive ‘Rwandans’ (the Tutsi and Hutu had greater loyalty to their own tribes than the country they’d been forced into), and influenced the region massively. In Europe during this period, race was a large focus that was studied greatly, and this belief spread to the Rwandan colony. The Germans believed that the Tutsi were superior to the Hutus due to being taller, having more ‘Western’ personalities, and originating from the Horn of Africa, which was considered a more Western area than the rest of the continent. This created an artificial separation between the two tribes that eventually triggered the Rwandan Civil War, during which the genocide took place.
A Tutsi herdsman Over the years, this enmity grew as the Tutsi were put in charge of the Hutus in a feudal-type hierarchy, with the racial divide between the two tribes emphasised. Then, when decolonisation began in the 1960s, the tension worsened, and the Hutus overthrew the Tutsi rulers to form a republic, forcing the Tutsi into the neighbouring country of Uganda. In 1990, a group of Tutsi rebels called the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) invaded Rwanda from Uganda, where they had been staying as refugees. This marked the beginning of the Rwandan Civil War. After 3 years of fighting, a tenuous peace was created, with the Hutu still in government against the Tutsi rebels.
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The immediate trigger of the Genocide was the assassination of the president, Juvénal Habayimanara on April 6th 1996. His plane was shot down by a probe, and though the Tutsi rebels were the prime suspects, there was insufficient evidence to charge them, and the case was dropped on 21st December 2018. However, the power vacuum created was enough to trigger the systematic murder and raping of the Tutsi, and some moderate Hutus. It would be very easy at a first glance to blame the Hutu alone for the 100-day genocide. However, when one looks further into the past, blaming the Hutu alone isn’t the real answer. After all, before the arrival of German colonists, the Hutu and Tutsi had coexisted peacefully for generations. The racial disparity created between the groups was the true cause of the horrific mass killing. The Rwandan Genocide had repercussions felt across many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, as the war between the Tutsi and Hutu eventually spilled into the Democratic Republic of Congo and triggered Africa’s First World War.
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IMPACT OF MISSIONARIES ON INDIGENOUS CULTURES IN EAST ASIA BY LAUREN FRANKAL Missionaries first began their work after Jesus was crucified in order to spread the ‘word of God’ across the world. Since then, there have been many missionaries who have travelled all around the world, which is the result of Christianity being the biggest religion in the world. However, when missionaries have been doing their work, it is often argued that they destroy indigenous cultures, and especially those which have not been exposed to others, however, they have been able to teach and promote English around the world. From this, I am going to look at the impact of these missionaries on indigenous cultures in East Asia, and more specifically in China. Christianity in China first appeared in the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty, but this did not take root until it was reintroduced in the 16th century. There is evidence for Christianity being present in China as in the 7th century, a Christian monk named Jingjing composed an inscription of roughly 1,800 Chinese characters on a large stone tablet called The Xi’an Stele, which describes the existence of Christian communities in several cities in northern China.
According to this, a Nestorian monk called Aluoben entered central China and his arrival was so warmly greeted by the emperor that the Tang Emperor issued an imperial edict three years later, which allowed Alouben to build a monastery and to settle there with a handful of monasteries. By around 845, the Old and New Testaments had been translated into Chinese and monasteries had founded several cities throughout China, but in this year, an imperial edict limited all foreign religions, including Christianity. This led to a period of a persecution, and Christianity consequently mostly disappeared. Then, a significant presence didn’t reappear until the 13th century. This was when the Mongols conquered China and found the Yuan Dynasty. The Mongols were open to Christian monasteries and some Italian merchants also founded some Catholic communities in major trading centres. However, this again ended when the Mongols were expelled by armies of the Ming Dynasty. Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty in the 1600s, a new wave of missionaries came to China, where they established schools and hospitals, whilst openly proselytizing. To evaluate so far, the attempts of missionaries to spread Christianity hadn’t been successful enough to have had a profound impact on Chinese culture and society. Most people kept to their beliefs and faiths, and this assimilation was prevented by the Dynasties banning Christianity.
A map of the Ming Dynasty
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In contrast, the 19th century proved to be a significant turning point in terms of the success of missionaries in China. This was the time of the Qing Dynasty, which was very powerful and vast. At the beginning of the missions to China, it was only possible to obtain residential rights in Canton and Macao, as these cities were only a tiny proportion of China. However, soon, more of China opened up to Westerners. Overall, Christianity’s presence in China grew during the 19th century, as the country was subject to greater influence of the Western powers. However, in the 1850s, one particular incident set this back—the Taiping Rebellion, in which a charismatic Christian convert called Hong Xiuquan claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus, and thus believed it was his mission to spread Christianity and reform China. Xiuquan managed to gather a large band of followers and began an armed rebellion against Qing Dynasty rulers. This rebellion lasted 15 years and cost an estimated 20 million lives. The Chinese Imperial Army eventually put down the rebellion with the aid of Western military advisers. Interestingly, this rebellion led to a rise in missionaries entering China. However, when these Westerners arrived, they tried to adopt Chinese dress in attempt to integrate into society: an example of this is when a man called James Hudson Taylor ended up horrifying the Shanghai community by shaving his head and adopting Chinese dress.
Since the reign of Mao, missionaries have been officially illegal, nonetheless, more Christian activists are entering China openly, with an estimated 10,000 foreign Christian workers now living in China.
These missionaries encountered much resistance from the native citizens, as they felt they were imposing their culture on converts. This resistance grew until the outbreak of the Boxer Uprising. This was another uprising in 1899-1901 against foreigners, which was begun by peasants and was later supported by the government in an attempt to drive all foreigners from China. Many missionaries were killed, thus the number of them present in the country declined. These missionaries had become a symbol of foreign intrusion and were hated by many Chinese citizens, regardless of class.
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THE PRINCIPLE OF SECULARISM IN FRANCE BY TALIA RUBIN The separation of religious and political spheres, at the French secularism, or laïcité, has been a widely debated and heart of the concept of French Republicanism, was first controversial topic throughout recent years, due to its alleged introduced in 1882, with the creation of secular educationrepressive nature. However, when this principle was public schools must teach on the basis of ‘moral and civic introduced, it was intended not to separate but to unite the instruction’ instead of religious doctrines, and staff must not country, through the elimination of religious and cultural divisions. The 1958 French Constitution declared that ‘France outwardly show their religious beliefs on the premises. This still holds today, in conjunction with other legislation such as shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social the 2004 law, banning conspicuous religious symbols in Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the schools. While these restrictions do not apply to private law, without distinction of origin, race or religion. It shall schools, which are able to teach religion and be affiliated to respect all beliefs.’ The aim of secularism here is clear: a particular faith, they nevertheless affect the majority of the through a separation of the State and the Church, France French population, who cannot afford to send their children would achieve the tolerance and equality of all people that to private schools or choose not to. Many argue that the had been searched for in the very motto of France itselfabsence of religious symbols in schools removes the liberté, égalité, fraternité (freedom, equality, brotherhood). possibility of conflict between children as a result of So, why has French secularism become so problematic in the religious differences and prevents the imposition of a 21st century? certain belief upon them; however, there is no proof that in other countries, where laïcité does not exist, religion is a The origins of the concept of laïcité date back to the French significant problem in places of education. In comparison to Revolution, with the abolition of the Ancien Régime in August the rest of Europe, France is the only country in which no 1789. The revolutionaries put an end to the religious religious education is provided in public schools. This aspect privileges and disadvantages of the former era, including the of the law has become extremely controversial in recent illegality of Protestantism and the extremely limited rights years, due to the introduction of what some consider antigiven to Jews. Article 10 of the Declaration of the Rights of religious legislation, contravening the stipulations of the Man stated that ‘No one may be disquieted for his opinions, European Convention on Human Rights. This can even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does particularly be seen through the 2004 law, which is viewed not trouble the public order established by the law’, affirming by some French citizens to affect Muslims in a that freedom of expression and freedom of religion must disproportionate manner- the wearing of headscarves is exist. However, under Napoleon, a regression can be seenconsidered an ‘obligatory article of faith’, therefore the Concordat of 1801 established the Catholic Church once prohibiting Muslim schoolgirls to do so is seen to be unjust. again as the official religious authority in France. During the A survey discovered that between 1989 and 1999, this issue 19th century, tensions rearose as a cause of religious augmented in controversiality in France, through divisions, with the country split between those supporting the exploration of the number of articles published on the domination of Catholicism and those supporting a Republican subject- French newspapers represented 1,174 articles France, indifferent to the beliefs of its citizens. published, while only 18 were published in Britain.
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Despite the controversial reality of the consequences of French secularism, as previously discussed, its intent was not to marginalise religious groups but to promote peaceful coexistence through removing divisions in society. The demonstration of religious expression in the public sphere is not prohibited, under the condition that it does not disturb public order, and the State is tolerant of all citizens, regardless of beliefs, as well as unable to interfere in matters of personal religious conviction. Adhering to French secularism does not signify a renunciation of religion, but rather an agreement to contribute to maintaining public order by respecting the laws and principles of the State.
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