LICA424 Design Management Assignment 1
Haider Ali, Akmal ID 31333339
3022 words in body.
Excluding headings, captions.
pproa esig Scan crea n bus Scandinavian design ethics in business a creatively-logical approach to design management
Introduction On creative equity:
A Scandinavian design model
On design thinking On design for policy Case Studies Helt and Rowse ICA and Sainsbury’s
Conclusion
References Bibliography Appendix A Appendix B
4 5 7 9 10 14
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Introduction
Figure 1. Blossa Glögg, BVD, Stockholm
The 20th century saw the rise and fall of a series of art movements that shook the foundations of society causing a clash between philosophical insight and logical thinking. This chaos had been slowly taking shape for centuries before, until an ideal situation for the incubation of thought came along. The result of this war between logic and fantasy is what we consider the design process today. The Scandinavian countries were amongst the first to denounce the artistic pretensions which had become redundant during the age of industrialisation (Brensen, 1986) it was survival instinct that brought, artists to sling their berets and put on overalls instead (7). For a long while ‘Scandinavian’ was almost a synonym for ‘modern’ (7) as the countries housed a rich history of art and design that today is instilled in their culture. This design approach has been described by Fallan (2012) as humanistic, organic, democratic and timeless. Today, this can be seen not only visually but also on an organisational level as, design is argued to be moving into new territories, changing its focus towards the ideas that organises a system of environment (Eneberg and Holm, 2013); many companies now rely on it as a source of differentiation and innovation (Person and Schoormans, 2010). This essay examines Scandinavian design principles and its place in the business model to induce creative business tactics in other generalised management strategies.
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On creative equity: A Scandinavian design model
Figure 2. Blossom Amber Vase by Erika Lagerbielke, Orrefors Kosta Boda, Malmö
There is a reason why Scandinavian design can be picked out of the bunch so easily. It’s roots lie in fundamental definitions of questioning and it expresses itself by saying that, good design is not only solving problems but also stating them (Brensen, 1986).
Figure 3. Pieni Vanhakaupunki oven mitten and tea towel gift set, Marimekko, Helsinki
These questions having historical and emotional bonds, other than their logical settings, culminate to create an identity that is understandable on a broader scale. Many companies have been implementing these ideals since the end of WW2. Today a lot can be learned from them, some of which according to Person and Schoormans (2010) have attained ‘creative equity’. It is what differentiates a brand’s product design styles on the market by sustaining the value of their design innovations over time and turning the footprint of their designs into their prime assets (50).
Marimekko and Orrefors Kosta Boda are an example of this, they are living off of their strategically maintained image in the world; so much that they are now a source of national pride (49). And this isn’t only restricted to Scandinavia, many major global companies have been doing the same for a while now. Apple, Porsche, Braun are only a few of the many upper echelon companies that understand this logic of implementing design into their business model. For example, in the case of Porsche, with the Cayenne, the company set out to design “a 911 on steroids”. Not only has the Cayenne become a benchmark for SUV’s, but it has also given a boost to Porsche sales at the opening of the new century (56) pushing them into a new market. This is creative-logical thinking that comes from the design process with efficient implementation in a strategic model.
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On creative equity:
A Scandinavian design model
EWABLE REN
EX PR E
QU AL I
VE TI TA
E IV SS
IC
T EN
AU TH
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This model isn’t one that just create’s itself. Creative equity requires long-term investment and needs to be managed carefully (57). The reason why I give it importance here is because as Person and Schoormans pointed out, creative equity 1) is hard to imitate and 2) yields high symbolic and functional value in a market in which design commoditisation is increasingly common.
T EN ER
Acting as criteria for assessing designs traits in the market, these driving forces create enhanced value not only for the products/services but also for the brand.
DEF EN D A BL E
This creative model that is used among many Scandinavian brands/companies can be explained through four basic traits that describe them, as suggested by Person and Schoormans (2010) they are expressive, qualitative, authentic and coherent. According to them, these forces are driven by external strategic properties which are implemented throughout the business model.
CO H
Yasuoka and Sakurai (2012) have debated of democratic ideals in Scandinavian design that lead to open questioning and debate on plausible solutions and permutation of a given situation; a utilitarian understanding of equity comes from that.
LE AB D N TE
CREATIVE EQUITY
Figure 4. Two-factor creative equity model as described by Person and Schoormans (2010)
Expressive. Social and cultural phenomena are the crux of Scandinavian design and companies infuse their products with both symbolic and functional meanings for their consumers. Qualitative. Creative equity is co-related to quality, and in the case of Scandinavian design quality means immaculate workmanship, coming from designers who are also trained as architects and sculptors etc. Authentic. Creative equity is linked to authenticity, working towards ideals of an everlasting impression and in effect against ‘thorwawayism’ (Person and Schoormans, 2010)
Defensibility. The ability to shield their traits against competition, allowing them to serve as a differentiating factor. Extensibility. The ability to extend their design heritage onto newer products and services, Marimekko’s patterns are a perfect example here as they have been implementing them on a varied product range and also in collaboration with other brands such as Kone, Piironen and FatBoy. Renewability. The ability to sustain and develop creative equity over time, so design for today would also be relevant for tomorrow.
Coherent. Design coherence makes the most of a company’s designs by giving them a family resemblance that raises the profile of all the products, across the board. 6
On design thinking Figure 5. Beocenter 7002 designed by Jacob Jensen, Bang and Olufsen, Struer
Romme (2003) explains design as such; the idea of design involves inquiry into systems that do not yet exist—either complete new systems or new states of existing systems. He says, the main question thus becomes, “Will it work?” rather than, “Is it valid or true?”. Much like how, it was incumbent upon Ford to design something that people needed, and to do so before they knew they needed it (Berger, 2009), designers have to go through a similar process. This ideology is of primary importance to Scandinavian design; design based on pragmatism as the underlying epistemological notion (Romme, 2003). In many ways Scandinavian design talks about a synergy of science, art and culture and when practiced this dulls down to a molecular level in organisation particularly when talking about research. The notion of design may therefore contribute to solving the fundamental weakness of
organisation and management theory—the so-called relevance gap between theory and practice (559). In Table 1 (See Appendix A), Romme provides a conceptual framework that defines the main differences and complementarities of science, humanities, and design as three ideal-typical modes of engaging in organisational research. Scandinavian design practitioners indulge in these three aspects of research when engaging on problems, it could be argued that perhaps this is the differentiating factor. For instance, most sound equipment design is an aggressive display of technology, featuring many more controls and meters than are actually needed to play the music (Brensen, 1986). But when tasked to design a new product line up for Bang & Olufsen the problem statement given included the design philosophy of the company which was:
1) Authenticity 2) Autovisuality 3) Credibility 4) Domesticity 5) Essentiality 6) Individuality and 7) Inventiveness The resulting product was Jacob Jensen’s 1979 model of the Beocenter 7002 music combination unit. It included an array of music devices relevant to the time and kept in mind the requirements of the consumer (a particular demographic), the design philosophy was clearly visible in the final product and to date Bang & Olufsen are still practicing that same philosophy which has ever since been inherited into every product developed by the company. The creative equity model is in place and churning giving them an identity that is their own to cash on.
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On design thinking
Figure 6. Double Diamond Design Process, Design Council, London
Figure 7. Human Centered Design Model, IDEO, Palo Alto
According to Romme (2003) four ideas define the values regarding the process of design, and they hold very true to Scandinavian design principles: 1) limited information; 2) participation and involvement in decision making and implementation; 3) discourse as medium for intervention; and 4) pragmatic experimentation. He argues, that by accepting that the available information about a certain situation (or system) is by definition limited, it guards the participants against excessive data gathering that may make them experts with regard to the existing artefacts, whereas they should become experts in designing new ones (563). Furthermore he stresses how those who carry out the solution should be involved in development from start to finish, agreeing with Argyris’ (1985) definition that language, for design professionals, is not a medium for
representing the world, but for intervening in it. Scandinavian design principles hover around the concept of being human-centred and this approach has been adapted by major firms such as IDEO in their HCD process. They express that, the process of Human-Centred Design starts with a specific Design Challenge and goes through three main phases: Hear, Create, and Deliver (Human Centered Design Toolkit, 2009). It allows for the design thinking to move from concrete observations, to abstract thinking, then back to the concrete tangible solutions. The influence of this approach is seen in the UK Design Council’s Double Diamond Model (2005). It’s remarkable how these companies adopted such principles in the 21st century when Scandinavian designers were already exercising them, well prior to them, in the 20th century. 8
On design for policy This process of democratic utilitarian design is easily extended into policy making to create sense of rising issues in industry as it allows for in depth questioning of a situation. This is something that’s happening not only in Scandinavia but also in other Nordic countries which share many Scandinavian ideals. Design has long been an integral part of cultural life in the Nordic countries (Power, Jansson and Lorenzen, 2006). It tangibly links immaterial with material worlds and is a central link between the worlds of art and commerce (2). Through out Scandinavia, the importance of design management is emphasised not only in design schools but also in business schools (10). Aside from that there are Icebreaker policies that increase the use of professional design in other industries, the public sector and education institutions, for example, the initiative administrated by the DDC (Danish Design Centre) where the government assigned earmarked resources to individual firms willing to invest in professional design services, is inspirational (12). Such policies allow for an enriched experience of design not only in organisation but on a personal and social level as well.
Figure 8. MalmĂś Festival 2013, SNASK, Stockholm
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Case Studies Figure 9. 7-Eleven Coffe, BVD, Stockholm
In this section I will attempt to look at certain Scandinavian brands/companies and examine their strategic models. I’ll try to compare them with similar approaches outside of Scandinavia. The case studies have been created after close examination of the brands through information provided on their websites.
Figure 10. Smoothie Package (made of gel packaging), Tomorrow Machine, Stockholm
Figure 11. 140 Hour Jul Advent Candle, Skandinavisk, Copenhagen
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Case Studies
Helt and Rowse
Figure 12. Helt, Design by Arhoj, Copenhagen
Figure 13. Rowsey Clear Squeezy Honey, London
Helt and Rowse Helt is a relatively new (since 2012) Danish company that specialises in handcrafted honey. Their website states that it’s honey ‘infused with love for bees and nature’. That statement in one line identifies the platform Helt is placing itself on, a human-centred ideology towards nature; which is also a very closely connected lifestyle aspect of Scandinavia called friluftsliv or, ‘free air life’ meaning a philosophical lifestyle based on experiences of the freedom in nature and the spiritual connectedness with the landscape (Gelter, 2000). Their product is only honey but by infusing it with a creative mix of home-crafted ingredients such as chilli, mint and liquorice, they prepare a line up of products that they not only easily increment but they also allow themselves to grow into newer facets of the market.
Their own brand ideology expresses the varied nature of their otherwise mundane product which they enhance through creativity and experimentation. Ever since launching they have expanded from simply upgraded-honey to specialised honey-cakes, and have increased their brand exposure by incorporating it as an object of fine art through giclée prints, greeting cards and other stationary. In comparison, British home-grown honey Rowse, which has been in operation since 1938, have added little to no change in their model of operation. They’re strongest product is the same product they have been exercising since day one with very minute changes in the long run. They have a flavoured honey line up but the variety of experimentation that Helt endorses
through natural ingredients, Rowse seems to fall back there. Their focus has been on extracting the product rather than the organisations potential towards the product, though through their website it can be seen that they have been busy steering towards an eco-friendliness approach as well in recent years. Both companies seem to show a potential for their product but where one fails the other succeeds. Helt shows more potential as a unique product that could counter others such as Rowse which have been exercising the same model for generations. And its identity proves itself to be stronger in comparison as well, telling a more human story not just with the product but with the idea of the product.
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Case Studies
ICA and Sainsbury’s
Figure 14. ICA Gott Liv, Klas Fahlén, Agent Bauer, Stockholm
Figure 15. Sainsbury’s 1% fat milk, Sainsbury’s, London
ICA and Sainsbury’s Grocery items are something we all require in our lives, and now a days these are provided by large retail enterprises compared to the older more personal grocery shops. ICA has been one such enterprise based in Sweden since 1917 but its extent grows far into the Nordic region. It started off as a group of butchers and grocers who had an idea where individual retailers would join forces to create a chain enterprise. Over the years they have been able to spread out but they haven’t forgotten their ‘human values’ that were the core of their business model, which in essence was thinking about the greater community. They effectively exercise that through their in-house brands such as Skona and Gott Liv (Good Life), all of their own products are eco-friendly, organic and healthy from the the core of
production to their presentation. Their products are designed to appeal to a series of generations increasing not only their manufacturing needs but also the value of their brand. Gott Liv in particular is branded to appear friendlier as compared to other products with unnatural additives successfully hitting a very human nerve in their consumers. Alternatively ICA also is an innovator by introducing solutions for customers and retailers such as the ICA Bank and endorsing technology to aid in the purchase of their products. Sainsbury’s is another such enterprise that operates in the UK. Although being in business longer (since 1869) they have always placed themselves among the upper spectrum of retailers and for
good reason. Sainsbury’s has been promoting it’s own brand as a cheaper alternative to other products in their stores since day one and their own products cater for a larger portion of their sales for that particular reason. Furthermore their business model focuses on being more economical for their consumers, their own branding and identity is placed around quick service providing ‘one day delivery’ options and boasts their own image as opposed to the products own inherent facets. They focus their concerns on eco-friendliness in promoting the brand but very little of that is boasted through the brand itself.
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Case Studies
ICA and Sainsbury’s
Figure 16. ICA Gott Liv, ICA, Solna
In comparison, visually alone the Gott Liv products stand out as almost reaching out to their potential consumers. Sainsbury’s focus seems to be on identifying consumer need and creating economical replicas as their own. This might seem like a very fruitful endeavour to increase profit but comparing it with ICA’s innovative approaches to their own personal branded products the difference is immediately seen. ICA has strategically placed themselves as above the others by giving a line up of products that are thought provoking as well as quintessential. Their reach can also be seen to be much larger over a shorter span of time than Sainsbury’s, where one has stayed within the UK the other has expanded beyond Sweden into other Nordic countries. Therefore ICA can be placed as proof that Scandinavian design principles when enforced in a business model create a dramatic shift in potential as compared to other more generally exercised models.
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Conclusion
Figure 17. Ryijy by Maija Louekari, Marimekko, Helsinki
Scandinavian design ethics with their roots firmly in Scandinavian culture and art history has laid a foundation for a human-centred approach towards design. Not only in the most prized of Scandinavian arts—Industrial Design and Furniture Design—but also as a philosophy of strategic business management. Looking back at the creative equity model of Scandinavian design ethics there is one aspect that might prove to be a point of concern. Renewability is very important for a brand to enhance itself for the future, staying relevant tomorrow as much as today is a challenge for designers. Scandinavian products have their roots in the past (Person and Schoormans, 2010). In order to grow, they need to introduce new designs into their portfolios (56). Person and Schoormans (2010) explain it as such:
[Scandinavian brands] turn to new designers to sustain their “ They expressiveness in the market. But what this means is that the
creative equity associated with a brand must continue to be interesting to skilled designers, for it is they who can renew the brand and cultivate its creative equity in the future. In short, if they are to attract new talent, companies have to ensure that the appeal of their design traits is not limited to consumers.
”
To dull it down, innovation is key to the Scandinavian creative equity model to function continuously. Being rooted in the past might limit the potential for permutations, but so far Scandinavian designers have proven to be more innovative than others, as expressed with the above case-studies. As a parting note I’d like to end with a quote from the Futurist Manifesto, one of many art movements that played a hand in affecting the mode of thought in Europe and the world particularly Scandinavia. on the summit of the world, once again we hurl defiance to “ Erect the stars! ” (Marinetti, 1909) Those artists turned technicians of the post WW2 Scandinavia might not have known how massive a role they played in forging a regions culture as part of its lifestyle; as it has become today. But they were correct with foreseeing a future filled with innovation and evolutionary growth fuelled by the arts as much as the Futurists were in their time. This creatively-logical approach to design thinking has proven to be Scandinavian designs strongest asset, one that can be inspirational for businesses to adopt as their own.
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References
Bibliography
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Broek, A. (2012). Strategy Development in the Design Sector: A theoretical perspective. In: 2012 International Design Management Research Conference.
Bernsen, J. (1986). Design, the problem comes first. Copenhagen: Danish Design Council.
Design Council, (n.d.). A study of the design process. Eleven lessons: managingdesign in eleven global brands. [online] London: Design Council. Available at: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/def ault/files/asset/document/ElevenLessons _Design_Council%20(2).pdf [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014].
Eneberg, M. and Holm, L. (2013). Design Thinking and Organizational Development — Twin concepts enabling a reintroduction of democratic values in organizational change?. European Academy of Design. Human Centered Design Toolkit. (2009). 2nd ed. [ebook] IDEO, p.11. Available at: http://www.designkit.org/resources/1/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014]. Marinetti, F. (1909). Mainfesto of Futurism. [Manifesto] Italy. Person, O. and Schoormans, J. (2010). Cultivating Creative Equity in Scandinavian Design Brands. Design Management Review, 21(3), pp.48-57. Power, D., Jansson, J. and Lorenzen, M. (2006). Nordic design for a global market: Policies for developing the design industry in the Nordic Region. Nordic Council of Ministers & Nordic Innovation Centre. Romme, A. (2003). Making a Difference: Organization as Design. Organization Science, 14(5), pp.558-573. Taft, M. (2013). Scandinavian Design: Alternative Histories. Journal of Design History, 26(3), pp.339-342. Yasuoka, M., & Sakurai, R. (2012). Out of Scandinavia to Asia: adaptability of participatory design in culturally distant society. In Proceedings of the 12th Participatory Design Conference: Exploratory Papers, Workshop Descriptions, Industry Cases, vol 2. pp. 21-24.
Design Council, (2013). Design for Public Good. [online] London: Design Council. Available at: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/def ault/files/asset/document/Design%20for %20Public%20Good.pdf [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014]. Eldridge, T. (1997). Aalto, Utson and the utilitarian excellence of Scandinavian design?. Nordic Notes, [online] 1. Available at: http://diemperdidi.info/nordicnotes/vol01/ articles/te1.html [Accessed 6 Dec. 2014]. Flusser, V. (2009). About the word Design. In: B. Highmore, ed., The Design Culture Reader, 1st ed. Oxon: Routledge, pp.36-39.
Hesselmann, S., Walters, A. and Kootstra, G. (2012). An analysis of design management practices in Europe — A critical investigation of the design management staircase model. In: 2012 International Design Management Research Conference. Iziercich, L. (1999). Is it possible to explain the utilitarian excellence of Scandinavian design?. Nordic Notes, [online] 3. Available at: http://diemperdidi.info/nordicnotes/vol03/ articles/arch.html [Accessed 6 Dec. 2014]. Johansson-Sköldberg, U., Woodilla, J. and Çetinkaya, M. (2013). Design Thinking: Past, Present and Possible Futures. Creativity and Innovation Management, 22(2), pp.121-146. Julier, G. (2008). The culture of design. Los Angeles: SAGE. Whicher, A., Cawood, G. and Walters, A. (2012). Research and practice in design and innovation policy in Europe. In: 2012 International Design Management Research Conference.
Gabrielsen, G., Grøhaug, K., Kahle, L. and Kristensen, T. (2009). Is Good Design Good Business?. In: J. Bryson and G. Rusten, ed., Industrial Design, Competition and Globalization, 1st ed. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.220-241.
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Appendix A Table 1
Three Ideal-Typical Modes of Engaging in Organisational (Romme, 2003) Romme maps the relationship between Sciences, Humanities and Design, a key factor for Scandinavian design ethics. Science
Humanities
Design
Purpose
Understanding organisational phenomena, on the basis of consensual objectivity, by uncovering general patterns and forces that explain these phenomena.
Portray, understand, and critically reflect on the human experience of actors inside organised practices.
Produce systems that do not yet exist—that is, change existing organisational systems and situations into desired ones.
Role Model
Natural sciences (e.g., physics) and other disciplines that have adopted the science approach (e.g., economics).
Humanities (e.g., aesthetics, ethics, hermeneutics, history, cultural studies, literature, philosophy)
Design and engineering (e.g., architecture, aeronautical engineering, computer science)
View of Knowledge
Representational. Our knowledge represents the world as it is; nature of thinking is descriptive and analytic.
Constructivist and narrative. All knowledge arises from what actors think and say about the world; nature of thinking is critical and reflexive.
Pragmatic. Knowledge in the service of action; nature of thinking is normative and synthetic.
More specificaly, science is characterised by (a) a search for general and valid knowledge and (b) ‘tinkering’ in hypothesis formulation and testing.
More specifically, design assumes each situation is unique and it draws on purposes and ideal solutions, systems thinking, and limited information. Moreover, it emphasizes participation, discourse as medium for intervention, and pragmatic eperimentation.
Nature of Objects
Organisational phenomena as empirical objects, with descriptive and well-defined properties, that can be effectively studied from an outsider position.
Discourse that actors and researchers engage in; appreciating the complexity of a particular discourse is given precedence over the goal of achieving general knowledge
Organisational issues and systems as artificial objects with descripive as well as imperative (ill-defined) properties, requiring nonroutine action by agents in insider positions. Imperative properties also draw on broader purposes and ideal target systems.
Focus of Theory Development
Discovery of general causal relationships among variables (expressed in hypothetical statements). Is the hypothesis valid? Conclusions stay within the boundaries of the analysis.
Key question is whether a certain (category of) human experience(s) in an organisational setting is ‘good’, ‘fair’, etc.
Does an integrated set of design propositions work in a certain ill-defined (problem) situation? The design and development of new (states of existing) artifacts tends to move outside boundaries of initial definition of the situation. 16
Appendix B List of Images and Illustrations Figure 1. BVD. Blossa Glögg (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.ica.se/icas-egna-varor/varum arken/ica-gott-liv/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 9. BVD. 7-Eleven Coffee Cup (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.howdesign.com/design-comp etition-galleries/scandinavian-graphic-de sign-projects/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 2. Orrefors Kosta Boda. Blossom Amber Vase (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.kostaboda-artgallery.com/cat alog/erika-lagerbielke/blossom/blossomamber-vase/23041 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 10. Tomorrow Machine. Smoothie Package made of gel packaging (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.howdesign.com/design-comp etition-galleries/scandinavian-graphic-de sign-projects/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 3. Marimekko. Pieni Vanhakaupunki oven mitten and tea towel gift set (n.d) [Photograph] Available at: https://www.marimekko.com/collection/h ome/talven-sisustusmallisto-18 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014] Figure 4. Person, O. and Schoormans, J. (2010). Cultivating Creative Equity in Scandinavian Design Brands. Design Management Review, 21(3), pp.48-57. Figure 5. Bang and Olufsen. Beocenter 7002 (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://beophile.com/?page_id=438 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014] Figure 6. Design Council, (2013). Design for Public Good. [online] London: Design Council. Available at: http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/sites/def ault/files/asset/document/Design%20for %20Public%20Good.pdf [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014].
Figure 17. Marimekko. Ryijya by Maija Louekari (n.d.) [Print] Available at: http://blog.alwaysmod.com/2012/07/03/ marimekko-desktop-calendar-ryijy/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 11. Skandinavisk. 140 Hour Jul Advent Candle Set (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://skandinavisk.com/collections/printe d-candles/products/advent-candle [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014] Figure 12. Arhoj. Helt Packaging (2013) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.arhoj.com/front/helt [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014] Figure 13. Rowsey. Rowsey Clear Squeezy Honey bottle (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.rowsehoney.co.uk/our-story/# our-products/?product=630 [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014] Figure 14. Agent Bauer. ICA Gott Liv Products (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.agentbauer.com/illustrators/kl asfahlen/all/28376-ica_fler-kopia.html [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 7. Human Centered Design Toolkit. (2009). 2nd ed. [ebook] IDEO, p.11. Available at: http://www.designkit.org/resources/1/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2014].
Figure 15. Daily Mail. Sainsbury’s 1% fat mil bottle (2009) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1 210239/Sales-cent-fat-milk-soar-parentswatchdogs-advice-heart.html [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 8. SNASK. Malmö Festival Poster [Poster] Available at: http://www.howdesign.com/design-comp etition-galleries/scandinavian-graphic-de sign-projects/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
Figure 16. ICA. ICA Got Liv (n.d.) [Photograph] Available at: http://www.ica.se/icas-egna-varor/varum arken/ica-gott-liv/ [Accessed 10 Dec. 2014]
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