timber-structure multi-storey apartment buildings in the Basque Country by Asier Aurrekoetxea Etxebarria

Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings in the Basque Country Asier Paul Aurrekoetxea Etxebarria

MSc Sustainable Architectural Studies School of Architecture University of Sheffield August 2012

Abstract

Timber, as a renewable material, has great potential to reduce the environmental damage caused by construction industry, responsible for the world’s 40% of energy use, 30% of GHG emissions and 30% of raw material use (SBCI, 2010), by replacing energy intensive materials. When timber is used for permanent structures such as building components or furniture, the carbon that was sequestered from the atmosphere during its growth is not released back to the atmosphere (Yeang and Woo, 2010) while its waste by-products can be used as biomass to produce energy (Greenspec, 2012a). The analysis of recent case studies of multi-storey timber buildings such as Waugh Thistleton Architect’s Stadthaus, Kaden & Klingbeil’s E3 and Brendeland & Kristoffersen’s Svartlamoen housing reveal that timber is an economically viable alternative to concrete and steel (Waugh, 2012), especially applicable in the Basque Country, where forests occupy the 68.5% of the surface and medium-rise apartment buildings are the main dwelling typology in both cities and villages (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005, Bilbao City Council, 1994).

Aknowledgements Aldana Zabala Polla Andrew Waugh Arthur Schankula Dr Izaskun Etxebarria Aizpuru Juan Ignacio Aurrekoetxea Aurre Julen Perez Santisteban Dr Lucy Jones

Content Introduction

Topic: Timber as Sustainable Construction Material

Aims and Objectives

Methodology

Context: The Basque Country

Construction and Sustainability

Environmental Impact of Construction

Concrete

Timber

Basque Built Environment

Timber Construction

Timber Apartment Buildings: Case Studies

Stadthaus (Waugh Thistleton Architects)

E3 (Kaden & Klingbeil)

Svartlamoen housing (Brendeland & Kristoffersen)

Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country

Applicability

Appropriateness

Connotation of the use of TImber

Wood Resources

Current Uses of Timber

Prospective Uses of Timber

Conclusions Bibliography

69 71

Appendixes

A: Calculations: Timber Resources in the Basque Country

B: Timber Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Figures Figure 1 The Basque Country in Europe (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Anon, 2009a)) Figure 2 Administrative Division of the Basque Country (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Erein Argitaletxea (Erein Publishing), 2008)) Figure 3 Geographical Division of the Basque Country (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Elkar Argitaletxea (Elkar Publishing), Unknown) Figure 4 Use of land in the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005)) Figure 5 Gross Domestic Product Components of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012a)) Figure 6 Energy Analysis of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011)) Figure 7 Anthropogenic CO2 emissions (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Core Writing Team R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, 2007)) Figure 8 Wood Carbon Cycle (South Yorkshire Woodfuel, 2012) Figure 9 FSC logo (Forest Stewardship Council, 2012b) Figure 10 PEFC logo (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, 2012b) Figure 11 Density of Basque Municipalities (author’s own based upon (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012c)) Figure 12 Building minimum and maximum section of Bilbao city centre (Bilbao City Council, 1994) Figure 13 Bilbao, 351,965 inhabitants 8,520 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 14 Donostia, 182,026 inhabitants 2,989 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 15 Irun, 59,960 inhabitants 1,414 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 16 Erandio, 24,125 inhabitants 1,342 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 17 Amorebieta-Etxano, 17,861 inhabitants 305 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 18 Lekeitio, 7,385 inhabitants 3,886 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012) Figure 19 Quarries of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department for Industry Innovation Commerce and Tourism Basque Government, 2012)) Figure 20 Radiata Pine of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department

for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005)) Figures 21 and 22 Stadthaus (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012) Figures 23 and 24 Stadthaus Construction (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012) Figure 25 Stadthaus Social Housing (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012) Figure 26 Stadthaus Private Housing (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012) Figures 27 and 28 E3 (Detail das architekturportal (Detail the architecture webpage), 2012) Figure 29 E3 first floor plan (E3 Berlin, 2012) Figure 30 E3 third floor plan (E3 Berlin, 2012) Figure 31 E3 skeleton structure (Kaden & Klingbeil, 2012) Figure 32 E3 structure bracing (Kaden & Klingbeil, 2012) Figures 33 and 34 Svartlamoen Housing (Brendeland & Kristoffersen, 2012) Figures 35 and 36 Svartlamoen housing Construction (Brendeland & Kristoffersen, 2012) Figures 37 and 38 Svartlamoen housing Ground and Fourth Floor Plans (Zardini, 2007) Figure 39 Coat of Arms of ‘Bizkaia’ (Bizkaiko Foru Aldundia (Biscay Foral Council), 2012) Figure 40 Coat of Arms of ‘Gipuzkoa’ (Gipuzkuoako Foru Aldundia (Gipuzkoa Foral Council), 2012) Figure 41 ‘Zabalaga Baserria’, traditional Basque farmhouse (Gipuzkoako Museoak, 2012) Figure 42 Tree Species in the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007)) Figure 43 ‘Biscay Bioregion’ (author’s own, 2012, based upon (IGN (Spanish National Geography Institute), 2011b)) Figure 44 and 45 Skadbergbakken Masterplan and Housing (Helen & Hard, 2012) Figure 46 and 47 H8 ((Detail das architekturportal (Detail the architecture webpage), 2012)) Figure 48 and 49 Bridport House (Karakusevic Carson Architects, 2012) Figure 50 and 51 LCT One (CREE, 2012) Figure 52 and 53 Apartment Coplex Wagramerstrasse (Schluder Architektur, 2012) Figure 54 and 55 Holzhausen (Scheitlin Syfrig Architekten, 2012) Figure 56 and 57 Badenerstrasse 380 Zurich (Pool Architekten, 2012)

Acronyms AT

Austria, Internet Country Code

BAC

Basque Autonomous Community

BRE

Building Research Establishment

Basque Country

Switzerland, Internet Country Code

CLT

Cross-laminated timber

CTE

Technical Building Code (Spanish building regulations)

CoA

Coat of Arms

Germany, Internet Country Code

DIA

Environmental Impact Declaration

FSC

Forest Stewardship Council

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GHG

Greenhouse gasses

HWP

Harvested Wood Products

LCA

Life-Cycle Assessment or Analysis

LOE

Organic Law of the (Spanish) State

MIME

Basque Wood Board

Norway, Internet Country Code

PEFC

Programme of Endorsement of Forest Certification

PVC

Polyvinyl Chloride

RIBA

Royal Institute of British Architects

SFM

Sustainable Forest Management

United Kingdom, Internet Country Code

United Nations

VOC

Volatile Organic Compounds

WTA

Waugh Thistleton Architects

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

Introduction Topic: Timber as Sustainable Construction Material The overall environmental footprint of building sector includes world’s 40% of energy consumption and about 30% of GHG emissions (SBCI, 2010). But not only energy and emissions are to be considered when analysing the sustainability of the built environment. World’s 30% of raw material use, 25% of solid waste, 25% of water use and 12% of land use can be attributed to construction (SBCI, 2010), while the cement industry itself responsible for the world’s 5-10% of greenhouse gas emission (Schoof, 2011), what makes it the 3rd main worldwide pollutant after transport and energy (Hall, 2006). Moreover, the built environment consumes large amount of raw materials that in the vast majority of the cases are non-replenishable, making the damage to the environment permanent (SBCI, 2010). Therefore more sustainable construction practises are necessary in order to mitigate the damage that the sector causes to the planet. If sustainably managed, timber, as a renewable material, has the potential of diminish the environmental damage derived from construction, not just in terms of resource depletion, but also in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Until recently, limitations on timber structural solutions resulted in the material being limited to domestic scale buildings or as secondary construction material, but new technical achievements enable gradually taller buildings to be made using timber as main structural material, replacing traditionally more widely used more energy intensive materials such as concrete and steel (McLeod, 2010). In places like the Basque Country where more than half of the territory is occupied by forests, these solutions seems to be especially relevant (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012a, Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012). Furthermore, modern timber solutions imply not just responsible forest management, but also highly engineered products, two activities that combine the values of the traditional Basque economic activities related to the nature with the deeply rooted 500 year-long industrial tradition (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). The recent construction of the Stadthaus in London, the world’s tallest timber residential building, proves that medium-rise timber buildings are both technically and economically viable (Lowenstein, 2012). Due to the particularities of the Basque built environment, where both in cities and

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

villages the dominant building typology are medium-rise multi-storey apartment buildings that rarely exceed 9 storeys high, potentially almost every residential building could be made of timber, producing a U-turn from unsustainable energy and resource consuming construction trends to more environmentally aware practises. As residential use is the most important use of the built environment, this dissertation focuses on this buildings typology. In addition, also to be considered is whether the efforts should focus on new built or refurbishment. The consumption per m2 of an energy compliant modern structure (90 Kwh/m2 year) for instance, is 6 times higher than a passivhaus (GRID-Arendal, 2008), which means that following specific regulations can contribute to reduce the energy consumption. Old buildings dated before 1980, on the other hand, consume 3 times more energy per m2 (300) than modern buildings, meaning that they have greater energy-saving potential (GRID-Arendal, 2008). While all stages of buildings life-cycle produce carbon emissions, including construction and demolition, the buildings operational phase accounts for 80-90% of total emissions (Graham and Booth, 2010), having the highest GHG emission reduction potential within the industry sector (Levine et al., 2007). Nevertheless, building inefficient building increases the problem of too-energy-consuming building stock, which should be avoided by all means. Therefore this research will focus on the use of sustainable materials for new built construction.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Aims and Objectives The combination recent technical achievements in timber construction and the specific context of the Basque Country’s built environment where multi-storey apartment housing are the dominant housing typology in both cities and small villages, suggest that timber could be a real alternative for current unsustainable construction trends and therefore start transforming the construction industry into much more environmentally responsible one. For this reason, the aim of this thesis is to evaluate the environmental impact that timber could make in the Basque construction industry taking into account the various interconnected aspects of sustainable building beyond technical issues. The objectives are: •To explore the meaning of sustainable materials •To identify the key factors of the Basque built environment •To analyse the interrelated factors involved in multi-storey timber building construction •To evaluate the effects of the use of timber in the Basque Country Research areas Sustainability Renewable energy Resource Depletion Construction Materials Multi-storey apartment buildings Concrete Timber Forestry Biomass Bioregionalism Localism

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Research question Does timber have the potential to become an appropriate construction material in the Basque Country substituting the currently more used unsustainable construction materials? Sub-questions To explore the meaning of sustainable materials •How can sustainable materials be defined? •Is concrete a sustainable material? •Is timber a sustainable material? To identify the key factors of the Basque built environment •Which materials are popular in the Basque Country? Why? •Are the currently used construction materials available in the Basque Country? •Is timber currently used in the Basque Country as construction material? To analyse the interrelated factors involved in multi-storey timber building construction •Is it possible to build multi-storey buildings using timber sustainably? •Is using timber cost-effective? •Is timber readily available as construction material? To evaluate the effects of the use of timber in the Basque Country •Is timber available in the Basque Country? •What are the current uses of timber in the Basque Country? •What are the barriers of timber use in the Basque Country? •Would using timber as construction material affect other timber uses? •How can timber contribute to the resilience of the Basque Country? •Does using local materials reinforce people’s sense of belonging? Does it exclude not local people?

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Methodology This research fits within the positivist school of thought approach, .carefully and objectively collecting data regarding the sustainability of the construction materials, the various interrelated factors that influenced the building of timber-structure multi-storey apartment buildings in European countries and the contextual framework of the target area, the Basque Country, in order to evaluate timberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s applicability and appropriateness in the area (Kitchin, 2000). Nevertheless, social connotations that could arise from a drastic change in construction industry trends are not ignored. They will be briefly addressed from an existentialism point of view leaving an open door for further research in that knowledge field (Kitchin, 2000). Research strategies The first part of the research will be an intensive literature review on global warming and construction industry as the problem in one hand and timber as part of the possible solution in the other. In order to identify the potential role that timber can play in changing harmful tendencies it is crucial to understand the main contributing factors to global warming as well as mitigation strategies and how wood interacts with them. Secondly, a case study approach is going to be followed as a strategy to reveal a variety of interrelated factors such as context, construction process, environmental impact and marketability in order to establish their transferability to the Basque Country. With the objective of completing the available published information, short email questionnaires have been done to the architects and timber suppliers of the case studies due to the impossibility of doing them in person. In these cases where exchange of information occurred, appropriate information sheets and ethical approvals have been supplied to the interviewees. Finally, the applicability and appropriateness of timber structural solutions in the specific context of the Basque Country is going to be evaluated in relation to current construction systems, built environment, economy and natural resources of the area.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Case studies Relevant case studies are going to be analysed in order to evaluate whether timber is a real alternative to concrete as a main construction material. Studying case studies that are already constructed enables an understanding of the various factors that influence the process of a building from concept to its completion, and how these factors link together, helping to reveal real life complex situations. The purpose is to describe the peculiarities of each of the analysed buildings, covering a variety of situations and factors that will increase their transferability to the Basque Country. To select the case studies specific criteria has been followed to ensure that the maximum amount of varied information is obtained, in order to extract valuable conclusions that could be applicable to the Basque Country. First of all, the topic of the dissertation being timber multi-storey housing, the structural material of the case studies needs to be timber. Until now the biggest technical challenge that timber had in terms of being an alternative to concrete and steel was the maximum possible achievable height using timber structure. *reference: height maximum limitation of timber structures Consequently, the selected works are relatively tall residential buildings, amongst the highest that have been built in their own country over the last decade. To continue with, the buildings need to be already finished. Timber multi-storey buildings frequently use innovative construction techniques which mean that in order to test whether they are valid solutions they need to be put into practise. Thirdly, each of the projects needs to be done in a different country by a different architectural practice, which deliberately involves that each has been developed in a completely different context. Finally, with the intention of potentially using the conclusions obtained from the case studies in the BC, all buildings are apartment buildings, which is the main residential typology by far in both Basque cities and villages. The selected works are not only examples of aesthetic refinement; they also demonstrate that timber allows for an energy-efficient sustainable architecture that can be adapted to provide the community with healthier buildings and a more sustainable building regimes for our cities. (Lattke and Lehmann, 2007)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Scope and limitations Being conscious of the nature of the case study research where complexly interrelated factors meet together, a more in depth research would be necessary to correctly understand the process that made them possible in the first place. This issue will be addressed by focusing on the environmental impact of the mentioned case studies as they directly relate to the problem that is intended to be addressed; the climate change and resource depletion as a consequence of unsustainable built environment. Carefully selected criteria has been followed to identify the more suitable case studies and to cover as many possible situations as possible. However, social and economical aspects would require a deeper research in order to be properly studied, being the technical aspects the principal research object. Expected outcomes The research will follow a deductive sequence, meaning that a theory is already stated, that multi-storey timber structure apartments can be viable and have an environmentally positive effect in the Basque Country, yet expecting to reveal unanticipated underlying factors that will surely arise, may complement, alter or change the original statement.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction

Context

Figure 1 The Basque Country in Europe (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Anon, 2009a))

The Basque Country Note: The Basque Country is divided into 3 different political entities in two different countries; two in Spain and 1 in France. Due to the difficulties to obtain similar type of data from all of them, for the purpose of this dissertation the research will focus in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) which comprises ‘Araba’, ‘Bizkaia’ and ‘Gipuzkoa’. Even though there are some undeniable differences between the areas that these 3 political entities represent, there are also strong similarities –the 3 climatic areas within them of the Basque Country are present within the BAC– that suggests hoped that the research could be applicable to a reasonable extent to the whole territory.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction Context

The objective of this dissertation being to evaluate the feasibility of timber multi-story buildings in the Basque Country, it is basic to understand the geographical, climatic, social and economic context of the target area in order to adequately analyse and evaluate the consequences that the growth of economic activities like timber construction and forestry management could mean to both the built and natural environment. The Basque Country, which is defined in Basque language –‘Euskera’– as ‘Euskal Herria’, being its etymological significance “the Basque speaking nation” (Nuñez Astrain, 1997), is a south-western European nation located at the western Pyrenees (Hiztegi Entziklopedikoa (Encyclopedic Dictionary / Basque Government), 2010), “along the coast of the Bay of Biscay” (Trask, 1997). It covers an area of 20,864 km2, it has a population of 2,920,123 people and it is divided into 7 historic territories, ‘Araba’, ‘Bizkaia’, ‘Gipuzkoa’ and ‘Nafarroa’ in Spain and ‘Lapurdi’, ‘Behe Nafarroa’ and ‘Zuberoa’ in France (Hiztegi Entziklopedikoa (Encyclopedic Dictionary / Basque Government), 2010). The Basque Country (BC) is a very mountainous region defined by its mountain ranges and valleys. When entering the Basque territory, the western end of the Pyrenees subdivides into two smaller mountains, being the first one not very high and going from East to North towards the sea (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012b). The second one comprises the highest mountains and goes from East to West, parallel to the sea, as goes a third mountain range that also has relatively high peaks (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012b). These last two main mountain ranges define and structure the territory in a variety of ways such as climate, landscape and historical economical development. The 3 climatic areas are defined by the 2 main mountain ranges that go parallel to the coast line. The Atlantic climate is predominant in the north, wet and rainy over the whole year; the typical Mediterranean climate in the south, quite dry in summer and rainy in spring, and lastly the Mediterranean-Continental climate in the intermediate area with characteristics of the both previously mentioned climates (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012a).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction Context

Figure 2 Administrative Division of the BC (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (Erein Argitaletxea, 2008)

Figure 3 Geographical Division of the BC (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (Elkar Argitaletxea, Unknown)

The Basque Country is a remarkable place for its biodiversity as demonstrate the 2,500 vascular plant species present in the BAC, even more if we compare that figure with the total of 7,000 present in Spain, the estimated 5,000 in France, or the approximately 1,300 present in Great Britain (despite having an area 30 times greater than the BAC) (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012a). More than half of its surface is covered by trees as a result of the former, besides this natural richness is also transferrable to animal groups such as birds, mammals and amphibians, the determinant factors being the variety of climates of the area that allow different species to appear and the geographical location between the Pyrenees and Cantabrian mountains together with the own rugged terrain that allow the presence of species from both of the mountain ranges (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012a, Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). Nevertheless, the Basque Country is a densely populated small territory with high levels of industrial development that puts a lot of pressure into the environment (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012a).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction Context

water 0.7%

forests 68.4%

5.7% urban

agriculture 25%

Figure 4 Use of land in the Basque Autonomous Community (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005)) The Basque economic activities have traditionally been related to the land and the sea. Throughout history Agriculture had different evolutions in the north and south of the territory, due to different land ownership systems and the evolution of other economic activities (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). Farming, forestry and shepherding gradually lost their space to the fast-developing gradually more productive agriculture, which was the main occupation of the Basque society in the beginning of the 20th century, mainly in the least industrialised southern lands (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). By contrast, in the north, together with the birth of naval industry and thanks to its geographical location with access to the coast, fishing and commerce became especially important at first, later commerce and industry becoming the dominant activities (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). Nowadays, the importance of agriculture and fishing related activities has dramatically decreased and it only represents the 0.75% of the GDP (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012a).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction Context

The first blacksmiths and forges that were situated nearby the mountain quarries in the Middle Ages, later evolving into iron and metal industries that located in to the coast-facing valleys (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). Basque industry was heavily influenced by the Coke fuel production, that allowed establishing strong economical relationships with the English metallurgical industry at the end of 19th century, originating an industrial bourgeoisie in the Basque capitals (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). The influence of the long-lasting industrial tradition is still very visible in the Basque Country. Even though the main economical activities in the BAC are services –66,90% of GDP– industry still remains of great relevance –24,5% of GDP (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012a) much more relevant than in the overall Spanish economy –14,8% of GDP (INE (Spanish National Institute of Statistics), 2012). Together with the fewer influence of construction, the importance of industry has been appointed as one of the main factors that explain the lower impact of the global economical recession in this region in comparison with Spain (Gorospe, 2008, Cooper, 2012).

0.7% agriculture/farming/forestry/fishing 7.8% construction

66.9% services

24.5% industry

Figure 5 Gross Domestic Product Components of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012a))

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Introduction Context

Finally, in terms of energy production, with the 94.2% of imported primary energy, the BAC is highly energetically dependent on the exterior. Spain is itself a highly energy dependant country, as it imports the 76.69% of the energy it consumes (Eurostat, 2012a). Although being part of the Spanish State, the Basque Country has the exclusive competence to manage its own natural and energetic resources (Basque Government, 1978), but it is dependent on the Spanish energy policy to establish its own strategies. Nevertheless, from the 5.8% of the energy which is produced locally, almost all of it is renewable energy (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011). In terms of energy sources, oil and gas account for the bulk of the rise with more than 80% of the production, which result in large amounts of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere. On the other hand, renewable energies just represent the 6.9% of the total, increasing a 5.4% from the previous year (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011). Biomass is by far the main locally consumed renewable energy (64.2%), being biofuels also important (20.8%), wind power and hydroelectricity almost the same (around 7%) and solar energy barely relevant (1%). The main energy consumer is industry (61.5%) with transport and residential use almost equally relevant (20.9% and 17.2%), what reflects the importance of the industry in the Basque economy (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011). Energy Dependency

Renewable Energy Production

solar 1% produced 5.8% (95% renewable)

biomass 64.2%

imported 94.2%

Energy Consumption

1.5% agriculture 8.6% services

6.4% wind 7.7% hydroelectric

20.8% biofuel

industry 45.3%

11.7% residential 32.9% transport

Figure 6 Energy Analysis of the Basque Autonomous Community (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011))

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction The earth’s receives from the sun a continuous flow of energy which 30% is reflected back into space, the remaining 70% passing through the atmosphere warming the earth (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2012). ‘Greenhouse gases’ (GHG), which majority occur naturally in the atmosphere, prevent the heat to escape back to space, keep the planet about 30C warmer than it would otherwise and are essential for life as we know it (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2012). The global warming of Earth’s surface is the consequence of the rise in the levels of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere caused by human activity at an unprecedented speed (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2012). Other impacts derived from the increase in the global average temperature are the influence on physical and biological systems, the rise of sea levels and the altered frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (Parry et al., 2007). Amongst the anthropogenic GHG, the ones that are caused by human activity, the CO2 is by far the most important one, with 76.7% of the global emissions (Core Writing Team R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, 2007). The sectors responsible for those emissions that are related to the built environment are residential and commercial buildings (7.9%), and indirectly the energy supply, which is the main pollutant (25.9%) (Core Writing Team R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, 2007). The overall environmental footprint of building sector includes 40% of energy use, producing about 30% of GHG emissions (SBCI, 2010). But not only energy and emissions are to be considered when analysing the sustainability of the built environment. World’s 30% of raw material use, 25% of solid waste, 25% of water use and 12% of land use can be attributed to construction (SBCI, 2010). Additionally, construction industry requires large amounts of raw materials and resources that in the majority of cases are non-renewable (Thun, 2010), what means that once extracted are gone forever. There are several other aspects to be contemplated in relation to building materials, most of them are related to the life-cycle assessment (LCA), the analysis of the environmental product throughout its entire life span (Yeang and Woo, 2010). The embodied energy of a given material, for instance, is the energy that has been expended to extract, manufacture and transport that building’s material, as well as that required to assemble and finish it, and the energy cost of the means of transport back to origination station after the delivery to the construction site (Yeang and Woo, 2010). As buildings become increasingly more energy efficient, they consume less energy and

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

2.8% waste 7.9% buildings energy 25.9%

13.1% transport

13.5% agriculture

industry 19.4%

17.4% forestry (+deforestation)

Figure 7 Anthropogenic CO2 emissions (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (Core Writing Team R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, 2007)) consequently the embodied energy, the energy required to create the building itself, becomes proportionally more important compared with the energy required to operate it (Yeang and Woo, 2010). The local availability of a material plays an important part in the LCA, not just because of the influence of transport related energy consumption in the embodied energy, but also due to the added value of relating the architecture to the specific characteristics and resources of its location. But sustainability is much more than energy efficiency. As Alex Gordon, the prophetic former Royal Institute of British Architects president said at the 1972 RIBA conference, sustainability of the built environment can be summarised in the Long Life, Loose Fit, Low Energy approach (LL/LF/LE), which is fully applicable to the materials (Hutchinson, 1999, Szokolay, 2004). Translated to building material criteria, it would imply that the durable and low maintenance materials last longer (LL), the reusable, multi-purpose, recyclable materials are more flexible (LF) and the high-performance and low embodied energy materials (LE) are more sustainable. The quarter of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s solid waste is caused by construction, what means that there is great potential of reducing the environmental impact of materials, which can be up to 96%, by reducing the extraction of raw materials, their

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

processing and manufacturing and reducing transportation impact, sourcing locally reclaimed materials, those that can be reused from buildings and adapted to new uses without processing (Greenspec, 2012b). Another important feature of materials is their toxicity for the water and air during their fabrication process and for people once used in the buildings, like the volatile organic compounds (VOC) that materials like the PVC can release (Hall, 2006).

Concrete Concrete is a construction material made of a mixture of water, sand, aggregates (gravel, crashed rock) and cement (Davies and Jokiniemi, 2008), a binder usually made of lime or gypsum (Davies and Jokiniemi, 2008). It is the most widely used building material on earth (Ashley and Lemay, 2008), due to its low cost, versatility, ease of use, acoustic dampening, and durability. (Mackechnie and Alexander, 2009). Despite having a relatively low energy cost (concrete 700kwh/m3, timber 350700kwh/m3), concrete is very CO2 intensive material due to emissions from chemical processes involved in its production (GRID-Arendal, 2008). Moreover, cement industry is the third biggest greenhouse gas pollutant worldwide, after transport and energy (Hall, 2006), with 5-10% of global CO2 emissions (Schoof, 2011). It also causes important resource consumption of different raw materials that are needed for its fabrication, such as limestone, granite, gravel and sand (Davies and Jokiniemi, 2008). As these construction materials are not renewable, the damage caused to the environment is permanent. On the other hand, concrete structures are assumed to be largely maintenance-free and to provide long service lives (Ashley and Lemay, 2008, Mackechnie and Alexander, 2009). Its high thermal mass and low air infiltration helps make buildings more energy efficient, and usually can be sourced locally, thus reducing transportation needs (Ashley and Lemay, 2008). Moreover, recycling and reusing steel –the UK uses 100% scrap steel– and aggregates diminishes the raw material consumption and the embodied energy of the building. In addition, and by using energy efficient technologies and renewable energies the energy intake and emissions can be also reduced by up to 25% (Greenspec, 2012c). A good example of the former is the recycled concrete used in the basement of the ‘Badenerstrasse 380’ housing development in Zurich by Pool Architekten, which helped the building to be the first to comply with the strict Swiss standards of the ‘2000-Watt Society’ (Kaltenbach, 2010),

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

a programme to reduce the yearly energy consumption of Swiss society to 2000 watt per capita by 2050, a reduction of 63% of the current consumption (Morrow and Smith-Morrow, 2008). Nevertheless, using recycled materials is just one of the sustainable features that concrete has to offer, if wisely used concrete can play an important part of sustainable building strategies.

Timber “Architecture was almost certainly pioneered in wood” (Pryce, 2005), being one of the oldest building materials used for shelter (McLeod, 2010). Later, the birth of classical architecture in Greece was the consequence of the replication, in stone, of the post-and-beam techniques characteristics of wooden buildings as described by Vitruvius (Pryce, 2005). Taken into account that all western societies are culturally descendants of the Greek’s, it can be said that timber has remarkably influenced the whole history of architecture (Gombrich, 1995). Timber was the dominant building material until the 18th century, when the mass production of iron boomed, enabling the use of structural steel and reinforced concrete which became the dominant structural materials, relegating timber to domestic-scale buildings (McLeod, 2010). Not only timber is the oldest and most important material of the history of architecture; paradoxically, it can also be the material for the present and future (Thun, 2010). Due to its versatility, mechanical properties, recent technical achievements and its environmental behaviour, “timber has seldom been as relevant as it is right now” (Schittich, 2012). From the construction point of view, timber’s main advantage is its versatility. It can be used to produce almost any type of building component such as structure, interior and exterior finishes, partitions, and furniture. Moreover, it is recognised that timber outperforms other building materials in terms of malleability, adaptability and structural performance (Schittich, 2012). Additionally, new applications that were beyond reach, like urban large-scale multi-storey apartment buildings are being added to timber solution’s catalogue (Schittich, 2012), continuously overcoming the main limitation for timber structural buildings. Timber can be used to form different structural solutions, being the main difference between these systems the hierarchy of the load bearing elements of the building structure as either selective or linear elements. (Lattke

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

and Lehmann, 2007). Post and beam or skeleton frame systems are structurally demanding and have complex joints, but result in more flexible layouts that can change from floor to floor (Kaltenbach, 2010). Load bearing walls can be timber-framed, formed by a series of light isolated elements that form a single entity, or solid constructions such as cross-laminated timber panels(Kaltenbach, 2010). Timber-framed structures have been used in vernacular architecture of primarily mid latitudes all over the world, in different typological variations such as cruck frame, box frame and plank frame (Noble, 2007). By contrast, timber solid engineered panels are modern solutions currently used to build medium-rise multi-storey apartment buildings. While fully-timbered structures are more sustainable in terms of material use, mixed forms of construction allow to overcome timberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; limitations in complying fire and acoustic regulations, enable greater structural spans and can be more economical (Cukrowicz and Nachbaur-Sturm, 2011). To meet the regulations of some countries like Germany, timber structures need to be encased in non-combustible materials (Anon, 2009b). As a result, many multi-storey timber buildings are hybrid forms of construction (Kaltenbach, 2010). From a optimisation point of view, materials should be used where their properties are most advantageous; timber for compression, flexural and diaphragm elements like columns, beams, flooring and shear panels, and steel for tension elements such as bracing for example. (Andrew Johnson, cited in (Fortmeyer, 2010)). Hybrid structures also enable achieving bigger structural spans such as the 8.4m grid has been designed using a steel-timber hybrid or the 11.3m span from the glued laminated timber core to the facade timber columns in Arup Berlin officeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Life Cycle Tower project, by using a composite slab of precast concrete and timber beams (Fortmeyer, 2010). A lift or a staircase core of reinforced concrete can work as a means of bracing or to improve earthquake resistance, and the entire ground floor in a solid form of construction can work as structural ring beam, as protection against moisture from the soil and also as a means of anchoring a building against wind suction forces (Kaltenbach, 2010). Apart from the structural performance for high buildings, the main concerns for using timber are fire and acoustic protection, which are normally associated with timber-frame constructions due to its lack of mass, which is addressed even exceeding current regulations by using solid timber such as cross-laminated timber (Waugh, 2008). Combustible building materials like timber can contribute to fire propagation in case of fire (Frangi et al., 2009). Nevertheless, when sufficient heat is applied to wood, a charred layer is then formed on the fire-exposed surfaces, reducing the cross-sectional dimensions of the timber member but protecting the remaining not-

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

charred residual cross-section against heat due to the insulating properties of the char layer (Frangi et al., 2009). In fire calculations for CLT panels, the total thickness is calculated taking into account the char layer to provide sufficient structural integrity for evacuation (Wells, 2011). By contrast, for medium-rise buildings with skeleton frame additional fire protection such as encapsulation of timber and bracing elements is normally needed to comply with fire regulations (Kaden, 2009). In either structural solution case, it is possible to achieve the same levels of protection against fire that can be obtained by using conventional construction materials for the same typology of building. Other prejudgements involving timber are related to durability, strength, supply, cost, infestation, rot and moisture, although all of them can be addressed through design and careful planning (Fortmeyer, 2010). Timbers durability is out of any doubt as 300-400 years and even older timber structures are not uncommon (Fortmeyer, 2010). Wood is also generally a cost effective material and easy to process. Additionally, wood has a positive effect on indoor quality thanks to its thermal properties and the way it responds to moisture (Zeumer et al., 2009), while transmitting warmth and contact with nature to the users (McLeod, 2010). Timbers strength-to-weight ratio in comparison with other materials and its load-bearing properties it is particularly suited to being prefabricated (Schankula, 2012). Amongst the benefits of prefabricated timber construction are the lightweight, higher built quality and optimisation of construction time and control of building and operating costs (Thun, 2010), as proven in Waugh Thistleton’s Stadthaus (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012). Prefabricated timber units are especially appropriate to work in cities because of the short construction time and their light weight also allows to use them on the existing foundations or basements of demolished buildings, over existing underground infrastructures and on low quality soils (Schankula, 2012). On Karakusevic Carson Architects’ Bridport House, cross-laminated timber structural panels were used as the new building had to be no heavier than the previous 5 storeys building as the main London storm sewer that ran below the site (Karakusevic Carson Architects, 2012). RSHP used prefabricated timber structural solutions in Oxley Woods motivated primarily by health and safety issues, as limited construction time on-site reduces risk. (Fortmeyer, 2010). “The short building time also played a decisive role in the award of the contract for 2500 dwellings in the Italian town of Aquila, which had been destroyed by an earth-quake”; allowing the three storeys cross-laminated timber blocks to be completed in only 80 days from the start of construction (Kaltenbach, 2010).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

Timber as Sustainable Material Wood is normally regarded as having a “negative global warming potential” (Zeumer et al., 2009). If managed responsibly, timber is a renewable material that does carbon sequestration during its growth, releasing oxygen and storing carbon (Yeang and Woo, 2010), around 1850kg of CO2 are removed from the atmosphere for every tonne of completely dry raw wood (Zeumer et al., 2009), therefore reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. Using harvested wood products (HWP) such as furniture or timber as a building material stores the carbon that was previously absorbed (Grêt-Regamey et al., 2008), while the trees that were cut can be replaced by new trees that will continue to absorb CO2. If we consider the assessment of its environmental impact throughout its life span (LCA) (Yeang and Woo, 2010), timber has a positive impact in the environment. An additional advantage of wood is that “unlike many high tech, man-made building materials it is completely recyclable” (McLeod, 2010)p.6), and when it becomes useful no more, it can be burned as biomass to generate electricity or to heat buildings, a process that is considered to be carbon neutral as the released CO2 was previously captured from the atmosphere (Hall, 2006), reducing the demand for fossil fuels and therefore the amount of emitted CO2 as a result (Zeumer et al., 2009). Recent building projects demonstrate that multistorey timber buildings are not only economically competitive, high constructional and design quality but they also can be a step forward to achieve CO2 neutral cities (Kaltenbach, 2010, Gustavson et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the environmental benefits of using timber can be reduced if the timber is not locally sourced, as happened in Waugh Thistleton’s Stadthaus where the timber was shipped from Austria to the UK (Lowenstein, 2008). The Embodied energy, the “energy expended from an energy source to extract, manufacture and transport a building’s materials as well as that required to assemble and finish it”, includes the energy cost of the means of transport back to origination station after the delivery to the construction site which means that the availability of the material also needs to be considered (Yeang and Woo, 2010). Also to be considered is that the more wood is processed –which depending on the product can be up to 50% of original wood is lost– the lower its environmental benefits from a life cycle assessment point of view (Zeumer et al., 2009). As a structural frame in particular, wood has high material efficiency when used as a rod-like components which increased by overlaying functions, having a single component performing as load bearing, partition and finishing functions (Zeumer et al., 2009).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

sunlight, water, CO2

new tree (photosyntesis)

CO2

harvested wood products + biomass

Figure 8 Wood Carbon Cycle (South Yorkshire Woodfuel, 2012)

Finally, as important as the source of the material, in order to diminish transport related CO2 emissions, is the way the timber is processed and managed. International certification systems such as FSC and PEFC, award certificates that guarantee that the whole process of the timber, from the forest where the wood is obtained to the timber products and subproducts have been sustainably managed, and therefore its use is beneficial for the environment (Forest Stewardship Council, 2012c, Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, 2012a). Forests are very relevant in the context of climate change, as they provide humans many goods such as wood, are involved in the regulation of the carbon cycle, and at present are subject to pressure that is leading to carbon losses, mainly through land-use changes (Fischlin, 2008). The destruction and degradation of forests is a major contributor to global warming, accounting worldwide for a higher share of global CO2 emissions than the entire transport sector (Forest Stewardship Council, 2010). Nevertheless, sustainable forest management, increasing forest areas and biomass production, are recognised by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as mitigation measurements for climate change (R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, 2007).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Environmental Impact of Construction

Figure 9 FSC logo (Forest Stewardship Council, 2012b)

Figure 10 PEFC logo (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, 2012b)

Industrial countries are starting to realise that, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the indiscriminate consumption of natural resources and the use of vast quantities of energy to manufacture building materials is both unsustainable and inconsistent with contemporary attitudes towards energy conservation, pollution and recyclingâ&#x20AC;?, rediscovering timber as an alternative for a more sustainable future (McLeod, 2010)p.6).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability

Basque Built Environment The Basque Autonomous Community (BAC), which comprises the 74.5% of Basque population, is a densely populated European region (300.5 inhabitants per km2), more dense than Spain (91.8) and the UK (254.2) (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012b, Eurostat, 2012). Its abrupt mountainous geography results in population concentrated not just in cities but also in small villages, urban area occupying just the 5.8% of the surface of the BAC (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). Not only the overall density of big cities is extremely high; medium-size villages are also very dense. In fact, there is no significant change in the density between the capitals and medium size municipalities of more than 25,000 inhabitants (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012c). The density of smaller villages is also remarkable, which means that only in the very poorly populated areas, detached housing typologies and the traditional farmhouses, the so called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;baserriâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, are representative enough, what results in medium-rise multistorey apartment buildings being, by far, the most common residential typology of the Basque Country. Figure 11 Density of Basque Municipalities (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own based upon (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012c)) population groups

number of municipalities

population average

population total

population percentage

density (inhabit./km2)

total

251

8,661

2,174,033

100%

301

>100,000

257,373

772,119

36%

4,123

100,000-50,000

79,856

239,568

11%

3,844

50,000-25,000

35,531

319,782

15%

4,992

25,000-10,000

15,451

417,185

19%

901

10,000-5,000

7,133

192,582

697

5,000-1,000

2,291

185,605

153

<1,000

101

467

47,192

>25,000

88,765

1,331,469

61%

4,589

<25,000

236

3,570

60,293

255

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

Nevertheless, even being Basque cities very dense, examples of high rise buildings are very rare. Actually, in Bilbao, the largest and most populated Basque city (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012c), the blocks that form the whole city centre –following the late 19th century New Town master plan– have a maximum of between 8 and 6 storeys high, depending on the width of the street they face (Bilbao City Council, 1994, Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia (Auñamendi Basque Encyclopedia), 2012b). What is more, in order to exceed these maximum number of storeys in the newest expansion areas of the city such as ‘Miribilla’, ‘Abandoibarra’ and ‘Garellano’, exceptions to the general master plan had to be made by using special urban plans for each of the areas. Even so, the normal height of the apartment buildings of these areas is 9 storeys, even though it is exceeded in some of the buildings by singular elements such as corner towers (Bilbao City Council, 2010, Bilbao City Council, 2011b, Bilbao City Council, 2011a). Concrete In terms of construction materials, concrete has an absolute monopoly in the Basque Country. Over the last 10 years (2002-2011), 11,500 new built dwellings have been made on average per year in the BAC, a vast majority of

Figure 12 Building minimum and maximum section of Bilbao city centre (Bilbao City Council, 1994)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

Figure 13 Bilbao, 351,965 inhabitants

Figure 14 Donostia, 182,026 inhabitants

8,520 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

2,989 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

Figure 15 Irun, 59,960 inhabitants

Figure 16 Erandio, 24,125 inhabitants

1,414 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

1,342 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

Figure 17 Amorebieta-Etxano, 17,861 inhabitants

Figure 18 Lekeitio, 7,385 inhabitants

305 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

3,886 inhab/km2 (Google Street View, 2012)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

which had concrete structure (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012b), as reveals the fact that the 74% of the construction materials consumed in the Basque Autonomous Community are aggregates (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2004), the main raw material of concrete. Together with concrete, brickwork is the most used construction material, as it is the standard solution for housing facades, roof tiling and partitions. Timber and steel, on the other hand, are sometimes used for the structure of public buildings, but concrete is the most used material even for domestic-scale constructions such as detached, semi-detached and terraced houses. According to the Industry, Commerce and Tourism Department of the Basque Government, there are currently 53 active quarries in the Basque Country (Uriona, 2009), where more than 15million tonnes of stone per year are produced. Almost all of the stone is limestone extracted in 31 of the quarries (Moreno Garcia, 2007). The BAC consumes annually about 17.5 million tonnes of aggregates, of which 2.5 tonnes, less than 15% of the total, need to be imported, primarily from nearby provinces, what means that concrete is a locally produced material in the Basque Country (Moreno Garcia, 2007). Mining industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s production has been growing constantly over the last years , generating 235 million â&#x201A;Ź in 2010 (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012d), mainly due to the large infrastructure projects undertaken by the Government (Moreno Garcia, 2007). Actually, large-scale infrastructures are the main market for Basque quarrying companies (Gruber, 2004), ahead of building construction. Even though there is a noticeable damage that the sector causes to the environment in terms of energy consumption, greenhouse gases emissions and resource depletion, the industry claims to contribute to sustainable development of the area (Gruber, 2004). Despite the Government has prohibited mining in protected natural areas (EFE, 2009) and is boosting the restoration of old quarries (Basque Government, 2012), quarrying companies are trying to increase their production (FernĂĄndez, 2003). What is more, they also claim that there are no materials capable of substituting natural stone (Asociation of Quarrying Companies of Bizkaia (ASECABI), 2004), despite small countries such as Denmark and the Netherlands, thanks to strict regulations regarding building material recycling, manage to recycle up to 95% of construction waste as an alternative to not having their own quarries to obtain aggregates, proving that alternative construction is possible (Moreno Garcia, 2007). Moreover, other countries such as Sweden, are using timber to build entire cities, proving not only that there are alternatives to traditional construction but also that building sustainably is possible (Kaltenbach, 2010).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

limestone quarries other quarries

Figure 19 Quarries of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department for Industry Innovation Commerce and Tourism Basque Government, 2012))

Timber In contrast with concrete and quarrying industries, the applications of timber for constructions in the Basque Country are mostly limited to traditional uses, like interior finishes or structures of small detached houses. Nonetheless, the Basque Wood Board (MIME), a non-profit professional association for forestry related companies committed with the sustainable management of forestry (Euskadiko Zur Mahaia (Basque Wood Board), 2012b), is involved in some projects that are being promoted with the intention of boosting timber use in construction. For instance, there is a collaboration project to promote timber as construction material together with Confemadera, the Spanish Wood Company Association –which is also non-profit– where several publications have been made (Euskadiko Zur Mahaia (Basque Wood Board), 2012c), or another project with ‘EtorLur’, a governmental company of the Gipuzkoa Foral Council to promote the use of timber construction in small towns of less than 1,000 inhabitants (Euskadiko Zur Mahaia (Basque Wood Board), 2012a). Amongst other remarkable efforts that are taking place in the Basque Country in order to promote and boost

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

the use of timber in construction, it is the ‘Egurtek International Symposium’ on timber construction, which started in 2006 and will celebrate its 4th edition in October 2012, hosting commercial product expositions and lectures from leading architects in the topic that so far have included renowned firms such as Sou Fujimoto, Ofis Arhitekti, and Kaden and Klingbeil (Egurtek, 2012). Despite all the effort from the forestry industry, the aim for sustainability and use of renewable materials such as timber is not a common practise in the current construction trends of the Basque Country. While some Basque companies that work with wood, such as ‘Etorki’, that provides timber and forestry services in the Basque Country, are already using the PEFC certification systems (Etorki, 2010, Holtza, 2012), some other companies that make timber based construction products still use uncertified timber even though they label themselves as ‘green’ (Egoin, 2012). For example, ‘Egoin’, a timber construction company present in ‘Ecobuild 2012’, the world’s biggest sustainability construction event (Ecobuild, 2012), is developing sustainable solutions based on timber products, like the fully timbered ‘Vita House’ passivhaus prototype, a detached plus-energy house that produces more energy than it requires to run, thanks to PV panels and geothermal energy (Arostegi, 2012). ‘Holtza’ is another Basque timber company with experience in working with renowned architects such as Lord Richard Rogers, that works in sustainability projects like the ‘Solar Decathlon Europe 2012’ in collaboration with the University of the Basque Country that, like ‘Egoin’, lack certification in their products. In general, both company’s products cover CLT beams for big spams, modular construction, self-bearing sandwich panels as well as custom made elements for skeleton frame structures. Basque forestry is committed to obtaining certifications in order to guarantee a sustainable use of the forests (Azurmendi Irasuegi and Arandia de la Torre, 2012, Anon, 2007a). The certification body chosen by the Basque Wood Board is the PEFC, the world’s largest certification system (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, 2012a). The Programme of Endorsement of Forest Certification is a non-profit organisation founded in 1999 dedicated to the promotion of Sustainable Forest Management that works as an umbrella organization, a single brand under which independent national forest certifications can operate (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification, 2012c). The FSC, by contrast, establishes global principles and criteria applicable to any forest in the world (Overdest, 2010). The Forest Stewardship Council, which was founded in 1993, works under the principles of environmental appropriateness, economical viability and, unlike the PEFC,

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Construction and Sustainability Basque Built Environment

socially beneficial (Forest Stewardship Council, 2012a). The social factor is one of the main differences between these two bodies, as the FSC includes the human factor in the certification process, defending the workers’ right to organise, the elimination of child and forced labour, the non-discrimination and safe and healthy issues (Poschen, 2000). The lack of transparency, a vertical organisation system and the relationship with industry associations and land owner groups has provoked criticism towards the PEFC from FSC certification supporters (Overdest, 2010). Nevertheless, with time the PEFC has gradually been adopting many of the FSC guidelines in order to solve their requirements’ main weaknesses (Overdest, 2010), making their organisation reasonably reliable.

radiata pine

Figure 20 Radiata Pine of the Basque Autonomous Community (author’s own, 2012, based upon (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005))

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

Timber Apartment Buildings: Case Studies Within the European framework, each country is in a different state in terms of timber construction, influenced by their own resource availability, tradition and regulations. Many countries are changing their regulations to enable timber to be used in medium-rise buildings. Paradoxically, countries with abundant timber resources have tighter regulations. Finland, for instance, only started to allow three storeys timber buildings after fire regulations were updated in 1997 (Lowenstein, 2008), and in Austria, any timber building over 2 storeys must have a non-flammable core (Kucharek, 2009) until 2008, when a change on regulations allowed 4 storeys buildings (Kaltenbach, 2010). However, generally the height restrictions applying to timber buildings have eased internationally, being even abolished in some countries such as Britain or Italy (Kaltenbach, 2010). Strikingly enough, while the first timber multi-storey building is yet to be built in the Basque Country, entire estates such as four 8 storeys high housing blocks are being built by Arkitekbolaget in Växjö, Sweden (Kaltenbach, 2010). Finally, prestigious architectural offices are also working in prospective high timber projects. Michael Green’s ‘Tall Wood’, a constructive method of building 30 storeys high timber structure buildings is amongst the most remarkable ones (Green, 2012). In order to establish the applicability and appropriateness of timber as structural material for multi-storey apartment buildings it is crucial to understand the interrelated factors involved in the whole construction process of this type of buildings in other countries in order to evaluate their transferability to the target area; the Basque Country. The best strategy to reveal such complex factors is to analyse carefully selected case studies. In this case, the selection criteria is that buildings need to be apartment buildings, which is the main housing typology in the Basque Country, have a relatively high timber structure, have been already built and be located in different countries in order to reveal as much varied data as possible. 3 case studies are going to be analysed in depth with the objective of revealing important data to evaluate the contribution that timber can make to the mitigation of global warming: Waugh Thistleton Architects’ Stadthaus in the UK, Kladen and Klingbeil’s E3 in Germany and Brendeland and Kristoffersen’s Svartlamoen housing in Norway.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figures 21 and 22

Stadthaus (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012)

Case Study 1: Stadthaus, Murray Grove

[http://www.waughthistleton.com/project.php?name=murray&img=6]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

9 storeys CLT panels London (UK, United Kingdom) 2008 [http://www.waughthistleton.com] Waugh Thistleton Architects [http://www.klhuk.com] KLH [http://www.telfordhomes.plc.uk] Telford Homes 49 weeks (structure 27 weeks) ÂŁ3.8m 29: 19 Private ,9 Social housing, 1 Shared (1, 2, 3 bedrooms) All-timber construction (including lift and stair cores) Tallest timber structure in the World

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Murray Grove, also known as the Stadthaus, is since its completion in 2008, the tallest modern timber residential building in world (Lowenstein, 2012). It was made by Waugh Thistleton Architects in collaboration with Techniker engineers using Austrian KLH company’s cross-laminated massive timber panels (Lowenstein, 2008), and it has been chosen as a case study not just for being a remarkable technical achievement but also because it was managed to be delivered on time, on budget and with great finishing qualities although it has been pioneer in many ways (Waugh, 2008). This 29 apartment building is located in Murray Grove, Hackney (London). Apart from the 19 private housing units, 9 affordable social housing units, 1 shared ownership that range from one to three bedrooms, it has a neighbourhood office in the ground floor (Lowenstein, 2008). It also “features a communal roof terrace, ample secured cycle storage and recycling facilities”(Telford Homes, 2012). Its main structure is entirely timber, including the lift and stair cores as well as the facade (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012), which is made of ‘Etermit’ panels that contain 70% of waste timber (Anon, 2007c). The building structure is made of cross-laminated timber panels (CLT), composed by a series of wood members perpendicularly placed that provide robust strength, which KLH glues using a “solvent-free, formaldehyde-free adhesive” (Gendall, 2009). This construction system, unlike the timber frame, does not need fire protection during construction (Anon, 2007c). Moreover, thanks to the thickness of the massive wood panels, which was increased by 35% (Waugh, 2011), it was relatively easy to achieve 60 and 90 minutes of fire resistance ratings (Anon, 2005), and therefore to meet the code regulations (Anon, 2009c). The stiffness of the structure, where all the walls are load bearing (Anon, 2009c) also provides programmatic benefits such as the possibilities of completely changing the layout from one floor to the next one, which in this case was used to accommodate the social housing units in 3 floors and the private ones in the other 5 (Waugh, 2012). It was “erected using a platform construction, simply placing floors on top of walls, with all the windows, doors and openings pre-cut” with the rather remarkable accuracy of ±2mm (Waugh, 2011). The timber panels are relatively light-weight prefabricated elements that incorporate the service holes when they are manufactured in fabric, which removes the need for a tower crane on site, reduces the work force and

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figures 23 and 24

Stadthaus Construction (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012)

makes assembly of the structure fast, dry and clean, while allowing to install the services “quickly and easily” after the completion of the structure (Waugh, 2008). Four German carpenters assembled the panels as they arrived on site; immediately “craned into position and fixed in place” completing the timber structure in 9 weeks, 1 floor per week (27 working days in 3 days-a-week) (Waugh, 2012). But not only the structure was built faster; the first-fix electrics, for instance, dropped from 6 weeks to 8 days; and more importantly, the entire building was completed in 49 weeks, 17 less than the estimated 72 that it would have taken to build it using conventional construction (Kucharek, 2009). “The speed of construction was especially relevant in the densely populated environment, as was the lack of noise and waste, creating far less intrusion on the local community than a traditional concrete frame construction, and a “healthy environment to both work on and live in” (Waugh, 2012) In contrast with energy intensive steel and concrete, timber is a material that does carbon sequestration during its growth (Yeang and Woo, 2010). When used in permanent structures such as building elements or furniture, this carbon remains within the material preventing it to be released to the environment again. In Murray Grove,

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figure 25 Stadthaus Social Housing (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012)

Figure 26 Stadthaus Private Housing (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012)

a building which is entirely timber made, more than 180tn of carbon are sequestrated within it, what is the equivalent of 20 years of emissions of the building operation (Anon, 2009c). Furthermore, it saves 306tn of carbon to be released to the atmosphere during construction, in comparison with steel and concrete (Lowenstein, 2008). The carbon stored within the structure was proposed to be considered as part of the strategy for carbon reduction and therefore avoided the need to use 10% on-site renewable energy (Waugh, 2011, National Building Specification, 2006). An additional environmental benefit is that the timber structure weights a quarter of its equivalent concrete building (Shah, 2011), significantly reducing the foundation requirements, which are usually made of concrete. The fabrication process of the timber panels is environmentally sensitive too. KLH uses PEFC certified timber, which guarantees a sustainable management of the forest, and uses a non-toxic adhesive to glue the spruce planks, and waste timber is used as biomass fuel to power the factory and local village (Waugh, 2012). On the other hand, in order to make this buildings, the engineered CLT panels had to be shipped from Austria, producing a considerable eco-haul that could have been diminished if the material had been produced in the UK (Lowenstein, 2008).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Despite all the environmental and technical benefits of using timber, the client, Telford Homes, agreed to use timber influenced by purely economic reasons: a timber construction would be faster, it would use less foundations and being prefabricated it would also be more precise and easier to built (Anon, 2009c). In fact, the developer was reluctant at first, to use a new construction system and later, to reveal that the building was timber made (Waugh, 2012), to the extent that timber is only exposed in common areas, being hidden behind plasterboard in the apartments in order to give them a conventional appearance (Lowenstein, 2008). Nevertheless, all the dwellings were sold in “1h15” and “upon its completion the building had zero defects and 100% tenants’ approval” (Waugh, 2012). A post-occupancy evaluation revealed that the residents were specially satisfied with the lack of construction defects, thanks to the structural stability of the CLT panels and the low levels of internal humidity (Julen Pérez Santisteban, 2012), and the acoustic performance, highlighting its quietness, demonstrating that environmentally sustainable construction such as timber is a financially viable alternative for steel and concrete without compromising the quality (Waugh, 2012). “The successful delivery of Stadthaus on time and on budget proves that it is possible to efficiently build carbon neutral, even carbon positive, architecture without sacrificing good design (Waugh, 2008, p. 7)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

E3 (Detail das architekturportal (Detail the architecture webpage), 2012)

Figures 27 and 28

Case Study 2: E3

[http://kaden-klingbeil.de/index.php?mact=Album,mff022,default,1&mff022albumid=12&mff022returnid=51&page=51]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer

7 storeys timber post and beam, walls / concrete and timber slabs Berlin (DE, Germany) 2008 [http://www.kaden-klingbeil.de/] Kaden + Klingbeil [http://projekt-holzbau.de/] Projekt Holzbau Merkle KOM [http://www.e3-berlin.de/] ‘Baugruppe E3’ collective

Construction Time Budget Typology Features

9 moths (water-tight structure 8 weeks) 1.48m € 7 apartments (1, 2, 3, 4 bedrooms) Mixed strucuture (timber + concrete)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

The E3 (Esmarchstrasse 3) was, when finished, the first 7 storeys timber structure in Europe (Kaden, 2009), setting a world record that was not even foreseen in the Berlin building codes (Schmal, 2008). Kaden & Klingbeil, the architects, demonstrated the ability not just to beat strict German codes that only allowed 5 storeys high timber structures, but also to integrate the building within a 19th century historic built environment, using mixed forms of structural materials (Anon, 2009b, Kaden, 2009). The building development collective, a partnership of convenience that assumes the risk itself, rather than spending money for a developer, had a clear idea that the house should be as eco-friendly as possible, without compromising architectural quality in any way (Schmal, 2008). The decision to use timber was theirs, as part of their willingness of producing a building with a favourable eco-balance. (Kaden, 2009). One of the major design decisions was having the reinforced concrete staircase as an isolated element, which is beneficial for fire protection, while makes possible for the building to have three facades, ensuring that the apartments receive daylight from three sides (Anon, 2009b), reducing the need for artificial lighting. Moreover, separating the main structure from the staircase allowed more flexibility in the design of the floor plans as well, being the service cores the only interior elements, it was possible to eliminate interior load-bearing walls, what resulted in a 6.50m structural span that allows different clients to decide the layout of their dwellings (Kaden, 2009). Therefore, the relationship between the interior and exterior space is not standardised, but rather individually selected. Additionally, each member ceded some common outdoor space in order to have communal outdoor space (Schmal, 2008). â&#x20AC;&#x153;E3 is not an artificial formal game, is a three dimensional portrayal of a negotiation processâ&#x20AC;? (Schmal, 2008)p.83). Because of Berlin building codes that only allowed timber structures of a maximum of 5 storeys, high levels of protection against fire had to be demonstrated, where the free standing open staircase playing a major role. Each dwelling has its own access and therefore its own fire escape route of a maximum of 20 meters, which is smoke free and unusually short (Kaden, 2009). Additional measures involved the encapsulation of the timber and bracing elements, the cladding in gypsum fireboard, and a smoke detection alarm system (Kaden, 2009)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figure 29 E3 first floor plan (E3 Berlin, 2012)

Figure 30 E3 third floor plan (E3 Berlin, 2012)

Except from the two firewalls to the neighbouring buildings, the two concrete cores for the building services installations, and the structure of the ground floor all the structural members of the residential buildings are timber (Kaden, 2009). The structure is made of solid timber 320x360mm columns and beams and 160mm thick solid timber walls (Kaden, 2009), while the slabs are concrete and timber composite floor systems (Kaden, 2009). Prefabricating the timber structure increased the quality as well as enabled achieving dimensional tolerances within a tenth of a millimetre (Kaden, 2009). What is more, the entire timber construction was solved by using just three standardised steel connections, which simplified the construction and, consequently, columns, beams, walls and floor elements could be mounted quickly and easily achieving a brief on-site construction time with no more than 4 carpenters working at the same time. (Kaden, 2009). Even though the goal was to have a watertight envelope within 11 weeks, in the end it only took 8 weeks to achieve, one week per storey (Kaden, 2009). In total, after 9 month of construction, the building was finished (Kaden, 2009). Wood is a renewable, light-weight, material that, if locally sourced, involves short transportation and requires a relatively small amount of energy to be processed (Kaden, 2009). Due to its ability to sequester carbon during

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

growth, has a positive energetic balance. Thanks to the use of timber, instead of concrete or steel, the primary energy required for the complete shell of E3 building represented just the 40% of that for a heavyweight construction (Kaden, 2009). Moreover, timberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thermal performance, in combination with the exterior insulation and the passive solar gains through the large glazed surfaces, resulted in a calculated energy requirement of less than 40kwh/m2 (Kaden, 2009). But not only the passive solar design contributed in reducing energy needs, the flexible structural system, where the facade and the concrete service cores are the only load bearing elements thanks to be composite slab system, means that any future re-arrangement of the floor plans will involve minor material and construction costs. On the other hand, structure encapsulation and mixed forms of construction usually result in a building that is more difficult to reuse and recycle after eventual demolitions or alterations. The suitability of timber to prefabrication also plays a major role in the environmental behaviour of the building, first of all because it reduces the construction times, making timber construction economically viable, and secondly because allows higher control on the construction quality ensuring higher levels of air tightness and thermal insulation.

Figure 31 E3 skeleton structure (Kaden & Klingbeil, 2012)

Figure 32 E3 structure bracing (Kaden & Klingbeil, 2012)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Rather than expressing materiality, the construction is about pragmatically taking advantage of that materialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s benefits (Kaden, 2009). Timber was selected as construction material due to its structural and insulating properties, with outstanding building physics characteristics and a very good energy balance (Kaden, 2009). Nevertheless, there is no indication of the timber on the exterior, as a timber facade was unlikely to be approved due to fire protection reasons, resulting in a rendered facade that could perfectly be of a reinforced concrete building, voluntarily differentiating itself from any vernacular architectural reference (Anon, 2009b). Actually, timber could be substituted by concrete without altering the design or appearance, what means that the material is not reflected in the design, but, on the other hand, demonstrates the potential to substitute current construction materials without further consequences. â&#x20AC;&#x153;With E3, the architects Kaden und Klingbeil have proven that serious minded ecological building does not have to entail any compromises in architectural quality, and that architecture in which architects act less as authors that as moderators can achieve impressive resultsâ&#x20AC;? (Schmal, 2008, p.83).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Svartlamoen Housing (Brendeland & Kristoffersen, 2012)

Figures 33 and 34

Case Study 3: Svartlamoen Housing

[http://www.bkark.no/projects/svartlamoen-housing]

Height

5 storeys

Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

CLT panels Trondheim (NO, Norway) 2005 [http://www.bkark.no/ ] Brendeland + Kristoffersen _ Santner & Spiehs OEG _ _ structure 10 days 1.8 m â&#x201A;Ź 4 communal flats (5, 6 bedrooms each) 6 studio flats All-timber construction (steel stair core outside built volumes) Low rent housing Exposed timber finishes

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Svartlamoen housing is the result of an exemplar architectural competition for environmentally aware low rent apartments that was awarded to the Norwegian Brendeland and Kristoffersen office (Anon, 2006). It has been selected as a case study for widening the spectrum of sustainable housing to social issues, combining the mainstream energetic approach with alternative urban living possibilities, while maintaining a “Swiss” formal rigour, material finesse, careful detailing and architectural quality, and for being the first of its class in Norway (Anon, 2005, Ferré et al., 2010, Braathen, 2006). Svartlamoen housing is situated in Trondheim, the third largest city in Norway, and is an example of successful public active participation in urban developments (Anon, 2005). The history of the area began in the 18th century, when it was a working-class area near the sea-front (Anon, 2005). In 1947 the area was re-zoned for industrial use, which provoked fierce public protest (Anon, 2007b). The area degenerated steadily until the 1970’s, when the city’s alternative population, punks then, middle-class anarchists today, gradually began to occupy some of the forty or so remaining buildings (Ferré et al., 2010).By the 1980’s, the area was already colonised by artists and entrepreneurs that used redundant buildings, definitely stopping the industrialisation plans in 2001, thanks to the legitimacy gained by the community, which finally made that the area were re-zoned as residential ‘semiautonomous urban ecological area’ (Anon, 2007b). All city-owned property was transferred to a foundation which called for an open competition. The resulting scheme is divided into two volumes of 2 and 5 storeys high, with ground level commercial units in the tallest volume (Anon, 2006). The smaller volume’s layout displays 3 studio flats per floor and the tallest one houses communal flats with 5 to 6 bedrooms each that occupy entire levels (Anon, 2005). The dwellings are characterised by unusually limited area for Norway, 22-29m2, in contrast with the usual 50m2 which is the world’s most generous per habitant (Ferré et al., 2010), and for being a high urban density development in relation to Norwegian standards (Anon, 2006, Zardini, 2007), challenging existing urban context and government’s housing policy of standardised residential developments (Braathen, 2006). Both buildings are constructed entirely using prefabricated 5-7 layers cross-laminated solid spruce timber panels that were mounted within just 10 days (AITIM, 2005). The only load bearing elements are the 144mm thick

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figure 35 and 36

Svartlamoen housing Construction (Brendeland & Kristoffersen, 2012)

exterior timber walls that provide a column free space with complete flexibility to host different layouts (Zardini, 2007), allowing the building to adapt not just to other partitions, but also to the requirements of different uses without major material and construction alterations. The interior adaptability is increased by the robust partition elements, which 96mm thickness enable to fix furniture and equipment directly to them (Anon, 2007b). Unlike many green-labelled developments, Svatlamoen housing is based upon social sustainability factors that have their root in the history of the area. Firstly, is the result of a social participation both in the urbanism of the area -and the design and transformation of the building (Anon, 2005, Zardini, 2007). The drafting of the new zoning law, the competition brief and the jury included the participation of representatives from the local community, and all 31 later occupants participated in the planning process (FerrĂŠ et al., 2010). Additionally, the apartmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s communal flat typology encourages alternative lifestyles that fit within the vibrant environment in which it is located (Anon, 2005). Secondly, compact plans that encourage communal living, prefabrication and simple detailing make it an economical solution both in terms of capital and running costs (Anon, 2005, FerrĂŠ et al., 2010). The success of all these approaches were promoted from the very beginning by the competition

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

Figure 37 and 38 Svartlamoen housing

Ground and Fourth Floor Plans (Zardini, 2007)

that generated the building itself, which also established as part of the brief the use of timber, as it is renewable, recyclable material and potentially a local source, as well as low energy consumption (Anon, 2005). Finally, the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architectural language recalls the functionality of the vernacular farm architecture (Anon, 2005), bridging contemporary alternative ways of living with Norwegian regionalism that creates a sense of identification of the residents towards the construction, while trying to maintain the knowledge of traditional timber craftsmanship put in risk by current practises (AITIM, 2005). Although wood is a renewable material that does carbon sequestration during growth, the structural timber of this project was imported from Austria as it happened in Waugh Thistleton Architectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Stadthaus (Anon, 2005, Lowenstein, 2008), generating large amount of CO2 due transport means. On the other hand, sustainability is also tackled form the design point of view. Bedrooms are very compact and face north, while communal living and dining spaces look towards the south facing courtyard (Anon, 2005), which provides natural light and heat and reduces the openings in the north facade. What is more, the passive design strategy, which is specially relevant in such a cold climate as the Norwegian, is combined with 200mm mineral wool gypsum boards provide

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Apartment Buildings

highly insulated exterior walls ,obtaining a U value of 0.17W/m2K, to reduce the heating requirements (Anon, 2007b, Hegger et al., 2008). The insulation being on the exterior of the structural timber panels, also enables to make use of the thermal mass of the structure, which being solid panels is also considerable. In addition, the staircases, which double their width to provide informal exterior south facing space in summer, are steel structured and exterior to the main volumes (Anon, 2007b). Apart from reducing the interior volume which reduces the volume that needs to be heated, provides morel communal space to be used by occupiers (Anon, 2007b). Finally, both the exterior Norwegian pine cladding and the interior finish of the structural spruce panels are left untreated (Anon, 2006), avoiding the use of chemical treatments that can be toxic for the environment or even for people (Greenspec, 2012d), while allowing residents to personalise their living spaces and revealing the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s materiality. â&#x20AC;&#x153;In response to the post-industrial context in which the complex is set, the formal model takes its inspiration from the vernacular functionalism of Norwegian farmsâ&#x20AC;? to create a residential model of shared ownership based upon principles of social, resource and energetic sustainability from concept to completion (Zardini, 2007, p.85)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

TimberApplicability and Appropriateness Applicability The Basque Country is a territory of remarkable biodiversity (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012a), whose 68.5% of the surface is covered by forests (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). Nevertheless, the 20.31% of the BAC area has some degree of protection recognised by the European ‘Natura 2000’ network, a similar figure to the European average (20%), which means that many of the trees cannot be exploited (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2012b). To understand the potential of timber as main construction material in the Basque Country, it is necessary to evaluate not just its natural resources, but also technical and economical viability, current regulations, resource management and possible interferences with other activities such as biomass fuel and paper and furniture industries. Timber’s ability to replace other materials such as concrete depends on its technical capacity to fulfil the demand of the specific target building typology of the area. In that aspect, the Basque built environment is very particular. In one hand, even small villages with population between 25000 and 5000 are very dense (800 inhabitants per m2) (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012c). Big cities, in the other hand, even though are even more densely populated than small villages, usually don’t exceed 8 storeys height in their city centres (Bilbao City Council, 1994, Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia (Auñamendi Basque Encyclopedia), 2012b), what means that as the world’s tallest timber residential structure is 9 storeys high (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012), it is technically possible to build the vast majority of the housing stock in the BC using timber as the main structural material. Being technically possible to build timber housing that fit within the current built environment, the next difficulties to be considered are the building regulations. While the use of sustainable materials for construction should not entirely rely on whether current regulations can be fulfilled, the possibility of doing so definitely enhances its prospective use. A close collaboration between authorities, planners, architects, and timber suppliers is essential to grant building permission (Kaltenbach, 2010). In order to assess this issue, the ‘Technical Building Code’ (CTE), the Spanish building regulations which applies in the BAC, needs to be analysed.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Applicability

“The CTE must be applied to all new buildings, except to those constructively simple buildings that do not have neither residential nor public use, being either temporary or permanent, build in a single-storey, without affecting the security of the people... as well as to extensions, alterations or refurbishments works of existing buildings that are compatible with the nature of the undertaken works” ((Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2010a), p. 3, translated from the original by Aurrekoetxea Etxebarria, 2012) The CTE was approved in Spain in 2006, “replacing the existing regulations that established the accepted procedures and technical guides that needed to be followed to construct a building” ((Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2012) translated from the original by Aurrekoetxea Etxebarria, 2012). Therefore, the current regulation establishes the criteria that buildings must follow, leaving open the way that these requirements are fulfilled, encouraging innovation and development of the construction industry (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2012), which means that innovative technical solutions that have been used in other countries, such as the CLT panels used in Stadthaus to build the 9 storeys high world’s tallest timber residential building (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012), could potentially be applied in the Basque Country if proved to comply with local requirements. To justify a building’s correct compliance of the CTE, which is “responsibility of all agents involved in the building process, as established in the Chapter III of the LOE (Organic Law of the State)” ((Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2010a), p. 5, translated from the original by Aurrekoetxea Etxebarria, 2012), is enough to adopt standard solutions covered in the regulations, or alternatively other solutions can be used if their compliance with at least the requirements of the CTE has been documented (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2010a). Usually solid forms of construction, such as CLT panels, provide better sound and fire insulation (Kaltenbach, 2010). The Spanish codes have an specific document, the ‘DB SE-M’, that covers the structural requirements for timber structure buildings (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2009b) If, for example, Stadthaus was to be built in Spain, being structurally safe, its current design would already fulfil the required fire protection and sound insulation. The evacuation height of the building is no higher than 28m (Anon, 2009c), therefore, according to the ‘DB SI’ building regulation, the required fire resistance for the escape routes would be 90 minutes (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2010b), a resistance that is achieved in the original building where necessary (Anon, 2009c). The same applies to E3 building, where the cladding of the

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Applicability

load-bearing structure prevents the timber structure from burning for at least 90 minutes (Kaden, 2009), which is the highest requirement that E3 would have to fulfil as its evacuation height is also lower than 28 metres (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2010b). In the finished building, 55dB of sound insulation between flats and 53dB between floor were achieved (Waugh et al., 2009), exceeding the UK regulation and also complying with the Spanish ones, which require at least 50dB of insulation between different ownerships either vertically and horizontally (Spanish Government Department for Promotion, 2009a). Achieving high levels of thermal insulation is also compatible with modern timber structural solutions. For instance, Helen & Hard Norwegian architects’ made Skadbergbakken multi-storey housings using CLT-panels while meeting Passivhaus requirements (Helen & Hard, 2012), widely known for their high levels of thermal insulation and air-tightness to obtain extremely low energy consumptions (Building Research Establishment, 2012). Timber multi-storey buildings have proved economically viable in other countries, which is a key factor for the viability of any constructive solution. The three chosen case studies were built on budget thanks to great extent to the prefabricated construction than enabled tighter control levels and fast construction times. Actually, timber was chosen by the client in WTA’s Stadthaus driven by economic reasons; because it would be faster, simpler and more cost effective than steel (Anon, 2009c). Construction times play a decisive role in constructing the buildings on budget. Kaden & Klingbeil’s E3 project, a building with tight budget promoted by a development collective, was finished before the scheduled time thanks to the prefabricated construction (Kaden, 2009). As also proven in Svartlamoen housing ,prefabrication and simple detailing have the ability to make timber buildings economical solution both in terms of capital and running costs (Ferré et al., 2010) Nevertheless, the economic viability of the building should not be considered as an isolated factor. Also to be addressed is the capacity of the Basque Country to produce its own timber, as the sourcing of the material plays an important role when assessing its environmental impact, while its use could also limit other potential uses. Trees and wood are the raw material for a wide variety of economic activities taking place in the Basque Country such as renewable energies (biomass), paper industry or furniture, which means that there are limited resources available. The ultimate objective is to reduce the CO2 emissions and acquire more sustainable behaviours in the built environment, which can be achieved by reducing the energy demand, switching from energy and material intensive processes such as concrete and steel to sustainable materials such as timber, and using renewable

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Applicability

sources to produce the energy that is actually consumed, with biomass for example. Although timber may be a more environmentally friendly material than concrete or steel, if using it would limit the amount of renewably sourced energy, it has to be carefully evaluated to know whether it is worthwhile. An illustrative example of the former is that the increasing use of biofuels in developed countries, a renewable energy source that can substitute fossil fuels, has resulted in the rocketing of food prices worldwide (Chakrabortty, 2008), as the land that was previously used to produce food is now used to produce biofuel due to the higher economic profitability of the fuel in comparison with food (Rice, 2011). This is the reason why all factors need to be taken into account to avoid that a solution that seemed positive for the environment and economically viable can have long-term negative consequences.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country

Appropriateness Connotations of the use of Timber In order to appropriately evaluate the potential of timber as construction material in the Basque Country, it is necessary to understand the connotations of forestry in the society, the resources that are available, the current and prospective uses of those resources and their consequences. The tree is an important element in the Basque history and culture. Symbolically, the ‘Tree of Gernika’, an Oak where theº Assembly of Biscay takes place from the Middle Ages until now, is a sacred tree that represents the freedom of the Basques (Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia (Auñamendi Basque Encyclopedia), 2012a). Even the English poet William Wordsworth dedicated a sonnet to the ‘Tree of Gernika’ in 1810 to galvanise the Basques against Napoleon (Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia (Auñamendi Basque Encyclopedia), 2012a). The tree still remains to be of great symbolic importance, as it is a representative part of the Coats of Arms of the Basque provinces Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa (Bizkaiko Foru Aldundia (Biscay Foral Council), 2012, Gipuzkuoako Foru Aldundia (Gipuzkoa Foral Council), 2012). Moreover, the ‘Lehendakari’, the president of the Basque Government, still takes its oath of office under

Figure 39 Coat of Arms of ‘Bizkaia’(Bizkaiko

Figure 40 Coat of Arms of ‘Gipuzkoa’ (Gipuzkuoako

Foru Aldundia (Biscay Foral Council), 2012)

Foru Aldundia (Gipuzkoa Foral Council), 2012)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

the ‘Tree of Gernika’ (Rodriguez Ranz, 2011). Another important factor to be considered is the connotations that of the choice of materials can have.Throughout the world, expressions of vernacular architecture respond to the specific conditions of local climate and material availability (Dahl, 2010). Timber has been an important construction material for vernacular architecture of many different places and climates all over the planet, proving its adaptability to obtain a variety of construction solutions for specific climatic conditions (Noble, 2007), and the Basque Country is not an exception. The ‘Baserri’, the traditional Basque farmhouse which is the main representative of Basque vernacular architecture, was at first built using timber (Baeschlin, 1930). Later, the exterior walls were replaced by masonry walls, with largedimension stones placed in the corners which were left visible, in order to increase the stiffness of the structure, leaving the use of timber to the construction of (sometimes) the upper floors, the slabs, the finishes and the furniture (Baeschlin, 1930). Stone is, as well as timber, a local material in the Basque Country (Uriona, 2009), and is as important as timber in vernacular architecture.

Figure 41 ‘Zabalaga Baserria’, traditional Basque farmhouse (Gipuzkoako Museoak, 2012)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

Nowadays, constructing timber-structure multi-storey buildings implies using highly-engineered timber products such as CLT panels of hybrid structures, what involves the combination of two very well-rooted activities in the Basque Country that exemplify tradition and modernity respectively: forestry to obtain the raw material and industry to transform it. In one hand, according to Heidegger, a building should be built according to the specifics of the place and the inhabitants, using local materials such as timber or stone to create a traditional architectural language that honour their locality and strengthen peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sense of belonging (Sharr, 2007). In order to do that, it is important that these materials are left exposed so they express their materiality. Otherwise, if covered by finishing, they cannot accomplish their symbolic function. Good examples of the former are the case studies of Stadthaus and Svartlamoen apartment buildings. Although they both use CLT panels as structural solution (Gendall, 2009, Anon, 2007b), Stadthaus could perfectly have been built without using any timber, as the construction material is not visible and it has an standardised architectural formal language, while Svartlamoen, by contrast, is a reinterpretation of Norwegian farm architecture, both in form and material (Zardini, 2007). On the other hand, architectural localism can lead to the exclusion of people who do not feel attached to the area in the same way as the majority (Sharr, 2007), a consequence that is prevented from happening when using modern construction techniques of both timber and stone. Nevertheless, in multi-storey apartment buildings the use of stone is usually represented by concrete, which is normally embedded within the partitions or covered with finishing materials. Even if concrete was left exposed, being the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most used material (Ashley and Lemay, 2008), it can hardly have any localism connotation. Timber is itself also a very widely used interior finishing material worldwide, which also excludes any specific connotation. Moreover, in order to be used as structural material for multi-storey apartment buildings, wood is normally transformed into cross-laminated timber panels (Anon, 2009c), an element hardly recognisable in vernacular architecture. As analysed in the case studies, very different formal language can be used when using CLT panels. Even both Stadthaus and Svartlamoen housing projects had a CLT panel structure, while the first one had a contemporary image, the second one was a reinterpretation of vernacular architecture, what proves that in this case, localism depends more on architectural formal language and finishing material rather than structural solution.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

Wood Availability In order to evaluate the appropriateness of using timber as a major construction material, it is fundamental to understand the Basque forestry, the activity responsible for the availability and management of wood resources. Economically, forestry has been an important activity in the BC throughout history until now. It played a key role in the development of the first industrial activities in the Basque Country from the 12th until the 19th century, firstly producing coal for the small mountain blacksmiths which later gradually increased in importance moving towards more urban locations (Department of Education Universities and Research Basque Government, 2012c). The combination of the demand of forestry related products, excessive farming and the need for vegetal coal for metal industry in the late 18th and 19th centuries, resulted in significant decay of the Basque forests, being determinant for the replanting that happened during the 20th century (Michel, 2006). The radiate pine, a fast growing economically profitable specie, started to be cost-effective, making private land owners start to use it to replant void areas, as an alternative to traditional forestry species, and still remains by far the main tree species in Basque forests (Michel, 2006), with half of the current tree stock (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007). Economic profitability and the population exodus from rural to urban areas left gradually more land available for tree growth resulting in the late 20th century in even more replanting of the forests (Michel, 2006). The currently abundance of trees in the Basque Country is remarkable. In 2005, the total surface occupied by trees was 54.9% of the BAC, forests being the 68.5% of the total area of the territory, with the area of the plantation forests being slightly bigger than the area occupied by natural forests (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). The annual growth of the Basque forests is 3,831,250m3, just between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000m3/year of which have been used annually on average over the last decade, which leaves approximately the half of the wood unused (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

The radiate pine is the main tree species of the BAC as it represents the 90% of the Basque forestry activity, the 48% of the total number of trees and the 35% of tree surface of the BAC (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). Currently there are 26,300,000m3 of radiate pine growing 2,297,780m3/year, the 60% of the total annual growth of the Basque forests (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007). The eucalyptus and the beech tree are the second and third more growing species, with 253,223 m3/year, and 217,991 m3/year respectively, they only represent the 7% and 6% of the annual forest growth, what highlights even more the predominance of the pine (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007). Figure 42 Tree Species in the Basque Autonomous Community (authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own, 2012, based upon (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007)) Tree Species (English)

Tree Species (Latin)

Total

Stock (m3) 54,816,506

Softwood

Annual Growth (m3) 3,831,250

34,444,889 (62.8%)

Radiata Pine

Pinus radiata

Scots Pine

Pinus sylvestris

2,443,636

European Black Pine

Pinus nigra

1,876,459

Larch

Larix spp.

1,331,810

Eucalyptus

Eucaliptos

1,445,607 (2.6%)

Lawsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cypress

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

951,196

Douglass-Fir

Pseudotsuga menziesii

690,292

Hardwood

26,328,724 (48%)

2,297,780 (60%)

253,223 (6.6%)

20,371,617 (37.8%)

European Beech

Fagus sylvatica

8,278,223 (15.1%)

English Oak

Quercus robur

2,803,015

Otras especies

8,667,545

217,991 (5.7%)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

Although all tree species can be used as building materials, some of them are more suitable than others (Egoin Technical Service, 2012). For instance, Les Landes, in south-western France, is the largest plantation forest in Europe and is almost totally formed by pine, which together with spruce and fir, is the mainly used tree species in Europe for construction purposes (Le Toan et al., 1992). Being Basque forests in general and pine in particular clearly underexploited, the official data from the Basque Government suggests that between 1,000,000m3 and 500,000m3 of pine wood are annually available, depending on the demand of timber generated by other industries such as paper and furniture, that require wood for their activities (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007). An additionally 1,500,000m3 of wood annually grow in the Basque forests (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007), that even they are not as widely used species to produce CLT, there is no reason why they cannot be used for construction.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

Current Uses of Timber If we consider the material on its own, timber requires less energy and emits less greenhouse gases than concrete (GRID-Arendal, 2008). What is more, it is a renewable material, meaning that unlike concrete, the material that is used does not cause any resource depletion to the planet. On the other hand, the concrete that is used in the BAC is locally extracted and produced, which reduces transport-related emissions. Timber has the potential to be locally sourced as well, as the 55% of the BAC is covered by trees (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005), but its use as main construction material could limit other important uses such as biomass fuel and paper and furniture industry that currently take place in the area. Apart from construction, paper and furniture industries are the most relevant activities that use wood. The paper industry is an important traditionally rooted economical activity in the BAC, that is responsible for the 4% of the industrial GDP of the BAC and the 1.2% of the total GDP (The Cluster of Paper, 2008), producing more than 20% of the total Spanish paper production (SPRI, 2006). Paper industry uses wood as raw materials, mostly eucalyptus, which is amongst the most difficult species to produce timber products (Egoin Technical Service, 2012), and radiata pine (The Cluster of Paper, 2008), the most abundant tree species in the Basque forests that is also the most appropriate for construction (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2005). As construction and paper industry use the same raw materials, if sufficient wood was not available to fulfil both industriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; demand, the environmental and economic impact of both activities had to be evaluated. An increase in the use of eucalyptus should also be explored, as it is the species with biggest unitary growth (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007). Furthermore, timber waste can also be use to produce timber, which could also clash with the energy production apart from construction. The furniture industry, by contrast, has a reduced influence on the Basque economy, distinguishing itself as an award-winning quality sector rather than for producing large amounts of manufacture products (Arratibel, 2012). The BAC is the Spanish region with higher amount of eco-design certificates, what demonstrates the

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

commitment of the sector towards sustainability (Arratibel, 2012). Timber, like other organic materials, has the ability to be burned as biomass to generate electricity, from grid to domestic scale stations; and can be obtained in two formats, grown directly as ‘energy crop’, a process that is nearly carbon neutral, only limited by the need to transport the fuel; or as a waste by-product, in which case it has the potential to be carbon positive, if the first product derived from wood is a permanent element such as furniture or building structure (Greenspec, 2012a), in which case part of the carbon absorbed by the trees remains sequestrated. Almost all of the locally produced energy in the Basque Country is renewable, being biomass the most important type with the 64.2% of the production (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011). Nevertheless, in terms of energy, the Basque Country is extremely exterior dependant, with just the 5.8% of the energy being locally produced (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2011), what makes biomass a very important energy source for the BAC. The types of biofuel currently used in the BAC are timber waste by-products from the paper and wood processing industries such as furniture and sawmill, municipal waste, water treatment plant waste and vegetable oils; the sum of all of which makes the 85% of the renewable energy produced in the BAC (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2012). Usually, the timber waste generated in sawmills is used to run the factory itself, while the waste from other timber industries is used to produce wood pellets (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2012), which is the cheapest fuel for domestic use that is currently available in Spain to run domestic boilers (Rico, 2012). For instance, the waste timber generated in the KHL factory where the CLT panels for WTA’s Stadthaus were fabricated, was used as biomass fuel to power the factory and the local village (Waugh, 2012). Moreover, as demonstrated in a research in Sweden where a multi-storey wood-framed building was compared to an equivalent reinforced concrete building, the biomass energy of the residues from the forest operations, wood processing, construction and demolition was greater than the fossil energy inputs to produce the building materials (Gustavson et al., 2006). The energy strategy for the following years in the BAC includes enhancing the relevance of biomass by increasing the value of forestry and agricultural waste products (EVE (Basque Energy Body), 2012), what means that none of the biomass derived from forestry is planned to be an energy crop. Therefore, increasing the demand of harvested wood products such as timber structures would automatically mean a rise in the amount of waste and

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

consequently the available biomass fuel. What is more, the United Nations consider that from GHG emissions point of view, it is preferable a cascade use of HWP, firstly using wood products, then reusing or recycling them and lastly obtaining energy from them, rather than their direct use as fuel (Hetsch, 2008), what makes compatible and also recommendable the combination of timber as construction material and the increase on biomass production.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

Prospective Uses of Timber In some of the case studies such as Brendeland and Kristoffersen’s Svartlamoen and Waugh Thistleton Architects’ Stadthaus, the engineered CLT panels had to be shipped from Austria, producing a considerable amount of CO2 emissions due to transport, which means that the environmental benefits obtained by using timber in comparison to concrete or steel would have been even bigger if the panels had been produced locally (Lowenstein, 2008, Anon, 2005b). Nevertheless, the environmental impact of those buildings is claimed to be positive regardless the source of the timber (Lowenstein, 2008, Anon, 2007b), meaning that even not locally produced timber structures have the ability to diminish the greenhouse gases associated to the built environment. For that reason in order to assess the environmental impact of timber mass production for construction, necessarily involves the study of the forestry resources, as locally produced materials are more environmentally beneficial. Currently, timber is far from being a widely used structural material in the Basque Country. Concrete is used for almost every building in the BAC, as reveals the fact that the 74% of the construction materials consumed in the Basque Autonomous Community are aggregates, the main raw material for concrete (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2004). Nevertheless, some remarkable efforts to boost timber are taking place, such as ‘Build with timber’ project to promote timber construction in towns with less than 1000 inhabitants, or the biannual Egurtek International Symposium on timber construction (Euskadiko Zur Mahaia (Basque Wood Board), 2012a, Euskadiko Zur Mahaia (Basque Wood Board), 2012c), what together with some companies that commercialise timber products; indicates a clear intention from the forestry sector, industries and some institutions to boost timber’s building applications. The discussion whether timber or concrete should be the main construction material in the Basque Country depends to some extent on the capacity of the territory to produce enough timber to satisfy the housing demand. Since the amount of timber required to build a fully timbered apartment building depends on the number of storeys, the structural timber typology, the layout, the regulations, the architect’s and engineers’ decisions etcetera, existing timber multi-storey buildings -Stadthaus, Wälluden and Viiki housing buildingshave been taken as benchmarks to calculate the proportion between the floor area and the consumed amount

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

of timber. Taking into account that for every m3 of processed timber between 1,75m3 and 2m3 of roundwood are required (Egoin Technical Service, 2012, Zeumer et al., 2009), between 250,000m3 and 475,000m3 of processed radiata pine timber can be produced annually by using currently spare pine wood. As an average dwelling’s floor area is 102.5m2 (Anon, 2005a), depending on the amount of available timber between 18,500 and 9,750 fully timbered buildings could be made every year using radiata pine. Being built 16,322 the maximum amount of annual dwellings over the last decade, the average of the same period 11,500, and in the context of the global economic recession around 7,000 dwellings in the last 3 years, the BAC shows the potential to build a significant proportion of them just using timber as structural material. Furthermore, if other tree species that are not currently exploited were also used, such as the European Breech, which is not currently exploited at all (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007), the amount of prospective timber dwellings would also increase. Actually, some producers such as Binderholz produce CLT panels using breech tree (Binderholz, 2010). For detailed calculation see the ‘A Appendix’ (p. 84) In a situation like the present, where the vast majority of the construction relies on the necessary availability of aggregates to produce concrete, the resilience of the area, its capacity to absorb disturbances or to adapt to changes (Walker et al., 2004), in terms of material dependence very limited. If just one resource is used for any given purpose, the vulnerability towards it creates a great risk for the system to collapse, a process that is explained by the ‘panarchy’ (Gallopín, 2006). The adaptive cycle metaphor illustrates that after a period of ‘conservation’ or stability obtained after a growth period–‘exploitation’– of a given socio-ecological system, it collapses –‘release’–, needing a readjustment process –‘reorganisation’– to star growing again to finally be stable again (Gotts, 2007). As concrete is a non-renewable resource, a system that entirely relies on it will inexorable collapse at some point. On the other hand, introducing a new material in the system that is capable of replacing concrete, without significantly altering the construction trends of the BC, and additionally is renewable and consequently does not reduce the area’s resources, it has the potential to dramatically increase the resilience of the Basque Country while reducing the contribution of the construction industry to global warming. Finally, as the issue of using timber as construction material is to some extent relative to the management of natural resources, bioregionalism, a body of thought that connects the socially-just human activities with region-scale ecosystems in a sustainable manner (Aberley, 1999), rather than considering the limited resources

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Timber Applicability and Appropriateness in the Basque Country Appropriateness

of a specific political body as isolated factors. As bioregionalism contributes to cultural and natural diversity (Birkeland, 2008), it clashes with sustainability’s inherent relationship to local autonomy, in opposition to globalisation as it hinders the control on resource management while involving indiscriminate transportation. The Spanish National Geographical Institute (IGN) recognises different bioregions, one of which is the ‘CantabrianAtlantic Bioregion’, comprising the north of the BAC, Nafarroa, Cantabria, Asturias, and Galicia (IGN (Spanish National Geography Institute), 2011b), all of the autonomous communities that face the the Bay of Biscay. All these political bodies have similar climate and mountainous geography to those in the Basque Country (IGN (Spanish National Geography Institute), 2011c, IGN (Spanish National Geography Institute), 2011a) whereas are less densely populated (BAC 302inhab/km2, Nafarroa 61, Cantabria 111, Asturias, 102, Galicia 95) (INE (Spanish National Institute of Statistics), 2011), closer to the national average population density –91.8 inhab/km2– than the BAC (Eurostat, 2012b), what results in a favourable framework of presumably less dwellings demand in comparison to the natural forestry resources of the region. Additionally, the south-western part of the French state, which is also part of the Basque Country, could probably be included in the same bioregion as it has similar climatic and geographical conditions, forming what it would be the bioregion of the southern part of the Bay of Biscay or the ‘Biscay Bioregion’.

Figure 43 ‘Biscay Bioregion’ (author’s own, 2012, based upon (IGN (Spanish National Geography Institute), 2011b))

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

Conclusions The built environment and the construction industry are one of the main global warming contributing factors (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2012), as they are responsible for the world’s 40% of energy use, 30 % of GHG emissions and 30% of raw material consumption (SBCI, 2010). Concrete, which is by far the main construction material in the Basque Country, is itself the third biggest greenhouse gas pollutant worldwide (Schoof, 2011). The combination of recent technical achievements in timber multistorey building construction, the particularities of the Basque built environment, where medium rise apartment buildings are the dominant housing typology in both big cities and small villages, and the abundance of wood resources in the region, make timber a prospective sustainable alternative to concrete. Forests sequester carbon from the atmosphere as they grow (Grêt-Regamey et al., 2008), what means that when harvested wood products are used to form permanent structures such as construction elements, carbon is stored within them, while additional carbon can be absorbed by newly planted trees (Gustavson et al., 2006). Moreover, when sustainably managed, timber is a renewable, reusable and recyclable material that does not cause any resource depletion (McLeod, 2010). Timber made from sustainably managed forests can reduce the CO2 emissions thanks to the carbon stored within, it has a lower energy demand to be manufactured than energy intensive materials, CO2 emissions resulted in cement fabrication are avoided and increases the availability of biomass fuel as timber waste by-product (Gustavson, 2008), which unlike the author’s initial assumption is more effective in reducing GHG emissions than energy crops (Hetsch, 2008). The leitmotif of the research was to provide information on the environmental benefits of timber in comparison to concrete. In depth literature review on the sustainability of construction materials, apart from the timber’s environmental benefits, revealed that even consuming considerable amount of energy, concrete is frequently used for the lower levels of timber buildings as protection from moisture, to stiffen the structure anchoring the building and in combination of timber to create hybrid constructive systems. Additionally, it is maintenance free, provides high thermal mass and it can be locally produced in the Basque Country (Moreno Garcia, 2007), meaning that if appropriately used it can positively contribute to a sustainable built environment (Ashley and Lemay, 2008).

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country Conclusions

The study of case studies of timber-structure multi-storey apartment buildings enabled to understand the various factors and complex real-life situations that influence the process of pursuing a sustainable building by using innovative methods and materials. Although in all three case studies timber was selected by the architects for sustainability reasons, what ultimately made possible to build them was the economic viability that timber prefabricated systems demonstrated, thanks to its short construction times. Even though the buildings had an environmentally positive effect, in some cases the timber had to be transported from other countries (Lowenstein, 2008, Anon, 2005b), uncovering the lack of specialised industries in the sector that also happens in the Basque Country. Timber multi storey buildings proved to be highly applicable in the Basque Country, capable of perfectly fitting within the current built environment and to comply with Spanish building regulations. On the other hand, the territory shows the capacity of producing a considerable amount of its annual dwelling demand by using timber, what proves the timber’s great potential to increase the resilience of the Basque Country in terms of construction materials, while revealing the variability of the timber production depending on the global economy’s influence on the amount of annual dwelling demand, but also depending on the wood requirements from local industries such as paper or furniture. Nevertheless, the research found some limitations on the difficulties of obtaining the same comparable data from all of the case studies, due to the language of some of the published work, and the impossibility of contacting and visiting the architecture offices responsible for the projects. Higher levels of specific and updated data on the current Basque forestry would also increase the accuracy of the undertaken calculations. Further research is required to provide comparable information on the amount of processed timber and the type of construction elements that can be obtained from the various underexploited tree species of the Basque forests. Moreover, as wood is a natural resource, the capacity to produce timber for the Basque Country should be analysed in depth considering the ‘Biscay Bioregion’ bioregion rather than current political boundaries. As the paper industry uses the same raw material as biomass energy production and timber industry, the interaction between these activities is also to be analysed. Additionally, due to the fluctuations on the required amount of timber depending on the chosen structural solution, exploring the constructive methods of different timber solutions would provide useful data in terms of material efficiency.

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

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Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

A Appendix Calculations: Timber Resources in the Basque Country 1 General Timber Demand for Dwellings Data: Stadthaus (Waugh et al., 2009) Floor area

8 timber storeys of 400m2 = 3200m2 total floor area

Weight

300,000kg

300,000kg/480kg/m3= 625m3 625m3/3200m2= 0.195m3 of timber/m2 Data: W채lluden (Gustavson et al., 2006) Floor area

1190m2 (in 4 storeys)

Weight

98,oookg of timber

98,000kg/480kg/m3= 204.17m3 204.17m3/1190m2= 0.17m3 of timber/m2 Data: Viikki (Gustavson et al., 2006) Floor area

1175m2 (in 4 storeys)

Weight

145,000kg of timber

145,000kg/480kg/m3= 302.1m3 302.1m3/1175m2= 0.25m3 of timber/m2 CLT panel density

480kg/m3 (Waugh et al., 2009)

dwelling average floor area in Spain

102.5m2/dwelling (Anon, 2005)

Timber volume per dwelling area ratio

0.25m3/m2

102.5m2 x 0.25m3/m2 = 25.625m3 of timber/dwelling

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country A Appendix Calculations

2 Timber availability in the BC Data (Department for the Environment Spatial Planning Agriculture and Fisheries Basque Government, 2007) Annual use of timber

2,000,000m3/year-1,500,000m3/year

Pine

90% of forestry activities

Pine annual growth

2,300,000m3/year

Roundwood to timber conversion

2m3 of roundwood/m3 of timber (Zeumer et al., 2009)

*Note: the amount of roundwood required to obtain 1m3 of timber fluctuates between 1.75m3 and 2m3, depending on the type and the wood species (Egoin Technical Service, 2012). For the purpose of this calculation a 2 to 1 proportion has been used. Calculations: minimum Pine wood availability Maximum annual use of pine wood

2,000,000m3 x 0.9= 1,800,000m3/year

Minimum amount of available pine wood

2,300,000m3 - 1,800,000m3/year = 500,000m3/year

Minimum amount of available pine timber

500,000m3 / 2m3/m3 = 250,000m3/year

250,000m3 / 25.63m3/dwelling = 9,754.19 pine structure dwellings Calculations: maximum Pine wood availability Minimum annual use of pine wood

1,500,000m3/year x 0.9= 1,350,000m3/year

Maximum amount of available pine wood

2,300,000m3/year - 1,350,000m3/year = 950,000m3/year

Maximum amount of available pine timber

950,000m3/year / 2m3/m3 = 475,000m3/year

475,000m3/year / 25.63m3/dwelling = 18,532.97 pine structure dwellings

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country A Appendix Calculations

Dwelling capacity Data (Eustat (Basque Institute of Statistics), 2012) Maximum demand 2002-2011

16,322 dwellings/year (2007)

Demand average 2002-2011

11,500 dwellings/year

Demand 2009

7,456 dwellings/year

Demand 2010

6,916 dwellings/year

Demand 2011

7,725 dwellings/year

Pine Structure Capacity: Calculation Minimum pine structure dwellings

9,754.19 dwellings

Average pine structures dwellings

(18533+9754) / 2 = 14143.5 dwellings

Maximum pine structure dwellings

18,532.97 dwellings

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country

B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Building Norway

Svartlamoen Housing

(Brendeland + Kristoffersen)

Skadbergbakken Masterplan and Housing

(Helen + Hard)

Germany

(Kaden + Klingbeil)

(Schankula Architekten)

United Kingdom

Stadthaus

(Waugh Thistleton Architects)

Bridport House

(Karakusevic Carson Architects)

Life Cycle Tower One

(Hermann Kaufmann)

Wagramerstrasse apartment complex

(Hagmuller Architekten / Schudler Architektur)

Austria

Switzerland

Holzhausen

(Scheitlin Syfrig Architekten)

Badenerstrasse 380

(Pool Architekten)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Svartlamoen Housing (Brendeland & Kristoffersen, 2012)

Figures 33 and 34

Svartlamoen Housing

[http://www.bkark.no/projects/svartlamoen-housing]

Height

5 storeys

Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Skadbergbakken Masterplan and Housing (Helen & Hard, 2012)

Figures 44 and 46

Skadbergbakken Masterplan and Housing [http://www.hha.no/projects/skadbergbakken/]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

6 storeys _ Sola (NO, Norway) _ Helen + Hard PPAG Architects KLH _ _ _ Maisonettes + Affordable Renting Passivehaus

[http://www.hha.no ] [www.ppag.at] [www.klhscandinavia.se/] _

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

E3 (Detail das architekturportal (Detail the architecture webpage), 2012)

Figures 27 and 28

[http://kaden-klingbeil.de/index.php?mact=Album,mff022,default,1&mff022albumid=12&mff022returnid=51&page=51]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer

Construction Time Budget Typology Features

9 moths (water-tight structure 8 weeks) 1.48m € 7 apartments (1, 2, 3, 4 bedrooms) Mixed strucuture (timber + concrete)

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

H8 ((Detail das architekturportal (Detail the architecture webpage), 2012))

Figure 46 and 47

[http://www.schankula.com/projekte.html]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

8 storeys _ Bad Aibling (DE, Germany) _ Schankula Architekten Binderholz _ _ _ _ _

[http://www.schankula.com/] [http://www.binderholz.com/] _

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Figures 21 and 22

Stadthaus (Waugh Thistleton Architects, 2012)

Stadthaus

[http://www.waughthistleton.com/project.php?name=murray&img=6]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Bridport House (Karakusevic Carson Architects, 2012)

Figures 48 and 49

Bridport House

[http://www.karakusevic-carson.com/2012/bridport-house-hackney]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

8 storeys CLT panels London (UK, United Kingdom) _ [http://www.karakusevic-carson.com] Karakusevic Carson Architects _ _ _ _ _ _ Maisonettes + Affordable Renting Brick facade No heavier than previous 5 storey building

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Figures 50 and 51

LCT One (CREE, 2012)

Life Cycle Tower One

[http://www.hermann-kaufmann.at/v2-1.php?oid=10_21&kid=11&wkl=&lg=en]

Height

8 storeys

Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

Composite Slabs (8.1m span) Dornbirn (AT, Austria) _ Hermann Kaufmann _ _ _ _ Office building Research Project Prototype Concrete Staircase

[http://www.hermann-kaufmann.at] _ _

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Apartment Coplex Wagramerstrasse (Schluder Architektur, 2012)

Figures 52 and 53

Wagramerstrasse apartment complex

[http://www.architecture.at/index.php?article_id=39&clang=1]

Height

Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

6 storeys + 1 penthouse Cross Laminated Timer BBS Wien (AT, Austria) _ Hagmuller Architekten Schudler Architektur Binderholz Reg. Gen. mbH _ _ 87 apartments Concrete cores

[http://www.hagmueller.com/] [http://www.architecture.at/] [http://www.binderholz.com/] [http://www.sozialbau.at/]

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Figure 54 and 55 Holzhausen (Scheitlin Syfrig Architekten, 2012)

Figures 54 and 55

Holzhausen

[http://scheitlin-syfrig.ch/projekte/wohnen/mehrfamilienhaus/holzhausen.html]

Height Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

7 Storeys _ _ (CH, Switzerland) _ Scheitlin Syfrig Architekten _ _ _ _ _

[http://scheitlin-syfrig.ch] [_] [_]

Multi-Storey Timber Housing in the Basque Country B Appendix Timber-Structure Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Figure 56 Badenerstrasse 380 Zurich (Pool Architekten, 2012)

Badenerstrasse 380

[http://www.poolarch.ch//site/php/projDetail.php?id=36]

Height

7 storeys

Construction System Location Completion Architect Timber supplier Developer Construction Time Budget Typology Features

_ Zurich (CH, Switzerland) _ Pool Architekten _ _ _ _ _

[http://www.poolarch.ch] [_] [_]