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2.
614 Elliott Horowitz: The Vengeance of the Jews Was Stronger Than Their Avarice": Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of . Jerusalem in 614 (extract). Jean-Paul Sartre, Anti-Semite and Jew, trans. G. J. Becker (New York, 1948), 117. For the later confession, see Susan Rubin Suleiman, "The Jew in Sartre's Reflexions sur la question juive: An Exercise in Historical Reading," in The Jew in the Text: Modernity and the Construction of Identity, Linda Nochlin and Tamar Garb, eds. (London, 1995), 216, quoting from Sartre's interview with Benny LĂŠvy, "The Last Words of Jean-Paul Sartre," trans. Rachel Phillips Belash, Dissent (Fall 1980): 418-19. On various reactions to Sartre's work, including her own, see Suleiman, "The Jew in Sartre's Reflexions," 201-18. See also
265 Menachem Brinker, "Sartre on the Jewish Question: Thirty Years Later," Jerusalem Quarterly 10 (Winter 1979): 117-32. Brinker's important essay was apparently unknown to Suleiman. 3. See Harold Rosenberg, "Sartre's Jewish Morality Play," in his Discovering the Present: Three Decades in Art, Culture, and Politics (Chicago, 1973), 276, 281-82. (This essay originally appeared in somewhat different form with a somewhat different title in Commentary 7, no. 1 [January 1949].) 4. Elaine Marks in The French Review 45 (1972): 784, quoted (with approval) by Suleiman, "The Jew in Sartre's Reflexions," 201 (see also 208). 5. Y. H. Yerushalmi, From Spanish Court to Italian Ghetto (New York, 1971), 128. See also Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (New Haven, Conn., 1943), 50, 148-49, and Peter Biller, "Views of Jews from Paris around 1300: Christian or 'Scientific'?," Studies in Church History 29 (1992): 192-99. 6. See Sander Gilman, Freud, Race, and Gender (Princeton, N.J., 1993), 25, 38-39, and, most recently, Daniel Boyarin, Unheroic Conduct: The Rise of Heterosexuality and the Invention of the Jewish Man (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), 210-11, and the sources cited there. 7. J. M. Efron, Defenders of the Race: Jewish Doctors and Race Science in Fin-de-Siècle Europe (New Haven, Conn., 1994), 182n11; Gilman, Freud, 162, citing Strauss's Der alte und der neue Glaube (Leipzig, 1872), 71). 8. George Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe (New York, 1985), 143-46; Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (New York, 1991), 42, 63-64; Gilman, Freud, 31-32, 42-43, 95. Sheila Briggs has pointed to the feminization of the Jew in nineteenth- and twentieth-century German theology and his association, as in the thought of Reinhold Seeberg, with "the female stereotype of spontaneous rather than reflective religiosity" (Briggs, "Images of Women and Jews in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century German Theology," in Immaculate and Powerful: The Female in Sacred Image and Social Reality, C. W. Atkinson, C. H. Buchanan, and M. R. Miles, eds. [Boston, 1985], 250-51, 255-56). 9. Jellinek added that "a juxtaposition of the Jew and the woman will persuade the reader of the truth of the ethnographic thesis." Jellinek particularly stressed the feminine character of the Jewish voice ("let me note that bass voices are much rarer than baritone voices among the Jews"). See Gilman, Freud, 42-43, quoting from Jellinek's Der jüdische Stamm (Vienna, 1869), 89-90. The translations are Gilman's. For a later case of Jewish internalization, see Hans Gross's comments on the "little, feminine hand of the Jew," quoted by Gilman, Freud, 42. Daniel Boyarin, as part of his self-described attempt to "reclaim the eroticized Jewish male sissy," has argued recently that "there is something correct in the persistent European representation of the Jewish man as a sort of woman" (Unheroic Conduct, xxi, 4-5). 10. See Jules Michelet, La Bible de l'humanité (Paris, 1864), 374, cited and discussed (but mistranslated) by Shmuel Almog, "The Racial Motif in Renan's Attitude to Jews and Judaism," in Almog, ed.,
266
11. 12. 13.
14.
15.
16. 17.
18.
19.
20.
Antisemitism Through the Ages, trans. N. H. Reissner (Oxford, 1988), 272. Almog's article originally appeared (in Hebrew) in Zion 32 (1967). Michelet, La Bible, 381-82. Later quoted by Gabriel Monod, "Michelet et les juifs," Revue des Etudes Juives 53 (1907): xix. Ernest Renan, History of the People of Israel, 5 vols. (Boston, 1905), 3: 354. The original French edition appeared between 1887 and 1893. On Renan's view of the Jews and their history, see Almog, "The Racial Motif," and, more recently, Maurice Olender, Les langues du paradis (Paris, 1989), 75-109. Jean Juster, Les juifs dans l'empire romain (Paris, 1914), 2: 214. Note Norman Bentwich's review in Jewish Quarterly Review n.s. 6 (191516): 335, where he wrote of Juster: "In his collection . . . of every recorded crime committed by either an individual Jew or a Jewish community, he has prepared the field of comparative study for some less cautious follower." W. E. H. Lecky, "Israel Among the Nations," reprinted in his, Historical and Political Essays (London, 1908), 122, 128. Lecky's essay, written in response to A. Leroy-Beaulieu's eponymous French work of 1893 (English trans., 1895), originally appeared in The Forum. For Leroy-Beaulieu's comments on the Jewish predilection for nervousness and neurosis, see Gilman, Freud, 95. The passages quoted from Michelet, Renan, and Lecky are cited by neither Mosse nor Gilman in their aforementioned works. Lecky, Historical and Political Essays, 266. See the entry on Milman by Richard Garnett in The Dictionary of National Biography [hereafter DNB] (reprint, Oxford, 1921-22), 13: 448-51, upon which the brief entry in the Jewish Encyclopedia (New York, 1901-6), 8: 94, is based. There is (sadly) no entry for Milman in the Encyclopaedia Judaica. H. H. Milman, History of the Jews, 3 vols. (2nd ed., London, 1830), 3: 192-93, 199-200. (This work was first published in 1829, the 3rd edition in 1863, and the 4th edition 1866; it was reprinted as late as 1930.) On the first two incidents and their treatment by historians, see Elliott Horowitz, "The Rite to Be Reckless: On the Perpetration and Interpretation of Purim Violence," Poetics Today 15 (1994): 9-29. On the third, for which--like that of the Inmestar incident--the Ecclesiastical History of Socrates is the only source, see Juster, Les juifs dans l'empire romain, 2: 175-76, 201, and V. A. Tcherikover, "Prolegomema" in Corpus Papyrorum Judaicorum, 3 vols., V. A. Tcherikover, ed., with A. Fuks (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 1: 98-99. Milman, History, 3: 241. See also R. E. Clements, "The Intellectual Background of H. H. Milman's History of the Jews (1829) and Its Impact on English Biblical Scholarship," in Biblical Studies and the Shifting of Paradigms, 1850-1914, H. G. Reventlow and W. Farmer, eds. (Sheffield, 1995): 246-71. See G. I. Langmuir's classic article, "Majority History and Postbiblical Jews," reprinted in his Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley, Calif., 1990), 28. The article, rejected by the
267
21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
26.
27.
American Historical Review (ibid., 3) originally appeared in the Journal of the History of Ideas in 1966. For the passage quoted (but inaccurately cited) by Langmuir, see Milman, History, 3: 303. Note also his earlier description of the Jews (3: 93) as "always at work under the surface of society, slowly winning their way to opulence. Perpetually plundered, yet always wealthy." It is thus striking that, according to Garnett in DNB, "some representative Jews presented Milman with a piece of plate in recogniton of his liberal treatment of their history." The plate may have been related, however, to Milman's positive attitude toward the granting of political rights to the Jews, expressed in a letter to I. J. Goldsmid in 1830 when Macaulay made his famous speech in favor of the removal of Jewish disabilities. There Milman wrote: "I do not scruple to assert that Christianity owes to your race an ample compensation for ages of cruelty and oppression; nor have I any hesitation in asserting my anxious desire that you should be full partakers in all the rights of British subjects" (Lionel Abrahams, "Sir I. Goldsmid and the Admission of the Jews of England to Parliament," Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England 4 [1903]: 156-57). For other instances of Jewish anti-Christian violence in the third volume of Milman's History of the Jews, see 3: 195, 240, 350-51. Ermete Pierotti, Customs and Traditions of Palestine, trans. T. G. Bonney (Cambridge, Engl., 1864), 280. William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, 3.1. Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem: Rebirth of a City (London, 1985), 34-35. W. H. Bartlett, Jerusalem Revisited (London, 1855), 27. The event described by Bartlett may be identical with the one similarly described by Finn in the same year, which took place, not coincidentally, on the day of Purim. See Arnold Blumberg, The View from Jerusalem, 1849-1858: The Consular Diary of James and Elizabeth Ann Finn (Rutherford, N.J., 1980), 125, and Horowitz, "The Rite to Be Reckless," 42. On the "wild and feverish fanaticism of the Jews," cf. Milman, History, 3: 197. George Williams, The Holy City: Historical and Topographical Notices of Jerusalem (London, 1845), 192. A revised, expanded edition was published in 1849 under the title The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem (2 vols.). See also the entry on Williams by W. P. Courtney in DNB, 21: 399-401. Bruno Bettelheim, The Informed Heart: Autonomy in a Mass Age (Glencoe, Ill., 1960), 258-59. "It may have been Jewish acceptance, without fight, of ever harsher discrimination and degradation" continued Bettelheim, "that first gave the SS the idea that they could be gotten to the point where they would walk to the gas chambers on their own" (ibid.). Eight years earlier, Mark Zborowski and Elisabeth Herzog, in their study of Jewish "shtetl" culture in pre-war Eastern Europe (recently translated into both French and German), asserted that "any member of the shtetl avoids overt anger or attack, especially against the Gentiles" (Life Is with People: The Jewish Little Town of Eastern Europe [New York, 1952], 148-50).
268 28. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago, 1961), 14. Lucy Dawidowicz, among others, was highly critical of such generalizations, asserting that Hilberg's "knowledge of Jewish history is not equal to his rashness in generalizing about it," and that he flawed his otherwise fine work "with uninformed comments and distorted conclusions about Jewish behavior" (The War Against the Jews, 1933-1945 [New York, 1975], 435). Among other critiques of Hilberg's views on Jewish passivity, see Amos Funkenstein, Tadmit ve- todaah historit ba-yahadut uvi-sevivatah ha-tarbutit (Tel Aviv, 1991), 147, 232-34, 246. 29. The Destruction of the European Jews, 3 vols. (rev. ed., New York, 1985), 1: 22 ("preventive attack, armed resistance, and revenge were almost completely absent in Jewish exilic history" [my emphasis]). Nevertheless, as Yehudah Bauer pointed out in his review of this edition, Hilberg's "brief background description of Jewish history is seriously flawed" ("Three Books of Crucial Importance," Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1 [1986]: 300-301). 30. Anita Shapira, Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 18811948, trans. William Templer (New York, 1992), vii-viii. 31. Note Tcherikover, "Prolegomema," 1: 97: "There is little doubt that after the victory of the Church under Constantine, Jews became openly hostile to the new rulers." 32. See, however, among recent studies, Horowitz, "The Rite to Be Reckless," and C. C. Cluse, "Stories of Breaking and Taking the Cross: A Possible Context for the Oxford Incident of 1268," Revue d'Histoire Ecclesiastique 90 (1995). I thank Yisrael Yuval for bringing this important article to my attention. 33. For a recent balanced, if somewhat bland, treatment, see Robert Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule (Princeton, N.J., 1995), chap. 2. 34. Michael Avi-Yonah, Biymei Roma u-Vizantiyon (Jerusalem, 1946), 195. These words, written with understandable bitterness in the mid1940s, were still left by Avi-Yonah to stand some four decades later, in the book's second English-language edition (The Jews Under Roman and Byzantine Rule [Jerusalem, 1984], 265-66, from which the quote is taken). On the Holocaust's impact on another Galicianborn scholar of ancient Jewish history residing in Jerusalem, see Daniel Schwartz, "On Abraham Schalit, Herod, Josephus, the Holocaust, Horst R. Moehring, and the Study of Ancient History," Jewish History 2 (1987): 9-28, and also his "More on Schalit's Changing Josephus," Jewish History 9 (1995): 9-20. 35. This was still true in the 5th edition of Bi-ymei Roma in 1980. See there pp. 231 and 260, and note Michael Ish-Shalom, Mase notsrim le-Erets Yisrael (Tel-Aviv, 1965; 2nd ed. 1979), 71n103. 36. "In this year [614] . . . we suffered a calamity which deserves unceasing lamentations. For, together with many cities of the east, Jerusalem too was captured by the Persians, and in it were slain many thousands of clerics, monks, and virgin nuns. The Lord's tomb [the Holy Sepulchre] was burnt and the far famed temples of God [churches], and, in short, all the precious things were destroyed"
269
37.
38.
39.
40. 41.
42. 43.
44.
45.
46. 47.
(Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby, trans. with intro. and notes, Chronicon Paschale, A.D. 284-628 (Liverpool, 1989), 156-57. On the brevity of the Chronicon's treatment of 614, see note 47 below. Quoted (and translated) from F. Macler's 1904 French edition by R. L. Wilken, The Land Called Holy: Palestine in Christian History and Thought (New Haven, Conn., 1992), 204. I have not seen Robert Bedrosian's English translation (New York, 1985). F. C. Conybeare, "Antiochus Strategos' Account of the Sack of Jerusalem in A.D. 614," English Historical Review 25 (1910): 502. For a recent bibliography of the various editions and translations of both the Georgian and the Arabic versions, see B. M. Wheeler, "Imagining the Sasanian Capture of Jerusalem: The 'Prophecy and Dream of Zerubbabel' and Antiochus Strategos' 'Capture of Jerusalem,'" Orientalia Christiana Periodica 57 (1991): 72n14. Conybeare, "Antiochus Strategos," 508-9, partially quoted in F. E. Peters, Jerusalem (Princeton, N.J., 1985), 172, and Wilken, The Land Called Holy, 206. For a different translation of the passage, see Peter Sch채fer, The History of the Jews in Antiquity: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest (Harwood, 1995), 192. Conybeare, "Antiochus Strategos," 515-16. Avi-Yonah, in Bi-ymei Roma, cited only the number of 4,500 Christians "placed in the . . . Mamilla pool" in the body of his text. The Arabic original of Eutychius's universal history, the first Christian history in the Arabic language, was edited at the beginning of our century by L. Cheikho (1906-9) and recently translated into Italian by Bartolomeo Pirone (Eutichio: Gli annali [Cairo, 1987], 307). See also the Hebrew translation of the passage from which I have quoted in Samuel Klein, ed., Sefer Ha-yishuv I (Jerusalem, 1939), 65. See Schick, Christian Communities of Palestine, 37. See The Chronicle of Theophanes . . . (A.D. 602-813), trans. Harry Turtledove (Philadelphia, 1982), 11: "In this year [614] the Persians took . . . Palestine, and its holy city in battle. At the hands of the Jews they killed many people in it; some say, 90,000. The Jews, according to their means, bought the Christians and then killed them." A. N. Stratos, Byzantium in the Seventh Century, 4 vols. (Amsterdam, 1968-78), 1: 109 ("The Jews raised a fund to which each contributed according to his fortune, ransomed the prisoners, and slew them"); C. Mango, Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome (London, 1980), 92 ("In 614, the Jews bought Christian captives and put them to death"). Jacques Basnage, The History of the Jews from Jesus Christ to the Present Time, trans. T. Taylor (London, 1708), Book VI, chap. 18, p. 565. I have modernized the spelling. The original French appeared (in Rotterdam) in 1706-7. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 7 vols, ed. J. Bury (3rd ed., London, 1908), 5: 70. The last three volumes of Gibbon's work were originally published in 1788. In a note added in the 3rd edition (1863), Milman acknowledged that the sale of Christian captives to the Jews was not mentioned in the
270
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
Chronicon Paschale, but he dismissed its silence on the grounds that the chronicle "is as brief on this sad event as may be" (3: 83). Williams, The Holy City, 192. Early in our century, Norman Baynes cited the lower figure of 57,000 dead but agreed that "the Jews joined the [Persian] victors in venting their spite on their hated oppressors" (The Cambridge Medieval History [Cambridge, Engl., 1913], 2:290). Salomon Munk, Palestine: Description géographique, historique, et archéologique (Paris, 1845), 612-13. On Munk, see G. A. Kohut, Solomon Munk: An Appreciation (New York, 1902) (for the quotation from Graetz, see p. 5), and J. R. Berkowitz, The Shaping of Jewish Identity in Nineteenth-Century France (Detroit, 1989), 133-34, 14546, 241-42. On Munk's history of Palestine and on his complicated relationship with Renan, see also Michael Graetz, The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France, trans. J. M. Todd (Stanford, Calif., 1996), 67-68, 212-24, 232-34. Heinrich Graetz, Geschichte der Juden vom Abschluss der Talmud (500) bis zum Aufblhen der jdisch-spanischen Cultur (1027) (Magdeburg, 1860), 34. I have followed the translation in Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Specially Revised for this English Edition by the Author), ed. and partially trans. by Bella Löwy (London, 1892), 3: 21. Graetz may have felt a special need to stress the last point as a response to such works as the two-volume history of Jerusalem published three years earlier by the Franciscan priest Cassini da Perinaldo and dedicated to the archduke of Austria. Cassini wrote with great rhetorical force that, after the conquest of 614, the Jews had purchased Christian prisoners "not, of course, in order to send them to cultivate the countryside, not in order to serve them as slaves, not in order to resell them at a higher price, not in order to display them in public spectacles, not for any other sort of speculation or diversion, but only in order to have the barbarous pleasure of butchering them with their own hands" (Storia di Gerusalemme, 2 vols. [Rome, 1857], 2: 477). Somewhat later in the nineteenth century, see Alphonse Couret, La Palestine sous les Empereurs grecs (A.D. 326-636) (Grenoble, 1869), 244, and Victor Guérin, Jérusalem: Son histoire--sa description--ses établissements (Paris, 1889), 132. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, 35. These words, though still present in Graetz's third edition of 1895 (p. 25) and in S. P. Rabinowitz's Hebrew translation of 1894 (3: 36), were deleted in the English edition cited in note 50 above, as well as in the French edition of Moï;se Bloch, Histoire des Juifs (Paris, 1888), 3: 259. In a rare but unfortunately silent act of homage, the latter sentence was lifted from Graetz by the Italian historian Angelo Pernice (L'imperatore Eraclio: Saggio di storia Byzantina [Florence, 1905], 65; for the citation of Graetz's fifth volume, see p. 23). Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, 35. Note that Graetz's brave "allerdings," rendered accurately as "undoubtedly" by his English translator, became somewhat more timidly "il est probable" in Bloch's French translation. See also Charles Moore Watson, The Story of Jerusalem (London, 1912), 128: "Then followed a terrible massacre of the inhabitants, which appears to have been carried out more by the
271
53.
54. 55.
56.
57.
58. 59.
Jews, who had joined the Persian army, than by the Persians themselves." Colonel Watson (1844-1916), who had served in the Sudan under General Gordon, was chairman of the Palestine Exploration Fund from 1905 until his death. See C. V. Owen, DNB, 1912-1921 (London, 1927), 558. Two years earlier, Adrian Fortescue's entry in the original Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1910) asserted that in 614 the Persian forces were accompanied by "26,000 Jews eager to destroy Christian sovereignty in their holy city. . . . The Jews as a reward for their help were allowed to do as they liked in the city" (8: 359). See Horowitz, "The Rite to Be Reckless," 30n48, to which should be added G. I. Langmuir, "Tradition, History, and Prejudice," Jewish Social Studies 30 (1968): 162 (reprinted in Toward a Definition of Antisemitism, 48), and Robert Liberles, Salo Wittmayer Baron: Architect of Jewish History (New York, 1995), 100-103. Contrast A. Harkavy's critique of Graetz on this score in his note on p. 37 of Rabinowitz's Hebrew translation (see note 51 above). Simon Dubnow, From the Roman Empire to the Early Medieval Period, vol. 2 of History of the Jews, trans. Moshe Spiegel from the Russian 4th edition (New York, 1968), 216. Dubnow, in contrast to Munk and Graetz, decided simply to ignore the claim that Jews had purchased Christians as slaves in order to massacre them. On the irony of Dubnow's criticism of Graetz for alleged overemphasis on Jewish suffering, see Liberles, Salo Wittmayer Baron, 103. James Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue: A Study in the Origins of Antisemitism (London, 1934), 260-61. See also his A History of Palestine from A.D. 135 to Modern Times (New York, 1949), 81-82. Note also the later comments of the philo-Semitic Catholic priest Edward Flannery, who conceded that Jews "aided in the slaughter" and that they helped "lay waste Christian homes and churches" (The Anguish of the Jews [New York, 1965], 67). Note Brinker, "Sartre on the Jewish Question," 122-23, who observed that in Sartre's description of antisemitism "there is no place . . . for . . . religious hatred. . . . The perception of the Jew as a murderer of God hardly plays any part in it at all." On Parkes' view that "hostility against Jews had been a manifest characteristic of historical Christianity almost from the outset," and on the tension between that view and his religious beliefs, see G. I. Langmuir, History, Religion, and Antisemitism (Berkeley, Calif., 1990), 25-28. On his mischievous advice for Lenten reading, see Parkes' autobiography, Voyage of Discoveries (London, 1969), 78. Joshua Starr, "Byzantine Jewry on the Eve of the Arab Conquest (565-638)," Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society 15 (1935): 280-82. Samuel Klein, Toledot ha-yishuv ha-yehudi be-Erets Yisrael (Tel Aviv, 1935), 21. Note also his 20-page entry on Jerusalem in the J端disches Lexikon (Berlin, 1929), 3: 190-209, where nothing more is said concerning 614 than that the city was conquered by the Persians. Cf. David Ben-Gurion and Yitshak Ben-Zvi, Eretz Yisrael in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (New York, 1908), 39, as well as the material from the Christian chronicler Eutycius published by Klein himself in Sefer ha-yishuv, cited in note 41 above.
272 60. Klein, introduction to Sefer ha-yishuv, 25. Note there his comments about the "imaginary stories" of the Armenians, which suggest the direction his article took or would have taken. Klein may have decided not to publish his own article after the appearance of K. Hillkowitz's on the same subject in Zion 4 (1939): 307-16. The forthcoming article to which the editors there alluded (p. 307) in a note was apparently Klein's. For another case during the Holocaust years of a promised but never published article on a sensitive topic in Jewish history by a Central European-born scholar who had emigrated to Palestine, see Schwartz, "On Abraham Schalit" and "More on Schalit's Changing Josephus." 61. Joseph Braslavski, Milhamah ve-hitgonenut shel yehudei EretsYisrael: Me-ahar mered Bar-Kokhba ve-ad masa ha-tselav ha-rishon (En Harod, 1943). 62. Ibid., introduction. Braslavski's book does not appear in the bibliography of Shapira's Land and Power, and it would have added an important dimension to her discussion of Zionist thinking about the relationship between land, force, and power. 63. Braslavski, Milhamah ve-hitgonenut, 54-61; Pernice, L'imperatore Eraclio, 64. 64. See Avi-Yonah, Bi-ymei Roma, 231-34, and Y. Even-Shmuel, ed., Mireshei Geulah (Jerusalem, 1943). Before Even-Shmuel, the argument that Sefer Zerubavel was written in Palestine during the third and fourth decades of the seventh century was influentially advanced by Israel Lévi, "L'apocalypse de Zerobabel et le roi de Perse Siroés," Revue des Etudes Juives 71 (1920): 57-65, who also identified "Armilus" with Heraclius (p. 61). For more recent discussions of Sefer Zerubavel and its historical setting, see Martha Himmelfarb's introduction to her translation of the work in David Stern and M. J. Mirsky, eds., Rabbinic Fantasies (Philadelphia, 1990), 67-90, as well as Wheeler, "Imagining the Sasanian Capture of Jerusalem," 72-85, and Wilken, The Land Called Holy, 209-13. Note also Peter Schäfer's recent statement that "the Zerubbabel apocalypse would appear to allude to these events, but it adheres so closely to the established conventions of the apocalyptic tradition that it is difficult to establish the concrete historical implications" (History of the Jews in Antiquity, 191). 65. Avi-Yonah, The Jews Under Roman and Byzantine Rule, 265: "Having done their work, and set fire to many of the main churches of the city, . . . the Persian army withdrew." Although Avi-Yonah recognized that "at a certain point" the author of Sefer Zerubavel "leaves reality behind and launches his imagination on pure fantasy" (261), he seems to have clung to it as an alternative to heavy reliance upon the Christian sources. And although he did not introduce any substantive changes in the presentation of 614 in any of the Hebrew or foreign-language (English and German) editions of his book, in the essay he contributed to Jerusalem: The Saga of the Holy City (Jeruslem, 1954) Avi-Yonah did concede that "according to the lowest estimate, 30,000 [Christians] were slain." Since he claimed that Persians rather than Jews were responsible for their deaths, he was able to keep this information out of all editions of The Jews Under Roman and Byzantine Rule.
273 66. For the first event, see, e.g., E. S. Bouchier, A Short History of Antioch (Oxford, 1921), 199: "In the time of Phocas . . . the Jews again displayed their turbulence and ferocity. In the course of an outbreak against the Christians they murdered the patriarch Anastasius, dragged his body through the streets . . . with those of several of the leading men, and burned them in the middle of the city." For the second event, see, e.g., Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue, 293, who wrote that the Jews of Antioch had insulted an image of the Virgin "in repulsive fashion." For a more graphic description, see D. M. Olster, Roman Defeat, Christian Response, and the Literary Construction of the Jew (Philadelphia, 1994), 4. 67. H. Z. Hirschberg, review of Avi-Yonah in Kiryat sefer 24 (1946): 93. See also Ish-Shalom, Mase notsrim, 71n103, who criticizes AviYonah's misleading manner of citing the estimates of Christian casualties, and Wilken, The Land Called Holy, 321n42, who sees Avi-Yonah's handling of the sources as "uncritical." 68. Regarding my use of the word "perhaps" in this article, let me quote Renan: "I believe that I have used it pretty freely, but if the reader thinks that it does not occur enough, he can fill it in at his own discretion" (History of the People of Israel, 1: xvii-xviii). 69. See S. W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, (rev. ed., Philadelphia, 1957), 3: 19, 236. On Baron's critiques of lachrymosity, see Langmuir, "Tradition, History, and Prejudice," 163, and Liberles, Salo Wittmayer Baron, 344-46, who sensitively, though somewhat generally, discusses Baron's inconsistencies on this issue. (murder)
70. See Starr, "Byzantine Jewry on the Eve of the Arab Conquest," 283, who described the act vaguely as "a sacrilege perpetrated by an individual Jew," and 20 years later Andrew Sharf, "Byzantine Jewry in the Seventh Century," Byzantinische Zeitschrift 48 (1955): 105 (reprinted in Jews and Other Minorities in Byzantium [Ramat-Gan, 1995], 98), who wrote a bit more specifically that "a Jew had been accused of insulting a holy picture." Yet a decade later he was able to refer to the 592-93 explusion from Antioch without giving any hint of the Jewish role in provoking it; see Sharf, "Jews in Byzantium," in The World History of the Jewish People: The Dark Ages, Cecil Roth, ed. (Tel Aviv, 1966), 54. 71. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden vom Abschluss der Talmud, 32-33; Graetz, History of the Jews,3: 19. See also Braslavski, Milhamah vehitgonenut, 47. 72. J-B Chabot, "Trois ĂŠpisodes concernant les juifs," Revue des Etudes Juives 28 (1894): 290-92; Samuel Krauss, "Antioch," in Jewish Encyclopedia, 1: 632 ("the emperor Phocas vainly endeavored to force the Jews to be baptized, and those of Antioch were driven to rebellion"); Krauss, Studien zur byzantinisch-jĂźdischen geschichte (Leipzig, 1914), 22; Krauss, "Vikuah dati be-Erets Yisrael be-aharit yemeihem shel ha-Bizantim," Zion [Meassef] 2 (1927): 29n3; Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue, 245. On the problematic character of pseudo-Dionysius's testimony, see the following note.
274 73. Starr, "Byzantine Jewry on the Eve of the Arab Conquest," 284-85. See also the reservations of Baron, Social and Religious History, 3: 237n21, and Andrew Sharf, Byzantine Jewry from Justinian to the Fourth Crusade (London, 1971), 48. On the widespread disrepute of pseudoDionysius among scholars since the 1890s, see the references in Witold Witakowski, The Syriac Chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel-Mahre: A Study in the History of Historiography (Uppsala, 1987), 27. 74. For the first quote, see D. M. Olster, The Politics of Usurpation in the Seventh Century: Rhetoric and Revolution in Byzantium (Amsterdam, 1993), 102; for the second, see The Chronicle of Theophanes, trans. Turtledove, 7. 75. On the still-strong "apologetic note" in American Jewish historiography of that time, see the frank assessment by Joshua Trachtenberg (Baron's own student) in "American Jewish Scholarship," in The Jewish People Past and Present (New York, 1946-55), 4: 439, quoted by G. I. Langmuir, "Tradition, History, and Prejudice," 164n15. 76. See note 65 above. 77. Baron, Social and Religious History, 3: 22. 78. Ibid., 3: 22-23. See also 3: 238nn24-25. 79. LĂŠon Poliakov, From Mohammed to the Marranos, vol. 2 of History of Anti-Semitism, trans. N. Gerardi (London, 1974), 31-32. 80. Saul (Paul) Colbi, A Short History of Christianity in the Holy Land (Tel Aviv, 1965), 16. On the cover the author is identified as Saul Colbi, but on the title page as Dr. P. Colbi. On the cover of the second (expanded) edition, Christianity in the Holy Land: Past and Present (Tel Aviv, 1969), the author is identified as Saul Paul Colbi. See also "Colbi, Paul Saul" in Who's Who in World Jewry (Baltimore, 1987), 96-97. 81. Ish-Shalom, Mase notsrim, 67-71. 82. David Ben-Gurion, ed., The Jews in Their Land, trans. M. Nurock and M. Louvish (London, 1966), 198.
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