SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
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Sistemas de las Aeronaves Aircraft General Fuselage Air Conditioning Pressurisation Automatic Flight APU Communications Electrical Emergency Equipment Fire Protection Fligth Controls Winglets Fligth Instruments FMC Fuel Hydraulics Ice and Rain Protection Landing Gear Navegation Pneumatic Power Plant Warning System
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Pรกgina Intencionalmente dejada en Blanco
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES AIRCRAFT GENERAL
Lights
From L to R along the panel: O/B Landing: (Classics only) 3 position switch: OFF - EXTEND (off) - ON. This was modified from a 2 position switch in 1969 to eliminate distracting light reflections during extension in clouds. The lights are located on the outboard flap track fairing. The same modification also introduced the gang bar which operates the inboard & outboard lights. Retractable Landing: (NG only up to 2016) Replaces the outboard landing lights on the earlier series. These are located on the fuselage just beneath the ram air intakes. These were removed in 2015 due to excessive stone damage, wear on the motors and the improved performance of the LED lights. Note Use of both of these lights should be avoided at speeds above 250kts due to excessive air loads on their hinges.
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Retractable landing light - NG I/B Landing: Known as fixed landing lights on the NG. These are located in the wing roots, usually used for all day and night landings for conspicuity. The landing lights have been LED since late 2015.
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New NG/MAX LED landing and taxi lights R/W Turnoff: Also in the wing roots, normally only used at night on poorly lit runways.
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New NG/MAX landing light panel Taxi: Until 2015 this 250W light was located on the nose gear, for LED equipped aircraft the taxi lights are located in the wing roots and are much more effective. On later models it will switch off automatically with gear retraction. Logo: Are on each wingtip or horizontal stabiliser and illuminate the fin. Apart from the advertising value on the ground, they are often used for conspicuity in busy airspace. Position: Depending upon customer option this can be a three position switch (as illustrated) to combine the strobe. Strobe & Steady / Off / Steady, where steady denotes the red, green & white navigation lights. The three Nav lights are no-go items at night. Strobe: (Not illustrated) Off / Auto / On. Auto is activated by a squat switch. They are also in the wing tips and are very brilliant. This gives rise to great debate amongst pilots about when exactly they should be switched on as they can dazzle other pilots nearby. many people choose to put them on as they enter an active runway for conspicuity against landing traffic. Anti-Collision: Are the orange rotating beacons above and below the fuselage. They are universally used as a signal that the engines are running or are about to be started. They are typically not switched off until N1 has reduced to below 3.5% (or N2 below 20%) when it is considered safe for ground personnel to approach the aircraft.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Wing: These are mounted in the fuselage and shine down the leading edge of the wing for ice or damage inspection at night. Wheel Well: Illuminates the main and nose wheel wells. Normally only used during the turnaround at night for the pre-flight inspection but must also be on to see through the gear downlock viewers at night, hence they are a no-go item at night in all but the NG's. There is also a switch for the main wheel well light in the port wheel well.
Water System There is a 30 US Gal tank (40 US Gal –400 series) behind the aft cargo hold for potable water. This serves the galleys and washbasins, but not the toilets as they use chemicals. Waste water is either drained into the toilet tanks or expelled through heated drain masts.The tank indicator (-3/4/500 version shown left) is located over the rear service door. Press to test, indications are clockwise from 7 O'clock: Empty, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, Full. The NG has an LED panel that is always lit (below) for both potable water and waste tank.
Potable Water Quantity Indicator - Classics
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Potable Water Quantity Indicator – NG
Airstairs Forward Airstairs May be operated from either internal or external panels. The internal panel requires the forward entry door to be at least partially open. Both panels have NORMAL and STANDBY syste ms. Normal requires AC and DC power, standby only requires DC. External standby system power comes from the battery bus and so does not require the battery switch to be on. On classics, if the airstairs will not operate, check the striker pin (see photo below) at the bottom left of the door frame. Move it about and ensure it is vertical, this will often cure the problem. They have a tendency to freeze in position on long flights were the doors have got wet. Caution: The handrails must be stowed before retraction. The use of standby system from either panel will bypass the handrail and lower-ladder safety circuits. Note that the NG has an red covered EMERG switch underneath the airstairs for emergency retraction, this also bypasses any safety circuits. Maximum wind speed for airstair operation: 40kts. Maximum wind speed for airstair extended: 60kts. Airstairs should not be operated more frequently than 3 consecutive cycles of normal system operation within a 20 minute period.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Note that there have been at least 4 cases of children falling through the gaps in the rails of the airstairs FAA SAIB refers.
Aft Airstairs In the drive for self sufficiency, these were fitted to about 120 737-200's. They were much more complicated than forward airstairs as they folded in two places and took the door downwards with them. If you have ever considered the forward airstairs to be temperamental then you would not get on with aft airstairs.
737-3/4/500 Door showing latch fitting (above), striker pin (below) and 3 stop pin fittings
Underneath NG Airstairs - Notice the red guarded MAINT switch.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Doors Amber light will illuminate with Master Caution "DOORS" when a door is unlocked. Air Stair must be fully stowed, even if fwd entry door is closed. Equip is for E & E bay and Radar bay. The sequence of door lights is changed in the NG's to accommodate the left and right overwing annunciators. They are located between the fwd & aft entry/service door lights. On the NG, it is not uncommon to get an overwing caption illuminate for a fraction of a second as you start the take-off run. This is due to the overwing exit automatic locking function being slightly slow. Maximum wind speed for door operation: 40kts. The doors may remain latched open in winds of up to: 65Kts. (AMM 52-10-00-011 Rev 0 09)
200C door panel
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Classic door panel
NG door panel
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Nose, wing tip & tail clearance The following table shows the increased radius of turn of the wing and tail relative to the nose during a turn with full nose wheel steering applied. This table shows that turning in a 737-600 is probably most hazardous because the wings and tail turn out much further than the nose.
Series -300 -400 -500 -600 -700 -800 -900
Radius of turn (ft) Nose Wing 55 +5 61 +1 50 +9 51 +17 56 +13 66 +6 71 +2
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Tail +9 +7 +10 +11 +10 +9 +7
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FUSELAGE
AFT BODY GENERATORS
VORTEX
There are four vortex generators on each side of the rear fuselage above the horizontal stabiliser. The 737-1/200s also had three vortex generators below each stabiliser. They were probably installed to energise the airflow at the stagnation point at the tailcone, thereby reducing drag and giving a slight performance advantage. Classics were initially produced without any aft body vortex generators (see photo. However the upper vortex generators were reinstated after line number 2277 (May 1992 onwards). This was to reduce elevator and elevator tab vibration during flight to increase their hinge bearing service life. The CDL says that if any of these vortex generators are not fitted or missing ―occasional vertical motions may be felt which appear to be light turbulence These motions are characteristic of this airplane and should not be construed to be associated with Mach buffet.‖
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RADOME The radome (RAdar DOME) is an aerodynamic faring that houses the weather radar and ILS localiser and glideslope antennas. Unlike the rest of the fuselage it is made of fibreglass to allow the RF signals through. Fibreglass is non-conductive which would allow the build up of P-static (static due to the motion of the aircraft through precipitation). This would in turn cause static interference on
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES the antenna within so the radome is fitted with six conductive diverter strips on the outside to dissipate P-static into the airframe.
LAP JOINTS
After the Aloha 737-200 accident, in which a 12ft x 8ft section of the upper fuselage tore away in flight, all 737's with over 50,000 cycles must have their lap joints reinforced with external doublers. This tired old aircraft is a 737-200 and the patching is clearly visable. This modification takes about 15,000 man hours and unfortunately has sometimes been the source of another problem scoring. This is when metal instruments instead of wooden ones have been used to scrape away excess sealant or old paint from the lap joints which create deep scratches which may themselves develop into cracks. 5 May 2004 - Defects In Aging Passenger Jets Exposed
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Air Conditioning APU or engine 5th and if necessary 9th stage bleed air (hot) is pre-cooled by fan air before entering the pack. Inside the pack, bleed air is cooled by ram air through heat exchangers and an air cycle machine. A water separator collects water condensed by the cooling process to avoid icing. Series 3/5/6/700 pack output temperatures are independently controlled. Series 4/8/900 packs work to the coldest of the three zones, the two warmer zones are then heated by TRIM AIR after the mix manifold. In both series, flight-deck air is taken from before the mix manifold, however series 4/8/900 flight-deck air may also contain trim air. DUCT OVERHEAT Cause: Duct temperature Remedy: Select cooler temp then trip reset.
has
exceeded
88C.
ZONE TEMP (-4/8/900 only) Cause: Duct temperature overheat Remedy: Select cooler temp then trip reset.
or
temp
controller
failure.
Unfortunately the 737-800's have given a lot of nuisance trim air faults, even after incorporation of Service Bulletin 737-21-1133. There is a Flight Crew Operations Manual Bulletin titled ―Nuisance Zone Temp Light Illuminations on 737-800 Airplanes.‖ The procedure is as follows: After Trim
landing, prior Air Switch
Sistemas de las Aeronaves
to first power …………………………………….....
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Air Conditioning System ……... ____Pack(s), BLEEDS ON Prior Trim
to Air
takeoff, Switch
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after last power transfer: ……………………………………........ ON
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Cabin temperature sensor The cabin temperature sensor is behind the small grill located just over the overhead locker on the stbd side at approximately row 3. This is why you get the burning smell of a duct overheat in the cabin when you have the fwd doors open on a cold day and the wind blowing icy air through the cabin. On such a day it is better to use the temperature controls in manual to avoid this. Behind the cabin temperature sensor Also if the cabin temperature is not regulating well in flight, you should have an engineer clean the foam air filter behind this grill. The flightdeck temperature sensor is near the dome light.
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-3/5/6/700 Air-conditioning Panel
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-400/800 Air-conditioning Panel
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The -1/200 series air-con panel was very similar to the existing NG panel except that temperatures could also be displayed at the L & R packs.
-1/200 Air-conditioning Panel
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Gasper Fan (1/200) There was no recirculation fan on the 1/200 series but there was a gasper fan (see right). This was an electric fan designed to increase pressure in the gasper system, ie outlets above pax seats, under conditions of low supply pressure or high cold air demand - normally on the ground on a hot day. The gasper fan is still effective even if the packs are off as cabin air is drawn into the distribution ducts, down the risers, into the main manifold and mixing chamber where it is then blown into the cold air risers and ducts and out of the gasper fans.
Recirculation Fan (3-900) The recirculation fan simply re-circulates filtered cabin air back to the cabin to reduce bleed air requirements. A pack in HIGH flow will produce more cold air than normal, but has a 25% higher bleed air demand. Approximately 25% of the cabin air is recirculated for passenger comfort compared to 50% on the 757/767 and none on the MD80. The recirc fan will switch off if either pack is in high flow, giving a net reduction in the ventilation rate of 15%, so best cooling is achieved with pack(s) AUTO and recirc fan(s) ON; this also reduces pack load, bleed air demand and fuel consumption. The ventilation rate of the 737-300 is 1900 cubic feet per minute (CFM) or about 13 CFM per passenger. When the larger 737-400 was designed, an extra
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES recirculation fan (also on the –4/8/900) was installed to increase the ventilation rate, and hence comfort levels, for the increased passenger capacity of the larger aircraft. Unfortunately the second fan is quite loud on the flightdeck - as are the NG fan(s).
Pack Problems PACK TRIP OFF Cause: Pack temp has exceeded limit. (Note this is pack temp not output temp) Remedy: Select warmer temp (to make the pack work less hard) then trip reset. PACK (-4/8/900 only) Cause: Pack temp has exceeded limit or failure of pack controls. Remedy: Select warmer temp (to make the pack work less hard) then trip reset. On the ground: 1-500's: Use only one pack from the APU because packs are working hardest when delivering cold air. NG APU's are more powerful so can use both packs for cooling or heating. In fact using both packs causes the APU to burn slightly less fuel than single pack operation. If one pack fails with the pack switches in AUTO, the other will regulate to high flow (unless flaps are down). Note series 1/200's do not have an AUTO mode, the pack switch is simply ON/OFF. If you dispatch with one pack inoperative, then max altitude is FL250. If a pack fails when above this level, then you may continue at the higher level. Note if a pack should fail, even at the aircrafts maximum certified altitude it should be able to maintain cabin pressure. If both packs fail the cabin altitude will climb, probably between 2000 & 4000fpm depending upon the condition of the aircraft seals.
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-3/5/6/700 Pneumatics panel
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-400/800 Pneumatics panel
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The gap between the two RAM DOOR FULL OPEN lights was occupied by a F OUTFLOW CLOSED light on the -1/200.
Ram-Air Inlet - Classic Ram-Air Inlet - NG
Ram Air Ram air is controlled by variable geometry inlet doors, turbofans, and on some aircraft variable exhaust louvers. Maximum ram air is available on the ground and on take-off. In-flight there is less cooling requirement so it is modulated by the doors and louvers which reduces both the ram air flow and also drag. The deflector doors are extended whenever the aircraft is on the ground. The RAM DOOR FULL OPEN lights will be illuminated on the ground and should extinguish during the climb. If they do not, then either the cabin is still very hot and the packs require full ram airflow for cooling or the heat exchanger may be faulty.
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This photo shows the location of the two air conditioning packs underneath the aircraft. Notice that the two ram air inlets have their deflector doors retracted because the aircraft is in-flight. The packs are accessed through the two large access panels between the deflector doors and the wheel well, these panels are hinged inboard. Aft of the access panels are the ram air exit louvers, these will give you a nice warm blast of air on your legs as you stand in the wheel well during your walk-around on a cold winter day!
Equipment Cooling
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The flight deck panels, display units, c/b panels and E&E bay are all cooled by replacing the warm air with cool air from the cabin with electric fans. The supply fans push air and the exhaust fans pull air through these units. The second fan was added to EFIS equipped aircraft to cool the CRT's in 1986. On the ground, the air is then dumped through the flow control valve (classics) / overboard exhaust valve (NG). In-flight above 2psi cabin differential, the air is used for heating the forward hold. The valve closing can be heard as a sudden hiss on the flightdeck on climb out or during final approach at 2psi. Note both cargo holds are also heated by exhausting cabin air around their walls. The forward hold will maintain at least 40F and the aft hold at least 32F at a distance of 8 inches from the walls. Left: 7 371/200 & nonEFIS 737300 Equip coolin g
The E & E bay overboard exhaust valve Right: 737-3/900 Equip cooling with (NG) separate supply & exhaust fans.
Water Separator
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Air at its
leaving the air cycle machine is coldest and any moisture it contains will condense downstream. This could lead to problems with icing or corrosion excess water is removed by the separator.
so the water
Air goes into the water separator and through a polyester coalescer bag fixed on a support which collects water mist from the air. The mist becomes water droplets as more moisture goes through the bag. The support has slots that move the air in a circular motion. The air with the water droplets moves to the collection chamber which is a baffle that causes the water and air to make a sharp bend. This separates the heavier water droplets but allows the air to leave freely. The collected water is then drained overboard, you can see this dripping from the packs on the ground at hot & humid airports. If the ACM
output air is below 2C warm air is introduced to prevent icing. If you have a noisy air conditioning pack, the coalescer bag may be full of dirt
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES and need changing (like a hoover bag!). When the bag is blocked the air bypasses the water separator.
Location
With the panels removed you can see the water separator and heat exchangers.
Pre-Conditioned Air
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES This is being used more frequently as airports start banning the use of the APU on the ground. Pre-conditioned air is attached here straight into the mix manifold.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
Schematics
Schematic courtesy of Derek Watts
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PRESSURISATION
Digital Cabin Pressure Control System (DCPCS)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The aircraft is pressurised by bleed air supplied to the packs and controlled by outflow valves. The auto system will fail if either: 1. Cabin altitude exceeds 13,875ft CPCS; 15,800ft DCPCS. 2. Cabin rate of climb or descent exceeds 1890 sea level fpm CPCS; 2000 sea level fpm DCPCS. 3. Loss of AC power (transfer bus 1) to auto computer for more than 3 secs CPCS. Loss of DC power (DC bus 1/2) to auto computer DCPCS. 4. Differential pressure exceeds 8.3 psi CPCS, 8.75 psi DCPCS. 5. Other fault in pressurisation controller.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Cabin Pressure Control System (CPCS) installed in a 737-200C. Notice the extra SMOKE CLEARANCE controls. Digital pressurisation controllers have two automatic systems (AUTO & ALTN) instead of a standby system, these alternate every flight. If the auto system fails, the standby / alternate system will automatically take over. The AUTO FAIL light will remain illuminated until the mode selector is moved to STBY / ALTN (tidy but not necessary). On CPCS panels, the cabin rate selector, for use in standby mode, adjusts cabin rate of change of altitude between 50 and 2000fpm, the index is approx 300fpm. If you have to return to your departure airfield, do not adjust the pressurisation panel. You will get the OFF SCHD DESC light, but the controller will program the cabin to land at the take-off field elevation. If the flight alt selector is pressed, this facility will be lost. In manual mode, you drive the outflow valve directly. The sense of the spring-loaded switch can be remembered by: “Moving the switch towards the centre of the aircraft keeps the air inside." The 737NG pressurization schedule is designed to meet FAR requirements as well as maximize cabin structure service life. The pressurization system uses a variable cabin pressure differential schedule based on airplane cruise altitude to meet these design requirements. At cruise altitudes at or below FL 280, the max differential is 7.45 PSI. which will result in a cabin altitude of 8000’ at FL280. At cruise altitudes above FL280 but below FL370, the max differential is 7.80 PSI. which will result in a cabin altitude of 8000’ at FL370. At cruise altitudes above FL 370, the max differential is 8.35 PSI. which will result in a cabin altitude of 8000’ at FL410. This functionality is
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES different from other Boeing models which generally use a fixed max differential schedule thus can maintain lower cabin altitudes at cruise altitudes below the maximum certified altitude. In all 737's the pressurisation system ensures that the cabin altitude does not climb above approx 8,000ft in normal operation. However in 2005 the BBJ will be certified to a reduced cabin altitude of 6,500ft at 41,000ft thereby increasing passenger comfort. The payback for this is a 20% reduction in airframe life cycles, ie from the standard 75,000 down to 60,000 cycles. This is not a problem for a low utilisation business jet but would be unacceptable in airline operation where some aircraft are operating 10 sectors a day.
Cabin Altitude Warning
The cabin altitude warning horn will sound when the cabin altitude exceeds 10,000ft. It is an intermittent horn which sounds like the take-off config warning horn. It can be inhibited by pressing the ALT HORN CUTOUT button. Note the pax oxygen masks will not drop until 14,000ft cabin altitude although they can be dropped manually at any time. Following the Helios accident where the crew did not correctly identify the cabin altitude warning horn, new red "CABIN ALTITUDE" and "TAKEOFF CONFIG" warning lights were fitted to the P1 & P3 panels to supplement the existing aural warning system.
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Photo - Frode Lund Reduced Cabin Altitude System
The pressurisation system of all series of 737 ensures that the cabin altitude does not climb above approx 8,000ft in normal operation. However in 2005 the BBJ was certified to operate with a reduced cabin altitude of 6,500ft at 41,000ft (ΔP of 8.99psid above 37,000ft) to increase passenger comfort. The payback for this is a 20% reduction in airframe life cycles, ie from the standard 75,000 down to 60,000 cycles. This is not a problem for a low utilisation business jet but would be unacceptable in airline operation where some aircraft are operating 10 sectors a day.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES High AltitudeAirport Operations System
Is a customer option for operations into airfield elevations of up to 10,000ft (all NG), or 13,500/14,500ft (-6/700 series only). Changes include: Addition of high altitude landing selector switch to transfer to the high altitude mode, cabin altitude at warning horn activation is increased, an extra hour of emergency oxygen, 10 minute take off thrust if engine inop; winglets and carbon brakes are recommended.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Limitations
Max differential pressure: Series
Max Diff
1/200's
7.5psi
200Adv's
7.8psi
Classics
8.65psi
NG's
9.1psi
Max differential pressure for takeoff & landing: 0.125 psi Max negative differential pressure: -0.1 psi
Pressurisation Valves
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Main Outflow Valve Controlled by the pressurisation system. Regulates the cabin pressure by adjusting the outflow of cabin air. Early outflow valves (shown here) opened into the fuselage.
Later outflow valves opened out from the fuselage.
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From Dec 2003 onwards, the main outflow valve was given teeth to reduce aerodynamic noise. Its frightening appearance should also help to deter people from putting their hands in the opening.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Pressure (Safety) Relief Valves These two valves, located above and below the main outflow valve, protect the aircraft structure against overpressure if the pressurisation control system fails. they are set at Originals 8.5psi, Classics: 8.65psi , NG's: 8.95psi.
Negative Pressure Relief Valve Prevents vacuum damage to aircraft during a rapid descent. It is a spring loaded flapper valve that opens inwards at -1.0psid. You can check this on a walkaround by pressing it in like a letterbox.
Flow Control Valve (Classic) Overboard Exhaust Valve(NG)
/
Open on the ground (check this on a walkaround) to provide E&E bay cooling and also in-flight at less than 2psi differential pressure. You can often hear this valve opening on descent when the differential pressure passes 2psi. The OEV also opens when the recirculation fan (R recirc fan on the 8/900) is switched off to assist in smoke clearance.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Strictly speaking, this is an exhaust port. The actual Flow Control Valve / Overboard Exhaust Valve is located further upstream.
Forward Outflow Valve - Classics only This is is a vent for the E & E bay air after it has been circulated around the forward cargo compartment when in-flight (The E & E bay air is exhausted from the flow control valve when in the ground). The valve opens when the recirculation fan (R recirc fan on the 400) is off (smoke clearance mode) or when the main outflow valve is not completely closed (ie low diff pressure). It is located just below and aft of the fwd passenger door. Note the NG's do not have a FOV. Inflight, equipment air is circulated around the forward cargo compartment and discharged from the main outflow valve
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AUTOMATIC 707
The original purpose of the glareshield panel was to put the most important warning lights in the most attention grabbing place. The glareshield panel is the only thing at eye level, so the fire panel was put there. (Photo: Paolo DeAngelis, Munich)
727-200adv
These 727-200 Adv panels start to combine the fire panel from the 707 with the automatic systems of the early 737's. From left to right you have a rudimentary master caution system (above) or cargo fire (below); autothrottle (above); flight
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES director and fire panel.
In the later production 727's the fire switches were moved down to the centre console leaving more room for autopilot & flight director panels and the glareshield panel became identical to the 737-200. (Photo: Mike Olson, Airliners.net)
737-100/200
The 737 saw the fire panel relegated to the throttle quadrant to allow space for the master caution, flight director and autopilot controls.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES This was the original MCP as fitted to the -100/-200's with the Sperry SP-77 autopilot. They comprised three panels, the autopilot (centre) and one for each flight director (sides). All three were independent so any mode to be used with the autopilot (eg ALT HOLD or VOR/LOC) had to be selected three times. HDG SEL and VOR/LOC could be coupled to the autopilot but would only be driven by the heading bug set on the Captains compass and the course set on the Captains HSI. The SP-77 autopilot consisted of a Pitch Control Computer and a Roll Computer. For a dual-channel configuration, there were two Pitch Computers. Airplanes with this configuration had separate Flight Director controllers for the FD-108, FD-109, or FD-110 system, whichever was installed. The FD controllers were either built into the ADIs and HSIs, or were of various shapes and sizes with different combinations of switches and position nomenclatures. Modes available were GA, OFF, HDG, VOR LOC, AUTO APP & MAN GS, which was mainly used for capturing the glideslope from above!. There is also a PITCH CMD knob which has now become vertical speed. The centre panel is for autopilot selections and has two paddles to engage/disengage the ailerons and elevators "AIL" & "ELEV" for roll and pitch modes and could be engaged separately or together. The LH knob has the roll modes of HDG, VOR LOC, AUTO APP & MAN G/S and has a HDG OFF / HDG SEL switch to its right (see para 1). The RH knob has pitch modes of ALT HOLD or TURB. The TURB mode was controlled by the vertical gyro to allow smoother movements to regain altitude during turbulence. Some also had an ALT SEL mode. The small knob at the top, left of centre labelled "A", "B", "AB", is the hydraulic system selector source for the autopilot. Virtually none of the early 737-1/200's had ALT Select or Speed Select and were flown most of the time in CWS (Control Wheel Steering) - it was used like a sort of sophisticated "wing leveller". The A/P was then "Flown" via the normal controls.
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737-100/200 option
This asymmetric looking version of the MCP, was the first to have heading and course windows. Although everything looks biased to the LHS it is more First Officer friendly because he can set a heading (centre window) or course (the two outside windows) on this panel rather than having to rely on what the Captain sets on his compass or HSI. The usual F/D MODE SEL, ALT HOLD & PITCH CMD controls are all in this single panel and are repeated to both the Capt's and F/O's F/D's. The autopilot panel is displaced to the right.
737-200Adv
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Toward the end of its production run, the Adv was fitted with an SP177 autopilot with integrated PDCS/FMC and automatics and in 1982 became Cat IIIa autoland capable. The Adv mode control panel has remained virtually unchanged through to the NG's. The differences between this -200Adv MCP and the -300+ MCP are: 1. 2. 3. 4.
EPR button became N1 VNAV/PDC became VNAV No ALT or SPD INTV buttons fitted. Number tapes in windows instead of LCD's
737-300/400/500
The classics were fitted with Sperry SP-300 autopilot-flight director system (AFDS). This early -300 panel has paddles to engage & disengage autopilots and CWS. The two small grey panels either side of the MCP are to select the source of navigation information. The options are FMC (normal mode), ANS-L or ANS-R if the alternate navigation system (IRS based) is required.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES On pre-1991 MCP's, turning the altitude knob changed MCP altitude in 1000ft increments, when pressed in it changed to 100ft increments. Differences between various MCP's are: 1. The A/P CMD/CWS/Disengage paddles changing to select buttons, or a mixture of both (see below). 2. ALT & SPD INTV buttons for FMC hard speed and alt restraints, (covered by blanking plates with some operators).
This -500 has no ANS so those side panels are missing. They are replaced in this aircraft by stopwatch buttons, much more useful! The two blanking plates in the MCP are for the SPD INTV & ALT INTV options.
737-NG
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The basic Honeywell (formerly Sperry) MCP is virtually unchanged from the 200ADVs but the EFIS control panels have been moved into the glareshield from the aft electronics panel in a similar arrangement to the 747-400.
The latest Honeywell FCC software, P/N 2216-HNP-03B-10 OPS (known as ―710‖ software) - Aug 2007 Its features include: 1. Added the capability to arm VNAV prior to selection of Takeoff when compatible CDS and FMC part numbers are also installed. When armed, pitch takeoff will transition to VNAV engage at 400 feet. Note, due to inconsistencies associated with the arming of VNAV prior to takeoff, Boeing released the reference a) ops manual bulletin instructing flight crews to not attempt arming VNAV on the ground prior to takeoff. 2. Added the capability to arm LNAV prior to selection of Takeoff when compatible CDS and FMC part numbers are installed. When armed, the takeoff roll mode will transition to LNAV engage at 50 feet. 3. Revised design of ―flight director only‖ LNAV ARM to LNAV ENG in roll go around to allow auto engagement of LNAV from Track Hold down to 50 feet whether the flight director switches are on or off. Note: This function is available as an option. This option is activated by incorporation of a negotiated Boeing Service Bulletin that will specify the correct FCC software, FMC software, CDS OPS and OPC software.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 4. Added logic to reduce false altitude acquires due to erroneous but unflagged altitude inputs. A full list of all FCC updates detailing their features is available in the book.
From line number 1278 onwards (Feb 2003) the Rockwell Collins enhanced MCP was introduced. This was designed to operate with the new Collins enhanced digital flight control system with integrates the autothrottle computer and Flight Control Computer (FCC) to enable Cat IIIb autoland. Note the Cat IIIb EDFCS has a rudder servo and can perform an engine out autoland. Most of the knobs have been redesigned and the buttons have the caption printed on them instead of on the panel. Notice the different angle of bank selector. There are Boeings comments upon how the new MCP was designed: "Collins provided a preliminary MCP design to Boeing in 2000 for Boeing pilots and airline pilots to evaluate in the simulator and comment on. Based upon those comments, a revised MCP was installed on a test 737NG in November 2001. Boeing test pilots evaluated that design for approximately 4 months. Based upon that evaluation, changes were made in the tactile, lighting and thermal characteristics to increase the similarity of the Collins and Honeywell MCPs. The goal during this evaluation was to make the Collins MCP operationally
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES transparent to the flight crew when compared with the Honeywell MCP. Recent certification and service-ready testing has indicated that the latest Collins MCP has obtained a high level of crew transparency."
Flight Control Computer (FCC) The FCC is the brains of the Digital Flight Control System (DFCS) and like any other computer, its software is being improved (and debugged !) all the time. There are two identical FCC's in each aircraft and although either one is capable of managing all of the DFCS functions, both are required for Cat III autoland and autopilot go-around operation. The latest Collins FCC software, P/N 2275-COL-AC1-06 (known as ―-150‖ or ―P5.0‖ software) - Jun 2007 Its features include: 1. Added changes in the application program associated with selection of the 737-900ER model pin (including a variable flare height).
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 2. Removed a ―pitch bump‖ which can occur when glide slope is captured from above. 3. Eliminated the cause of a disconnect which may occur when flying dual channel autopilot go-arounds on the Alpha submode. 4. Changed the ratcheted Radar Altimeter rate limit (used for ILS gain programming) from 21 to 50 feet per second to allow faster updating of rapid rises in approach terrain. 5. Insured that an invalid minimum speed input disengages the VNAV mode or prevents entry into the VNAV mode. A full list of all FCC updates detailing their features is available in the book.
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APU
The APU is a source of bleed air and AC electrics for the aircraft, this gives independence during turnarounds, electrical backup in the event of engine failure and provides air conditioning & pressurisation during an engine bleeds off take-off. It's electrical power source is the battery, many series -500 aircraft have an extra, dedicated APU battery to preserve main battery usage. There are many different APUs available for the 737. The Garrett GTCP (Gas Turbine Compressor [air] Power unit [electrics]) 85-129 was standard for the series 1/200 but when the -300 was introduced it was found that two to three times the energy was needed to start the larger CFM56 engines. Garrett produced the 85-129[E] which had a stretched compressor, ie the impellers were lengthened and the tip diameters increased. When the 737-400 was introduced, even more output was required and Garrett produced the 85129[H]. This has an Electronic Temperature Control which limits hot section temperatures depending upon demand and ambient temperatures. By 1989 the 85-129[H] was the most common APU, although there are actually 14 different models of the 85-129 in service with 737s (see table below). Other APUs available for the Classic were the Garrett GTCP 36-280(B) and the Sundstrand APS 2000; NGs have the Allied Signal GTCP 131-9B. The main difference between them is that the Garrett is hydro-mechanical whereas Sundstrand and Allied Signal are FADEC controlled. I am told by engineers that whilst the Garrett is more robust, the Sundstrand and Allied Signal APUs are easier to work on. On the 3/4/500s, we pilots prefer the Sundstrand because it has no EGT limits and faster restart wait times. The easiest way to tell which is fitted is to look at the EGT gauge limits; the GTCP 85-129 has an 850C limit and also runs at 415Hz, the GTCP 36-280 has an 1100C limit if no EGT limits are marked you have a Sundstrand. Later aircraft have MAINT instead of LOW OIL QUANTITY and FAULT instead of HIGH OIL TEMP warning lights.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The AlliedSignal APU has a 41,000ft start capability and incorporates a starter/generator, thus eliminating a DC starter and clutch. In practice this means that it can be started either by battery or AC transfer bus 1 (the classics are battery start only). It has an educter oil cooling system (see Bottom of page advert) and therefore has no need for a cooling fan. It is rated at 90KVA up to 31,000ft and 66KVA up to 41,000ft. The Garrett and Sundstrand APUs are only rated to 55KVA. The fuel source is normally from the No 1 main tank and it is recommended that at least one pump in the supplying tank be on during the start sequence (and whenever operating) to provide positive fuel pressure and preserve the service life of the APU fuel control unit. Boeing responded to this need by installing an extra DC operated APU fuel boost pump in the No 1 tank on newer series 500 aircraft which automatically operates during APU start and shuts off when it reaches governed speed. You can quickly tell if this is installed by looking for the APU BAT position on the metering panel and the APU BAT OVHT light on the aft overhead panel. It is recommended that the APU be operated for one full minute with no pneumatic load prior to shutdown. This cooling period is to extend the life of the turbine wheel of the APU.
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Garrett 36-280 / Sundstrand AlliedSignal APU panel
Garrett 85-129 APU panel
/
EGT limits marked and oil temp & No EGT limits and MAINT & FAULT pressure captions. captions. Note: NG APU panels do not have an AC ammeter.
Components
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Sundstrand APS 2000
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APU Timer Some aircraft have APU timers fitted on the aft overhead panel, since APU running time cannot be measured by aircraft logbook time.
Fire Protection There is only one APU fire bottle, despite the fact that the handle can be turned in either direction! It is filled with Freon (the extinguishant) and Nitrogen (the propellant) at about 800psi. When the fire handle is turned, the squib is fired which breaks the diaphragm on the bottle, the pressure of the nitrogen then forces the freon into the APU compartment which suffocates the fire. Note that after a squib has been fired, the yellow disc on the fuselage may not blow completely clear, see photos below.
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The APU fire extinguisher bottle indicators comprise of one yellow disc to show if the squib has been fired and one red disc to show if the bottle has over temperatured (130C) or over pressured (1800psi). Some aircraft are fitted with the sight glass to the bottle pressure gauge. Note: Sight glass and bottle indicators are not fitted to NG's.
This photo after the
shows the condition of the discs APU fire bottle had been discharged. Notice how the yellow disc is displaced slightly but has not been blown away, this could easily be missed on an external inspection. Since the bottle only contains nitrogen and freon, there was no other external evidence of
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES the bottle having been used since the evidence had evaporated away.
General The APU will auto-shutdown for the following reasons:
Fire Low oil pressure High oil temperature / Fault Overspeed
The OVERSPEED light may illuminate for any of the following reasons:
An aborted start (overspeed signal given to shutdown). – Further restart may be attempted. A real overspeed while running. – Do not restart. On shutdown (failed test of the overspeed circuit). – Do not restart.
There is no CSD in the APU because it is a constant speed engine. If the APU appears to have started but no APU GEN OFF BUS light is observed then you may have a hung start. The current limit is 125A -air and 150A -ground, due to better airflow cooling on the ground. The galley power will automatically be load shed if the APU load
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES reaches 165A. Because of these limits, the APU may only power one bus in the air. However, if you should accidentally take-off with the APU on the busses then it will continue to power both busses. If the APU EGT reaches 620-650°C, the bleed air valve will modulate toward closed. (This can lead to an aborted engine start if the electrics do not load shed first.) LOW OIL QTY/MAINT – When illuminated, you may continue to operate the APU for up to 30 hrs. Note: this light is only armed when APU switch is ON. FAULT – Although the malfunction will cause the APU to auto-shutdown, additional restarts may be attempted. Max recommended start altitude – 25,000ft Classics; No limit NG's. Each start attempt uses approx 7mins of battery life. Classic: Switching the battery off will shutdown the APU on the ground only. NG: Switching the battery off will shutdown the APU in the air or on the ground.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The APU is enclosed within a fireproof, sound reducing shroud which must be removed before access can be gained to its components. There are two drain masts. The one just aft of the port wheel-well is shared with the hydraulic reservoir vent and is a shrouded line enclosing the APU fuel supply line, this collects any leakage of fuel into the shroud which can be drained when a stop cork is pushed up in the wheel-well. If fuel drains when the stop cork is pushed, it indicates a leak in the APU fuel line.
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n the APU Cowling (see photo left) mates with the APU ins oil from the forward accessory and the compressor bearing.
The APU shroud (center), fuel supply line (left), bleed air duct (right) and cooling air vent (outlined in red). Note this metal shroud is replaced by thermal fire protection blanket on the NG.
e opening at the top of the photo is the cooling air vent.
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The APU cowling showing the lines to the discharge discs and the cooling a overboard exhaust. The small access panel above the cowling is the line of sight o filler, this is sometime located ventrally in front of the cowling for easy access from th ground.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES NG Eductor cooling system The 737 NG APU is recognisable by the ―eductor‖ cooling air inlet above the exhaust. This and a redesigned silencer make the NG APU 12dB quieter than the Classics. The eductor works by using the high speed flow of the APU exhaust which forms a low pressure area. The low pressure pulls outside air through the eductor inlet duct to the APU compartment. The cooling air then goes through the oil cooler and out the APU exhaust duct below, eliminating the need for a separate cooling air vent or fan. The protrusion on the lower right hand side of the photo is the vortex generator on the APU air inlet door.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Limitations & Operating Techniques: APU life can be shortened by incorrect operating techniques. This can be helped by allowing the correct warm-up & cool-down times and bleed configuration for each type of APU. They all differ slightly due to engine core and design differences, but the manifestation of the failure is usually a turbine wheel rotor and/or blade separation. The following table is based on manufacturers recommendations.
EGT Gauge Markings
Garrett 85-129
Sundstrand APS 2000
Garrett 36-280
737-1/200 & some 3/4/500's
737-3/4/500 850C Gauge (Pre V14.1 FADEC)
737-3/4/500
850C Gauge With colour bands
EGT Limits
1100C Gauge (V14.1 FADEC onwards)
Max start 760C
1100C Gauge Max start 760C
No limits Max cont 649C 2nd – No wait
Max cont 710C 2nd – No wait 1st – 3rd – No wait
Starter Limits 3rd – 5 mins
3rd – 5 mins th
4 – 30 mins Max alt Bleed & Elec
4th – 1 hour 10,000ft
10,000ft
4th – 1 hour 10,000ft
Max alt Bleeds
17,000ft
17,000ft
17,000ft
Max alt Elec
37,000ft
37,000ft
37,000ft
Warm up period
3 min
3 min
3 min
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Bleed Pack Operation
1 pack
1 pack
2 pack
MES to shutdown
1 min (unloaded)
Immediately
Immediately*
1 min (unloaded)
Immediately
Immediately*
APU
APU shutdown
*Initiates automatic cool down cycle. Warm up period: The minimum time to run the APU before a pneumatic load is applied. This allows the turbine wheel temperature to stabilise before a load is applied. Whilst 3 minutes is the recommended figure, 1 minute should be the absolute minimum. Note an electrical load may be used with no warm up period. Bleed Pack Operation: The number of packs to use on the ground. APU's which should run both packs have load compressors to supply bleed air. So two pack operation gives both cooler turbine wheel temperatures and a lower fuel burn. Main Engine Start (MES) to APU shutdown: The cool-down time to allow after main engine start. Note also that there should be a minimum amount of time between turning off the pack(s) and starting the first engine. Additionally, minimum delay should occur between starting the first & second engine. This prevents the turbine wheel temperature from decreasing and then significantly increasing when the second engine is started. APU shutdown: The cool-down time to allow after flight, after the packs have been switched off. Note, it is important to allow the APU to complete their shutdown sequence before the battery is switched off. Ref: Flt Ops tech Bulletin 99-1
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Pack Operation and Fuel Flow Single pack operation is not recommended with the Allied Signal 131-9 APU. The following 737-700 CDU BITE pages show the reason why:
No on
packs
on
1
pack
2 packs on
A single pack must work harder than two packs to cool the cabin to a given temperature. Hence the APU must supply higher bleed air pressures to assure proper environmental control system operation. This higher pressure requires a greater Inlet Guide Vane (IGV) open position than that required for 2–pack
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES operation. Since there is less airflow required to operate 1–pack than is needed, a significant amount of unused bleed air is exhausted through the Surge Control Valve (SCV). This higher IGV open position and large quantity of unused air translates into higher APU fuel burn and higher EGTs during 1–pack operation. Also, the high airflow levels exhausting through the surge control valve increases the overall APU generated noise by 2dbA. With 2 packs supplying the cabin cooling requirements the pressure requirement is lower, resulting in lower turbine inlet temperatures, EGTs and far less unused air being discharged through the surge valve.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES COMMUNICATIONS
Audio Control Panel This type of ACP has cylindrical button volume controls, others have sliders. Radio/Int works in the same way as the rocker switch on the control column. ie in the INT position bypasses the mic selector to transmit on the flt interphone. The filter switch, Voice-Both-Range, allows better reception of either voice or morse identifiers on NAV & ADF radios. Check that this switch has not been left in the V position if you can't get an ident. Mask/Boom simply selects either mask or boom mic. Check this if nobody can hear you transmit - especially after your oxy mask mic check!
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Alt/Norm in the ALT position puts the ACP into degraded mode. If the Capts ACP is in degraded mode, he can only transmit on VHF1 through mask or boom and can only receive VHF1 at a preset level. The F/O's ACP in degraded mode is the same but uses VHF2. Note aural warnings will still be heard over the speaker.
ACP with sliders -200 ACP
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VHF Radio Most 737's have three VHF radios and at least one HF radio. This unit allows for selection of any of those at this station. The TEST button is a squelch and is used to hear faint stations that do not have the strength to breakthrough. If you switch the panel OFF at the same time as TEST is applied this holds the test condition thereby allowing you to hear faint stations without having to hold down the test button - very useful for copying distant weather!
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Photo Niklas Andreae
Nav Radio There are very many different Nav radio boxes in the worlds 737's the second shown here is the new Multi-mode nav panel which is used to tune VORs, ILS, & GLS. More details about their use in the Navigationsection.
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Marker Beacons The markers are pre-tuned to their 75MHz frequency and illuminate when overflown. The marker tone can also be heard if selected on the ACP.
Selective Calling, SELCAL
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The SELCAL light will illuminate and a two-tone chime sounds if the aircraft is being selcal’d on either HF or VHF. This particular panel is a very old unit and most operators have had to improvise the method of radio connections to it. Typically, in the past, diodes would be used to "OR" the VHFs together to illuminate one of the lights. Over the last 15 years, the vast majority of the SELCAL panels have a light for each of the radios (VHF-1, VHF-2, VHF-3, HF-1, HF-2) and in some cases, include the Attendant call, and SATCOM call.
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Cockpit Voice Recorder The CVR records the headset and microphone of all 3 ASP's and the ambient cockpit sounds all on separate channels. The recordings start with the first rise in engine oil pressure and go onto a 120 or 30min (as fitted) continuous loop tape until 5mins after last engine shutdown. In the event of an incident crews are advised to pull the CVR c/b after final stop to avoid automatic erasure. It is illegal to stop the CVR in flight. The CVR is located in the aft cargo hold.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The EXTERNAL POWER HATCH is located beneath the F/O's DV window. It is used by groundcrew to connect the Ground Power Unit and headset for pushback communications with Flight Interphone. The service interphone is used by engineers to communicate with the service interphone stations inside the aircraft. Note that the Service Interphone switch on the aft overhead panel must be switched ON for this use. There is also a pilot call button and a nose-wheelwell light switch to assist the groundcrew to insert the steering bypass pin.
Service Interphone The switch on the aft overhead panel activates the external jacks to the service interphone system. Normal internal service interphone operation is unaffected by switch position.
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Tran sponder with integrated TCAS. Note that with the mode switch in the STBY position, no transmissions will occur. When selected, modes A and C will only transmit when the aircraft is not on the ground, but mode S will operate regardless of air/ground status.
Numb er pad transponder. Note: Mode S transponders will be mandatory in Europe after March 2007.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
ELT
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The blue CALL light on the overhead panel illuminates and a single-tone chime sounds when either the cabin crew (service interphone) or ground crew (flight or service interphone) are calling the flight deck.
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ACARS
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Aircraft Data Loader - Used to load FMC database, download flight data eg FLIDRAS, etc.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
IFE
BITE
panel.
Located
above door 2R
Antennae
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Antenna and static discharge wicks should be inspected carefully on the walkaround for integrity and burns, especially if lightning or St Elmo’s fire has been observed.
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Please note that the above location diagrams are only a guide as the antenna fitted depends upon the customer avionics options. Eg some NG's do not have ADF but do have SATCOM or IFTS/Airphone.
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Limitations There are various frequencies listed in the limitations section as not to be used. These are due to interference from other systems. For instance the EEC's affect VHF 120.00Mhz, there is a service bulletin (SB 737-73-1010) which will eliminate this. The HF frequency limitations are the result of interference caused by cabin entertainment systems.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
ELECTRICAL
AC & DC Metering panel
AC & DC Metering panel - Classic AC & DC Metering panel - NG
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES This panel is slightly non-standard because it Notice the new CAB/UTIL & contains the optional APU BAT position on IFE/PASS SEAT switches that the DC side. Most classics don't have this replace the GALLEY switch. These control the following second battery. services: The Residual Volts button (not installed on the NG) may be used to test a generator that has dropped off a bus. When pressed, if a voltage is seen then the generator is still turning, therefore a generator showing zero residual volts has failed and will not reconnect. Residual volts is the only selection to use to the 30V scale on the AC voltmeter, for this reason residual volts should never be pressed when a generator is connected to a bus (will get 115V).
CAB/UTIL Recirculation fan(s) Door area heaters Drain mast heaters Lavatory water heaters All galley buses Shaver outlets Logo lights Potable water comp
IFE/PASS SEAT 115V AC audio IFE 115V AC video IFE 28V DC video IFE Airphone equipment Pax seat elec outlets
The purists may like to know that the DC voltages are measured at the following points: DC switch
Selector Voltage point
measurement Typical Voltage
Typical Current
STBY PWR
DC Standby bus
24-30
N/A
BAT BUS
Battery bus
24-30
N/A
BATT
Hot battery bus
22-30*
0
TR1
DC bus 1
24-30
20-25
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES TR2
DC bus 2
24-30
20-25
TR3
TR 3
24-30
10-15
TEST
Power system test module See table
See table
*May be up to 33V during pulse mode charging. Do not leave the DC meter selector at BAT on a dead aircraft, because indicating draws some current and will eventually drain the battery.
TR's The TR's convert AC into DC. The check for TR serviceability is current, not voltage, because the TR voltage indicates that of the associated DC busses (for TR's 1 & 2). TR's should always be checked before commencing an autoland because the TR3 disconnect relay / cross bus tie relay opens at glideslope capture and this will leave DC Bus 1 unpowered if TR1 had previously failed. NG's have a TR UNIT light which illuminates if either TR1 or TR2 and TR3 fail in flight or if any TR's fail on the ground. The TR's are unregulated and output rated to 50 Amps. Limitations: TR voltage range:
24-30V
Battery voltage range:
22-30V (May be up to 33V during pulse mode charging)
The TEST positions are used in conjunction with the Power System Test panel (1-500 see below). This test information is all contained within the metering panel on the NG.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
Gen Drive & Standby Power panel
Gen Drive & Standby Power panel - NG
Gen Drive & Standby Power panel - Classic
LOW OIL PRESSURE and HIGH OIL TEMP cautions are replaced by a single DRIVE caption on the NG. This will only illuminate for an IDG low oil pressure, since the IDG's will auto disconnect for a high oil temperature. They will also
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES illuminate for an under-frequency. A higher than normal rise (ie above 20C) indicates excessive generator load or poor condition of drive. These temperature gauges were deemed to be redundant and have been removed from the NG. Limitations: Max gen drive rise:
20°C
Max gen drive oil temp:
157°C
If aircraft is fitted with a VSCF, must operate within 45mins of a suitable aerodrome.
For more details about the different types of generators (CSD, VSCF, IDG) fitted click here.
Generator Bus panel
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Gen Bus panel - NG Gen Bus panel - Classic
The amber TRANSFER BUS OFF light comes on when the respective AC transfer bus does not have power. The amber BUS OFF light (classics) indicates that the respective AC generator bus is not energized. The amber SOURCE OFF light (NG's) indicates that the respective AC transfer
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES bus is not energized by the source you last selected. The engine and APU generator OFF BUS lights illuminate when the respective generator is running and of the correct quality. The blue GND POWER AVAILABLE light on classics only means that the GPU is physically plugged in to the aircraft and gives no indication about the quality of the power. You may not be able to connect the ground power to the busses even if the light is illuminated. ON NG's the quality is checked and the light will only illuminate when external AC power is connected and the quality is good.
There are three golden rules of 737 electrics: 1. There is no paralleling of AC power. 2. The source of AC power being connected to a generator bus takes priority and automatically disconnects the existing source. 3. A source of AC power does not enter the system automatically (when it reaches proper voltage & freq). It must be manually switched on.
Busses
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES AC Busses - NG's AC Busses - Classics
Transfer Busses - Point of connection for the power sources Gen busses – Point of connection for the (engines/APU/GPU). Used for essential loads eg power sources (engines/APU/GPU). Used for heavy, heavy, important loads eg hydraulic pumps. hydraulic pumps. Effectively now renamed transfer busses on the NG Main Busses - Fed from respective transfer bus. Used for Main busses – Fed from the respective gen non-essential loads eg recirc bus. Used for heavy non-essential loads eg fans. The main busses are next to be load shed after the galley fuel boost pumps. busses Transfer busses – Normally powered by respective gen bus. If these fail, will feed Galley Busses - First in line to be from other gen bus if BUS TXFR switch is in load shed. AUTO. Used for essential loads eg trim. AC standby bus – Powered by AC standby bus – Powered by transfer bus 1 transfer bus 1 or the battery via or the battery via an inverter. Used for an inverter. Used for essential loads eg ATC 1 essential loads eg ATC 1
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES DC Busses DC busses – Powered by the respective transfer busses via a TRU. DC standby bus – Powered by DC bus 1 (Classics) / TRs (NGs) or battery bus (Classics) / battery (NGs). Battery bus – Normally powered by TR3, alt power is battery. Powered when the battery switch is ON or the standby power switch is BAT. Hot battery bus – Always live, used for fire extinguishing & Captains clock. Switched hot battery bus - Only powered when the battery switch is on.
Standby Busses Are for essential AC & DC loads and are guaranteed for 30mins from the battery. SBY AC bus – Is powered from AC transfer bus 1 or the battery via an inverter. SBY DC bus – Is powered from DC bus 1 or the battery via the battery bus.
Bus transfer switch - when off will completely isolate left & right sides of the electrics. See also Generators
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Batteries Battery - Is a 36 ampere-hour, 24 volt, 20 cell, Nickel-cadmium battery and should provide 30 minutes (20 mins 1/200's) of standby power if all other generators fail. APU Battery - This is a customer option that I have only seen on Series 500 aircraft. It is primarily used for starting the APU but also works in parallel with the main battery to provide 45mins of standby power. One of its best applications is that power is retained on the Captains EFIS with the loss of all generators, similar to latest build classics. Aux Battery - This is a reserve battery on the NG which is normally isolated unless the main battery is powering the standby system when it operates in parallel with the main battery. The aux battery combined with the main battery will provide 60 minutes of standby power The NG also has 2 extra dedicated batteries for the engine and APU fuel shut off valves and the ISFD (150mins capacity). BAT OVHT & APU BAT OVHT lights are a customer option on classics. They are located on the aft overhead panel and no crew action is required if they should illuminate.
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Normal battery voltage range is 22-30 volts.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Circuit Breakers From the QRH CI.2.3 March 29, 2004 "Flight crew reset of a tripped circuit breaker is flight is not recommended. Unless specifically directed to do so in a non-normal checklist. However, a tripped circuit breaker may be reset once, after a short cooling period (approximately 2 minutes), if in the judgement of the Captain, the situation resulting from the circuit breaker trip has a significant adverse effect on safety. A ground reset of a tripped circuit breaker by the flight crew should only be accomplished after maintenance has determined it is safe to reset the circuit breaker. Flight crew cycling (pulling and resetting) of circuit breakers to clear non-normal conditions is not recommended." According to Boeing there is 40.6 miles of wire on the 737-300 but only 36.6 miles on the 737-700 ! Photograph of the P6 panel Photograph of the P18 panel
Behind the P6 Panel
C/B location chart by F/O Libor Kubina, CSA.
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Just to prove that electrics is not the exact science that engineers would have you believe, check out this story from Suzanna Darcy, a Boeing flight test pilot for 18 years: Systems that seem fine alone can interfere with one another, she recalled testing a 737 (NG). When she switched the power on, she heard the toilet in the lavatory flush. After confirming that no one was in the lavatory, she switched the power on again. This time, all the toilets on board flushed. The reason: interference between electrical systems.
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The Generator Diagnostics (Annunciator) panel (M238) Series -1/2/3/4/500 only Easily missed as it is tucked away on the right hand side wall as you enter the flight deck. It is used as an indication of whether or not individual AC & DC buses are powered, and provides reasons in the form of malfunction lights, why a GCR has tripped.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES It is arranged into three areas: DC Bus lights: The first 3 lights on the top 2 rows. Hold switch to INDICATE to see which DC buses are powered. AC Bus lights: These lights show which AC buses are powered and are behind the shield to avoid distracting the crew. The top row is phase A, the bottom row phase C. Phase B is checked on the AC meter panel on the overhead panel. Malfunction lights: The last 6 lights on the top 2 rows will illuminate immediately when a fault occurs on either engine or APU generator.
If any lights are illuminated not covered by the shield, something may be wrong, make a note of the light and report to an engineer. If the fault is on either Gen 1 or 2 and you have VSCF's fitted you can confirm the fault by the light test on the VSCF unit. A list of malfunction lights and their possible causes is given below.
Possible causes of Generator Diagnostic Panel lights are as follows:
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Annunciator Panel Troubleshooting Guide
Malfunction Light
Possible Cause
Defective CT. FF (Feeder Fault) light comes on followed by GCR, GB tripping: Defective GCU. Over-current condition, lines for fault.
check
Defective circuit to manual trip. MT (Manual Trip) light comes on:
Generator switched off. CSD disconnect.
HV (High Voltage) light comes on Defective Generator Control Unit (130+/-3V): (GCU). Defective generator. LV (Low Voltage) light comes on Damaged CSD shaft or spline. (100+/-3V): Defective GCU. Fire handle pulled.
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The Power System Test panel (M400) Series -1/2/3/4/500 only Shows the phases of the various AC busses in accordance with the following table:
1
A
B (Default posn)
No1 Gen field
APU No2 Gen Gen field field
C
D
Phase A
Phase B
No1 Main bus #A
No1 No1 Main Main bus #B bus #C
No1 GCU DC
APU No2 GCU GCU DC DC
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Phase C
E
F
P5 Meter
DC Volts
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Gen AC Amps
No1 Trans bus #A
No1 Trans bus #B
No1 Trans bus #C
AC Volts & Freq
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 2
3
Phase A
Phase C
Phase B
No2 Main bus #A
No2 No2 Main Main bus #B bus #C
Eng GB1 Close coil
APU Eng GB2 GB1 Close coil Close coil
Phase A
Phase B
Gnd Serv bus #A
Gnd Gnd Serv Serv bus #B bus #C
Phase C
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Gen AC Amps
No2 Trans bus #A
No2 Trans bus #B
No2 Trans bus #C
AC Volts & Freq
DC Volts
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
AC Ext Pwr Ext Pwr Ext Pwr Volts & bus #A bus #B bus #C Freq
APU GB2 Close coil
4
Phase
Phase B
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Phase
Gen AC Amps
DC Volts
Phase
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES A
C
A
B
C
EPC 1 Close coil
AC Amps
DC Volts
5 Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
EPC 2 Close coil
Gen AC Amps
DC Volts
6 Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
APU 95% switch
Gen AC Amps
DC Volts
7 Phase A
Phase B
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Phase C
Phase A
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8
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
DC Volts
Note: S2 (Left switch) is normally left in position B. This connects all 3 generator ammeters to phase B and leaves the M400 selector relays relaxed.
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NG Series Differences The functions of the above panel are all contained within the AC & DC Metering panel on the NG. The M400 panel space is now occupied by the Data Load Panel.
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Electrical Schematics The following electrical schematics are included to give the reader an overview of the basic electrical configurations of the various series of 737. Please note that although these contain slightly more information than FCOM Vol 2, they are still a great simplification of the full system (particularly in the way I have represented the standby power switch relays). Furthermore there have been many different configurations over the years for different customers, so please do not assume that your particular aircraft match any of the following.
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EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
Flight Crew Oxygen When conducting the oxygen mask flow & intercom check, monitor the crew oxygen pressure gauge to ensure a steady flow as any fluctuations may be due to an obstruction in the system. Give a long check of the flow on the first flight of the day in case the crew oxygen shut off valve has been closed. A short check may sound OK but you may be hearing the residual oxygen left in the lines rather than fresh oxygen from the bottle.
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Oxygen Panel -1/200 Oxygen Panel -300+
Crew Oxygen Shutoff Valve (Not installed on NG's) The F/O should ensure that the crew oxygen shutoff valve, located at the bottom outside of the P6 panel, is open (anticlockwise) and ideally backed off by half a turn to avoid damage to the seal. This should be done during the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES cockpit preparation, particularly in airlines where it is the practice to close this valve overnight.
Minimum Crew Oxygen Dispatch Pressure (FPPM 2.2.14) Number Temp Crew O2 C Bottle
2
3
Crew oxygen pressure on aft overhead panel should be checked against MEL 35-1 or FPPM 2.2.14. The minimum despatch quantity varies with size of bottle, bottle temp and number of flightdeck crew.
of
4
The minimum amount of oxygen is
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES based upon one hour of normal flight at a cabin altitude of 8000ft for one pilot with the diluter set to NORMAL (76 cu ft bottle).
Size 0
11301645
39 cu 15 ft
11901735
30
12501825
0
620 890 1155
76 cu 15 ft
655 940 1220
30
690 990 1280
0
445 620 800
114 15 cu ft
470 655 840
30
495 690 885
Crew oxygen is stored in a bottle in the forward hold. On older aircraft (pre 1990 ish) there is a servicing point on the outside (see photo below) however on most access is gained through the forward hold. All aircraft have a green discharge disc on the outside to warn crews if the bottle has discharged from overpressure. This should be checked on every walkaround.
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Oxygen Servicing Point on Lower Fwd Fuselage
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Flight Crew Oxygen Mask
The oxygen regulator has three modes: Normal: Red latch on left is up - Gives air/oxygen mix on demand. Use if no fumes are present eg decompression. 100%: Push red latch on left down Gives 100& oxygen on demand. Use if smoke or fumes are present. 737-1/500 Oxygen Mask Deployed
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Emergency: Rotate red knob clockwise - Gives 100% oxygen under pressure. Used to clear mask & goggles of fumes and should also be used if aircraft is depressurised above 39,000ft.
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737-200 crew oxy panel
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Passenger Oxygen Classics & NG's: Will deploy automatically above 14,000ft cabin alt or when switched on from the aft overhead panel. No oxygen will flow in a PSU until a mask in that PSU has been pulled. Passenger oxygen should not be used as smoke hoods as the air inhaled is a mixture of oxygen and cabin air and there is a significant fire hazard with oxygen in the cabin. There is 12 minutes supply of oxygen in each PSU, this is based upon:
Passenger oxygen on 737-1/200's is supplied by two oxygen bottles in the forward hold. The capacity varies with operator but is typically 76.5 cu ft each. Oxygen bottle pressure is indicated on the aft overhead panel.
Passenger Service Unit - PSU
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0.3 min delay at 37,000ft 3.1 min descent to 14,000ft 7.6 min hold at 14,000ft 1.0 min descent to 10,000ft
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Emergency Exit Lights When armed, will illuminate if power is lost to DC bus 1. They can also be switched on from the aft flight attendant panel. Whenever these lights are on, they are being powered from their own individual Ni-Cad batteries and will only last for 10mins.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Smoke Hood (Drager)
Aft Attendant Panel
After pulling the toggle, the oxygen generator will operate for less than 30 secs. Don’t worry! The oxygen remains in a closed loop system within the mask and filter to prevent contamination from the outside air. It is filtered twice, on inhalation and again on exhalation, and is breathable for approximately 20mins.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Life Jacket
Do not inflate until you are outside the aircraft as it will impede your exit and you could puncture it as you leave.
Cockpit Fire Extinguisher
Is BCF and works by removing oxygen from the fire triangle of oxygen - heat - fuel. As it does not directly cool the fire, when oxygen returns, so could the fire. To operate, remove ring and press down on top lever. Hold upright and beware, BCF fumes are toxic.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Slide Serviceability check includes the pressure gauge. Tip: Be extremely careful to remember to disarm any door slides you may have armed on flights without cabin crew eg ferry flights or air-tests. Note that the slides are not certified as emergency floatation equipment although Boeing say that an inflated slide could be buoyant, and useful as a floatation device and handgrips are positioned along the sides of the slide.
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FIRE PROTECTIONS Engines
Overheat / Fire Protection Panel 3-900 series
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
Overheat / Fire Protection Panel -200C series. Notice fwd & aft cargo smoke detectors.
Engine & APU fire detection – Battery bus Engine, APU & Cargo fire extinguishing – Hot battery bus. There are two fire detection loops in each engine. Failure of both loops in one engine will illuminate the FAULT light. The individual loops can be checked by selecting A or B on the OVHT DET switches. Fire switches will unlock in the following situations: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Overheat detected Fire detected During an OVHT/FIRE test Pressing manual override buttons
Pulling a fire switch will do the following:
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Arm firing circuits Allow fire switch to be rotated for discharge Close engine fuel shut-off valve. Trip the associated GCR (i.e. switches off the generator) Close hydraulic supply to EDP & disarms its LP light (Not if APU) Close engine bleed air valve (If APU will also close air inlet door) Close thrust reverser isolation valve (Not if APU)
The engine fire bottles (NG)
Wheel-Well
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES There is a wheel-well fire detection system but although the engine fire bottles are located in the wheel-well, there is no extinguishing system for a wheel-well fire. (Suggest extend gear & land ASAP).
APU The APU only has one bottle. This may be checked externally by looking for the two discharge discs (red for thermal overpressure & yellow for extinguisher discharge) and the pressure sight glass (where fitted) on the aft stbd fuselage.
Cargo Compartment (Optional)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Cargo Fire Panel
Cargo Fire Panel - Alternative version The cargo holds have dual-loop smoke detectors powered by DC bus 1 & 2. There is only one cargo fire bottle, it is powered by the hot battery bus and can be discharged into either the fwd or aft hold. On later 737NG's the cargo fire smoke detector sends a signal to the cabin pressure control system. This triggers the cabin pressure to descend at 750 slfpm which helps prevent smoke penetration into the passenger cabin from the lower lobe. (This function is inhibited on the ground.)
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Cargo Hold Smoke Detector
Lavatory Smoke Detection (Optional) Some 737's have a warning light on the flight deck to warn of smoke in the lavatory. If the smoker is in the forward lav you can usually smell it on the flight deck within seconds without a warning light.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Passenger Compartment (Optional) The cargo 737's had a pressurisation feature which allowed the crew to pressurise or unpressurise the passenger compartment for smoke clearance.
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FLIGTH CONTROLS
Roll Ailerons are powered by hydraulic systems A and/or B. If both hyd should fail, manual reversion is available from both control wheels. If the aileron system jams, the co-pilots wheel can be used to move the spoilers (hydraulically). There are balance tabs and balance panels on both ailerons.
Aileron trim moves the neutral position via the feel & centering mechanism. There are two aileron trim switches to prevent spurious electrical signals from applying trim. The fwd switch is for direction, the aft switch is simply an earth return. Use of aileron trim with the autopilot engaged is prohibited because of excessive roll when the a/p is disconnected.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Spoilers / Speedbrakes Flight spoilers (2 -1/2/3/4/500; 4 NG's) augment the ailerons and are powered by hydraulic system A (inboard) & B (outboard). Spoilers will continue to operate with speedbrake deployed. Ground spoilers are hydraulic system A.
also
from
Only the outboard flight spoilers are powered by hydraulic sys B On landing, if armed, all spoilers will deploy when the thrust levers are at idle and any two wheels have spun up or right gear is compressed. If not armed, the speedbrakes will deploy when reverse thrust is selected. Do not use speedbrakes in-flight if you have had to manually over-ride the gear to retract it. Because with the thrust levers closed, the ground spoilers will deploy as well. The SPEEDBRAKE DO NOT ARM light in-flight does not preclude its use on the ground. There is no restriction on the speed at which the speedbrakes may be used (on airtests they are deployed at 360/M0.84); however the resultant position is a function of airspeed due to blowdown.
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737-400 Flight and deployment on landing
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The above photo (-3/4/500 series) shows how the ground spoilers move more than the flight spoilers and appear to have just two deflection angles. On the 737-NG the story is a little more complex and spoiler movement varies as follows:
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Speedbrake lever angle
Detent
Flight Ground Spoiler Spoiler Position Position Nos. Nos. 2,3,10&11 6&7 / 4,5,8 &9 1&12
0
DOWN
0
0
4
ARMED
0
0
5-8
-
Start move
29
-
Between 0 and 52 / 60 20/22.5
35.5
FLIGHT
19.5 24.5
48
UP (no detent) 33 / 38
to
/
/
0
52 / 60 52 / 60
Yaw
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The rudder is moved by a PCU powered by hyd sys A and/or B. If A and/or B fails a standby PCU can be powered from the standby hydraulic system. There is no manual reversion for the rudder. From Jan 2003 (l/n 1268) all 737's were delivered with the enhanced rudder control system. This can be recognised in the flight deck by a new STBY RUD ON light in the STANDBY HYD column (see below). For an in-depth explanation of the rudder system click here.
Yaw Damper The 737 is positively damped in combined lateral-directional oscillations, which in plain English means that if you set up a Dutch Roll the aircraft will gradually stop oscillating. So the yaw damper is not required for dispatch, however it is fitted for passenger comfort. It is powered by hydraulic system B. The 1/200 series had a dual yaw damper system because at the design stage, from experience of the 707 and 727, it was expected that the 737 would not be so naturally, positively yaw damped. So two were fitted to allow dispatch in case one failed. As it happened, none were required. The 1/200's have a yaw damper test switch to the right of the indicator. Note that aircraft with the RSEP installed,
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES the yaw damper test switch is inoperative (shown right). The NG's saw a return to a dual system by having a standby yaw damper, note that only the main yaw damper inputs are shown on the indicator. The yaw damper system can move the rudder a maximum of 2 degrees (1/200), 3 deg (-3/4/500), 2 deg (NG flap up), 3 deg (NG flap down), either side of the trimmed position. Yaw damper inputs are not fed back into the rudder pedals, which is why there is an indicator. However from April 2010 the indicator will not be fitted to new aircraft.
Rudder Trim The rudder trim knobs have evolved over the years. The -1/200 series had the large knob from 707 days when there was more hand flying and asymmetric thrust before the days of autothrottle. The 737-300 featured a new smaller blade shaped knob but this was changed to the present round knob following the crash of a US Air 737737-1/200 Rudder trim knob 400 which overran La Guardia with full left rudder trim set (NTSB/AAR90/03). It was believed that a jump seat occupant may have inadvertently moved the knob with his foot when it was resting on the 737-3/400 old blade style rudder trim knob aft electronic panel. A raised shield was also fitted around the aft end of this panel to prevent inadvertent
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES movement of the trim controls. See this SAIB issued by the FAA following an incident to a 737 over Japan following the inadvertent application of rudder trim.
Pitch The control column moves the elevators using hyd A and/or B. If both hyd should fail, manual reversion is available from both control columns. If the elevator system jams, the stabilizer (trim) should still be available. There are balance tabs and balance panels on both elevators.
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Notice how the camber of the stabiliser is like an inverted aerofoil, demonstrating that the tailplane produces a downforce. The FEEL DIFF PRESS light is only armed when the trailing edge flaps are up and will illuminate if either hydraulic system or an elevator pitot fails. The elevator feel system will continue to work on the remaining hydraulic system.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Stab Trim
Pitch trim is applied to the stabilizer. Trim can be applied by electric trim switches, autopilot or a manual trim wheel. Electric and autopilot trim may be disengaged by cutout switches on the control stand in the event of a runaway or other malfunction. Moving the control column in the opposite direction to electric trim will stop the trim, unless the STAB TRIM switch is set to OVERRIDE. This function could be used to control the pitch of the aircraft with trim say in the event of a jammed elevator.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The trim authority varies according to aircraft series and method of trim. The full range is only available with the manual trim wheel, but if at an extreme setting, electric trim can be used to return to the normal range. There are two electric trim switches on each control column, the right is for the direction and the left is an earth return for protection against spurious electrical signals. The STAB TRIM light was only fitted to the 1/200 series. Speed trim is applied to the stabilizer automatically at low speed, low weight, aft C of G and high thrust - i.e. on most take-offs. Speed trim is a dual channel system. Sometimes you may notice that the speed trim is trimming in the opposite direction to you, this is because the speed trim is trying to trim the stabilizer in the direction calculated to provide the pilot with positive speed stability characteristics. The speed trim system adjusts stick force so the pilot must provide significant amount of pull force to reduce airspeed or a significant amount of push force to increase airspeed. Whereas pilots are typically trying to trim the stick force to zero. Occasionally these may be in opposition. As the mach increases, so the centre of pressure moves aft and the nose of the aircraft will tend to drop (mach tuck). MACH TRIM is automatically applied above M0.615 (classics & NG's), M0.715 (-1/200) to the elevators to counteract this and to provide speed stability. Trivia: On the 737-100 to 500, the stab trim control wheels should be mounted with their white marks 90 +/- 15 degrees apart from the other wheel, so that in the event that the trim wheel handles need to be used, one handle will be in an accessible position (AMM 27-41-64, Page 402). This is not so for the 737-NG (27-41-61, Page 401).
Leading Edge Devices
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Are comprised of 4 Krueger flaps inboard of the engines and 6 slats outboard of the engines. The LE flaps are extended whenever the TE flaps are not up. The slats extend from 1 to 5 and fully extend when beyond 5. Slat numbers 1 & 6 (the outboard slats) move a few degrees less than slats 2 to 5 when at full extend, causing the leading edge to look slightly disjointed in this configuration, this is normal. The NG's have an extra outboard slat on each wing giving 8 in total. They have the same sequencing as the classics.
737-200Adv / Classic LED Panel
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On the early -1/200 series, only outboard slats (1 & 6) had a full extend position; this is used when the TE flaps are beyond 25. The -200Adv has the same arrangement as the classics 737-1/200 basic LED Panel Notice how only the outboard slats go to full extend. The normal power for the LED’s is hydraulic system B (System A on the 1/200). If this fails the LED’s may be extended but not retracted with the standby hydraulic system using the ALTERNATE FLAPS switch on the flight controls panel. Note this will drive the LED's to the FULL EXTEND position only. The autoslat system will fully extend the slats for stall protection whenever flap is selected and the slats are not already at the full extend position (ie flap 1 to 5). If system B pressure is lost, system A can pressurise system B fluid for autoslat via 737-200Adv Slats the PTU. The LE FLAP TRANS light is inhibited during autoslat operation.
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Each slat has: 1) A single hydraulic ram actuator, which is normally powered by hyd system B. The actuator is powered (to the full extend position only) by the standby hydraulic system when the ALTERNATE FLAPS control is selected to DOWN. 2) Two main tracks (outer) and two auxiliary tracks (inner) to help hold the slats in the three positions. 3) A bleed air duct (brown) for wing anti-ice and exhaust holes in the underside of the slat. Note NG's do not have wing anti-ice on their outboard slats.
Note the LE flaps only have actuators, ie no tracks or anti-ice.
737 NG Slats
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There are four LE Krueger flaps, two inboard of each engine. They are either fully extended or retracted (the photo shows a flap in transit). When the flap is retracted, the folding nose section rotates and is stored under the wing. The LE flaps do not have anti-ice.
Side view of partially extended number 1 Krueger flap on a 737-300
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737-200 Adv Krueger Flaps 737-200 Basic Krueger Flaps The 737-200Adv incorporated major wing improvements over the basic -200, including new leading edge flap sequencing and an extension of the inboard Krueger flaps from the landing lights to the fuselage. This remains just about the only way to tell a 737-200 from a 737-200Adv externally.
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The NG's have three small aerodynamic fences (vortilons) on the underside of the leading edge slats to restrict the spanwise LE Vortilon flow of air.
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The new NG flight controls panel 737-1/200 flight controls panel Sistemas de las Aeronaves
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES From Jan 2003 (l/n 1268) all 737's were delivered with the Rudder System Enhancement Program (RSEP) installed. This can be recognised in the flight deck by a new STBY RUD ON light in the STANDBY HYD column. This indicates that the standby rudder PCU is pressurised. It may be pressurised either automatically (loss or system A or B etc) or manually (through the FLT CONTROL switches).
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Trailing Edge Flaps
Are triple slotted (-3/4/500) / double slotted (-NG) and are normally powered by hyd sys B. An asymmetry condition on the classic is deemed to be a split of 22+/-5 degrees on the flap position indicator. On the NG's the FSEU will detect an asymmetry at the flap position transmitters at a level which is almost undetectable by eye. In any series of 737, if an asymmetry is detected, hydraulic power is removed. The NG FSEU will also detect a flap skew, if detected the flap position indicators will display a 15 degree split. If hydraulic system B is lost, flaps can be moved electrically with ALTERNATE FLAPS. There is no asymmetry protection with alt flaps and the LE flaps and slats can be extended but not retracted. The duty cycle limitations are for a complete extension and retraction e.g. if flaps moved from 0 to 15 and back to 0, then must wait 5mins before using alternate flap again. A flap load limiter (-3/4/500) / flaps/slats electronics unit (-NG) will automatically retract the flaps from 40 to 30 (-3/4/500) / also 30 to 25 (-NG) if the limit speed
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES is exceeded. The flaps will extend again when speed is reduced. This feature is on all aircraft even though the FLAP LOAD RELIEF light is only fitted to a few. The basic 737-1/200's also had a green LE FLAPS FULL EXT light. Trivia: Although the flap placard limit speeds are different for each 737NG variant, the structural limit speed for the flaps is equal to the placard speeds (175k – F30, 162k – F40) for the heaviest variant (737-800/900). The Flap Load Relief trigger speeds (176k – F30, 163k – F40) are set to allow all variants to fly to the structural limit speed without system activation. Setting lower flap placard speeds for the –600 and –700 variants allows for greater service life of flap components due to the larger margins to the structural design speed.
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Triple slotted trailing edge flaps at the 40 position on a 737-400.
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Flap track fairings and outboard landing light on a 737-500.
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Short-field Performance Enhancement Program
The Short Field Performance improvement package was developed in 2005/6 to allow GOL airlines to operate their 737-800s into the 1,465m (4,800ft) Santos Dumont airport. The modifications enable weight increases of approx 4,700kg (10,000lbs) for landing and 1,700kg (3,750lbs) for take-off from short runways. It includes the following changes:
Flight spoilers are capable of 60 degree deflection on touchdown by addition of increased stroke actuators. This compares to the current 33/38 degrees and reduces stopping distances by improving braking capability. Slats are sealed for take-off to flap position 15 (compared to the current 10) to allow the wing to generate more lift at lower rotation angles. Slats only travel to Full Ext when TE flaps are beyond 25 (compared to the current 5). Autoslat function available from flap 1 to 25. Flap load relief function active from flap 10 or greater. Two-position tailskid that extends an extra 127mm (5ins) for landing protection. This allows greater angles of attack to be safely flown thereby reducing Vref and hence landing distance. Main gear camber (splay) reduced by 1 degree to increase uniformity of braking across all MLG tyres.
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Reduction of engine idle-thrust delay time from 5s to 2s to shorten landing roll. FMC & FCC software revisions.
The SFP package has now become an option on all 737-800s (known as 737800SFPs) and standard on the 737-900ER. Some of the features may also be fitted to the 600/700 series. The first SFP was delivered 31st June 2006. To date over 250 aircraft have been ordered with this package as either factory
build or retrofit. A trailing edge flap modification from AeroTech has been available for the 7372/3/4/500 series since 2004. The modification slightly extends and lowers the aft segments of the trailing edge flaps thereby increasing wing area, camber and importantly lift-to-drag ratio. The original modification had one fixed position for the aft flap segments. However it is now adjustable/tunable to fit a wide spectrum of flight operations. The cruise angle of attack is reduced by approximately 0.5 degree which reduces induced drag. There are no changes to operational procedures and every pilot that has flown this mod (FAA, test pilots, and line pilots) says that the aircraft handles better. Fuel savings vary with series and route structure but may average up to 4.3%.
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Limitations Speed limit If only 1 leading edge device remains 300kts/M0.65 extended. Speed limit If more than 1 leading edge device remains 230kts extended. Do not deploy speedbrakes in flight at radio altitudes less 1000ft than: Holding in icing conditions with flaps extended is prohibited. Do not use speedbrake when flaps are beyond 15. Max flap extension altitude
This
is
taken
from
20,000ft
the
Boeing
Airliner
magazine:
"Several operators have asked Boeing why the Airplane Flight Manual has a limitation restricting the use of flaps above 20,000 feet. The reason for the limitation is simple; Boeing does not demonstrate or test (and therefore does not certify) airplanes for operations with flaps extended above 20,000 feet. There is no Boeing procedure that requires the use of flaps above 20,000 feet.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Since flaps are intended to be used during the takeoff and approach/land phases of flight, and since Boeing is not aware of any airports where operation would require the use of flaps above 20,000 feet, there is no need to certify the airplane in this configuration."
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Wing Design OK the wing is not strictly a flight control but since plenty of readers want to know about the wing here goes. (All dimensions in meters) Originals
Classics
NG's
28.35
28.88
34.32
102.00
105.4
124.58
8.83
8.99
9.45
Ratio
0.339
0.240
0.159
hord (basic)
4.71
4.71
7.877
Aerodynamic Chord
3.80
3.73
3.96
ord
1.60
1.13
1.251
ess/chord - Root
14.00
14.00
?
ess/chord - Average
12.89
12.89
?
ess/chord - Tip
11.50
?
?
al (º)
6
6
6
Area (m²) Ratio
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ce at root (ยบ)
1
1
1
d Sweep (ยบ)
25.02
25.02
25.02
The wings are an aluminium alloy, dual-path, fail-safe, two-spar structure. Shear loads are carried by the front and rear spars, bending loads are carried by the upper and lower skin panels. These four surfaces form the wing box which also serves as an integral fuel tank. The spars are reinforced by vertical stiffeners and the skin panels are reinforced by spanwise "Z" or "J" section stringers. The original wing was designed to be short to keep weight to a minimum, but be large enough to carry fuel for the designed range. It also had to have a short chord to accommodate the engine which was to be flush mounted rather than on a pylon because of ground clearance. It also had much less sweep than its predecessors (25ยบ compared to 35ยบ on the 727) because speed was not considered important for a short range jet. This is why we plod along the airways at M0.74 classics, M0.78 NG's. Having the engines wing-mounted also helped alleviate the bending moment of the wings from the lift, which allowed the spar weights to be reduced. Unfortunately this was initially overdone as a prototype managed to buckle the rear wing spar during high speed tests at 34% above normal operational loads. The spars were strengthened and this was incorporated into all production aircraft. The basic wing remained the same on all 1/200's until the 3/4/500's which had 0.2m wingtip extensions and a slightly modified aerofoil section (taken from the 757/767) for the LE slats. This gave a 4% improvement in maximum L/D, a 0.02 Mach increase at maximum L/D, and a 3% reduction in block fuel at 1500nm range. The new slats went from engine pylon to wingtip and gave an average chord increase of 4% over the whole wing and gave the classics similar approach speeds to the originals. The wingtip extension came about when a
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES flutter boom was being designed to eliminate flutter between the wing and the new powerplant & pylons. As it happened the boom was not needed but the wingtip extension was retained and with the new slats gave the classics an extra 4000ft altitude capability. The 737-1/2/3/4/500 aerofoil is made up of four specially designed Boeing aerofoil sections splined into one smooth surface as follows:
Short field take-off performance was achieved by Krueger flaps and slats. Short field landing performance came from the triple slotted flaps. Both of these gave the 737 good low speed handling and allowed it to operate into many fields that had not previously been able to take jets. The NG wing has a whole new airfoil section, 25% increase in area, 107" semispan increase, 17" chord increase, raked wing-tip and a larger inspar wingbox with machined ribs. Approach speeds have been further reduced and the altitude capability increased by another 4000ft to FL410.
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WINGLETS
Winglets The most noticeable feature to appear on 737s since 2000 are winglets. These are wing tip extensions which reduce lift induced drag and provide some extra lift. They have been credited to Dr Louis Gratzer formerly Chief of Aerodynamics at Boeing and now with Aviation Partners Boeing (APB) but the original winglet design was by NASA Langley aeronautical engineer Richard Whitcomb during the 1973 oil crisis. They were first flown on a 737-800 in June 1998 as a testbed for use on the BBJ. They are now available as a standard production line option for all NGs with the exception of the -600 series. They are also available as a retrofit from APB. They are 8ft 2in tall and about 4 feet wide at the base, narrowing to approximately two feet at the tip and
add almost 5 feet to the total wingspan. The winglet for the Classic is slightly shorter at 7ft tall. Most 737NGs no winglets. The latest APB development, was split-scimitar winglets introduced in early 2014 for the 737 NG (see photo below).
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Boeing has now developed, built* and are installing their own winglets for the 737 MAX family. The "Advanced Technology" winglet combines rake tip technology with a dual feather winglet concept into one advanced treatment for the wings of the 737 MAX.". They are split-tipped, straight-edged winglets for the 737 MAX.
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There are 4 different types of winglets available for the 737 as follows:
737-200 Mini-Winglets
737 Classic/NG Blended Winglets
737 NG Split Scimitar Winglets
737 MAX Advanced Technology Winglets
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News stories
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Winglets are also available for Classics. The first winglet equipped 737-300 flew in Nov 2002 and gained its FAA supplemental type certificate (STC) on 30 May 2003. Winglet equipped Classics are known as Special Performance (SP). Winglets have the potential to give the following benefits:
Improved climb gradient. This will enable a higher RTOW from climb limited airports (hot, high or noise abatement) or obstacle limited runways. Reduced climb thrust. A winglet equipped aircraft can typically take a 3% derate over the non-winglet equivalent aircraft. This can extend engine life and reduce maintenance costs. Environmentally friendly. The derate, if taken, will reduce the noise footprint by 6.5% and NOx emissions by 5%. This could give savings on
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airport noise quotas or fines. Reduced cruise thrust. Cruise fuel flow is reduced by up to 6% giving savings in fuel costs and increasing range. Improved cruise performance. Winglets can allow aircraft to reach higher levels sooner. Air Berlin notes, ―Previously, we'd step-climb from 35,000 to 41,000 feet. With Blended Winglets, we can now climb direct to 41,000 feet where traffic congestion is much less and we can take advantage of direct routings and shortcuts which we could not otherwise consider.‖ Good looks. Winglets bring a modern look and feel to aircraft, and improve customers' perceptions of the airline.
If winglets are so good, you may wonder why all 737s don’t have them. In fact 85% of all new 737s are now built with winglets, particularly the 800 and 900 series and of course all BBJs. It comes down to cost versus benefits. Winglets cost about $725,000USD and take about 1 week to install which costs an extra $25-80,000USD. Once fitted, they add 170-235kg (375-518lbs) to the weight of the aircraft, depending upon whether they were installed at production or a retrofit. The fuel cost of carrying this extra weight will take some flying time each sector to recover, although this is offset by the need to carry less fuel because of the increased range. In simple terms, if your average sector length is short (less than one hour) you wont get much the benefit from winglets unless you need any of the other benefits such as reduced noise or you regularly operate from obstacle limited runways. There is a small difference in rotation rate for aircraft with winglets installed and, as a result, the crew needs to be cautious of pitch rate. There is approximately a ½ unit take-off trim change between non-winglet and winglet aircraft so the green band is slightly different for winglet aircraft. Finally, the dry ―maximum demonstrated‖ crosswind limit is slightly reduced with winglets to 34kts. According to APB this is because “the FAA will only let us document the max winds experienced during flight test... so if we had been able to find more crosswind, then the 33kts might have been more. There appears to be no weather cocking effect due to winglets.”
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Other winglet News Stories An excellent article by Boeing in Aero 17 is available at: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazin e/aero_17/winglet_story.html
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Next-Generation 737 Production Winglets Description Winglets are wing tip extensions which provide several benefits to airplane operators. The winglet option increases the Next-Generation 737's lead as the newest and most technologically advanced airplane in its class. These new technology winglets are now available on 737-800s as well as on the Boeing Business Jet (737-700 and 737-800). There are two types of winglet available, Boeing's own built into the wing at the time of manufacture and the APB winglet as a retrofit.
Benefits Depending on the airplane, its cargo, the airline's routes and other factors, winglets have the potential to give: IMPROVED TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE By allowing a steeper climb, winglets pay off in better takeoff performance, especially from obstacle-limited, high, hot, weight-limited, and/or noiserestricted airports. Performance Improved climb gradients increase 737-800
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES allowable takeoff weight (TOW). Some examples include:
Chicago-Midway: ~1,600 lb additional TOW Lanzarote (Canary Islands): ~3,500 lb additional TOW Albuquerque, Denver, and Salt Lake City: ~4,400 lb additional TOW
REDUCED ENGINE MAINTENANCE COSTS Better climb performance also allows lower thrust settings, thus extending engine life and reducing maintenance costs. Lower Required Thrust Levels Extend On-Wing Life. Takeoff - Winglets allow up to 3% incremental derate. Cruise - Cruise thrust levels are reduced by up to 4%. FUEL SAVINGS Winglets lower drag and improve aerodynamic efficiency, thus reducing fuel burn. Depending on the missions you fly, blended winglets can improve cruise fuel mileage up to 6 percent, especially important during a time of rising fuel prices. INCREASED PAYLOAD RANGE The addition of Aviation Partners Blended Winglets to the 737 Next Generation has demonstrated drag reduction in the 5 to 7% range that measurably increases range and fuel efficiency . In addition, the Blended Winglets allow the 737-NG to take off from higher, hotter airports with increased payload.
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Series
Range Normal
(nm) Range (nm) With Winglets
-700
3250
3634
-800
2930
3060
-900
2670
2725
ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY With winglets, you can be a good neighbour in the community you serve. They enhance performance at noise-restricted airports and cut the affected area by 6.5 percent, saving you money on airport noise quotas or fines. By reducing fuel consumption, winglets help lower NOx emissions by 5%. IMPROVED OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY By increasing Payload Range and Overall Performance, Blended Winglets add flexibility to fleet operations and route selection. Air Berlin notes, "Previously, we'd step-climb from 35,000 to 41,000 feet. With Blended Winglets, we can now climb direct to 41,000 feet where traffic congestion is much less and we can take advantage of direct routings and shortcuts which we could not otherwise consider." MODERN DRAMATIC APPEARANCE Blended Winglets bring a modern look and feel to aircraft, and improve customers' perceptions of the reliability and modernity of the Airline.
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Dimensions Each winglet is 8 feet long and 4 feet in width at the base, narrowing to approximately two feet at the tip. Added wingspan Winglets add approximately 5 feet to the airplane's total wingspan - from 112 feet 7 inches to 117 feet 2 inches. (All Next-Generation 737 models have the same wingspan.) Weight Each winglet weighs about 132 pounds. Increased weight to the airplane for modifying wing and installing winglets is about 480 pounds. Airplane provisions Structural modifications to accommodate the winglet include strengthening the wing's centre section and other internal strengthening on the wing. These enhancements are done in the normal production process. Various systems changes have also been made to accommodate winglet installation. Offerability Production and retrofit winglets for the Next-Generation 737s are available through Boeing (production) and Aviation Partners Boeing (retrofit). Aviation Partners Boeing (APB) is a joint venture partnership between Boeing and Aviation Partners Inc. (API). Certification Retrofit FAA Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) was granted to APB on 3/23/2001. LBA (German regulatory agency) STC was granted to APB on 5/4/2001. JAA STC was granted May 2001. Boeing PLOD (program letter of definition) was granted 5/9/2001 by both the FAA and JAA for Boeing production. Availability
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 737-700, 737-800, 737-900, 737-BBJ - available now. Deliveries began May 2001. Initial customers included: South African Airways, Air Berlin, American Trans Air, Polynesian Airlines, and Hainan Airlines - both through direct purchase and leasing options via ILF, GATX, GE Capital Corp., and Flightlease. Operational Considerations There is a small difference in rotation rate for airplanes with winglets installed and, as a result, the crew needs to be cautious of pitch rate. There is also approximately a ½ unit take-off trim change between non-winglet and winglet aircraft so the green band is slightly different for winglet aircraft.
737-200 Mini-Winglets
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This is a 737-200Adv, L/N 628, fitted with mini-winglets. This is part of the Quiet Wing Corp flap modification kit which gained its FAA certification in 2005. The package includes drooping the TE flaps by 4 degrees and the ailerons by 1 degree to increase to camber of the wing. Benefits include:
Payload Increase of up to 5,000 lbs. Range Increase up to 3% Fuel Savings up to 3% Improved Takeoff/Landing Climb Gradients
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Reduced Takeoff/Landing Field Length Improved High Altitude Takeoff/Landing Capability Improved Hot Climate Performance Reduced Stall Speeds by 4-5kts
Photo: Julian Whitelaw
737 MAX Advanced Technology (AT) Winglets Boeing has now developed, built* and are installing their own winglets for the 737 MAX family. The "Advanced Technology" winglet combines rake tip technology with a dual feather winglet concept into one advanced treatment for the wings of the 737 MAX.". Using what they call "Natural Laminar Flow Technology"
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The AT Winglets measure 8 feet from root to top of winglet and a total of 9 feet 7 inches from bottom of lower tip to top of higher tip. The top portion is 8 feet 3 inches and the bottom Original portion is 4 feetFecha: 5.8 03/Nov/16 inches. The groundPรกg: 12- 181 Sistemas de las Aeronaves clearance of the bottom tip is 10 feet 2 inches. Boeing claim they will give 1.5% fuel burn improvement over current technology winglets. They explain this as follows:"The AT winglet further redistributes the spanwise loading, increasing the effective span of the wing. The AT winglet balances the effective span increase uniquely between the upper and lower parts and therefore generates more lift and reduces drag.
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News Stories
03 Dec 2013 - Boeing selects GKN to build 737 MAX advanced technology winglet LONDON, December 3, 2013 – Boeing [NYSE: BA] has selected GKN plc to manufacture the Advanced Technology Winglet for the 737 MAX. Production of the winglets will take place at the GKN site at Cowes on the Isle of Wight in the United Kingdom with final assembly at GKN's facility in Orangeburg, South Carolina. Already a market success, the 737 MAX has more than 1,600 orders from airlines around the world. ―We announced our first winglet contracts for Boeing aircraft in 2007 and this award reflects the on-going success of our growing relationship,‖ said Marcus Bryson, CEO, GKN Aerospace and Land Systems. ―It also draws on our expertise in the efficient manufacture of complex composite and metallic wing structures and makes full use of our ability to assemble this advanced structure. We are extremely proud to be part of the team that is producing this unique winglet - and to be involved with Boeing in creating this extremely efficient next-generation airframe." Boeing’s newest family of single-aisle aircraft, the 737 MAX will build on the NextGeneration 737’s popularity and reliability while delivering to customers unsurpassed fuel efficiency in the single-aisle market. Development of the 737 MAX is on schedule with firm configuration achieved in July 2013. First flight is scheduled in 2016 with deliveries to customers beginning in 2017. GKN will deliver the first developmental winglet ship sets to Boeing in 2015. UK Business Minister Michael Fallon said "This significant deal creates and secures hundreds of high skilled, long term engineering jobs on the Isle of Wight and across GKN's domestic supply chain. It also further strengthens the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES ties between Boeing and the UK, showing that this country can continue to be the supplier of choice to the world's leading aircraft manufacturers. That's why the Government is working in partnership with industry to deliver jobs and growth through our industrial strategy." Boeing’s Advanced Technology Winglet is one of a number of design updates that will result in less drag and further optimize the 737 MAX performance, especially on longer-range missions. In total these updates will deliver an 8 percent per-seat operating cost advantage over future competition.1 ―Boeing is pleased that this agreement will build on our existing strong relationship with GKN,‖ said Sir Roger Bone, President of Boeing in the UK. ―As Boeing celebrates 75 years of partnership with the UK in 2013, this agreement helps to ensure that our strong relationship with the UK aerospace industry continues for many years to come.‖ Two suppliers are manufacturing winglets for the 737 MAX programme, GKN and Korean Air Aerospace Division (KAL-ASD) in South Korea.
13 Aug 2013 - Latest in fuel efficiency: Split Scimitar winglet for 737s now in testing It’s going to be harder than anticipated to distinguish Boeing’s planned 737 Max series from the current Next Generation 737s, based on the two models’ wingtips. Take a look at the photo at right showing the wingtips of a United Airlines 737. These two-part Split Scimitar Winglets are now undergoing Federal Aviation Administration certification testing at Grant County International Airport at Moses Lake, Wash. The Split Scimitar Winglets project both up and down, an advance that Aviation Partners Boeing claims will add at least 2 percent in fuel efficiency to 737 Next Generation models.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES But wait! A distinguishing feature of the planned future 737 Max is ―advanced technology winglets,‖ as shown in the second image (an artist's rendering), which also split at the end of the wing, with one fin pointing up and another pointing down, also to increase fuel economy. Boeing claims its new advanced technology winglets will add another 1.5 percent increase in fuel efficiency; it's already claiming a 10 percent to 12 percent increase for the 737 Max's new engines. These subtle increases in fuel efficiency are significant in the heated battle between Boeing and competitor Airbus over orders for their competing reengined models of their narrow body aircraft, the 737 Max and A320neo, respectively. The retrofitted winglets also are important for carriers in their own cost-cutting efforts. Aviation Partners estimates the Scimitar winglets will save United Airlines, its first customer, 57,000 gallons of fuel a year for each 737-900 ER. The two winglet models, which are visually very different from the up-swept ―blended winglets‖ now common on 737s, are hard to tell apart. A few clues are that the Split Scimitar wingtips are essentially add-ons to the blended winglets, so the lower portion is decidedly smaller than the original upturned swept winglets, and both feature extended tips with what the maker calls the ―scimitars.‖ The advanced-technology winglets planned for the 737 Max are more symmetrical and do not have the extended scimitar tips. Tracing the lineage of the two models is nearly as complex. Aviation
Partners
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Commercial Airplanes division and Aviation Partners Inc. that was formed to sell and market the original blended winglets. That joint venture has been enormously successful, and has sold and installed its original blended winglets on more than 4,000 737 NGs (Next Generation). These days, nearly every new 737 NG rolls off the Renton line with the blended winglets already installed. The new split-wingtip designs evolved through a combination of independent engineering and collaboration between Boeing and Aviation Partners, although it’s hard to tell how much is which. ―APB didn’t participate in the Boeing design, and the Boeing designers didn’t participate in APB’s,‖ said Bill Ashworth, CEO of Aviation Partners Boeing. ―The APB design was approved by Boeing engineers, and they participated in evaluation of the test data. They also looked at the design technically, and said it’s a good design.‖ So while Boeing will be using its own advanced technology winglet on future 737 Max aircraft, Aviation Partners Boeing already has landed 455 firm orders and options for its Split Scimitar Winglets, and expects to get a lot more. These winglets are being purchased by airlines such as United, to be retrofitted onto the wings of existing aircraft. "This will add additional work for us, we’re glad to have it,‖ Ashworth said. ―We’re going to increase staffing levels to handle it, but it’s great work, and customers are very excited about it.‖ The Aviation Partners Boeing winglets are fabricated in Austria, although they are designed here. The testing at Moses Lake is being handled by Aerospace Testing Engineering and Certification LLC, which has leased 23,000 square feet there,
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES according to Pat Jones, executive director of the Port of Moses Lake.
11 Aug 2012 - Boeing Designs Advanced Technology Winglet for 737 MAX Aviation Partners has started showing airlines a split-tip winglet with blended, "scimitar"-edged feathers as a retrofit option that the joint venture estimates can reduce fuel consumption by 2.5 to 3% on next-generation 737s. The move precedes a launch decision by the board of directors of the Aviation Partners Boeing (APB) joint venture, but that approval should come "shortly", says Joe Clark, founder of Aviation Partners, the Seattle-based firm that designed the standard blended winglet ordered on more than 4,600 737NGs. Aviation Partners unveiled the scimitar-edged winglet last October and launched flight tests on a 737 Boeing Business Jet in April, which confirmed the estimates of computational fluid dynamics models to within one-tenth of a percentage point, Clark says. "We are very pleased with what we've achieved," he adds. While APB prepares to offer a scimitar-edged split-tip winglet on the 737NG, Boeing is readying a straight-edged split-tip winglet on the 737 Max. Both companies claim to have arrived on the split-tip configuration for the 737 at nearly the same time by coincidence. Aviation Partners had no prior knowledge of Boeing's "dual-feather" split-tip winglet for the 737 Max, and has received no information on the design from its joint venture partner, Clark says. For its part, Boeing also was unaware of the Aviation Partners design when it began working on the Advanced Technology (AT) winglet around June 2011, says Robb Gregg, a chief aerodynamicist for the 737 Max. "As I was looking at the configuration, we needed to get more performance out of it and really the only place we hadn't spent a lot of time was looking at the [wing]-tip," Gregg says. Boeing completed trade studies between August and September last year, he says, then fabricated a set of optimal shapes for testing in a wind tunnel. Although the split-tip design appears to be a new innovation, it traces back to Robb's previous work as a chief aerodynamicist at McDonnell Douglas. The airframer that merged with Boeing in 1997 had pioneered the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES installation of winglets on airliners in the mid-1980s. The MD-11 entered service with an up/down winglet, with a shortened lower surface forward of the upper surface. The lower surface was shaped to improve stall characteristics at low-speed, Gregg says. McDonnell Douglas also proposed a split-tip winglet for the short-lived MD-12, a late-1980s concept for a four-engined double-decker. As the chief aerodynamicist of the MD-12 concept, Gregg says, he proposed the split-tip to optimize lift of a wingspan artificially constrained to a length of 64.9m (213ft) to fit into existing airport gates. Likewise, the 737 Max also demanded more performance than a blended winglet could produce. "Because we needed more performance to satisfy the customers we felt we needed to push the technology a bit further," Gregg says. A split-tip wingtip has never been tested in flight test, and Boeing currently has no plans to test the 737 Max AT Winglet on a surrogate platform. Boeing is confident that computational fluid dynamics models have predicted drag characteristics accurately, Gregg says. At the same time, Boeing is not convinced a split-tip winglet will produce performance improvements as a retrofit option on the 737NG, although it has not conducted an analysis yet. Holding Boeing back is the knowledge that the AT Winglet increases the aerodynamic loads on the outboard wing section. "The better the winglet the more load it's going to drive outboard. Otherwise it didn't do anything for you," Michael Teal, chief project engineer on the 737 Max, said in a July interview. "The question is how difficult it would be to retrofit," he added. "You're getting out there on the end of a wing; it's not that thick. It's not something that's easy to take apart and add gauge to." Despite being joint-venture partners, Boeing and Aviation Partners also have different views on the margin of benefit provided by a split-tip winglet. Boeing predicts the straight-edged split-tip on the 737 Max will contribute 1.5% to fuel burn reduction. Aviation Partners, on the other hand, is proposing a 2.5% to 3% benefit from installing the scimitaredged winglet on the 737NG, which shares the same airfoil as the 737 Max. Even so, Aviation Partners is optimistic that scimitar-edged split wing-tips will be retrofitted on as much as 60% of the 737NG fleet, Clark says.
2 May 2012 - Boeing Designs Advanced Technology Winglet for 737 MAX
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RENTON, Wash., May 2, 2012 Boeing announced today a new winglet design concept for the 737 MAX. The new Advanced Technology winglet will provide MAX customers with up to an additional 1.5 percent fuel-burn improvement, depending on range, on top of the 10-12 percent improvement already offered on the new-engine variant. "The Advanced Technology winglet demonstrates Boeing's continued drive to improve fuel burn and the corresponding value to the customer. With this technology and others being built into the MAX, we will extend our leadership," said Jim Albaugh, president and CEO, Boeing Commercial Airplanes. "Incorporating this advanced technology into the 737 MAX design will give our customers even more advantage in today's volatile fuel price environment." Compared to today's wingtip technology, which provides up to a 4 percent fuel-burn advantage at long ranges, the Advanced Technology winglet provides a total fuel-burn improvement of up to 5.5 percent on the same long routes. "The concept is more efficient than any other wingtip device in the single-aisle market because the effective wing span increase is uniquely balanced between the upper and lower parts of the winglet," said Michael Teal, chief project engineer, 737 MAX. Boeing aerodynamicists used advanced computational fluid dynamics to combine rake tip technology with a dual feather winglet concept into one advanced treatment for the wings of the 737 MAX. The Advanced Technology winglet fits within today's airport gate constraints while providing more effective span thereby reducing drag. Ongoing 737 MAX testing in the wind tunnel validated the new concept on the airplane. The super-efficient design has been incorporated into the 737 MAX design and production system plans. "We have assessed the risk and understand
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES how to leverage this new technology on the MAX within our current schedule," said Teal. "This puts us on track to deliver substantial additional fuel savings to our customers in 2017." Airlines operating the 737 MAX now will gain an 18 percent fuel-burn per-seat improvement over today's A320. Depending on the range of the mission, MAX operators will realize even more savings. "Adding the Advanced Technology winglet to the 737 MAX is consistent with our demonstrated performance on delivering increasing value to our customers, on time, throughout the life of the 737 program," said Beverly Wyse, vice president and general manger, 737 program. To date, the 737 MAX has more than 1,000 orders and commitments from 16 customers worldwide.
30 Apr 2007 - APB selects UK supplier as it launches 767-300ER programme with American order UK-based GKN Aerospace has been selected by Aviation Partners Boeing (APB) as a new supplier of the US company's blended winglets for the rapidly expanding Boeing 737 "Classic" and newly launched 767 retrofit programmes, while United Airlines is poised to start retrofitting its 757s. The aerostructures specialist joins APB winglet supplier Kawasaki Heavy Industries. Winglets for the 737 Next Generation. Despite the much-needed addition of GKN, APB says the 737 Classic retrofit line is sold out through 2009 at the rate of six shipsets a month. "We're still going to ramp up as fast as we can, but it will be the end of this year or early next before they can begin providing the first parts," says APB vice-president sales Patrick LaMoria.
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26 Dec 2006 - Aviation Partners Boeing Launches 737-900 Blended Winglet Program With program launch of Aviation Partners Boeing 737-900 Blended Winglets, and first deliveries slated for December 2007, the world's airways will soon be making room for even more Blended Winglet Performance Enhanced airplanes. Launch customers Continental Airlines, KLM and Alaska Airlines plan to complete the retrofit of their 737- 900s by the end of the first quarter of 2008. "We've had a great deal of customer interest in 737-900 Blended Winglets and this important new program gives more of our operators commonality and the ability to fly with 100% Blended Winglet equipped 737NG fleets," says Aviation Partners Boeing CEO John Reimers. "This program is off to a very strong start and we anticipate that the remaining handful of operators of the 737-900 will be unable to ignore the tremendous value Blended Winglets add to the aircraft." Benefits of Aviation Partners Boeing's Visible Technology are nothing short of dramatic in fuel savings, improved performance and environmental advantages. Given average aircraft utilization rates, operators will save over 100,000 gallons (380,000 liters) of fuel per aircraft per year resulting in a payback on investment of less than 3 years. Noise footprint, on takeoff and landing, is reduced by an average of 6.5% while engine emissions of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides are lowered on the order of 5.0%. "Blended Winglets will give KLM improved range and payload on many longer stage lengths in its European Network," says KLM's Vice President of Fleet Services Rene Kalmann. "Further this decision fits in KLM's Corporate Social Responsibility policy to invest in environmental protection that goes beyond
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES regulatory compliance." For KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, Blended Winglet equipped 737-900s will continue to provide important fuel savings while adding to fleet commonality -the airline will be installing 21 additional Blended Winglet Systems on the 737800 beginning in March 2007. All 737-800s in KLM's fleet will be Winglet equipped by February 2008. "Continental remains steadfast in its efforts to improve aircraft performance and reduce fuel usage. Equipping our 737-900s with Blended Winglets moves us closer to that goal," says John Greenlee, Managing Director of Fleet Planning for Continental. "The fuel efficiency improvements offered by Blended Winglets coupled with our young fleet provide Continental with a natural hedge against volatile fuel prices." For Continental Airlines, Blended Winglet equipped 737-900s will complement the carrier's existing winglet equipped aircraft, which include 100% of its 737700s, 737-800s and 757-200s. To date the airline has installed winglets on 182 aircraft and plans to add over 100 additional Systems in the next few years as it will soon begin retrofitting winglets onto its 737 Classic fleet while continuing to take new 737NG aircraft with winglets, including the new 737900ER. "Our long-haul flying will benefit greatly from the fuel savings and payload advantages provided by blended winglets," said Scott Ridge, Alaska Airlines' managing director of technical operations and support. "We've seen the value of the winglets on our other next-generation 737s and look forward to achieving similar efficiencies with our -900s." Alaska's order for 9 shipsets of 737-900 Blended Winglets adds to their current order of: 19 737-700's and 37 737-800's of which 33 are already in service. By year-end 2006, over 1500 Blended Winglet Shipsets will be in service with
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES over 100 airlines in more than 40 countries on 6 continents. Currently, 65% of in-service fleet of 737-700s, and 57% of in-service 737-800s, are Blended Winglet Equipped. By 2010, with over 4500 airliners upgraded, APB anticipates that Blended Winglet Technology will have saved commercial airlines over 2 billion gallons of fuel.
5 Apr 2005 - MAS to install winglets for Boeing The Boeing Co. signed a deal with Malaysia's national carrier yesterday to set up a regional winglet modification center outside the capital, Kuala Lumpur, a Boeing official said. Aviation Partners Boeing and Malaysia Airlines Engineering sealed the agreement yesterday in Kuala Lumpur, agreeing to operate the first center in Southeast Asia to install fuel-saving winglet technology on Boeing's 737s. The pact will enable the engineering firm to become a one-stop shop for airlines, said Craig McCallum, sales director of Aviation Partners Boeing. More than 100 aircraft are expected to go through the Malaysian center for conversion in the next three to four years, McCallum said. The facility will cater to the needs of airliners from countries such as Indonesia, India and Malaysia. Boeing will provide all manufacturing and engineering support, tools and training to the center. The announcement comes amid rumors that Malaysian Airlines is considering buying 737-800s. However, Boeing denied any link between the airline's purchase order and the facility deal. The Malaysia facility will be the fourth in the Asia-Pacific region, joining
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES facilities in China, Hong Kong and New Zealand. "Growth in blended winglet sales has been nothing short of spectacular lately, and much of this growth has been in the Asia-Pacific region," Mike Marino, Aviation Partners Boeing CEO, said in a statement. Introduced in 1999, the winglet technology has become popular because of the significant fuel savings it provides for aircraft -- ranging from 100,000 to 250,000 gallons per year per aircraft. The winglet system is currently available for Boeing 737s, and efforts are under way to offer them on 757s, 767s and 777s in the future.
14 Jan 2005 - Hapag-Lloyd Original Launch Customer Comes Back for More APB Blended Winglets Hapag-Lloyd Flug, a member of the TUI Group and the launch customer for Boeing 737-800 Blended Winglets 4 years ago, has ordered 10 additional Blended Winglet Systems. The Boeing Company will install the Blended Winglets as Buyer Furnished Equipment (BFE) on new 737-800s to be delivered between January 2006 and May 2007. Hapag-Lloyd operates a 100% Blended Winglet Equipped fleet of 737-800s. After 4 years of enjoying dramatic fuel savings, along with measurable performance and environmental benefits made possible with Blended Winglet Technology, this leading charter operator is sold on the benefits of Aviation Partners Boeing Technology. "This important order is a real affirmation of the outstanding value of our product," says Aviation Partners Boeing CEO Mike Marino. "Hapag-Lloyd, our most experienced customer, has an intimate understanding of the compelling value of Blended Winglet Technology."
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Hapag-Lloyd enjoys a wide range of operational benefits with Aviation Partners Boeing's patented* Blended Winglet Technology. At current fuel prices the fuel savings alone translates into a Blended Winglet Payback of under 4 years. Additional important benefits include greater payload-range capability and environmental advantages in terms of reduced engine emissions and reduced noise on takeoff. Aviation Partners Boeing Vice President of Sales & Contracts Patrick LaMoria reports that Hapag-Lloyd needed no convincing to come in with its second Blended Winglet order. "Hapag-Lloyd's experience operating with Blended Winglet Technology has made including them with every new Boeing aircraft they operate a very simple decision." By mid-2005 over half of all Boeing 737-800 and 700 series aircraft will be equipped with Aviation Partners Boeing Blended Winglets.
7 Oct 2004 - Continental Airlines to Take Shipset #500 for NG Boeing 737-800 While delivery of shipset 500 is a milestone in the history of Aviation Partners Boeing, it's just a hint of things to come as the global airline industry transitions to patented* Blended Winglet Technology. Blended Winglet Equipped Boeing aircraft are now flying on every continent. Current orders and options stand at over 1200 shipsets with a potential universe of 10,500 Boeing aircraft in the retrofit market alone. "We're only in the early stages in terms of meeting the growing demand for
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Performance Enhancing Blended Winglet Technology. But, it's a significant beginning," says Aviation Partners Boeing CEO Mike Marino. "Blended Winglet Equipped commercial aircraft save fuel, operate with enhanced performance due to a higher lift wing, and are measurably more environmentally friendly. Today's 500 Blended Winglet Equipped 737 are saving over 50 million gallons of fuel each year. If all Boeing aircraft worldwide were retrofitted with Blended Winglet Systems worldwide fuel savings would be close to 1.8 billion gallons each year." Aviation Partners Inc. developed Blended Winglet Technology in the early 1990s. Sized for maximum performance, and with a wider sweep transition between wing and winglet, Blended Winglets are typically 80% more effective than today's conventional angular winglet systems. Typical operator benefits include fuel savings of up to 5%, depending upon flight profile, improved performance from high and hot airfields, faster time to climb, lowered engine emissions and a 6.5% reduction in takeoff noise footprint. "The future is as exciting for us as it is for our customers worldwide who look forward to improving the performance, fuel savings and overall return on investment of their aircraft," says Aviation Partners Boeing Chairman Joe Clark. "We believe that anytime you can improve the productivity and environmental benefits of an existing airplane, it's a wise investment."
10 Jul 2003 - Air Plus Comet Becomes World's First Operator of Boeing 737-300 with Winglets Air Plus Comet yesterday became the world's first operator of a Boeing 737300 with advanced-technology blended winglets and the latest carrier in Spain operating Boeing airplanes.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The winglets, which curve out and up from the plane's wing tips, improve an airplane's performance and allow it to fly more than 185km farther than a 737300 without winglets. Winglets also offer excellent environmental benefits, including reduced fuel use, takeoff and landing noise, and in-flight engine emissions. "As the first worldwide customer for the new 737-300 blended winglet, we will be the first to experience the fuel savings and environmental benefits they bring," said Alejandro Avila, Air Plus Comet technical director. The 737-300, leased from Aircraft Leasing Management, was delivered today. Headquartered in Madrid, Air Plus Comet provides long-distance charter flights between Spain and European locations and the Americas. It began operations in 1997. Aviation Partners Boeing, a joint venture of Boeing and Aviation Partners, Inc., developed the winglets. The winglets can be installed on 737-300, -400, -700 and -800 models. More than 28 carriers fly nearly 300 winglet-equipped 737s.
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18 Feb 2003 - 737-300 Winglet Certification Delay The STC for a retrofited winglet on the 737-300 has been delayed due to problems discovered during the low speed handling phase of flight testing in Arizona. The winglets were producing handling deficiencies near V2 at high gross weights caused by flow separation around the transition to the winglet. Possible solutions include aerodynamic to the wingtips and outboard vortex generators.
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5 Dec 2002 - Blended winglet Boeing 737 makes European inroads Sobelair, a Belgian charter operation, is leasing its first Boeing 737-800 with blended winglets. The winglet gives the Wichita-made 737 reducing wing drag, and making the wing more aerodynamically efficient, officials say. "Sobelair flies particularly long routes to destinations in Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle East," says Aviation Partners Boeing sales director Patrick LaMoria, who is handling the lease. By the end of 2002, close to 200 Boeing Next-Generation 737s will be equipped with APB's patented Blended Winglet Technology. Following introduction of Blended Winglet Systems for Classic Series 737s, mid-2003, APB will certify Blended Winglet Systems for the 747-400.
Oct 2002 - Boeing 737-300 Blended Winglets Delivered Kawasaki delivered its first Blended Winglets. to Aviation Partners Boeing (APB) in October. Kawasaki is designing, developing and manufacturing the patented innovative winglets for the Boeing 737-300/400/500 models under an official agreement inked with APB in October last year (see Feb. 2002 Business Activities). Blended winglets, which are made of a high-tech composite material specially
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES developed for aircraft, are attached to the tips of the wings to enhance performance by extending flight ranges, reducing noise and making other improvements. Winglets are already a standard feature on the Boeing Business Jet. The Boeing 737-700/800 models and Gulfstream's GII Business Jets have also been equipped with them. It is anticipated that they will also be fitted to a wider range of Boeing's existing aircraft, including the 747, 757 and 767 fleets. There are currently 1,000 Boeing 737-300 jetliners in operation around the globe. The winglets will be available as an option for those Boeing aircraft being retrofitted. Kawasaki used its proprietary KMS- 6115 composite material to create the latest winglets. KMS-6115 is made from high-performance carbon fibers and toughened epoxy resin, with much greater tensile and compressive strength than conventional composite materials. This is the first time KMS-6115 will be used in a Boeing aircraft.
26 Feb 2002 - Partnership with Boeing 'starting to take off' Seattle PI -If you choose to sleep with an elephant, just be careful it doesn't roll over during the night. The advice, and warning, came from a well regarded aerospace executive of a small company who years ago lay down with an industry giant for a promising joint venture. It proved a painful experience. The executive mentioned the elephant adage recently when talking about Joe Clark, founder of Aviation Partners, a small Seattle company that developed revolutionary blended winglets that attach to the end of an airplane wing to improve performance. Clark has been sleeping with an elephant since the 1999 Paris Air Show. It was there that Clark and The Boeing Co., the biggest aerospace company
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES and commercial airplane maker on the planet, announced the formation of Aviation Partners Boeing, a joint venture to put Clark's blended winglets on 737 jetliners. While acknowledging there have been "growing pains," "cultural clashes" and "learning experiences," Clark also said the partnership with Boeing is "really starting to take off." A growing number of next generation 737 operators around the world have opted for the blended winglets, which can boost fuel efficiency by as much as 4 percent. And they have helped Boeing win orders over Airbus. One of Boeing's most important order victories last year was the decision by Qantas, Australia's flagship carrier, to buy 15 737-800s and take options for at least 40 more. People close to the deal said the blended winglets offered on the Boeing plane gave it a small but important performance edge over the Airbus A320 on new long-haul domestic routes planned by Qantas. The blended winglets are offered as a retrofit for the 737-700 and the bigger 737-800. They are offered by Boeing as a factory-installed option only on the 737-800. So far, more than 80 next generation 737s have been equipped with blended winglets, along with about 60 Boeing Business Jets, a modified version of the 737 commercial jetliner. The winglets are standard equipment on all Boeing Business Jets. Clark expects that another 180 next generation 737s will be equipped with the blended winglets this year. Of those, about 50 will probably be factory-installed in Renton, he said. About a dozen airlines are either flying winglet-equipped 737s or have them on order. "We are talking actively with another dozen airlines," Clark said during a recent interview at his Aviation Partners office near the King County Airport terminal at Boeing Field. "We will be announcing more orders soon." Clark is even talking with the military and defense contractors. He met recently met with officials at Northrop Grumman about putting blended winglets on the Global Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle that has been used in Afghanistan. The winglets would add about two hours of flight time for the Global Hawk, Clark said. "Every plane should be designed with winglets," Clark said. Winglets were common on business and commercial jets before Aviation Partners arrived on the scene. But those traditional winglets, found on all
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Airbus models and the Boeing 747-400, rise at a sharp angle from the wing. Blended winglets gently curve up, as if they are part of the wing. Winglets were first developed by NASA in the 1960s to help reduce drag. Increasing the wing span can produce the same results. But wings of jetliners can't get any longer and still fit at airport gates. What's more, increasing wing span means structural changes that add weight. So far, the only U.S. carrier with 737s equipped with blended winglets is American Trans Air. But Clark recently presented his friend John Kelly, chairman of Alaska Airlines, with a small model of a 737-700 with blended winglets. The two men have known each other since the days when Clark teamed with Milt Kuolt in 1981 to form Horizon Air, a regional carrier later sold to Alaska. The model Clark gave to Kelly was painted in the livery of Alaska Airlines, with the Eskimo logo on the winglets. "A picture is worth a thousand words," Clark said, explaining why he was giving the model to Kelly. Continental is another 737-700 operator being wooed. The 737 is the world's most frequently flown jetliner. More than 4,000 have been built. Later this year, the blended winglets are to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration for the older "classic" 737s, starting with the 737-300. Certification will follow for the 737-400 and 737-500. His company's business plan includes blended winglets for the 757, 767 and 747, Clark said, as well as for the MD-80 series. "The retrofit market is huge," Clark said. "Our schedule is to certify the classic 737s this year, the 747 next year, the 767 after that and then the 757." The winglets designed for the next generation 737 are about 8 feet high. Bernie Gratzer, former chief aerodynamicist at Boeing who was part of Clark's team at Aviation Partners that developed the blended winglets, said the 747 flight tests showed the winglets reduced drag by about 6.3 percent. That can mean substantial fuel savings for an airline. Clark has been approached by operators of older 747s, asking about retrofitting their planes with the blended winglets. "We think we can save them about a million gallons of fuel a year per plane," he said. But Boeing is not sold on blended winglets, at least for its bigger jets. Boeing engineers developed a raked tip, which does not bend upward like a winglet, for the 767-400 and will use those raked tips for the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES longer-range 777-300 now in development. And Boeing is considering raked tips, not blended winglets, for future longer-range versions of its 747-400. "Why put raked tips on a 747? That's a good question," said Gratzer, who retired from Boeing in 1986 and later was a professor at the University of Washington's aeronautics and astronautical department. "We don't really understand why they (Boeing) would do that," he added. But it was not so long ago that many engineers at Boeing scoffed at the notion that winglets would do anything other than give the 737 a more sexy appearance. After all, wasn't that why all those rich guys who could afford private jets wanted ones with winglets? At the Paris Air Show in 1997, Boeing's Borge Boeskov approached Clark about blended winglets on the planned Boeing Business Jet, a next generation 737-700 with the strengthened wing of the 737-800. Clark's subsequent business proposal for Boeskov said the Boeing Business Jet would get from 4 to 5 percent better performance with blended winglets. "The corporate guys like the looks of these things because they differentiate the product, but frankly my engineers have told me they don't work," Borge told Clark. So Clark told Boeskov his small company would foot the bill to design winglets for the Boeing Business Jet if Boeskov would test fly them on the plane. Unable to get Boeing engineers to go along, Boeskov turned to the German carrier Hapag-Lloyd, a longtime Boeing 737 customer. Hapag-Lloyd supplied one of its new 737s, and the results were better than Clark had predicted -- a nearly 7 percent reduction in drag. Hapag-Lloyd is now one of those customers operating 737s with blended winglets. Clark, who is not at all shy about expressing his opinions, is careful in talking about the challenges he has faced working with the world's largest aerospace company on an idea that Boeing's best and brightest once rejected. "They are a big bureaucracy and we sometimes want to get things done quickly," Clark said of the joint venture with Boeing. He credited Alan Mulally, Boeing's commercial boss, with helping change attitudes within the company. "Since Alan has gotten behind this, it has changed overnight," Clark said. "We talked about five months ago and he said he would really get behind the winglets program. "Since then, sales have really taken off. Our relationship with
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES everyone at Boeing has gotten much better." Then he added, "Of course, we still have our differences." So far, though, the elephant has not rolled over.
8 February 2002 - Kawasaki of Japan will build 737 winglets Friday, February 8, 2002 SEATTLE POST-INTELLIGENCER STAFF AND NEWS SERVICES TOKYO -- Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan's second-biggest aerospace company, said it will develop wingtips for Boeing Co. 737s, adding to an existing cooperation with the company. Kawasaki Heavy will make blended winglets, which increase fuel efficiency and range, the companies said. The companies didn't provide financial details. Owners of 737s, of which more than 1,900 are in service around the world, will be able to fit the wingtips onto their planes, the release said.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES SEA TTLE , Sept. 11, 2001 - The first Boein g 737700 arrive d in Keny a Mond ay, maki ng Kenya Airways the first airline anywhere in the world to operate a 737-700 with blended winglets. Kenya Airways is expected to put the airplane into service later this month. The airplane will be leased through GE Capital Aviation Services. "Our goal is to become the premier airline of choice in Africa and provide more frequency for passengers," said Isaac Omolo Okero, chairman for Kenya Airways. "The 737's economics and low maintenance cost will help us continue to provide the best service to destinations throughout Africa." The retrofitted blended winglets on the 737-700 curve out and up from the wingtip, reducing aerodynamic drag and boosting performance. Some of the potential improvements include better fuel burn, increased range, improved
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES takeoff performance and obstacle clearance. Working with Aviation Partners Inc., Boeing developed the blended winglet technology for the 737 airplane. "The addition of the winglets on the 737-700 will provide Kenya Airways with a superior product," said Kevin Bartelson, chief operating officer for Aviation Partners Boeing. "The new 737-700 with winglets will add value to operators and provide a technologically advanced product with a reputation for superior reliability." The family of 737s consisting of the 737-600, -700, -800 and -900 is the newest design and the most technologically advanced in the single-aisle market. "Kenya Airways' selection of the 737 airplane will help reduce its fleet costs, which directly affects the airline's bottom line," said Doug Groseclose, senior vice president of International Sales, Boeing Commercial Airplanes. "With the new 737s, Kenya Airways can continue to offer its customers a quality product and on-time in-service performance." The airplanes are designed to fly higher, faster, farther, quieter and with greater fuel efficiency than previous 737 models -- and the competition. Kenya Airways, one of the fastest growing and most profitable airlines in Africa, will use the new 737 to fly to key destinations in Africa and other domestic routes on the continent. There are more than 130 Boeing 737s operating in Africa and more than 4,000 737s in service today.
Boeing 737 Advanced-Technology Winglets Make World Debut
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SEATTLE, May 21, 2001 -- Boeing Next-Generation 737-800 advancedtechnology winglets made their world debut in revenue service last week with German carrier Hapag-Lloyd Flug. Hanover-based Hapag-Lloyd became the first airline in the world to fly 737800s equipped with the cost-effective, environmentally friendly wingtip extensions on commercial routes. The carrier uses 737-800s with winglets on routes from Germany to Mediterranean destinations. The new winglets on the Boeing 737-800 curve out and up from the wingtip, reducing aerodynamic drag and boosting performance. They add about 5 feet (1.5 meters) to the airplane's total wingspan and allow the airplane to fly up to 130 nautical miles (240 kilometers) further. "The winglets on our 737-800s will cut the airplane's already low fuel consumption, emissions and takeoff noise and make them even more ecofriendly," said Wolfgang Kurth, Hapag-Lloyd managing director. "Less fuel means more range and gives us the opportunity to open new markets" The fuel consumption of the 737-800s without winglets in Hapag-Lloyd's fleet already is as low as 2.1 liters per 100 seat kilometers. "We expect the winglets to decrease fuel burn even further - by up to 5 percent in cruise - and reduce the noise affected area by 6.5 percent," Kurth said. Winglets also have the potential to increase the optimum cruise altitude of the airplane, reduce engine maintenance costs, improve takeoff performance, and increase the weight the airplane can carry by .55 of a ton to 3.3 tons (.5 of a ton to 3 metric tons). "Next-Generation 737 winglets have proven their value in service on privately owned Boeing Business Jets, and now Hapag-Lloyd will see firsthand the unmatched benefits winglets can bring to commercial operators," said Toby
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Bright, Boeing Commercial Airplanes senior vice president for Europe and Russia. "Hapag-Lloyd, which was the first airline to order the new-technology 737-800s back in 1994, will once again make history as a company that quickly recognizes the importance of technological improvements in aviation." Hapag-Lloyd has started to retrofit its fleet of 27 Boeing 737-800s with winglets. Winglets initially were developed for use on the Boeing Business Jet, an adapted Next-Generation 737-700 with 737-800 wings, by Aviation Partners, Inc. (API). During the design process, Boeing and API formed a joint venture that further developed the design. The joint venture is called Aviation Partners Boeing (APB). Building a quieter, more fuel-efficient airplane was a top priority for Boeing engineers who initially designed the 737-800 and other members of the NextGeneration 737 family. The model's new CFM56-7 engines produced by CFMI, a joint venture of General Electric Co. of the United States and Snecma of France, meet community noise restrictions well below current Stage 3 limits and below expected Stage 4 limits. Emissions also are reduced beyond required standards.
Winglets boost to Boeing 737--800 performance SEATTLE, Feb. 18, 2000 - The Boeing Company announced today that it is offering Next-Generation 737-800 customers a new, advanced-technology winglet as a standard option. The winglet will allow a new airplane that already flies farther, higher and more economically than competing products to extend its range, carry more payload, save on fuel and benefit the environment. The first Boeing 737-800
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES with winglets is expected to be delivered in the spring of 2001. All subsequent 737-800s will be equipped with structurally enhanced wings that will make it easier for owners of standard 737-800s to retrofit those jetliners with winglets. "The key to product leadership is to create a superior product, then continually improve it in ways that add value to customers," said John Hayhurst, vice president and general manager, 737 programs. "With this new winglet, the Next-Generation 737 will remain the most advanced airplane family in its class for the 21st century, just as it was for the 20th." A Next-Generation 737-800 equipped with the new winglet will be able to fly farther, burn 3 percent to 5 percent less fuel, or carry up to 6,000 pounds more payload. Other benefits include a reduction in noise near airports, lower engine-maintenance costs, and improved takeoff performance at high-altitude airports and in hot climate conditions. The winglets weigh about 120 pounds each. They are made of high-tech carbon graphite, an advanced aluminum alloy and titanium. The winglet is eight feet long and tapers from its four-foot wide base to a width of two feet at the tip. Unlike traditional winglets typically fitted at abrupt angles to the wing, this new advanced "blended" design gently curves out and up from the wing tip, reducing aerodynamic drag and boosting performance. The 737-800 winglet was developed initially for the Boeing Business Jet (BBJ), which also features the state-of-the-art 737-800 wing. This winglet will be available initially as an option on the 162-passenger 737-800. Formal availability of the winglet will follow quickly on other models that feature the 737-800 wing, including the 737-700C and the 737-900. The applicability of the winglet to Next-Generation 737-600 and 737-700 models is being assessed. The blended-winglet technology was developed by Aviation Partners Inc. of Seattle. In 1999, during the design of the BBJ winglet, Aviation Partners and The Boeing Company formed Aviation Partners Boeing (APB), a joint venture that completed and owns the design. APB is developing the capability to make
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES the winglet available as a retrofit for airplanes already in service.
SEATTLE, Oct. 23, 2000 German carrier Hapag-Lloyd Flug became the first airline to fly the Boeing 737800 with blended winglets. The test flight took place Sept. 26 2000 in Seattle.
First BBJ flight with winglets Feb 22, 1999
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Boeing Business Jets Announces Winglets Test SEATTLE, June 4, 1998 — Boeing Business Jets announced today that it has been testing the use of winglets on a Boeing 737-800 for possible application on the new Boeing Business Jet (BBJ). The winglets are being tested as a possible range-performance enhancement for the BBJ. Designed and manufactured by Seattle-based Aviation Partners Inc., the two 8-foot high, blended and vertically mounted winglets are attached to the end of each wing of the airplane. "The Boeing Business Jet's 6,200 nautical-mile range already ranks it with the leading business airplanes in its class," said Borge Boeskov, president of Boeing Business Jets. "We want to test the application of winglets as a way of making a world-class product even better. We are testing to determine whether winglets will provide a range-performance enhancement by reducing drag." The BBJ is a derivative of the Next-Generation 737-700, combining the -700 fuselage with the strengthened wings and landing gear of the larger and heavier 737-800. This combination gives the BBJ a range of 7,140 statute miles (6,200 nautical miles, 11,480 kilometers). "As a special-use airplane for executive teams and private owners, the BBJ will fly much longer routes - up to 14 hours nonstop - than commercially operated Boeing 737s," Boeskov said. "These are the routes where winglets would have the best opportunity for performance improvements." In addition to performance, winglets will give the Boeing Business Jet a look that will set it apart from other business and commercial jets of its size. "We want the BBJ to stand out, and we want it to look distinctive among all
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES other business jets," Boeskov said. Boeskov said the first phase of flight-testing will be completed this week. Whether winglets will be used on the BBJ will be determined following evaluation of testing data. Major assembly of the first BBJ fuselage was recently completed in Wichita, Kan., while work on the first wings and other components is progressing in the Puget Sound area. The airplane's first flight is scheduled for August. Boeing Business Jets is a joint venture between The Boeing Company and General Electric Co.
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FLIGTH INSTRUMENTS
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES MAX Flight Instruments The main changes to the MAX flight instruments are the new four 15.1 inch LCD cockpit display screens in landscape orientation. This has necessitated the relocation of the standby flight instruments and gear lever to the center and moving some controls, eg autobrake selector, down to between the FMC displays.
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NG Flight Instruments The
NG's have 6 Display Units (DU's), these display the flight instruments;
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES navigation, engine and some system displays. They are controlled by 2 computers - Display Electronics Units (DEU's). Normally DEU 1 controls the Captains and the Upper DU's whilst DEU 2 controls the F/O's and the lower DU's. The whole system together is known as the Common Display System (CDS). The DU's normally display the PFD's outboard, ND's inboard, engine primary display centre (upper) and engine secondary display lower. Although they can be switched around into almost any other configuration with the DU selector (shown left). The CDS FAULT annunciation will only occur on the ground prior to the second engine start, it is probably a DEU failure but is in any case a no-go item. If a DEU fails in-flight, the remaining DEU will automatically power all 6 DU's and a DSPLY SOURCE annunciation will appear on both PFD's. The nomenclature requirements for these annunciations were developed by Boeing Flight Deck Crew Operations engineers during the early design phase of the 737NG program. The intent of the design function is as follows: · The CDS FAULT message is intended to be activated on ground to tell the maintenance crew or air crew that the airplane is in a non-dispatchable condition. · The DISPLAY SOURCE message is annunciated in air to tell the crew that all the primary display information is from one source and should be compared with all other data sources (standby instruments, raw data, etc.) to validate its accuracy. Since the DISPLAY SOURCE message is intended to be activated in air and CDS FAULT is intended to be activated on ground, air/ground logic is used by CDS to determine which message is appropriate. The air/ground logic system uses a number of inputs to determine airplane state. One of the inputs used is ―engines running‖. CDS uses the ―engines running‖ logic as the primary trigger for changing the CDS FAULT message to its in-air counterpart. The ―engines running‖ logic is used in case the air/ground data isn't correct as a result of other air/ground sensing faults. The DISPLAYS - SOURCE selector is only used on the ground for maintenance purposes (to make all 6 DU's be powered by either DEU 1 or 2). This may be
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES why the switch is a different shape to the other three; if not, it is still a good way to remember that this is a switch that pilots should not touch!
Instrument transfer switches - NG The DISPLAYS CONTROL PANEL annunciation merely indicates that an EFIS control panel has failed. There is an additional, rather bizarre, attention getter because the altimeter will blank on the failed side, with an ALT flag, until the DISPLAYS - CONTROL PANEL switch is positioned to the good side. Note that this is not the same as the EFI switch on the -3/4/500's which was used to switch symbol generators.
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EFIS Control Panel - NG
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PFD - Primary Flight Display - NG The speed tape shows minimum and maximum operating speeds. The maximum operating speed provides a 0.3g manouvre margin to high speed buffet. The minimum operating speed is computed from the SMYD as follows: The SMYD has two flavours of Min manouvre speed. The first is identified as
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Vmnvr, the second as Vbl (low speed buffet). The transition from Vmnvr to Vbl is dependent on gross weight, but in general Vmnver is output below 22,000 feet and Vbl above that altitude. Although not used directly in the calculation of Vmnvr, once the airplane starts flying, gross weight becomes a factor indirectly (in the calculation of Vmnvr) via the load factor calculation. FMC Gross Weight is used by the SMYD in the switching logic from Vmnvr (min man speed) to Vbl. One of the many customer PFD options is an analogue/digital angle of attack display. The red line is the angle for stick shaker activation, the green band is the range of approach AoA.
CDS Block Points The 737NG Common Display System has had several software updates to incorporate additional features, improvements to existing features and bug fixes. Each new update is known as a Block Point. eg BP98 to BP06. A list of each of their features is given in the book.
New Approach Formats With increased navigational accuracy available and hardware/software improvements on the 737, many new types of approaches have been developed. Cat IIIb, LNAV/VNAV, RNAV(GPS), RNAV(RNP), IAN, GLS. Cat IIIB ILS Is very similar to the current ILS display except that rollout guidance will display as "ROLLOUT" (armed) underneath the VOR/LOC annunciation. A new MFD button labelled "C/R" (Clear/Recall) is required to
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES display system messages on the upper display unit. These messages could be either "NO LAND 3" or "NO AUTOLAND". Note Cat IIIa is still possible with a NO LAND 3 advisory. In this case green "LAND 2" annunciations will appear on both outboard display units. LNAV/VNAV most non-precision approaches which are in the FMC database may be flown to MDA in LNAV/VNAV. Look for the coded GP angle in the LEGS pages.
NPS (Navigation Performance scales) combine the display of ANP/RNP with LNAV/VNAV deviation to give either a Cat I approach of its own or a transition to an approach. Note: NPS provides crew awareness of airplane position with respect to the intended path and RNP. They are not required for VNAV approaches, which may be flown with standard displays.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES IAN (Integrated Approach Navigation) gives an ILS look-alike display and allows the pilot to fly the approach like an ILS, ie by selecting APP on the MCP. It is a Cat I only approach system which uses the FMC to transmit IAN deviations to the autopilot and display system. Flight path guidance is from navigation radios, FMC or a combination of both. The type of approach must first be selected in the FMC. The flight mode annunciations will vary depending upon the source of the navigation guidance as follows: Approach
FMA
IGS
VOR/LOC & G/S
ILS with G/S out, LOC, LDA, SDF
VOR/LOC & G/P
B/C LOC
BCRS & G/P
GPS, RNAV
FAC & G/P
VOR, NDB, TACAN
FAC & G/P
er based approaches:
is used for course guidance:
Where FAC = Final Approach Course and G/P = Glidepath. GNSS Landing System (GLS) Approaches use GPS and a ground based augmentation system (GBAS) to give signals similar to ILS signals and will probably replace ILS in the future. Certified May 2005, it is initially Cat I but will become Cat IIIB and should have the capability for curved approaches.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Most of the above approaches require FMC U10.5+, CDS BP02+, FCC -709+ and DFDAU & EGPWS.
Classic Flight Instruments
737-300 Non-EFIS F/O flight instruments
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The first 737-300's were not fitted with EFIS and the flight instruments were almost identical to the 737-200Adv. The yellow warning lights above the ADI are the instrument comparator warnings. The FMA annunciations were all contained in the panel above the ASI
Non-EFIS FMA
The big Gotcha with SP-177 equipped 737-200Advs and non-EFIS Classics were the HSI source selectors, sometimes referred to as ―Killer Switches‖. These were located either side of the MCP and changed the HSI to show deviation either from the LNAV or ILS/VOR track. It is vitally important that these switches are set to VOR/ILS before commencing an approach otherwise you will still be indicating LNAV deviation rather than LLZ deviation.
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HSI source selector switch
The 737-300's were soon available with EFIS, an option which most operators took. The EADI included a speed tape, radio altimeter, groundspeed indicator, and FMA annunciations. The EHSI has a selectable display either to represent the old HSI or a moving map display. See navigation section for details.
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737-300 EFIS Captains flight instruments
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The flight instruments use information from 2 Air Data Computers -Classics / Inertial Reference Units -NG's, which have separate pitot-static sources. The ADC/ADIRU’s are powered whenever the AC busses are powered. Aspirated TAT probes can either be identified visually (see below) or by the presence of a TAT test button on the pitot-static panel. To get an approximate OAT indication on the ground an air-conditioning pack must be on, whereas unaspirated probes require the pitot heat to be off.
T Probe - Unaspirated
TAT Probe - Aspirated
rforated with large hole at rear
Unperforated and no large hole at rear
The flight recorder starts when the first engine oil pressure rises. It will continue to record for as long as electrical power is available.
EFIS
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES If display unit cooling is lost, then after a short time the Electronic Attitude Display Indicator (EADI) colours will appear magenta and the WXR DSPY caption will be shown on the EHSI. This can be rectified by selecting ALTERNATE equip cooling supply and/or exhaust fans. The NG's use Honeywell flat panel displays rather than the CRT's of the classics and have the advantages of being lighter, more reliable and consume less power, although they are more expensive to produce.
EADI - Standard The 737-3/4/500 EADI display, with fast/slow indicator.
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The 737-3/4/500 EADI display, with speed tape.
EADI - Speed Tape
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The 737-3/4/500 EADI display, with speed tape but no rolling digit curser.
Overheating of an individual display unit will cause that unit to blank until it cools down when it will return. If 2 display units on one side blank then the problem is with that symbol generator, SG FAIL will annunciate in the centre of both displays. The display can be restored by using the EFIS transfer switch. This will enable the remaining symbol generator to display onto both sides, the output is controlled through the EFIS control panel of the good side. Caution: the autopilot will disengage when the EFI switch is repositioned.
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Instrument transfer switches - 3/4/500
Standby Flight Instruments
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The standby airspeed indicator & altimeter uses aux pitot & alternate static sources and no ADC/ADIRU’s.
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The Integrated Standby Flight Display started to appear in 2003 to replace the mechanical standby artificial horizon a new ASI & Altimeter much easier to read but the ILS more difficult. The + - buttons are just brightness controls.
The ISFD also sends inertial data to the FCCs which use the data during CAT IIIB approaches, landings and go-arou
Interestingly the ISFD cannot be switched off from the flightdeck - even by pulling the ISFD c/b on the p18 panel. It ISFD c/b only removes power from the battery charger, so let us hope that one does not start to smoke in-flight! The b
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Finally, if all else fails there is a standby magnetic compass!
Head-Up Display
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Head-up Guidance System installed in the 737-NG HGS was certified for the 737 by the US FAA in 1994 to allow Cat IIIA landings down to 200m RVR and take-offs was fitted to a 737-300 of Morris Air (later bought by Southwest) delivered September 1995.
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HGS Panel
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Primary Mode Display
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Cat III at 50ft
Flight Data Recorder (FDR)
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The FDR is located above the ceiling above the rear galley. There have been several different models of FDR in anything from 30 minutes to hundreds of hours of data of 8 to hundreds of parameters.
Early FDR's, as fitted to 737-200's, comprised metal scribes which etched their data into a 150ft long roll of metal fo only recorded vertical acceleration, heading, IAS and altitude, plus binary traces such as date, flight number and time panel (see below) shows the recording hours remaining before the foil spool needs replacing.
737-200 FDR panel
Later Digital FDR's (late 200's & classics) record onto a 1/4-inch wide, 450 feet long magnetic tape and the newe NG's) record data onto memory chips.
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Late model 737-3/4/500 FDR's record 25 hours of data. The protective casing includes an inner aluminium cover, stainless steel casing and an exterior stainless steel dust cover. This enables it to withstand a crush force of 20,000 protection of 1000 g's for 5 msec. It is protected from heat by an isothermal insulation which maintains the inner cham an underwater location device that transmits under water for a minimum of 30 days.
The FDR of the 737-NG is similar to that described above but can withstand 3400 g's of impact, 20,000ft depth of w 30mins. The FDR starts recording as soon as the first engine oil pressure rises.
Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) EFB is becoming the latest ―must-have‖ device in the cockpit. They have the ability to do the following tasks:
Calculate take-off or landing performance. Calculate weight & balance. Contain the aircraft technical log. Store navigation charts & plates. Store company manuals, FCOMs, crew notices, etc. Retrieve & display weather. Display checklists. Display on-board video surveillance cameras.
The advantages to crew are the accuracy of the data and ease of use. The advantages to the airlines are the cost benefits of a less paper cockpit and real time data transfer. There are three classes of EFB:
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Class 1: Fully portable. Eg a laptop. Class 2: Portable but connected to the aircraft during normal operations. Eg tablet & docking station. Class 3: Installed (non-removable) equipment.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES FMC
Introduction First introduced on the series 200 in Feb 1979 as the Performance Data Computer System (PDCS), the Flight Management Computer (FMC) was a huge technological step forward. Smiths Industries (formerly Lear Seigler) has supplied all FMCs installed on the 737. The PDCS was developed jointly by Boeing and Lear Seigler in the late 1970's. It enabled EPR and ASI bugs to be set by the computer and advise on the optimum flight level, all for best fuel economy. It was trialed on two in-service aircraft, a Continental 727-200 and a Lufthansa 737-200 for nine months in 1978 with regular line crews and a flight data observer. The 737-200 showed average fuel savings of 2.95% with a 2 minute increase in trip time over an average 71 minute flight. The 727 gave a 3.94% fuel saving because of its longer sector lengths. The PDCS quickly became standard fit and many were also retrofitted. By 1982 the autothrottle had been devised and thrust levers could be automatically driven to the values specified by the PDCS. The true FMC was introduced with the 737-300 in 1984 this kept the performance database and functions but also added a navigation database which interacts with the autopilot & flight director, autothrottle and IRSs. The integrated system is known as the Flight Management System (FMS) of which the FMC is just one component. Most aircraft have just one FMC, but there is an option to have two this is usually only taken by operators into MNPS airspace eg Oceanic areas. The FMS can be defined as being capable of four dimensional area navigation (latitude, longitude, altitude & time) while optimising performance to achieve the most economical flight possible. The photograph above is of the Control Display Unit (CDU), which is the pilot interface to the FMC. There are normally 2 CDUs but only one FMC. Think of it
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES as having two keyboards connected to the one PC. The CDU in the photograph has a DIR INTC key at the beginning of the second row but some have a MENU key. This key gives access to the subsystems such as FMC, ACARS, DFDMU, etc. In its most basic form, the FMC has a 96k word navigation database, where one word is two bytes (ie a 16 bit processor). This was increased to 192k words in 1988, 288k in 1990, 1 million in 1992 and is now at 4 Mega words for the 737-NG with Update 10.7. The navigation database is used to store route information which the autopilot will fly when in LNAV mode. When given data such as ZFW & MACTOW, it takes inputs from the fuel summation unit to give a gross weight and best speeds for climb, cruise, descent, holding, approach, driftdown etc. These speeds can all be flown directly by the autopilot & autothrottle in VNAV mode. It will also compute the aircrafts position based upon inputs from the IRSs, GPS and radio position updating. The latest FMC – Model 2907C1, has a Motorola 68040 processor running at 60MHz (30Mhz bus clock speed), with 4Mb static RAM and 32Mb for program & database.
FMC Databases An FMC has three databases: Software options (OP PROGRAM), Model/Engine data base (MEDB) and Navigation data base (NDB), all of which are stored on an EEPROM memory card. These databases can all be updated via the data loader. The Software options database includes the operational program and its update, plus any company specific differences.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The MEDB holds all the performance data for V speeds, min & max speeds in climb, cruise & descent, fuel consumptions, altitude capability etc. The NDB is comprised of Permanent, Supplemental (SUPP) and Temporary (REF). The Permanent database cannot be modified by crew. There are four types of data: Waypoint, Navaid, Airport and Runway. Runway data is only held in the permanent database.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES There is capacity in the SUPP and REF databases for up to 40 waypoints, 40 navaids and 6 airports. SUPP data can only be entered on the ground. It is then stored indefinitely but crew may delete individual data or the whole database. Any existing SUPP data should be checked for accuracy before flight using the SUMMARY option (U6+ only) or DELeted and re-entered, cross-checking any Lat & Longs between both crew members. All Temporary (REF) data is automatically deleted after flight completion. When entering navaids into either the REF NAV DATA or SUPP NAV DATA database, you will be box prompted for a four letter ―CLASS‖ classification code. The following table should be used: Navaid Classification Codes Box Numbers VHF Navaids
1
VOR
V
2
TACAN Ch 17-59, 70-117
T
MILITARY TACAN Ch 1-16, 60-69
M
DME
D
ILS/DME
I
3
Terminal
T
Low Altitude
L
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES High Altitude
H
Use unrestricted by range or altitude
U
Scheduled Weather Broadcast
B
No Voice on Navaid Frequency
W
Automatic Trans Weather Broadcast
A
Eg. To create a new en-route VOR/DME, the Class code would be VDHW.
FMC Pages Green: CRT, White: LCD
Pre-Flight Preparation Pages
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The contents page. Pages required for the departure are listed on the left hand side. This INIT/REF INDEX page (shown right) is from an U6.2 aircraft equipped with ACARS and IRS navigation. Selecting MSG RECALL allows the recall of deleted CDU scratchpad messages whose set logic is still valid. ALTN DEST allows the entry of selected alternate airports.
The NG (U7+) has some extra options available. The OFFSET function is used in-flight to fly parallel to a portion of the route. This may be used to avoid the turbulent wake of the aircraft ahead or to increase separation with opposite direction traffic. 5R will offer MAINT when on the ground, see below for some of these pages.
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The contents page. IDENT: Check aircraft model and engine rating is what you are flying, especially if your airline operates a mixed fleet. Note that if a model is appended ―.2‖ it has the SFP package and two position tailskid. Also check the database effectivity and expiry dates. Software update number is given in brackets, here U10.5A. U10 was specifically designed for the 737NG but can be used on classics. The prompt at 6R leads onto POS INIT
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POS INIT is used to enter the aircraft position into the IRS's for alignment. The Lat & Longs of REF AIRPORTS & GATES are held in the database and do not need typing in but should be cross-checked against published data.
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Routes are usually entered by inputting the CO ROUTE. Eg AMSLPLRPL = Amsterdam to Liverpool Repetitive Flight Plan. If the company route is not recognised the route can be entered manually by filling in the VIA & TO columns.
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In-flight the OFFSET option will be available on U7 onwards. See below to use this to access the hidden NEAREST AIRPORTS and ALTERNATE DESTS pages.
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After the route is entered, press the DEP ARR button on the CDU to access the departures and arrivals for the ends of the route.
This is a typical arrivals page and allows selection of the required SID, Transition and approach. These are denoted by <ACT> when they have been selected.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The PERF INIT page is completed before fight and gives the FMC the data to calculate leg times & fuels and the optimum & max altitudes. Cost Index is the ratio of the timerelated operating costs of the aircraft vs. the cost of fuel. If CI is 0 the FMC gives maximum range airspeed and minimum trip fuel. If CI is max the FMC gives Vmo/Mmo for climb & cruise; descent is restricted to 330kts to give an overspeed margin. The range of CI is 0-200 (Classics) and 0-500 (NGs). CRZ WIND is actually used for both climb wind and cruise wind. If you enter the forecast top-of-climb wind before departure the FMC will recalculate your climb speed accordingly. When in the cruise if you enter the average cruise wind, the time and fuel calculations will be updated. If you do not enter anything here the FMC will assume still air.
In-Flight Pages
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Standard take-off page for PF. Speeds & assumed temperature must be entered manually from performance tables. TO SHIFT should be entered if departing from an intersection as this is used to update the FMC position when TOGA is pressed at the start of the take-off roll. Notice that the reduced takeoff N1's (90.5/89.6) are different for each engine. This is because when the photo was taken only one pack (the right) was running.
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Used for entry of de-rates, where allowed.
This is the N1 Limit page pre-U10. Provides thrust limit and reduced climb thrust selection. This is usually automatic but manual selections can be made here. The most common use is either to select a reduced climb thrust (1 or 2) after a full power take-off to reduce engine wear or to delete the reduced climb thrust to get a high rate of climb.
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One of the most useful pages in the Boeing FMC and has just been updated to six pages in update 10.6. The fix can be anything in the database ie airfield, beacon or waypoint. An abeam point can be constructed (as illustrated) or a radial or range circle can be displayed on the EHSI. Surprisingly, there is no equivalent page on the Airbus.
Climb Pages
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Standard ECON CLB page. 302 (Kts IAS) is highlighted indicating that this is the target speed, this will automatically change over to mach (0.597 in this case) during the climb. Other climb modes are available with keys 5 & 6, L & R. CLB-1 indicates that the autothrottle is commanding a reduced thrust climb power (reduces N1 by approx 3% = 10% thrust reduction). CLB-2 is a reduction of a further 10% ie 20% total. The reduced climb thrust setting gradually increases to full climb power by 15,000ft.
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Selecting MAX RATE from a climb page will show this page with the target speed not highlighted and the ERASE option available until the EXEC button is pressed. If EXEC is pressed you can return to ECON by line selecting it.
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Selecting MAX ANGLE from a climb page will show this page with the target speed not highlighted and the ERASE option available until the EXEC button is pressed. If EXEC is pressed you can return to ECON by line selecting it.
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Selecting ENG OUT on a climb page gives the following choice of LT or RT engines.
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When the LT or RT engine has been selected this page shows your MAX ALT (climb or driftdown alt) TGT SPD and max cont N1. This is a useful page to check if flying over ground above 15,000ft. Remember the altitude penalties for anti-ice. The EXEC light will now be illuminated, if you press it you will lose all VNAV info. Select ERASE to return to the two engine CLB/CRZ pages.
Cruise Pages
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Standard PF in-flight cruise page. The target speed (highlighted) is the ECON speed which is derived from the cost index and winds. The fuel at EGLL figure is blank because either it is being recalculated or there is a route discontinuity.
Selecting ENG OUT on the cruise page will give this page which asks you to select which engine is inop.
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After selecting the appropriate engine, the FMC will calculate your driftdown target speed and stabilisation altitude. It is worthwhile making this check before crossing over areas of high terrain. Do not press EXEC at any stage otherwise you will lose VNAV information, these actions can be undone by selecting ERASE.
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Selecting LRC gives Long Range Cruise speed. This is calculated as 99% of the maximum range speed for a given weight & altitude in still air conditions. It is used in preference to MRC because it is a more stable speed and hence gives less autothrottle movement. LRC takes no account of winds so it may give a higher fuel burn than ECON. It also takes no account of operating costs; hence it has little practical value.
Descent Pages
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES FPA is the actual flight path angle of the aircraft, it is zero in this example because the aircraft is in level flight. It is typically 3 to 4 degrees in a descent. V/B is the required vertical bearing to reach the WPT/ALT ie TIGER/16000. This would be an altitude restriction in the LEGS page that you could enter (or delete) manually or with the ALT INTV button on the MCP if fitted. V/S is the required vertical speed to make good the V/B. As you approach your ToD the FPA will remain at zero (because the aircraft is in level flight), but the V/B and V/S will both increase until the V/B is at about 3 to 4 degrees, or whatever the FMC has calculated is the optimum value. If VNAV is engaged the aircraft will descend with a FPA equal to the V/B. The actual V/S will however be slightly different to the computed V/S because V/S changes during the descent.
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FMC position can be forced to any of the other positions at this page.
You can either select a waypoint from the legs page or use PPOS (Present POSition) on which to base the hold. The database will give the turn direction & inbound course. Leg time will be that appropriate to your altitude . Target speed will default to the best speed which will be that for max endurance. Hold avail is calculated from the present fuel, fuel flow and reserves figure entered into the PERF INIT page.
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Very rarely used. Sets min & max speed limits for climb, cruise & descent.
Very useful howgozit page, but don't trust the fuel summation unit! it always overreads by approx 1-200kgs. For an accurate arrival fuel subtract 2-300kgs to allow for this and the drag of flying slower than the optimum speed whilst on the approach.
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Very rarely used but can be used to try to reach a waypoint at a specific time.
PROGRESS 3/3: Standard landing page for PF. Especially useful for giving crosswind component and SAT in icing conditions. Confusingly this page has now been moved to 2/4 on U10.7, so instead of selecting Progress-Prev Page you now have to select Progress-Next Page.
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APPROACH REF: Standard landing page for PNF. Vref is calculated from the current gross weight, pedants may wish to overwrite the GROSS WT with the predicted GW for landing. Vref is "hardened" by line-selecting it over itself which will cause it to be displayed on the speed tape.
IRS Navigation Pages (If installed) The following pages are only available on ANS equipped aircraft.
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Similar to ACT RTE LEGS.
Similar to PROGRESS.
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Similar to ACT RTE DATA.
Maintenance Pages Caution do not access these pages without engineering supervision.
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Hidden Pages These are various pages hidden away in most FMC's that are not always immediately available to the pilots, I suspect because there would be a surcharge to their airlines to use them. There are some ingenious ways of getting to these pages by careful use of simultaneous CDU entries.
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This is not a hidden page, but it is the way into them. You can bring up this OFFSET page either from RTE or INIT/REF INDEX. 1. Have this page displayed on both CDU's. 2. Enter any offset but do not execute. 3. Simultaneously press ERASE on both CDU's. These steps will bring ALTERNATE DESTS. (See below)
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You can enter up to 5 alternates here, selecting 1R to 5R against any entered alternate will show the info below...
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All the diversion data is now shown based on you flying direct to this alternate from present position (VIA DIRECT). Selecting MISSED APP will show the same data but calculated from the missed approach point. Selecting nearest airports will give...
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This extremely useful page takes a couple of minutes to calculate but will list the nearest airports in the database in order of DTG. Once again, line selection of 1R to 5R will give more useful diversion information as shown below.
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All the diversion data is now shown based on you flying direct to this airport from present position (VIA DIRECT). Selecting MISSED APP will show the same data but calculated from the missed approach point. Selecting INDEX to return to the normal pages.
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FUEL
Fuel Panels
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737-1/200 Fuel Panel
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737-Classic 4-Tank Fuel NG Fuel Panel Panel
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The maximum declarable fuel capacity for tech log, nav log, etc is 16,200kgs for 3-Tank Classics, 20,800kgs for NG's and up to 37,712kgs for BBJ's depending upon how many tanks the customer has specified (max 12). The AFM limits are higher, but not normally achievable with standard SG's. The fuel panels for the various series have not changed much over the years. The NG's have separate ENG VALVE CLOSED & SPAR VALVE CLOSED lights in place of FUEL VALVE CLOSED. The -1/200 panel also has blue VALVE OPEN lights similar to that on the crossfeed valve. The FILTER BYPASS lights were FILTER ICING on the 1/200. The 1/200's had heater switches; these used bleed air to heat the fuel and deice the fuel filter. They were solenoid held and automatically moved back to OFF after one minute. NG: The engine spar valves and APU are normally powered by the hot battery bus but have a dedicated battery to ensure that there is always power to shut off the fuel in an emergency.
Fuel Gauges
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Analogue Fuel Gauges
Digital Sunburst Digital Sunburst Fuel Gauges - Smiths -1/200's and some older Gauges - Simmonds 4 300's Tank - 3/4/500's
Fuel
- 3/4/500's
Fuel Gauge Accuracy The 737 fuel quantity indication system has the following accuracy tolerances: 737-100/-200: FQIS 737-300/-400/-500, FQIS accuracy
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accuracy:
with
+/-
digital
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3.0%
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES FQIS
accuracy
with
analog
indicators:
+/-
3.0%
The total tolerance for the FQIS system is based on a full tank. For example, if the fuel tank maximum capacity is 10,000 KG, then the tolerance of the gauging is 0.03 (airplane with analog indicators) * 10000 = 300 KG. The system tolerance is then +/- 300 KG at any fuel level within the tank. The accuracy of the fuel flow transmitter is a function of the fuel flow. At engine idle, the system tolerance can be 12%. During cruise, the tolerance is less than 1.5%. The fuel flow indication is integrated over time to calculate the fuel used for each engine. 737-600/-700/-800/-900 with densitometer: FQIS accuracy: +/1.0% overall Main tanks > 50%, -1 to 5 deg pitch, +/- 1 deg roll: +/- 1.5% Main tanks < 50%, -1 to 5 deg pitch, +/- 1 deg roll: +/- 1.0% 737-600/-700/-800/-900 without densitometer: FQIS accuracy: +/2.0% overall Main tanks > 50%, -1 to 5 deg pitch, +/- 1 deg roll: +/- 2.5% Main tanks < 50%, -1 to 5 deg pitch, +/- 1 deg roll: +/- 2.0 The total tolerance for the FQIS system is based on a full tank. For example, if the fuel tank maximum capacity is 10,000 KG, then the tolerance of the gauging is 0.02 (airplane without a densitometer) * 10000 = 200 KG. The system tolerance is then +/- 200 KG at any fuel level within the tank. The accuracy tolerance of the fuel flow transmitter is a function of the fuel flow. At engine idle, the system tolerance can be 12%. During cruise, the tolerance is less than 0.5%. The fuel flow indication is integrated over time to calculate the fuel used for each engine.
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On the Digital Sunburst fuel gauges, pressing the "Qty test" button will start a self test of the display and the fuel quantity indicating system. After the test, each gauge will display any error codes that they may have. Note: The gauges are still considered to be operating normally with error codes 1, 3, 5 or 7 on the Simmonds gauges or error codes 1,3 and 6 on the Smiths gauges. ie If the gauge is indicating (rather than zero) the gauge may be used.
NG fuel gauges can give messages such as LOW, CONFIG or IMBAL
DU Fuel Gauges
Low fuel quantity indication illuminates below either 907 or 453kg
-NG's - NG's
Digital Fuel Quantity Indicator Error Codes - Simmonds
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Fuel Quantity Indicator Reading
Probable Cause
0
Zero
Missing or disconnected tank unit
1
Normal
Tank contamination
2
Zero
Bad HI-Z lead
3
Normal
Bad compensator unit wiring
4
Zero
Bad tank unit wiring
5
Normal
Bad compensator unit
6
Zero
Bad tank unit
7
Normal
Contamination/water in compensator
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Gauges considered to be operating normally?
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Zero
Bad fuel indicator
9
Normal or zero
Improperly indicator
Blank
Bad fuel indicator
quantity
calibrated
quantity
Digital Fuel Quantity Indicator Error Codes - Smiths Error Code
Fuel Quantity Indicator Reading
Probable Cause
Gauges considered to be operating normally?
1
Normal
Open or short in compensator LO-Z wiring
Yes
2
Zero
Short circuit compensator unit
3
Normal
Too much leakage in compensator unit
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Zero
Open or short circuit in a LO-Z to a tank unit
5
Zero
Short circuit in a tank unit
6
Normal
Too much leakage in tank unit
7
Zero (or ERR in flight)
Calibration unit does not operate correctly
8
Blank
An error in the DCTU data
9
Zero (or ERR in flight)
A problem with the indicator memory
Zero
Open or short circuit in the HI-Z line
10
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Dripsticks If a fuel gauge is u/s the quantity must be determined by using the dripsticks (floatsticks in later aircraft). The classics have 5 dripsticks in each wing tank and none in the centre tank. The NG has 6 dripsticks in each wing tank and 4 in the centre tank. Because of cumulative errors it is recommended that the wings are filled once every few sectors to ensure an even fuel balance. In-flight, the GW must be periodically updated to ensure the accuracy of VNAV speeds, buffet margin and max altitude.
Floatstick Fuel quantity is measured by using a series of capacitors in the tanks with fuel acting as the dielectric. Calibration of the fuel gauges is done by capacitance trimmers, these are adjusted to standardise the total tank capacitance and allows for the replacement of gauges. On older aircraft the trimmers were accessible from the flightdeck (below the F/O's FMC) but they have since been removed to a safer place!
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Capacitance trimmers
Pumps There are two AC powered fuel pumps in each tank; there are also EDP’s at each engine. Both fuel pump low pressure lights in any tank are required to illuminate the master caution to avoid spurious warnings at high AoA’s or accelerations. Centre tank LP lights are armed only when their pumps are ON. Leaving a fuel pump on with a low pressure light illuminated is not only an explosion risk (see Thai and Philippine write offs) but also if a pump is left running dry for over approx 10 minutes it will lose all the fuel required for priming which will render it inoperative even when the tank is refuelled. If you switch on the centre tank pumps and the LP lights remain illuminated for more than 19 seconds then this is probably what has happened. The pumps should be switched off and considered inop until they can be re-primed.
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On the 1-500's, the centre tank pumps are located in a dry area of the wing root but on the NG's the pumps are actually inside the fuel tank (see photo below). This is why only the NG's are affected by AD 2002-19-52 which requires the crew to maintain certain minimum fuel levels in the center fuel tanks. You can see the location of the centre tank pumps on the forward wall of the wheel well on the NG's, since the forward wall is actually the back of the centre fuel tank. Note: for aircraft delivered after May 2004, centre tank fuel pumps will automatically shut off when they detect a low output pressure.
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Right centre tank fuel pump on the forward wall of the wheel well - NG's only Centre Tank Scavange Pumps These transfer fuel from the centre tank into tank 1 at a minimum rate of 100kg/hr, although usually nearer 200kg/hr. The trigger for the scavenge pump is different for the series as follows:
Originals: Only fitted after l/n 990 (Dec 1983). Operates the same as the classics. Classics: Switching both centre tank pumps OFF will cause the centre tank scavenge pump to transfer centre tank fuel into tank 1 for 20 minutes. NG's: The centre tank scavenge pump starts automatically when main tank 1 is half full and its FWD pump is operating. Once started, it will continue for the remainder of the flight.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES NB On the classics, when departing with less than 1,000kg of fuel in the centre tank, an imbalance may occur during the climb. This is because the RH centre tank pump will stop feeding due to the body angle so number 2 engine fuel is drawn from main tank 2, while engine 1 is still drawing fuel from the centre tank. When this ―runs dry‖ the scavenge pump will also transfer any remaining centre tank fuel into main tank 1, thereby exacerbating the imbalance. The APU uses fuel from the number 1 tank. If AC power is available, select the No 1 tank pumps ON for APU operation to assist the fuel control unit, especially during start. Newer –500 series aircraft have an extra, DC operated APU fuel pump in the No 1 tank which operates automatically during the start sequence. The APU burns about 160Kgs/hr with electrics and an air-conditioning pack on and this should be considered in the fuel calculations if expecting a long turnaround or waiting with pax on board for a late slot.
Fuel Temperature Limitations: Max fuel temp +49ºC, Min fuel temp -45ºC or freezing point +3ºC, whichever is higher. Typical freezing point of Jet A1 is -47ºC. If the fuel temp is approaching the lower limits you could descend into warmer air or accelerate to increase the kinetic heating. Fuel temp is taken from main tank 1 because this will be the coldest as it has less heating from the smaller hydraulic system A. A fuel sampling and testing kit is kept on the flight deck of all aircraft to test for water. The NG series are prone to "Upper Wing Surface Non-environmental Icing" or "Cold Soaked Fuel Frost" CSFF. This is due to cold soaked fuel causing frost to form on the wings during the turnarounds - even in warm conditions! From July 2004 NGs have been delivered with markings on the upper surface of the wings where this frost is allowable for despatch under the following conditions: Takeoff with CSFF on the upper wing surfaces is permissible, provided the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES following are met:
the frost on the upper surface is less than 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) thick the extent of the frost is similar on both wings the frost is on or between the black lines defining the permissible CSFF area the outside air temperature is above freezing(0 C, 32 F) there is no precipitation or visible moisture at the wing surface (rain, drizzle, snow, fog)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Auxiliary Fuel System The standard number of fuel tanks is three. Classics could be fitted with an auxiliary fourth tank which was controlled from the main panel as shown at the top of the page. The 737-200Adv could also be fitted with an auxiliary tank at the forward end of the aft hold; these were available in either 3,065 or 1,421 litre capacities.
BBJ Aux fuel panel located on Capt's & F/O's main panels The BBJ can have up to 9 aux fuel tanks giving it a maximum fuel quantity of 37,712kgs (83,000lbs) although in practice this would probably take you over MTOW if any payload was carried. This fuel would give a theoretical range in excess of 6200nm. The aux tanks are located at the rear of the fwd hold and the front of the aft hold, this reduces the C of G movement as fuel is loaded and used.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Aux fuel tank in aft hold of a BBJ2 (-800 fuselage)
Refuelling of the aux tanks is done by moving the guarded switch in the refuelling panel to AUX TANKS. The controls for main tanks 1 and 2 change to aft aux (AA) and fwd aux (FA) respectively.
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The aux fuel system is essentially automatic. It works by transferring fuel from the aux tanks into the centre tank where it is then fed to the engines in the normal way. Flight crew can select fwd or aft tanks but normal practice is to use both to maintain C of G balance. The fwd and aft tanks are switched off when the ALERT light illuminates on the main panel.
Aux fuel control panel (Overhead panel) There are no pumps in the aux fuel system. Cabin differential pressure (and bleed air as a backup) is used to maintain a head of pressure in the aux tanks to push the aux fuel into the centre tank.
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Aux fuel control panel (Aft overhead panel) (All Aux fuel photos: Capt D Britchford)
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Ferry Tank The 737-200 had provision for a ferry kit. This comprised a 2,000 US Gal (7,570 litre) bladder cell which attached to the seat tracks of the passenger cabin. The fuel was fed to the centre tank through a manual valve by cabin pressure.
Centre Fuel Tank Inerting To date, two 737's, 737-400 HS-TDC of Thai Airways on 3 Mar 2001 and 737300 EI-BZG operated by Philippine Airlines on 5 Nov 1990 have been destroyed on the ground due to explosions in the empty centre fuel tank. The common factor in both accidents was that the centre tank fuel pumps were running in high ambient temperatures with empty or almost empty centre fuel tanks. Even an empty tank has some unusable fuel which in hot conditions will evaporate and create an explosive mixture with the oxygen in the air. These incidents, and 15 more on other types since 1959, caused the FAA to issue SFAR88 in June 2001 which mandates improvements to the design and maintenance of fuel tanks to reduce the chances of such explosions in the future. These improvements include the redesign of fuel pumps, FQIS, any wiring in tanks, proximity to hot air-conditioning or pneumatic systems, etc. 737s delivered since May 2004 have had centre tank fuel pumps which automatically shut off when they detect a low output pressure and there have been many other improvements to wiring and FQIS. But the biggest improvement will be centre fuel tank inerting. This is universally considered to be the safest way forward, but is very expensive and possibly impractical. The NTSB recommended many years ago to the FAA that a fuel tank inerting system be made mandatory, but the FAA have repeatedly rejected it on cost grounds.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Boeing has developed a Nitrogen Generating System (NGS) which decreases the flammability exposure of the center wing tank to a level equivalent to or less than the main wing tanks. The NGS is an onboard inert gas system that uses an air separation module (ASM) to separate oxygen and nitrogen from the air. After the two components of the air are separated, the nitrogenenriched air (NEA) is supplied to the center wing tank and the oxygenenriched air (OEA) is vented overboard. NEA is produced in sufficient quantities, during most conditions, to decrease the oxygen content to a level where the air volume (ullage) will not support combustion. The FAA Technical Center has determined that an oxygen level of 12% is sufficient to prevent ignition, this is achievable with one module on the 737 but will require up to six on the 747. The Honeywell NGS was certified by the FAA on 21 Feb 2006 after over 1000hrs flight testing on two 737-NGs. Aircraft have been NGS provisioned since l/n 1935 and it has been installed since l/n 2620 onwards. The NGS requires no flight or ground crew action for normal system operation and is not dispatch critical.
NGS Panel in the wheel-well Photo: Lonnie Ganz
This from the FAA Systems Fire Group website: B-737 Ground / Flight Testing
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES A series of aircraft flight and ground tests were performed by the Federal Aviation Administration and the Boeing Company to evaluate the effectiveness of ground-based inerting (GBI) as a means of reducing the flammability of fuel tanks in the commercial transport fleet. Boeing made available a Boeing 737 for modification and testing. A nitrogen-enriched air (NEA) distribution manifold, designed, built, and installed by Boeing, allowed for deposit of the groundbased NEA into the center wing tank (CWT). The fuel tank was instrumented with gas sample tubing and thermocouples to allow for a measurement of fuel tank inerting and heating during the testing. The FAA developed an in-flight gas sampling system, integrated with eight oxygen analyzers, to continuously monitor the ullage oxygen concentration at eight different locations. Other data such as fuel load, air speed, altitude, and similar flight parameters were made available from the aircraft data bus. A series of ten tests were performed (five flight, five ground) under different ground and flight conditions to demonstrate the ability of GBI to reduce fuel tank flammability. It was demonstrated under the most hazardous condition-an empty center wing tank-that GBI would remain effective for a large portion of the flight, or until aircraft descent. However, it was also shown that the dual venting configuration of some Boeing airplanes would have to be modified to prevent loss of inerting at certain ground and flight cross flow conditions.
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Limitations Max temp
+49°C
Min temp
-43°C or freeze pt +3°C
Max quantity
1/200: 4300 + 4100 + 4300 = 12,700kg (2 bag ctr bays) 200Adv: 4300 + 5400 + = 14,000kg (3 bag ctr bays)
4300
200Adv: 4300 + 7000 + = 15,600kg (3 bag integral)
4300
3/4/500: 4600 = 16,200kg
4600
+
7000
+
NG's: 3900 + 13000 + 3900 = 20,800kg Max lateral imbalance
1/200: 680kg; All other series: 453kg
Main tanks to be full if centre contains over 453kg For ground operation, centre tank pumps must be not be positioned to ON, unless defuelling or transferring fuel, if quantity is below 453kgs.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Centre tank pumps must be switched OFF when both LP lights illuminate. Centre tank pumps must not be left ON unless personnel are available in the flight deck to monitor LP lights. Centre tank pumps should not be allowed to run dry or be left running unsupervised. Crew reset of fuel pump circuit breakers in-flight is prohibited (QRH CI.2.2)
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HYDRAULICS
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Pumps
The hydraulic pump panel -1/200 The 737-1/200 had system A powered by the two Engine Driven Pumps (EDP's) and system B powered by the two Electric Motor Driven Pumps (EMDP's). There is also a ground interconnect switch to allow system A to be powered when the engines are shut down.
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The hydraulic pump panel -300 onwards From the 737-300 onwards each hydraulic system had both an EDP and an EMDP for greater redundancy in the event of an engine or generator failure.
Services Supplied Services Supplied System A
System B
A/P "A"
A/P "B"
Ailerons
Ailerons
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Standby
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Rudder
Rudder
Rudder
Yaw damper
Standby yaw damper (as installed)
Elev & Elev feel
Elev & Elev feel
Inboard flight spoiler
Outboard flight spoiler
Ground spoilers L/E flaps & slats
L/E flaps & slats (for extension only)
T/E flaps PTU for autoslats
Autoslats
No1 thrust reverser
No2 thrust reverser
Nose wheel steering
Alt nose wheel steering
Alternate brakes (man only)
Normal (auto & man) brakes
Landing gear
Landing gear transfer unit (retraction only)
Nos 1 & 2 thrust reversers (slow)
Reservoirs
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Hydraulic System B Reservoir Pressure Gauge The hydraulic reservoirs are pressurised from the pneumatic manifold to ensure a positive flow of fluid reaches the pumps. A from the left manifold and B from the right (see wheel-well fwd). The latest 737's (mid 2003 onwards) have had their hydraulic reservoir pressurisation system extensively modified to fix two inservice problems 1) hydraulic vapours in the flight deck caused by hydraulic fluid leaking up the reservoir pressurisation line back to the pneumatic manifold giving hydraulic fumes in the air-conditioning and 2) pump low pressure during a very long flight in a cold soaked aircraft. The latter is due to water trapped in the reservoir pressurisation system freezing blocking reservoir bleed air supply. Aircraft which have been modified (SB 737-29-1106) are recognised by only having one reservoir pressure gauge in the wheel well.
Fuses
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Hydraulic Fuses Also in the wheel well can be seen the hydraulic fuses. These are essentially spring-loaded shuttle valves which close the hydraulic line if they detect a sudden increase in flow such as a burst downstream, thereby preserving hydraulic fluid for the rest of the services. Hydraulic fuses are fitted to the brake system, L/E flap/slat extend/retract lines, nose gear extend/retract lines and the thrust reverser pressure and return lines.
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Above schematic courtesy of Leon Van Der detailed hydraulic schematic diagram, click here.
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Linde.
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737-3/400 Hydraulic Gauges
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES On pre-EIS aircraft (before 1988) the hydraulic gauges were similar to the 737200. There are now separate quantity gauges since the reservoirs are not interconnected and the markings have been simplified. There is now just a single brake pressure gauge showing the normal brake pressure from system B.
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737-200 Hydraulic Gauges. Notice that there is only a system A quantity gauge, this is because on the 7371/200 system B is filled from system A reservoir. System B quantity is monitored by the amber "B LOW QUANTITY" light above. The hydraulic brake
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES pressure gauge has two needles because system A operates the inboard brakes and system B the outboard brakes, each has an accumulator.
Quantities This table shows the nominal quantities at different levels in the reservoirs Aircraft Series Originals
Classics
NG's
Gauges
EIS
Upper CDU
Full level
3.6 USG
100%
100% (5.7Gal / 21.6Ltrs)
Refill
2.35 USG
88%
76%
EDP Standpipe ?
22%
20%
EMDP Standpipe
N/A
0%
0%
Full level
Full
100%
100% (8.2Gal / 31.1Ltrs)
Refill
3/4
88%
76%
64%
72%
System
A
B
Fill & balance ? line (to standby
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES reservoir) EDP Standpipe N/A
40%
0%
EMDP Standpipe
11%
0%
?
Eg. If you are in say a 737-300 and you notice to System B hydraulic quantity drop to 64%, then from the table above, you may suspect a leak in the balance line or standby reservoir. Note: Refill figure valid only when airplane is on ground with both engines shutdown or after landing with flaps up during taxi-in. The hydraulic reservoirs can be filled from the ground service connection point on the forward wall of the stbd wheel well.
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Hydraulic ground service connection Normal hydraulic pressure is 3000 psi Minimum hydraulic pressure is 2800 psi Maximum hydraulic pressure is 3500 psi Normal brake accumulator precharge is 1000 psi NB The alternate flap system will extend (but not retract) LE devices with standby hydraulic power. It will also extend or retract TE flaps with an electric drive motor but there is no asymmetry protection for this.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES LGTU makes Hyd B pressure available for gear retraction when Engine No1 falls below 50% N2
Methods for Transfer of Hydraulic Fluid It should go without saying that if a hydraulic system is low on quantity then you should top up that system with fresh fluid (and find out why it was low!) to avoid cross contamination. However if you really want to move fluid from one system to another here is how to do it. A to B (1% transfer per cycle) 1. Chock the aircraft & ensure area around stabiliser is clear. 2. Switch both EMDP's OFF. 3. Release parking brakes and deplete accumulator to below 1800psi by pumping toe brakes. 4. Switch Sys A EMDP ON and apply parking brakes. 5. Switch Sys A EMDP OFF and depressurise through control column. (Use stabiliser rather than ailerons to prevent damage to equipment or personnel) 6. Switch Sys B EMDP ON and release parking brakes. (Sends the fluid back to system B because the shuttle/priority valves send the fluid back to the normal brake system.) A to B - An alternative method 1. Chock the aircraft & ensure area around stabiliser is clear. 2. Switch both EMDP's ON. 3. Switch Sys B EMDP OFF and depressurise through control column. (Use stabiliser rather than ailerons to prevent damage to equipment or personnel) 4. Switch Sys A EMDP ON and apply parking brakes. (Uses fluid from system A)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 5. Switch Sys B EMDP ON and release parking brakes. (Sends the fluid back to system B because the shuttle/priority valves send the fluid back to the normal brake system.) B to A (4% transfer per cycle) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Ensure area around No1 thrust reverser is clear. Switch both EMDP's OFF Switch either FLT CONTROL to SBY RUD. Select No1 thrust reverser OUT (uses standby hyd sys) Switch FLT CONTROL to ON. Switch Hyd Sys A EMDP ON. Stow No 1 thrust reverser (using sys A)
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ICE AND RAIN PROTECTIONS
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Panels
737-3/4/500 Rain Panel
737-1/200 Ice & Rain Panel
Ice
& 737-NG Ice & Rain Panel
Differences: 1. No alpha vanes 2. WAI has ground test position 3. Engine anti-ice captions are: COWL VALVE
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1. Alpha vanes added 2. Now only one temp probe (many 1/200's
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1. Static ports not heated 2. Aux pitot added.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES OPEN, R VALVE OPEN, L VALVE OPEN.
had two) 3. TAT TEST button (ie aspirated probe). NB if there is no TAT TEST button you have an unaspirated probe.
Window Heat If window heat is switched ON but the ON light is extinguished, this means that heat is not being applied to the associated window. This could be because the heat controller has detected that the window is becoming overheated (normal on hot days in direct sunlight) and can be verified by touching the window. The heat will automatically be restored when the window has cooled down. To verify that window heat is still available a PWR TEST should illuminate all ON lights if the window heat switches are ON. The PWR TEST forces the temperature controller to full power but overheat protection is still available. If an OVERHEAT light illuminates, either a window has overheated or electrical power to the window has been interrupted. The affected window heat must be switched OFF and allowed 2-5mins to cool before switching ON again. The OVHT TEST simulates an overheat condition.
Pitot Heat See Instrument Probes page for explanation.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Wing Anti Ice Wing anti-ice (WAI) is very effective and is normally used as a deicing system in-flight, in applications of 1 minute. On the ground it should be used continuously in icing conditions. The WAI switch logic is interesting, on the ground, bleed air for WAI will cut-off if either thrust lever is above the takeoff warning setting, but will be restored after the thrust is reduced. This allows you to perform engine run-ups etc without having to check that the WAI is still on afterwards. The switch is solenoid held and will trip off at lift-off, this is for performance considerations as the bleed air penalty is considerable. Note that on early systems, ie those with a GND TEST position, with the WAI switch ON on the ground, the WAI is inhibited until lift-off ie "armed", This is opposite to the present system. WAI, unlike engine AI, uses bleed air from the main pneumatic manifold, this is to ensure a source of bleed air during engine out operations. Only the leading edge slats have WAI (ie not leading edge flaps). The NG series outboard slat has no wing anti-ice facility (see photo) believed to be due to excessive bleed requirements. However in June 2005 it was announced that the 737-MMA will have raked wingtips with anti-ice along the full span. This is because the MMA will be spending long periods of time on patrol at low level where it will be exposed to icing conditions. NB Where QRH ENGINE FAILURE/SHUTDOWN drills ask â&#x20AC;&#x2022;If wing anti-ice is
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES required:â&#x20AC;&#x2013;, if icing conditions are anticipated, these actions should be completed in preparation for WAI use to prevent asymmetric application. There is no bleed penalty for this reconfiguration until WAI is actually used. On the NG, if WAI is used for more than 5 secs in-flight, the SMYD will adjust the stick shaker speeds and manouvre speed bars to allow for airframe ice. Photo: Wing ice on the outboard slat of a 737-700
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Engine Anti Ice Engine anti-ice (EAI) heats the engine cowl to prevent ice buildup, which could break off and enter the engine. The 3/4/500 spinner was originally conical to prevent ice buildup but was changed to an elliptical shape to deflect ice away from the engine core. The NG's have the best of both worlds with a coneliptical shaped spinner (see photo left) that does both jobs. EAI should be used continuously on the ground and in the air in icing conditions. It uses 5th stage bleed air, augmented by 9th stage as required, from the associated engine. COWL ANTI-ICE lights will illuminate if an overtemp of >440C (not NGs) or overpressure >65psig condition exists in either duct. In this situation thrust on the associated engine should be reduced until the light extinguishes. Wing and engine VALVE OPEN lights use the bright blue/dim blue - valve position in disagreement / agreement logic. The wing L and R VALVE OPEN lights in particular may remain bright blue after start and during taxy. This is because they are pneumatically operated, they can be made to open with a modest amount of engine thrust.
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Airframe Visual Icing Cues An ice detection system is an option that is rarely taken up on the 737 so it is up to the crew to spot ice formation and take the necessary action. The following photos show some of the places where ice accretion is visible from the flight deck. Note engine anti-ice should be used whenever the temperature and visible moisture criteria are met and not left until ice is seen, to avoid inlet ice build up which may shed into the engine.
Under the winds creen wiper blades . This is one of the first places that ice will form, precipi tation falls on the bottom of the windscreen and runs up to the wipers.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES This is not an accurate indication of the amount of icing on the airframe because of the stagnation point where the blade and windscreen meet and also because the windscreen is heated. I would describe conditions where ice forms here as LIGHT ICING.
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On the wiper nut This is my preferred indication of airframe ice accretion. If ice is seen here it is surely also on other parts of the airframe. The weight and aerodynamic effect of all this ice on the the airframe and control surfaces is why there is the "residual ice" penalty of several tons on the landing performance graphs "If operating in icing conditions during any part of the flight when the forecast landing temperature is below 8C, reduce the normal climb limited landing weight by xxxxkg." (Ref FPPM). I would describe conditions where ice forms here as MODERATE ICING.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES On the pillar
central
windscreen
For ice to form on a flat heated windscreen, conditions must be bad. You can see how the shape of the formation follows the airflow lines. You can imagine how much ice is on the rest of the aircraft, especially when you consider that most of it is unheated, particularly on the fin and stabiliser. Vol 1 SP.16.8 states "Avoid prolonged operation in moderate to severe icing conditions." This photo was taken at about 20,000ft climbing through the tops of rain bearing frontal cloud. The ice shown here formed in under a minute. I would describe conditions where ice forms here as SEVERE ICING.
Non-environmental Icing The NG's have a problem with frost forming after landing on the wing above the tanks where fuel has been cold soaked. This is officially known as "Wing upper surface non-environmental icing". The reason is the increased surface area of the fuel that comes into contact with the upper surface of the wing. This is because the shape of the wing fuel tanks was changed (moved outboard) to accommodate the longer landing gear that was in turn required for the increased fuselage lengths of the NG family to reduce the risk of tailstrikes! The only solution until recently has been to limit your arrival fuel to less than approx 4,000kg. Now Boeing have issued guidelines on the acceptable location and
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES amount of upper wing frost. The Boeing advice is as follows: "Flight crews should visually inspect the lower wing surface. If there is frost or ice on the lower surface, outboard of measuring stick 4, there may also be frost or ice on the upper surface. The distance the frost extends outboard of measuring stick 4 can be used as an indication of the extent of frost on the upper surface. It should be noted that if the thickness of the frost on the lower surface of the wing is 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) thick or less, the thickness of the frost on the upper surface will be less than 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) thick. If the thickness of the frost on the lower surface is greater than 1/16 inch (1.5 mm), then a physical inspection of the upper surface frost is required."
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Wiper Controls One of the most welcome features of the 737-NG is the improvement to the windscreen wipers. The wipers are now independent, have an intermittent position and best of all - are almost silent.
Rain Repellent
737-1/200
The rain repellent has been removed due to worries about the environmental effects of the "RainBoe" fluid used as it contains CFC's. It is also poisonous and in 1991 Boeing added D-limonine which has a strong smell of orange peel into RainBoe so that leakage could be detected. There are no plans to replace the rain repellent with another liquid product even though there are safe alternatives eg "Le Bozec". On 25 May 1982, a 737-200Adv (PP-SMY) was written off by a heavy landing in a rainstorm. One report stated that "The pilots misuse of rain repellent caused an optical illusion". Since early 1994 all Boeing aircraft have been built with Surface Seal coated glass from PPG Industries which has a
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 737-1/2/3/4/500
hydrophobic coating. The coating does deteriorate with time depending upon wiper use and windscreen cleaning methods etc, but can be re-applied.
737-NG
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Limitations Engine anti-ice must be on when icing conditions exist or are anticipated, except during climb and cruise below -40°C SAT. Use of wing anti-ice above FL350 may cause bleed trip off and possible loss of cabin pressure. (SP.16.8)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES LANDING GEAR
General The landing gear was extensively redesigned for the NG. The nose gear is 3.5‖ longer to relieve higher dynamic loads and the nosewheelwell has been extended 3‖ forward. The main gear is also longer to cater for the increased fuselage lengths of the -8/900 series and is constructed from a one piece titanium gear beam. There is an externally mounted trunnion bearing on the gear, a re-located gas charging valve, and the uplock link is separate from the reaction link. It is fitted with 43.5‖ tyres and digital antiskid. Unfortunately, the 737-700 was particularly prone to a dramatic shudder from the main landing gear if you tried to land smoothly. Fortunately, Boeing started fitting shimmy dampers to this series from L/N 406 (Nov 1999) and a retrofit was made available.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES For the MAX. the nose gear has been extended by 15-20cm to increase the ground clearance of the larger diameter engines . One of the peculiarities of the 737 is that it invariably appears to crab when taxying. Theories for this include: A slightly castoring main gear to increase the crosswind capability; Play in the scissor link pins; Weather-cocking into any crosswind impinging on the fin; Torque reaction from the anti-collision light !!! Engineers will tell you that is due to the main gear having a couple of degrees of play due to the shimmy dampers.
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Tyres Tyres are tubeless and inflated with nitrogen. Pressures vary with series, maximum taxi weight, temperature and size of tyres. Unfortunately this large
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES variation in tyre pressures makes it difficult to know your aquaplaning speed. The table below should prove helpful, notice how the aquaplaning speeds are all just below the typical landing speeds. Note: Once aquaplaning has started, it will continue to a much lower speed. Aquaplaning Speed
Nose Gear
Aquaplaning Speed
Originals 96 - 183psi
84 - 116Kts
125 - 145psi
96 - 104Kts
Classics 185 - 217psi
118 - 128Kts
163 - 194psi
111 - 121Kts
NG's
93 - 123Kts
123 - 208psi
95 - 124Kts
Series
Main Gear
117 - 205psi
Another oddity of the 737 is the resonant vibration during taxying that occurs at approx 17kts in classics and 24kts in NG's. This is due to tyre "cold set". This is a temporary flat spot that occurs in tyres with nylon chord (ie all Boeing tyres) when hot tyres are parked and they cool to ambient temperature. Hence the reason why the flat spot is most pronounced in cold weather and tends to disappear during taxying as the tyres warm up again. The speed rating of all tyres is 225mph (195kts).
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Gear Seals Notice that none of the 737 series have ever had full main gear doors. Instead the outer wall of the tyres meet with aerodynamic seals in the wheel well to make a smooth surface along the underside of the aircraft. The first few 737's had inflatable seals which were inflated by bleed air when the gear was either up or down and deflated during transit. The landing gear panel had a NOT SEALED caption which would illuminate during transit (normal), if it illuminated at any other time you could have a puncture and the seal could be depressurised with the GEAR SEAL SHUTOFF switch to save bleed requirements. These were soon dropped as being too complicated and a similar drag and noise advantage was achieved with the present fixed rubber seals.
Brakes The standard 737 brakes are a steel alloy called Cerametalix(R) with versions made by either Goodrich or Honeywell. Since 2008 the 737NG has had a carbon brake option from either Goodrich with Duracarb(R) or Messier-Bugatti with SepCarbÂŽ III-OR. They are both about 300kgs lighter than steel and last twice as long.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The brake pressure gauge merely shows the pressure of the air side of the accumulator and should normally indicate 3000psi. The normal brake system and autobrakes are powered by hydraulic system B. If brake pressure drops below 1500psi, hydraulic system A automatically provides alternate brakes which are manual only (ie no autobrake) and the brake pressure returns to 3000psi. Antiskid is available with alternate brakes, but not touchdown or locked wheel protection on series before the NG's. If both system A and B lose pressure, the accumulator isolation valve closes at 1900psi and you are just left with residual hydraulic pressure and the precharge. The gauge will indicate approx 3000psi and should provide 6 full applications of brake power through the normal brake lines (so full antiskid is available) As the brakes are applied the residual pressure reduces until it reaches 1000psi at which point you will have no more braking available. If the brake pressure gauge ever shows zero, this merely indicates that the precharge has leaked out, normal and alternate braking are unaffected if you still have the hydraulic systems (see QRH). The accumulator also provides pressure for the parking brake. Note that on the 737-1/200, hydraulic system A operates the inboard brakes and system B operates the outboard brakes. Both brake pressures are indicated on the single hydraulic brake pressure gauge. There are four thermal fuse plugs in the inner wheel half which prevent tyre explosion caused by hot brakes. The plugs melt to release tyre pressure at approx 177C (351F). Brake Pressure Condition Indication (psi) 3000
Normal.
3000
No hydraulics, minimum 6 applications of
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES brakes available with accumulator. 1000
No hydraulics, accumulator used up.
Zero
No pre-charge, normal braking available with hydraulics.
Brake Accumulator Brake Wear Pin
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Autobrakes
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Max Pressure at Brakes (PSI)
Deceleration Rate (ft/sec²)
Autobrake Selector
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 1 2 3 Max
1250 1500 2000 3000
â&#x20AC;&#x2022;
â&#x20AC;&#x2022;
RTO
Full
4 5 7.2 12 (below 80kts) 14 (above 80kts) Not Controlled
There is an "on ramp" period where autobrake pressure is applied over a period of time. Approximately 750psi is applied in 1.75 sec, then the pressures above are reached in another 1.25sec for autobrakes 1, 2, or 3 and approx. 1.0 sec for autobrake MAX. Notice from the table above that autobrake Max does not give full brake pressure. For absolute maximum braking on landing, select autobrake Max to assure immediate application after touch down then override with full toe brake pressure. Using high autobrake settings with idle reverse is particularly hard on the brakes as they will be working for the given deceleration rate without the assistance of full reverse thrust. To cancel the autobrake on the landing roll with toe brakes you must apply a brake pressure in excess of 800psi (ie less than that required for autobrake 1). This is more difficult on the NG's because the feedback springs on the brake pedals are stiffer. Autobrake can also be cancelled by putting the speedbrake lever down or by switching the autobrake off. I would advise against the latter in case you accidentally select RTO and get the full 3000psi of braking! Occasionally you may see the brakes (rather than the cabin crew!) smoking during a turnaround. This may be due to hard braking at high landing weights. But the most common reason is that too much grease is put on the axle at wheel change so that when the wheel is pushed on, the grease is deposited inside the torque tube; when this gets hot, it smokes. It could also be
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES contamination from hydraulic fluid either from bleeding operation or a leak either from the brakes or another source.
Photos The landing gear panel is located between the engine instruments and F/O's instrument panel. The Green lights tell you that the gear is down and locked and the red lights warn you if the landing gear is in disagreement with the gear lever position. With the gear UP and locked and the lever UP or OFF, all lights should be extinguished. On a couple of occasions I have seen 3 reds and 3 greens after the gear has been selected down. This was because the telescopic gear handle had not fully compressed back toward the panel. If this happens to you, give it a tap back in and the red lights will extinguish.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 737's used for cargo operations have an extra set of green "GEAR DOWN" lights on the aft overhead panel. This is because with the cabin filled with freight, the main gear downlock viewer could not be guaranteed to be accessible in-flight. The NG's also have these lights because they do not have gear downlock viewers installed.
If any green gear lights do not illuminate after the gear is lowered, you might consider a visual inspection through the gear viewers. The main gear viewer is in the cabin and the nose gear viewer is on the flight deck. The main gear viewers are not installed on NG series aircraft. This is the main gear viewer and it is located in the isle, just behind the emergency exit row. Main gear viewer (not NG's)
Sistemas de las Aeronaves
The first time you look through a viewer it will probably take you several minutes to find what you are looking for, hardly ideal if you
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES are in the situation for real so it is worth acquainting yourself with its use.
There are two prisms, one for each main gear leg. Don't forget to switch on the wheel-well light if at night. Main gear viewer prisms (not NG's)
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Eventually, you should be able to see three red marks on the undercarriage, if they line up then your gear is certainly down and probably locked.
Gear locked marks (not NG's)
The location of the main gear downlock viewer in the wheel well can be clearly seen in this photograph.
Main wheel-well and downlock viewer (classics)
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The nosegear viewer is located under a panel toward the aft of the flightdeck. There is no prism, just a long tube. This viewer directs your eye exactly toward the correct place for viewing but is usually more dirty. The nosegear down marks are two red arrows pointing at each other.
Nosegear viewer (not NG's)
If the gear fails to extend properly or hydraulic system A is lost, the gear can be manually extended by pulling the manual gear extension handles, located in the flight deck. This should be done in accordance with the QRH procedure.
Manual gear extension access hatch
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On NG aircraft opening this hatch affects the operation of landing gear extension & retraction.
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Tyre damage fitting - NG only
This pin is designed to detect any loose tyre tread during gear retraction. If any object impacts on it during retraction, then the gear will automatically extend. The affected gear cannot be retracted until this fitting is replaced. There is one pin at the aft outside of each main wheel well.
Other landing gear system photographs
Nosewheel door (classic) Gravel Deflector (-200)
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Tail skid (-400) Nose wheel
NAVEGATION
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Position The aircraft has several nav positions, many of which are in use simultaneously! They can all be seen on the POS REF page of the FMC.
IRS L & IRS R Position: Each IRS computes its own position independently; consequently they will diverge slightly during the course of the flight. After the alignment process is complete, there is no updating of either IRS positions from any external sources. Therefore it is important to set the IRS position accurately in POS INIT.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES GPS L & GPS R Position: (NG only) The FMC uses GPS position as first priority for FMC position updates. Note this allows the FMC to position update accurately on the ground, eg if no stand position is entered in POS INIT. This practically eliminates the need to enter a take-off shift in the TAKE-OFF REFpage.
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Radio Position: This is computed automatically by the FMC. Best results are achieved with both Nav boxes selected to AUTO (happens automatically on NG), thus allowing the FMC to select the optimum DME or VOR stations required for the position fix. Series 500 aircraft have an extra dedicated DME interogator (hidden) for this purpose and NG's have two. Radio position is found from either a pair of DME stations that have the best range and geometry or from DME/VOR or even DME/LOC. The NAV STATUS page shows the current status of the navaids being tuned. Navaids being used for navigation (ie radio position) are highlighted (here WTM & OTR).
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES FMC Position: FMC navigational computations & LNAV are based upon this. The FMC uses GPS position (NG's only) as first priority for FMC position updates, it will even position update on the ground. If GPS is not available, FMC position is biased approximately 80:20 toward radio position and IRS L. When radio updating is not available, an IRS NAV ONLY message appears. The FMC will then use a ―most probable‖ position based on the IRS position error as found during previous monitoring when a radio position was available. The FMC position should be closely monitored if IRS NAV ONLY is in use for long periods. The POS SHIFT page shows the bearing & distance of other systems positions away from the FMC position. Use this page to force the FMC position to any of those offered.
RNP/ACTUAL Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) is the FMC's estimate of the quality of its position determination. The FMC is 95% certain the the aircraft's actual position lies within a circle of radius ANP centred on the FMC position. Therefore the lower the ANP, the more confident the FMC is of its position estimate. Sistemas de las Aeronaves
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the kind of airspace you are in. Eg for BRNAV above FL150, RNP=2.00nm. The RNP may be overwritten by crew.
SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
If a navaid or GPS system is unreliable or giving invalid data then they can be inhibited using the NAV OPTIONS page.
There is an AFM limitation prohibiting use of LNAV when operating in QFE airspace. This is because several ARINC 424 leg types used in FMC nav databases terminate at MSL altitudes. If baro set is referenced to QFE, these legs will sequence at the wrong time and can lead to navigational errors.
EHSI & Navigation Display (ND) The NG/MAX EFIS control panel is glareshield mounted and has the additional features of a flight path
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES vector, feet/meters display, Inches/mb and EGPWS terrain overlay. The MAX panel has a +/- range controller to increase or reduce map range rather than the numbered selections of previous generations
737-3/4/500 EFIS Control Panel
737-NG EFIS Control Panel
In the NG, if an EFIS control panel fails, you will get a DISPLAYS CONTROL PANEL annunciation on the ND. Ther getter because the altimeter will blank on the failed side, with an ALT flag, until the DISPLAYS - CONTROL PANEL s that this is not the same as the EFI switch on the -3/4/500's which was used to switch symbol generators.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
737-NG Navigation Display (Map mode) The -3/4/500 Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (Map mode)
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EHSI - Nav
EHSI - Plan
EHSI - Full VOR/ILS
EHSI - Expanded VOR/ILS
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EHSI - Map
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EHSI - Center Map
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*** WARNING ***
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The The ND DME readout below the VOR may not necessarily be that of the VOR which is displayed.
This photograph shows that Nav 1 has been manually tuned to 110.20 as shown in 1L of the FMC. DVL VOR iden facility so "DVL" is displayed in large characters both on the FMC and the bottom left of the ND. Below this is disp DME from DVL VOR.
However it can be seen on the ND that the DVL VOR is only about 70nm ahead. In fact DVL is only a VOR station from another station on 110.20. The second station could be identified aurally by the higher pitched tone as "LRH" b the FMC.
I only discovered this by chance as I happened to be following the aircraft progress by tuning beacons en-route (the illustrates the need to aurally identify any beacons, particularly DME, you may have to use, even if they are displayed
Instrument Transfer If either Nav receiver fails, the VHF NAV transfer switch may be used to display the functioning Nav information onto both EFIS and RDMIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. With Nav transferred, the MCP course selector on the serviceable side becomes the master, but all other EFIS selections remain independent. If an IRS fails, the IRS transfer switch is used to switch all associated systems to the functioning IRS. 1/200
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
NG's 3/4/500
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IRS Malfunction Codes (Classics) Align Annunciator
Malfunction Code
Significance of Annunciator or Malfunction Recommended Action Code
Flashing (after 10 mins)
None
Failed align requirement
Verify and re-enter pre
---
01
ISDU failed power up RAM test
Replace ISDU
Steady
02
Entered latitude calculated by IRU
---
02
IRU failure
Replace IRU
Flashing
03
Excessive motion during align
Restart a full align
Flashing (During full align)
04
Lat or Long entered is not within 1 degree of Re-enter the identical p stored value
fast 04
Lat is not within 1/2 degree or Long not within 1 Enter known accurate p deg of stored value flash, do full align.
Flashing realign)
(During
disagrees
with
latitude Verify and re-enter pre or replace IRU
---
05
Left DAA is transmitting a fault
Replace left DAA.
---
06
Right DAA is transmitting a fault
Replace right DAA.
---
07
Selected IRU has detected an invalid air data Replace DADC. input.
Flashing (after 10 mins)
08
Present position has not been entered
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Steady
09
Attitude mode has been selected
Restart a full align. NB heading in POS INIT 1
---
10
ISDU is not receiving power from both IRU's.
Ensure that both IRU's
SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES
Alternate Navigation System - ANS (If installed)
This is an option for the -3/4/500 series. ANS is an IRS based system which provides lateral navigation capability in Control Display Units (AN/CDU) can be operated in parallel with the FMC for an independent cross-check of FMC/CD
The ANS is two separate systems, ANS-L & ANS-R. Each consists of its own AN/CDU and "on-side" IRS. Each pilot has his own navigation mode selector to specify
the source of navigation information to his EFIS symbol generat flight director.
Navigation Mode Selectors
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The ANS also performs computations related to lateral navigation which can provide LNAV commands to the AFDS in the event of an FMC failure.
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The IRS PROGRESS page is similar to the normal PROGRESS page except that all data is from the "on-side" IRS (L in this example).
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AN/CDU has no performance or navigation database. All waypoints must therefore be defined in terms of lat & long. The AN/CDU memory can only store 20 waypoints, these can be entered on the ground or in-flight and may be
taken from FMC data using the C
AN/CDU Pages
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES PNEUMATIC
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES See also Air Conditioning & Pressur isation
General The pneumatic system can be supplied by engines, APU or a ground source. The manifold is normally split by the isolation valve. With the isolation valve switch in AUTO, the isolation valve will only open when an engine bleed air or pack switch is selected OFF.
737-3/500 Pneumatics Panel
Air for engine starting, air conditioning packs, wing anti-ice and the hydraulic reservoirs comes from their respective ducts. Air for pressurisation of the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES water tank and the aspirated TAT probe come from the left pneumatic duct. External air for engine starting feeds into the right pneumatic duct. Ground conditioned air feeds directly into the mix manifold. The minimum pneumatic duct pressure (with anti-ice off) for normal operation is 18psi. If engine bleed air temperature or pressure exceed limits, the BLEED TRIP OFF light will illuminate and the bleed valve will close. You may use the TRIP RESET switch after a short cooling period. If the BLEED
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES TRIP OFF light does not extinguish, it may be due to an overpressure condition. On the Max, BLEED TRIP OFF is replaced by BLEED. This is to indicate that either a bleed has tripped off, OR there is a fault in the bleed air system OR that there is an incorrect bleed config after take-off or goaround. Bleed trip off's are most common on full thrust, bleeds off, take-off's. The reason is excessive leakage past the closed hi stage valve butterfly which leads to a pressure build up at the downstream port
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES on the overpressure switch within the hi stage regulator. The simple in-flight fix is to reduce duct pressure by selecting CLB2 and/or using engine and/or wing anti-ice. WING-BODY OVERHEAT indicates a leak in the corresponding bleed air duct. This is particularly serious if the leak is in the left hand side, as this includes the ducting to the APU. The wingbody overheat circuits may be tested by pressing the OVHT TEST switch; both wing-body overheat lights should illuminate after a minimum of 5 seconds. This test is
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES part of the inspection.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Differences 1/200's - The PACK switches are simply OFF/ON, rather than OFF/AUTO/HIGH on all other series. 4/8/900's - Have two recirc fans for pax comfort and PACK warning lights instead of PACK TRIP OFF. See Air conditioning for an explanation. There are also two sidewall risers either side instead of one on all other series, this is why there appear to be two missing windows forward of the engine inlet. MAX - BLEED TRIP OFF lights renamed BLEED.
737-400 risers
737-400 Pneumatics Panel Sistemas de las Aeronaves
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The hydraulic reservoirs are pressurised to ensure a positive flow of fluid reaches the pumps. A from the left manifold and B from the right. See wheel-well fwd.
Schematic
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Schematic courtesy of Derek Watts
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POWER PLANT History The original choice of powerplant was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1, but before the first order had been finalised the JT8D-7 was used for commonality with the current 727. The -7 was flat rated to develop the same thrust (14,000lb.st) at higher ambient temperatures than the -1 and became the standard powerplant for the -100. By the end of the -200 production the JT8D-17R was up to 17,400lb.st. thrust. Auxiliary inlet doors were fitted to early JT8D's around the nose cowl. These were spring loaded and opened automatically whenever the pressure differential between inlet and external static pressures was high, ie slow speed, high thrust conditions (takeoff) to give additional engine air and closed again as airspeed increased causing inlet static pressure to rise.
JT8D Cutaway
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The sole powerplant for all 737's after the -200 is the CFM-56. The core is produced by General Electric and is virtually identical to the F101 as used in the Rockwell B-1. SNECMA produce the fan, IP compressor, LP turbine, thrust
reversers and all external accessories. The name "CFM" comes from GE's commercial engine designation "CF" and SNECMA's "M" for Moteurs. One problem with such a high bypass engine was its physical size and ground clearance; this was overcome by mounting the accessories on the lower sides to flatten the nacelle bottom and intake lip to give the "hamster pouch" look. The engines were moved forward and raised, level with the upper surface of the wing and tilted 5 degrees up which not only helped the ground clearance but also directed the exhaust downwards which reduced the effects of pylon overheating and gave some vectored thrust to assist take-off performance. The CFM56-3 proved to be almost 20% more efficient than the JT8D.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The NG's use the CFM56-7B which has a 61 inch diameter solid titanium widechord fan, new LP turbine turbomachinery, FADEC, and new single crystal material in the HP turbine. All of which give an 8% fuel reduction, 15% maintenance cost reduction and greater EGT margin compared to the CFM563. One of the most significant improvements in the powerplant has been to the noise levels. The original JT8D-9 engines in 1967 produced 75 decibel levels, enough to disrupt normal conversation indoors, within a noise contour that extended 12 miles along the take-off flight path. Since 1997 with the introduction of the 737-700â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s CFM56-7B engines, the 75-decibel noise contour is now only 3.5 miles long. The core engine (N2) is governed by metering fuel (see below), whereas the fan (N1) is a free turbine. The advantages of this include: minimised inter-stage bleeding, fewer stalls or surges and an increased compression ratio without decreasing efficiency. This quote from CFMI in 1997: "Since entering service in 1984, the CFM56-3 has established itself as the standard against which all other engines are judged in terms of reliability, durability, and cost of ownership. The fleet of nearly 1,800 CFM56-3-powered 737s in service worldwide have logged more than 61 million hours and 44 million cycles while maintaining a 99.98 percent dispatch reliability rate (one flight delayed or cancelled for engine-caused reasons per 5,000 departures), a .070 shop visit rate (one unscheduled shop visit per 14,286 flight hours), and an in-flight shutdown rate of .003 (one incident per 333,333 hours)." In 2012 a CFM56-7B engine delivered in 1999, powering a 737-800 aircraft, became the first engine in the world to achieve 50,000 hours without a shop visit. Tech Insertion
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES "Tech Insertion" is an upgrade to the CFM56-5B & 7B available from early 2007. The package includes improvements to the HP compressor, combustor and HP & LP turbines. The package give a longer time on wing, about 5% lower maintenance costs, 15-20% lower oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions, and 1% lower fuel burn. Tech Insertion will become the new production configuration for both the CFM56-7B and CFM56-5B. CFM is also defining potential upgrade kits that could be made available to operators by late 2007.
CFM56-7BE "Evolution" The new CFM56-7BE Product Improvement package announced in 2009 will have the following design changes & improvements:
HPC outlet guide vane diffuser area ratio improved and pressure losses reduced. HPT blades numbers reduced, axial chord increased, tip geometry improved. Rotor redesigned. LPT blade & vane numbers reduced and profiles based on optimized loading distribution. LEAP56 incorporated. Primary nozzle, plug & strut faring all redesigned.
The 7BE engine can be identified by the exhaust configuration. The nozzle is 18‖ shorter and exhaust plug is 2.5‖ shorter, although it looks longer because of the much shorter nozzle. The heat shield above the nozzle has new titanium pans, inboard plume suppressors and side scoops to cope with the higher temperatures from the new short exhaust configuration.
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CFM56-7B Exhaust
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CFM56-7BE Exhaust The -7BE will be able to be intermixed with regular SAC/DAC or Tech Insertion engines subject to updated FMC, MEDB and EEC. Entry into service is planned for mid-2011
From the press 2 Aug 2010: CFM International has won certification for its upgraded CFM56-7BE engine from the FAA and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), and is working with Boeing to prepare for flight tests on a Boeing 737 starting in the fourth quarter of this year.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Entry into service is planned for mid-2011 to coincide with 737 airframe improvements that, together with the engine upgrade, are designed to provide a 2% improvement in fuel consumption. CFM provisionally scheduled engine certification by the end of the third quarter, but says development, including recently completed flight tests, have progressed faster than expected. Improvements include a new high-pressure compressor outlet guide vane diffuser, high-pressure turbine blades, disks and forward outer seal. The package also includes a new design of low-pressure turbine blades, vanes and disk. The first full CFM56-7BE type design engine completed ground testing in January 2010, and overall completed 390 hours of ground testing, says the Franco-U.S. engine maker. In addition, the upgraded CFM completed a 60-hour certification flight test program in May on GE’s modified 747 flying testbed in Victorville, Calif. At the recent Farnborough International Airshow, company officials said discussions are continuing with Airbus about a possible upgrade for the CFM56-5B for the A320 family based on the same technology suite. A decision on whether or not an upgraded variant will be developed for Airbus will be finalized by year-end, adds the engine maker.
Leap -1B 3 May 2013 - CFM has frozen the design of its next-generation Leap turbofan destined for Boeing’s 737 MAX family of narrowbodies. The joint venture formed by General Electric (GE) and Snecma also has started the assembly of the first of 28 Leap engines, which will be used for ground and airborne tests between now and early 2015, when the first variant of the new engine is due to be certified. Gareth Richards, Leap’s program manager, during a May 2 press conference in London said the design freeze on the Leap-1B variant was completed on schedule on April 29. Design freeze of the -1A and -
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 1C variants of the engine, destined for the Airbus A320NEO and the Comac C919, respectively, was completed in mid-2012. Richards said the design freeze was a significant phase in the -1B’s development and will allow engineers to begin producing parts by the end of the year. The schedule for the -1B is significantly different from the other variants. The -1A and -1C, which differ only in aircraft integration and fitting, are due to be tested in September, with certification due in 2015. For the -1B, the first engine will be ready for tests in June 2014, with certification due in 2016. According to CFM, the scheduling differences were requested by Boeing. CFM will build around 1,500 CFM56 engines in 2013, but expects Leap production to increase to 1,700 engines a year by 2020. This would require production of 36,000 fan blades each year. Production of the CFM56 should begin to fall before then and will probably cross over with the Leap engine for about three years through to 2019. The only CFM56 production after that would be for spare engines.
Fuel Thrust (fuel flow) is controlled primarily by a hydro-mechanical MEC in response to thrust lever movement, as fitted to the original 737-1/200’s. In the – 3/4/500 series, fuel flow is further refined electronically by the PMC, which acts without thrust lever movement. The 737-NG models go one stage further with FADEC (EEC). The 3/4/500's may be flown with PMC’s inoperative, but an RTOW penalty (ie N1 reduction) is imposed because the N1 section will increase by approximately 4% during take-off due to windmilling effects (FOTB 737-1, Jan 1985). This reduction should save reaching any engine limits. The thrust levers should not be re-adjusted during the take-off after thrust is set unless a red-line limit is likely to be exceeded, ie you should allow the N1's to windmill up. Fuel is heated to avoid icing by the returning oil in the MEC.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Oil Oil pressure is measured before the bearings, where you need it; oil temperature on return, at its hottest; and oil quantity at the tank, which drops after engine start. Oil pressure is unregulated, therefore the yellow band (1326psi) is only valid at take-off thrust whereas the lower red line (13psi) is valid at all times. If the oil pressure is ever at or below the red line, the LOW OIL PRESSURE light will illuminate and that engine should be shut down. NB on the 737-1/200 when the oil quantity gauge reads zero, there could still be up to 5 quarts present.
Ignitio n There are two indepe ndent AC ignition systems, L & R. Starting with R selected on the first flight of the day provides a check of the AC standby bus, which would be your only electrical source with the loss of thrust on both engines and no APU. Normally, in-flight, no igniters are in use as the combustion is self-sustaining. During engine start or take-off & landing, GND & CONT use the selected igniters. In conditions of moderate or severe precipitation, turbulence or icing, or for an in-flight relight, FLT should be selected to use both igniters. NG aircraft: for in-flight engine starts, GRD arms both igniters. The 737-NG's allow the EEC to switch the ignition ON or OFF under certain conditions:
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ON: For flameout protection. The EEC will automatically switch on both ignition systems if a flameout is detected. OFF: For ground start protection. The EEC will automatically switch off both ignition systems if a hot or wet start is detected.
Note that older 737-200s have ignition switch positions named GRD, OFF, L IGN, R IGN and FLT while newer 737s use GRD, OFF, CONT and FLT. This is why QRH uses "ON" (eg in the One Engine Inop Landing checklist) to cover both LOW IGN & CONT for operators with mixed fleets consisting of old and new versions of the 737.
737-200 Ignition panel
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Engine Starting Min duct pressure for start (Classics only): 30psi at msl, -½psi per 1000ft pressure altitude. Max: 48psi. Min 25% N2 (or 20% N2 at max motoring) to introduce fuel; any sooner could result in a hot start. Max motoring is when N2 does not increase by more than 1% in 5 seconds. Aborted engine start criteria:
No N1 (before start lever is raised to idle). No oil pressure (by the time the engine is stable). No EGT (within 10 secs of start lever being raised to idle). No increase, or very slow increase, in N1 or N2 (after EGT indication). EGT rapidly approaching or
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES exceeding 725˚C. An abnormal start advisory does not by itself mean that you have to abort the engine start. Starter cutout is approx 46% N2 3/4/500; 56% N2 -NG's. Starter duty cycle is:
First attempt: 2mins on, 20sec off. Second and subsequent attempts: 2mins on, 3mins off.
Do not re-engage engine start switch until N2 is below 20%. During cold weather starts, oil pressure may temporary exceed the green band or may not show any increase until oil temperature rises. No indication of oil pressure by the time idle RPM is Round Dial -3/400 Engine Instruments achieved requires an immediate engine
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES shutdown. At low ambient temperatures, a temporary high oil pressure above the green band may be tolerated. When starting the engines in tailwind conditions, Boeing recommends making a normal start. Expect a longer cranking time to ensure N1 is rotating in the correct direction before moving the start lever. A higher than normal EGT should be expected, yet the same limits and procedures should apply.
3/4/500 EIS
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Upper DU NG EIS
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Lower DU
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Upper DU in Compact Display mode The Compact Display mode can only be shown when the MFD ENG button is pressed for the first time after the aircraft has been completely shut down. The photo shows this display with one engine started and nicely illustrates the blank parameters which are controlled by the EEC and hence are only displayed when the EEC powers up when the associated start switch is selected to GND. During startup the EEC's receive electrical power from the AC transfer busses, but their normal source of power are their own alternators which cut-in when N2 is above 15%.
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EIS Display The introduction of Engine Instrument System (EIS) in late 1988 gave many advantages over the electromechanical instruments present since 1967. ie a 10lb weight reduction, improved reliability, reduction in power consumption, detection of impending abnormal starts, storage of exceedances and a Built In Test Equipment (BITE) check facility. The BITE check is accessed by pressing a small recessed button at the bottom of each eis panel, this is only possible when both engines N1 are below 10%. Pressing these buttons will show an LED check during which the various checks are conducted. If any of the checks fail, the appropriate code will be shown in place of the affected parameters readout. The following codes are used: Primary EIS BITE Codes CodeFault ROM Read Only Memory check RAM Random Access Memory check FDC
Frequency to Digital Converter check
ENG
Engine Identity Inputs (not fuel flow)
PWR Power Monitor MMF Maint Module Fault (fuel flow
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES only) RTC Real Time Clock (fuel flow only) ERF
Exceedance RAM Full (fuel flow only)
A/D
Analogue to Digital Converter (fuel flow only)
ARF
ARINC Receiver Fault (fuel flow only)
uP
Microprocessor
Any exceedance of either N1, N2 or EGT is recorded at 1 sec intervals in a non-volatile memory along with the fuel flow at the time, this data can be downloaded by connecting an ARINC 429 bus reader. Up to 10 minutes of data can be stored. The last exceedance is also put into volatile memory and can be read straight from the EIS before aircraft electrical power is removed. This is done by pressing the primary EIS BITE button twice within 2 seconds, this will then alternately display the highest reading and the duration of the exceedance in seconds. Secondary EIS BITE Codes Code Fault 0-
Microprocessor
1-
Program Memory
2-
Random Access Memory check
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 3-
Analogue to Digital Converter
4-
Power Monitor
5-
400Hz Reference Voltage
6-
ARINC Receiver Fault
Airborne Vibration Monitors (AVM) All series of 737 have the facility for AVM although not all 737-200's have them fitted. The early 737-1/200's had two vibration pickup points; One at the turbine section and one at the engine inlet there was a selector switch so that the crew could choose which to monitor. Some even had a high and low frequency filter selection switch. From Boeing Flt Ops Review, Feb 2003: "On airplanes with AVM procedures, flight crews should also be made aware that AVM indications are not valid while at takeoff power settings, during power changes, or until after engine thermal stabilization. High AVM indications can also be observed during operations in icing conditions."
High Pressure Turbine Clearance Control The HPTCC system uses HP compressor bleed air to obtain maximum steady state HPT performance and to minimise EGT transient overshoot during rapid change of engine speed.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Variable Stator Vanes The VSV actuation system controls primary airflow through the HP compressor by varying the angle of the inlet guide vanes and three stages of variable stator vanes. Variable Bleed Valves Control airflow quantity to the HP compressor. They are fully open during rapid accelerations and reverse thrust operation.
Dual Annular Combustors (DAC) The CFM56-7B is available with an optional DAC system, known as the CFM56-7B/2, which considerably reduces NOx emissions. DAC have 20 double tip fuel nozzles instead of the single tip and a dual annular shaped combustion chamber. The number of nozzles in use: 20/0, 20/10 or 20/20, varies depending upon thrust required. The precise N1 ranges of the different modes varies with ambient conditions.
20/20 mode - High power (cruise N1 and above) 20/10 mode - Medium power 20/00 mode - Low power (Idle N1)
This gives a lean fuel/air mixture, which reduces flame temperatures, and also gives higher throughput velocities which reduce the residence time available to form NOx. The net result is up to 40% less NOx emissions than a standard CFM56-7. The first were installed on the 737-600 fleet of SAS but unfortunately were subject to resonance in the LPT-1 blades during operation in the 20/10 mode, which occurred in an N1 range usually used during descent and approach.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Although there were no in-flight shutdowns, boroscope inspections revealed that the LPT blades were starting to separate. CFM quickly replaced all blades on all DAC engines with reinforced blades and have since replaced them again with a new redesigned blade.
Reverse Thrust The original 737-1/200 thrust reversers were pneumatically powered clamshell doors taken straight from the 727 (shown left). When reverse was selected, 13th stage bleed air was ported to a pneumatic actuator that rotated the deflector doors and clamshell doors into position. Unfortunately they were relatively ineffective and apparently tended to push the aircraft up off the runway when deployed. This reduced the downforce on the main wheels thereby reducing the effectiveness of the wheel brakes.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES By 1969 these had been changed by Boeing and Rohr to the much more successful hydraulically powered target type thrust reversers (shown right). This required a 48 inch extension to the tailpipe to accommodate the two cylindrical deflector doors which were mounted on a four bar linkage system and associated hydraulics. The doors are set 35 degrees away from the vertical to allow the exhaust to be deflected inboard and over the wings and outboard and under the wings. This ensures that exhaust and debris is not blown into the wheel-well, nor is it blown directly downwards which would lift the weight off the wheels or be re-ingested. Fortunately the new longer nacelle improved cruise performance by improving internal airflow within the engine and also reduced cruise drag. These thrust reversers are locked against inadvertent deployment by both deflector door locks and the four bar linkage being overcenter. To illustrate how poor the original clamshell system was, Boeings own data says target type thrust reversers at 1.5 EPR are twice as effective as clamshells at full thrust! The CFM56 uses blocker doors and cascade vanes to direct fan air forwards. Net reverse thrust is defined as: fan reverser air, minus forward thrust from engine core, plus form drag from the blocker door. As this is significantly greater at higher thrust, reverse thrust should be used immediately after landing or RTO and, if conditions allow, should be reduced to idle by 60kts to avoid debris ingestion damage. Caution: It is possible to deploy reverse thrust when either Rad Alt is below 10ft â&#x20AC;&#x201C; this is not recommended.
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The REVERSER light shows either control valve or sleeve position disagreement or that the auto-restow circuit is activated. This light will illuminate every time the reverser is commanded to stow, but extinguishes after the stow has completed, and will only bring up master caution ENG if a malfunction has occurred. Recycling the reverse thrust will often clear the fault. If this occurs inflight, reverse thrust will be available after landing. The REVERSER UNLOCKED light (EIS panel) is potentially much more serious and will illuminate in-flight if a sleeve has mechanically unlocked. Follow the QRH drill, but only multiple failures will allow the engine to go into reverse thrust. The 737-1/200 thrust reverser panel has a LOW PRESSURE light which refers to the reverser accumulator pressure when insufficient pressure is available to deploy the reversers. The blue caption between the switches is ISOLATION VALVE and illuminates when the three conditions for reverse thrust are satisfied: Engine running, Aircraft on ground & Fire switches in normal position. The guarded
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES NORMAL / OVERRIDE switches to enable the reverse thrust to be selected on the ground with the engines stopped (for maintenance purposes).
HushKits The first "hushkit" was not visible externally, in 1982 exhaust mixers were made available for the JT8D-15, -17 or 17R. These were fitted behind the LP turbine to mix the hot gas core airflow with the cooler bypassed fan air. This increased mixing reduced noise levels by up to 3.6 EPNdB. Several different Stage III hushkits have been available from manufacturers Nordam (shown right) and AvAero since 1992. The Nordam comes in HGW and LGW versions. As hushkits use more fuel, the EU tried to ban all hushkitted aircraft flying into the EU from April 2002. This was strongly opposed and the directive has been changed to allow hushkitted aircraft to use airports which will accept them.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 737 classics may be fitted with hardwall forward acoustic panels which reduce noise by 1 EPNdB
Additional References
Jet Engine Malfunctions and Responses Powerplant Tech Quiz Assumed temperature thrust reduction CFM 56-3 Specific Operating Instructions - Notes from the engine operating manual. Part 1: Engine & APU specs, troubleshooting & maintenance tips. JT8D-15A: Study notes. Birdstrike Damage: Photos & comments.
Limitations Series
1/200
3/4/500
6/7/8/900/BBJ
Engine
JT8-17A
CFM56-3
CFM56-7
Max time limit 5 mins for take-off or go-around thrust:
5 mins *
5 mins *
Max N1
106%
104%
102.4%
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Max N2
100%
105%
105%
(5 650°C
930°C
950°C
Continuous
610°C
895°C
925°C
Start
575°C
725°C
725°C
165°C
165°C
155°C
15 minute 130limit (45 165°C minute limit on NG)
160-165°C
140-155°C
Max continuous
130°C
160°C
140°C
Min oil press
40psi
13psi (warning 13psi (warning light), 26psi (gauge) light), 26psi (gauge)
Max EGT's: Take-off min limit)
Oil T's & P's Max temperature
Min quantity dispatch)
oil 2.25 USG 60% full (12 (at Quarts) **
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US 60% full (12 Quarts) **
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Starting 30psi -1/2psi per 1000' amsl pressures prior to starter engagement
N/A
Starter cycle
2mins on, 10secs off.
duty 1st attempt: 2min on, 20sec off 2nd & subsequent attempt: 2min on, 3min off
* May be increased to 10 mins if certified ** See AMM Task 12-13-11-600-801 Engine Ratings Maximum Certified Thrust - This is the maximum thrust certified during testing for each series of 737. This is also the thrust that you get when you firewall the thrust levers, regardless of the maximum rated thrust. On the 737NG, the EEC limits the maximum certified thrust gained from data in the engine strut according to the airplane model as follows: Aircraft Series
Maximum Certified Thrust
737-600
CFM56-7B22 22,700lb.st
=
737-700
CFM56-7B24 24,200lb.st
=
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 737-800
CFM56-7B27 27,300lb.st
=
737-900
CFM56-7B27 27,300lb.st
=
Maximum Rated Thrust - This is the maximum thrust for the installed engine that the autothrottle will command. This is specified by the operator from the options in the table below.
Engine
Aircraft Series
Max Static Bypass Thrust Ratio (lb.st.)
JT8D7/7A/7B
1/200
14,000
1.10
JT8D-9/9A
1/200
14,500
1.04
JT8D-15/15A 200Adv
15,500
0.99
JT8D-17/17A 200Adv
16,000
1.02
JT8D-17R
17,400
1.00
CFM56-3B4 500
18,500
5.0
90
CFM56-3B1 3/500
20,000
5.0
70
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES CFM56-3B2 3/400
22,000
5.0
50
CFM56-3C1 400
23,500
4.9
45
CFM56-7B18 600
19,500
5.5
145
CFM56-7B20 6/700
20,600
5.4
148
CFM56-7B22 6/700
22,700
5.3
150
CFM56-7B24 7/8/900
24,200
5.3
125
CFM56-7B26 7/8/900/BBJ 26,400
5.1
85
CFM56-7B27 8/900/BBJ
5.0
?
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Misc Photos
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The left hand side of the CFM56-3. The large silver coloured pipe is the start air manifold with the starter located at its base. The black unit below that is the CSD. The green unit forward (left) of the CSD is the generator cooling air collector shroud, the silver-gold thing forward of that (with the wire bundle visible) is the generator, and the
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES green cap most forward is the generator cooling air inlet. The view into the JT8D jetpipe. The corrugated ring is the mixer unit, this is designed to thoroughly mix the bypass air with the turbine exhaust. The exhaust cone makes a divergent flow which slows down the exhaust and also protects the rear face of
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES the turbine stage.
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The view into the CFM56-3 jetpipe. This is the turbine exhaust area, no mixing is required as the bypass air is exhausted coaxially.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES There are two fan inlet temperature sensors in the CFM56-3 engine intake. The one at the 2 o'clock position is used by the PMC and the one at the 11 o'clock position is used by the MEC. The MEC uses the signal to establish parameters to control low and high idle power schedules. The temperature data is used for thrust management and variable
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES bleed valves, variable stator vanes & high / low pressure turbine clearance control systems.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The CFM567 inlet has just one fan inlet temperature probe, which is for the EEC (because there is no PMC on the NG's). A subtle difference between the NG & classic temp probes is that the NG's only use inlet temp data on the ground and for 5 minutes after take-off. Inflight after 5 minutes temp data is taken from the ADIRU's. The temperature
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES data is used for thrust management and variable bleed valves, variable stator vanes & high / low pressure turbine clearance control systems.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The CFM567 spinner has a unique conelliptical profile. The first 7373/400's had a conical (sharp pointed) spinner but these tended to shed ice into the core. This was one of the reasons for the early limitation of minimum 45% N1 in icing conditions which made descent management quite difficult. They were later replaced with elliptical
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES (round nosed) spinners which succeeded in deflecting the ice away from the core, but because of their larger stagnation point, were more prone to picking up ice in the first place. The conelliptical spinner of the NG's neatly solves both problems.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The CFM567 tailpipe is slightly longer then the CFM56-3 and has a small tube protruding from the faring. This is the Aft Fairing Drain Tube for any hydraulic fluid, oil or fuel that may collect in there. There is also a second drain tube that does not protrude located on the inside of the fairing.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The JT8D tailpipe fitted as standard from l/n 135 onwards. The original thrust reversers were totally redesigned by Boeing and Rohr since the aircraft had inherited the same internal pneumaticall y powered clamshell thrust reversers as the 727 which were relatively ineffective and apparently tended to lift the aircraft off the runway when deployed!
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The redesign to external hydraulically powered target reversers cost Boeing $24 million but dramatically improved its short field performance which boosted sales to carriers proposing to use the aircraft as a regional jet from short runways. Also the engine nacelles were extended by 1.14m as a drag reduction measure.
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The outboard side of the JT8D-9A with the cowling open.
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WARNING SYSTEMS
Warning Lights
Master Caution and System Annunciator lights, left and right.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The Master Caution system was developed for the 737 to ease pilot workload as it was the first Boeing airliner to be produced without a flight engineer. In simple terms it is an attention getter that also directs the pilot toward the problem area concerned. The system annunciators (shown above) are arranged such that the cautions are in the same orientation as the overhead panel e.g. FUEL bottom left, DOORS bottom of third column, etc. On the ground, the master caution system will also tell you if the condition is dispatchable or if the QRH needs to be actioned. The FCOM gives the following guidance on master caution illuminations on the ground: Before engine start, use individual system lights to verify the system status. If an individual system light indicates an improper condition: • check the Dispatch Deviations Procedures Guide (DDPG) or the operator equivalent to decide if the condition has a dispatch effect • decide if maintenance is needed If, during or after engine start, a red warning or amber caution light illuminates: • do the respective non-normal checklist (NNC) • on the ground, check the DDPG or the operator equivalent If, during recall, an amber caution illuminates and then extinguishes after a master caution reset: • check the DDPG or the operator equivalent • the respective non-normal checklist is not needed Pressing the system annunciator will show any previously cancelled or single channel cautions. If a single channel caution is encountered, the QRH drill should not be actioned. Master caution lights and the system annunciator are powered from the battery bus and will illuminate when an amber caution light illuminates. Exceptions to this include a single centre fuel tank LOW PRESSURE light (requires both), REVERSER lights (requires 12 seconds) and INSTR SWITCH (inside normal
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES FoV). When conducting a light test, during which the system will be inhibited, both bulbs of each caution light should be carefully checked. The caution lights are keyed to prevent them from being replaced incorrectly, but may be interchanged with others of the same caption.
Keying of warning lights
ď&#x201A;ˇ
Red lights - Warning - indicate a critical condition and require immediate
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action. Amber lights - Caution - require timely corrective action. Blue lights - Advisory - eg valve positions and unless bright blue, ie a valve/switch disagreement, do not require crew action. Green lights - Satisfactory - indicate a satisfactory or ON condition.
Aural Warnings Cockpit aural warnings include the fire bell, take-off configuration warning, cabin altitude, landing gear configuration warning, mach/airspeed overspeed, stall warning, GPWS and TCAS. External aural warnings are: The fire bell in the wheel well and the ground call horn in the nose wheel-well for an E & E bay overheat or IRS’s on DC. Only certain warnings can be silenced whilst the condition exists. To test the GPWS, ensure that the weather radar is on in TEST mode and displayed on the EHSI. Pressing SYS TEST quickly will give a short confidence test, pressing for 10 seconds will give a full vocabulary test.
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The GPWS pane. Click photo to hear the GPWS vocabulary test. (175kb)
AURAL WARNING PRIORITY LOGIC ALERT LEVEL
MODE PRIORITY DESCRIPTION
7
1
WINDSHEAR WINDSHEAR
1
2
PULL-UP (SINK RATE)
W
2
3
PULL-UP CLOSURE)
(TERRAIN
W
2A
4
PULL-UP CLOSURE)
(TERRAIN
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES V1
5
V1 CALLOUT
I
TA
6
TERRAIN TERRAIN PULL-UP W
WXR 7
WINDSHEAR AHEAD
W
2
8
TERRAIN TERRAIN
C
6
9
MINIMUMS
I
TA
10
CAUTION TERRAIN
C
4
11
TOO LOW TERRAIN
C
TCF
12
TOO LOW TERRAIN
C
6
13
ALTITUDE CALLOUTS
I
4
14
TOO LOW GEAR
C
4
15
TOO LOW FLAPS
C
1
16
SINK RATE
C
3
17
DONT SINK
C
5
18
GLIDESLOPE
C
WXR 19
MONITOR RADAR DISPLAY
C
6
APPROACHING MINIMUMS
I
20
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES 6
21
BANK ANGLE
C
TCAS 22
RA (CLIMB, DESCEND, ETC.) W
TCAS 23
TA (TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC)
TEST 24
BITE AND MAINTENANCE I INFORMATION
C
Radio Altimeter Callouts Automatic rad-alt calls are a customer option on the 3-900 series. Calls can include any of the following: 2500 1000 500 400 300 200 100 50 40 30 20 10
("Twenty
Five
Hundred"
or
"Minimums" or "Minimums, "Plus Hundred" when 100ft "Approaching Minimums" when 80ft "Approaching Decision "Decision Height"
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"Radio
Altimeter").
Minimums" above DH above DH Height"
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Customers can also request special heights, such as 60ft.
Noise Levels If is often commented how loud these callouts are. The volume level for these callouts and any other aural warnings is set so that they can still be audible at the highest ambient noise levels, this is considered to be when the aircraft is at Vmo (340kts) at 10,000ft. The design sound pressure level at 35,000ft, M0.74, cruise thrust is 87dB at the Captains seat, compared to 90-93dB in the cabin. Many pilots consider the 737 flightdeck to be generally loud. This is Boeings response to that charge: "Using the flight deck noise levels measured by Boeing Noise Engineering during a typical flight profile (entire flight), a daily A-weighted sound exposure was calculated using ISO/DIS 1999 standards. This calculation indicates the time weight noise exposure is below 80 db(A) and should not cause hearing damage. Flight deck noise improvement continues to be a part of current Boeing product quality improvement activities." And when asked later about the particularly noisy NG: "Boeing has conducted extensive flight tests to define the contributing noise sources for the 737 Flight Deck. Subsequently, various system and hardware modifications have been evaluated for possible improvements. Currently there are no proposed changes where the benefits are significant enough to warrant incorporation. Additional candidates are currently under study and if their merit
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES is validated, they could be incorporated at a later date during production and retrofit." That said, in 2005 Boeing added 10 small vortex generators at the base of the windscreen which reduce flightdeck aerodynamic noise by 3dB. (See fuselage page for photo).
Stall Warning Stall warnin g test require s AC power. Also, with no hydrau lic pressu re, the leadin g edge flaps may droop enoug h to cause an asymmetry signal, resulting in a failure of the stall warning system test. If this
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES happens, switch the "B" system electric pump ON to fully retract all flaps and then repeat the test.
System test switches on the aft overhead panel
The 737-1/200's had a different stall warning panel as shown right: The OFF light may indicate either a failure of the heater of the angle of attack sensor a system signal failure or a power failure. The test disc should rotate, indicating electrical continuity, when the switch is held to the test position. 737-200 Warning Panel
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TCAS Various version s of TCAS have been fitted to the 737 since its introduc tion in the 1990's. The early days of TCAS there were different methods of displaying the visuals. For the Honeywell system (Previously AlliedSignal, previous to that - Bendix/King), their most popular method for nonEFIS airplanes was to install an RA/VSI which was a mechanical VSI that had the "eyebrows" on the outer edge directing the pilot to climb (green) or stay away from (red) and use the separate Radar Indicator for the basic traffic display. Even early EFIS aircraft had the RA/VSI (see photos left & right) TCAS is now integrated at production into the EFIS displays. The PFD/EADI will display advisories to climb, descend, or stay level since they give the vertical cue to the pilot. The ND/EHSI provides the map view looking down to show targets and their relative altitude and vertical movement relative to your
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES aircraft.
TCAS display integrated onto the ND
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES TCAS control is from the transp onder panel. Note that with the mode switch in the STBY position, no transmissions will occur. When selected, modes A and C will only transmit when the aircraft is not on the ground, but mode S will operate regardless of air/ground status.
Weather Radar The beamwidth of the 737 weather radar is 3.5 degrees. To calculate the height of the cloud tops above your altitude use the following formula: Cloud tops above a/c (ft) = range (nm) x (tilt - 1.5 deg) x 100 eg Wx at range 40nm stops painting at +2deg tilt. The tops would be 40 x 0.5 x 100 = 2000ft above your level.
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Weather radar or terrain can be overlaid onto the EHSI with these switches on the classics. In the NG the overlay switches are part of the EFIS control panel. The colours may appear similar but their meanings are very different.
737 NG's are fitted with predictive windshear system (PWS). This is available below 2300ft. You do not need weather radar to be switched on for PWS to work, since it switches on automatically when take-off thrust is set. However there is a 12 sec warm up period, so if you want PWS available for the take-off you should switch the weather radar on when you line up.
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Windshear warning displayed on the ND. Notice the cone and range at which windshear is predicted.
EGPWS - Peaks Display
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES The Peaks display overlays EGPWS terrain information onto the EHSI. The colour coding is similar to wx radar but with several densities of each colour being used. The simplified key is:
Color
Altitude Diff from Aircraft (ft)
Black
No terrain
Cyan
Zero ft MSL (Customer option)
Green
-2000 to +250
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES Yellow
-500 to +2000
Red
+2000 or above
Magenta Terrain elevation unknown
The two overlaid numbers are the highest and lowest terrain elevations, in hundreds of ft amsl, currently being displayed. Here 5900ft and 800ft amsl. One of the main difference between Peaks display and others is that it will show terrain more than 2000ft below your level (eg a mountain range from cruise altitude). This can be very useful for situational awareness. EGPWS Limitations
Do not use the terrain display for navigation. Do not use within 15nm of an airfield not in the terrain database.
Honeywell EGPWS Pilots notes
Proximity Switch Electronic Unit The Proximity Switch Electronic Unit (PSEU) is a system that communicates the position or state of system components eg flaps, gear, doors, etc to other systems. The 737-NG's are fitted with a PSEU which controls the following systems: Take-off and landing configuration warnings, landing gear transfer valve, landing gear position indicating and warning, air/ground relays, airstairs & door warnings and speedbrake deployed warning.
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SISTEMAS DE LAS AERONAVES SFP aircraft (-800SFP / -900ER) also have an SPSEU which monitors the 2 position tailskid and the mid exit doors (900ER only). The PSEU light is replaced by a MAINT light in the Max. The PSEU/MAINT light is inhibited from when the thrust levers are set for takeoff power (thrust lever angle beyond 53 degrees) until 30 seconds after landing. If the PSEU/MAINT light illuminates, you have a "non-dispatchable fault" and the QRH says do not take-off. In this condition the PSEU/MAINT light can only be extinguished by fixing the fault. However if you only get the PSEU/MAINT light on recall, you have a "dispatchable fault" which it is acceptable to go with. In this condition the PSEU/MAINT light will extinguish when master caution is reset.
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Notas
Ilustraciรณn 1 Finnair Airbus A350-900 OH-LWF
Ilustraciรณn 2 ANA - All Nippon Airways Boeing 7878 Dreamliner JA812A
Ilustraciรณn 3 Etihad Cargo Boeing 777F A6-DDB
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Notas
Ilustraciรณn 4 Russia - Air Force Mil Mi-26 RF-95568
Ilustraciรณn 5 USA - Marine Corps Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II 168727
Ilustraciรณn 6 JAL - Japan Transocean Air Boeing 737-400 JA8999
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Notas
Ilustraciรณn 7 Aviolet Boeing 737-300 YU-ANJ
Ilustraciรณn 8 Etihad Airways Airbus A380 A6-APB
Ilustraciรณn 9 USA - Air Force Boeing VC-25A 82-8000
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