2.0. Literature Review

2.0. Literature Review

The four chapters within this literature review assess the Scandinavian style from initial inception and defining the region through to how it is recognisable and the impact it has had within Britain.

2.1. Region

The term ‘Scandinavia’

originates from a Swedish town called ‘Scania’ and

geographically includes Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland and the Faroe

Islands (Olesen, 2013). Books,

publications, essays and other types of literature have delved into the controversy as to whether the latter countries should be taken into account. Worrall (2015) suggests that to an outsider, these countries are difficult to differentiate between, so are almost deemed equal. Moreover, this can be contradicted as they do seem to incur many differences, such as “geography and language“(van Hattem, 2013, p.35). Therefore, it raises the question as to whether they should be individually analysed, regarding culture and values, in order to discuss the impact they each have on Scandinavia. Consequently, when referring to Scandinavia for this thesis, it would be in line with (Figure 2).

According to Santiago (2014), there is an ongoing discussion about the terms Nordic and Scandinavian. ‘Nordic’ is a vague term that directly translates as

“Northern dwellers” (Partenen, 2018, p. 5) in the Skandium language. In Britain however, Scandinavia is mainly used as a synonym or near-synonym for Nordic

FIGURE 2 ‘Best maps of Scandinavia’ by Scandinavia Standard

(Helle, 2003). The initial confusion to an outsider, further stems from the position of Finland as it is not initially deemed part of Scandinavia yet has a similar culture and a long-shared history with Norway, Sweden and Denmark (ibid.). Even though Finnish design, specifically industrial, is commonly described as a “surprising phenomenon” (Korvenmaa, 2010, p. 78-79), it is rarely considered and included. According to Hilson (2019), though, it is obsolete and an unwanted division between persons only including the three nations, it is a versatile term and Scandinavia can apply to Finland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands in this case, largely because of the intertwined culture and DNA similarity (Günther and Malmström et

al, 2018). Another reasoning behind the inclusion was due to the regular Finnish recipients of The Lunning Prize (see Figure 3). The existing literature, therefore, fails to resolve the contradiction between the inclusion of Finland as well as Iceland and

the Faroe Islands.

2.2. Inception

The first serious discussions and analysis of Scandinavian design emerged during the 1950’s when it was globalised, with support from “The Lunning Prize” (Dahlbäck-Lutteman, 1986). This was a list of recipients who, by playing with new types and providing newly discovered modernist concepts, gave a face to Scandinavian design. Furthermore, it became a democratic movement, where the designers embraced the design philosophy of Bauhaus with its appreciation for local materials and functionality. Guldberg (2011) agrees that the award was critical in having Scandinavia known worldwide by establishing its profile. It can be said, however, that democracy and design intertwine to portray Scandinavians’ fulfilment in everyday life (Conran, 2006). Thus, the designs have an “inherent value and

continues to agree, with some sources stating that the new and beautiful designs were part of the “cultural phenomenon” (Rask and Holmsted-Olesen, 2019, p. 102), which initially familiarised the world with Scandinavia. A number of authors have

explored the trends initial globalisation, stating the 1950’s as pivotal.

FIGURE 3 –‘The Lunning Prize’, National Museum of Stockholm, 1986, by Helena Dahlbäck-Lutteman

Moreover, the design has importance in what is now known as mid-century modern style (Dybdhal, 2019) and has evolved over the years as the perception has changed from something reserved for professionals and designers only, to something that is used to enhance someone’s daily life. Typically, most academic writing highlights that the design seems to demonstrate a balance between neutral hues, cost effectiveness and functionality (Davis-Brown, 2017). This assumption however is vague and little academic sources study in depth about the effect that this has, particularly on a consumer.

It is written that the original movement ideation began in local institutions, such as the Swedish Society of Industrial Design (Eyþórsdóttir, 2011), promoting design that could be accessed by the public, yet this was still only conveyed to a Swedish audience, expanding furthest to Denmark. In order to discuss the impact on Britain, two key exhibitions were noted. Heal’s showroom in London (see Figure 4) held an exhibition in 1951 called “Scandinavian Design for Living” (Halén and Wickman, 2003, p. 104). It helped shed light on the new concept of design. As the Festival of Britain also took place, 19511 proved to be a crucial year for the revolution in Britain, further conveying the newfound trend. Exhibitions continued to develop soon after and there began the “Golden Age of Scandinavian design” (Nelson

(2004, pp. 11-12).

1 It was a catalyst for not just Scandinavian design but also promoting British industry post-war (Leventhal, 1995).

FIGURE 4 - Heal’s 1951 exhibition ‘Scandinavian Design for Living’

London’s Victoria and Albert Museum also held an exhibition of ceramics and glass

in 1989 (Opie, 1989)2. These design exhibitions undoubtedly were and still are pivotal as they reflect the development of a region, culture and society (Xu, Wang, Su and Hau, 2013). Many sources state how new designers have and continue to

emerge.

2 Opie goes onto further highlight the high-quality craftsmanship and respect for natural materials used by the designer for the consumer (ibid, p. 92-98 ).

FIGURE 5 – NIKARA, Canvas easy chair. Designed by Jasper Morrison

As the movement continues to modernise, ‘scandi’ is used as shorthand for

‘Scandinavian’. According to Wild (2015), nationality adjectives with an -i ending are derogatory and unnecessary. However, despite it being a widely known abbreviation to describe inhabitants, characteristics and language, others suggest that it’s just a “tug-of-war ” (Wiles, 2011) between comprehensibility and laziness. Moreover, Bride (2010) affirms the idea of using shorthand as there is a modern desire for speed and meeting demands of a fast-moving society. More recent arguments have been successful in acknowledging short hand within literature to show modernisation, hence the common use.

As society progresses, the timeless scandi style influences are still constantly reflected in designers’ work globally whilst promoting a simple way of living, yet also emphasising the close relationship with biomimicry (Lanau, Orrù and Linkola,

2018). The environment is a crucial factor behind the development of designs and the use of natural materials adds to the impression of feeling closer to nature. Pieces of scandi furniture, usually include light coloured woods such as; pine, beech and ash. This, being a key feature that represents the Scandinavian “affinity for the outdoors” (Ripa, 2016). This is something that is expressed efficiently through home magazines. Furthermore, designers have learnt to emulate the forms and styles which surrounds them. This passion for the surroundings cuts to what Scandinavians call friluftsliv, translating to “open air living” (McLendon, 2020). However, authors overlook the reasons as to why Scandinavians in particular are attracted to the concept of nature and how they live their lives in agreement of this belief.

Whilst the importance of the natural environment is noted by a range of academic sources, it is rare that designers speak about it as a reasoning behind their design. It doesn’t seem to be a reason behind choices made through the form or material choices. Consequently, Shine (2020), expresses that even if a product’s materials are sourced locally, it still does not make it a sustainable product. She elaborates that if a designer is using wood, it should be salvaged, like using wooden pallets. Whilst Shine writes from an ethical perspective, it can be reasoned and recognised that using reclaimed materials is not suitable for mass producing identical furniture for retail. Over recent years, Scandinavian design has been corroborated with mass production. This questions whether the trend has an importance for nature as previously assumed?

2.3. Core principles

Movements are defined by their recognisable principles, like the scandi determination for eco-friendly products. These principles act as a driving force and specification from which designers stem their ideas. There is undoubtedly an initial, 21

stereotypical recognition of mountain lodges and blonde wood when a person initially thinks of Scandinavian design (Sapir, 2017). In addition, at the heart of the movement, lies the core values and principles.

The less-is-more design ideology suggests that Scandinavian design goes hand in hand with minimalism. This definition is similar to that found in Betoni (2004), who

affirms the idea that a person should luxuriate in moderation rather than abundance. By contrast, it can be argued that these minimalist aesthetics should be overlooked and a product’s necessity and function holds the utmost importance (Holland, 2018). Holland further implies this efficiency is delivered from beauty within simplicity. The notion of minimalism within a home is quarrelled through many sources of literature and questions how highly valued minimalism should be.

Viewing literature from design academia articles is insightful into gaining opinions with knowledge in the specific field. Whilst Bertoni discusses the moderate benefits that a minimalist interior can have on an individual, others view it as a stripping away of expression, consequently, to its formal austerity. Points that are concluded in articles and blogs have to be made with caution as most are centred around opinion over factual information. Ultimately, opinions can be beneficial in order to gain general understanding. A blog by Flourishmentary is titled “More is more: Why Minimalism Sucks” (Taylor, 2017). Disparaging words in titles like ‘sucks’ are unfeasible for the majority of audiences, yet the blog itself gauges a public opinion rather than the initial indication of an authoritative voice. Taylor discusses the differing opinion of minimalistic design in the sense that the “décor feels dull, generic and void of any real human expression” (ibid.). She indicates that an individual always craves the feeling of relaxation and comfort and that is something that cannot be achieved with minimalism. Concluding remarks include that it is an

outdated theme that was on trend in the 90’s yet is no longer what people require anymore. In essence, there is complexity surrounding the topic. A designer’s focus is primarily on a product’s aesthetic and functionality rather than the ability to

design a product to decorate or to fill a space. This expresses further that minimalism is about not a product itself; but rather the interior and how many products are placed within it. Therefore, it can be considered that a product cannot be minimalist, but can promote minimalism in an interior.

Housing in Scandinavian countries was generally expensive and small (Blundell, 2018), which lead to the element of multi-functional furniture (Seferou, 2017). The

concept originally derived from the Finnish Great Depression, which enhanced the idea of practical furniture vital post-war (Gorodnichenko, Mendoza and Tesar. 2009). This upholds similarities to Denmark’s desire and requirement for a “good chair” (Rask and Holmsted-Olesen, 2019, p. 30).3 Through this, the chair is highlighted as the closest piece of furniture to humans as it “reflects the body, at length, giving the person who sits identity and status” (Wegner, 1985).

FIGURE 6 – The Trinidad Chair by Nanna Ditzel, 1993

FIGURE 7 – The Metropolitan Chair by Axel Bender Madsen and Enjar Larsen, 1949 FIGURE 8 – The NV45 Chair by Finn Juhl,

1945

3 Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, benches were commonly used around dining tables. Therefore, Danish designers like Hans Wegner and Arne Jacobsen found it fitting to start designing what they deemed to be the perfect chair (Steen-Hansen, 2014).

This philosophy of acquiring beautiful products to make someone’s life better still holds importance in modern day. According to Ramstedt, Olofsson and Graves (2020), functionality isn’t just the style but a key part of heritage. Thus, a piece of furniture should be able to be utilised in a

range of ways (Gura, 2007), in which it should promote an unencumbered lifestyle. An example of this is the ‘Circus pouf’ by Simon Legald (Figure 9)4. It is a versatile and exclusive piece of furniture whose use is interpreted by the user. This literature addresses that within Scandinavian design, ergonomics is a hidden key feature behind the aesthetics, which ultimately is what makes certain products so successful.

Increased awareness of scandi key values, also led to the recognition of hygge. Throughout many pieces of literature, it is revealed that Scandinavia is the “happiest collection of nations in the world” (Kingsley, 2013, p. 8) and Wiking (2017) encourages the idea of the Danish notion of ‘hygge’ as being the backbone behind this. Pronounced ‘hue-guh’, it translates as “cosiness for the soul” (Graham, 2018) and captures the quality of life experiences in scandi society. However, it is important that a person “doesn’t conflate sterility with the simplicity of hygge” (Dawson, 2018), but should remember the simple pleasures of life, such as lighting a candle and being kind to one another. This calls to the attention that the idea shouldn’t simply represent a product, but evoke a feeling and a way of living.

In contrast to earlier findings, according to a theory by Linnet (2009, p. 21), hygge isn’t something that can be acquired through an object. It is a notion of social interaction and feeling and therefore not something that can be bought (Telford,

2017). It is suggested that a product can only help encourage the practice. For

FIGURE 9 – The Circus Pouf by Simon Legald

4 Legald (2012) discusses that a product should not just satisfy this sort of functionality but also the user’s psychological needs to reveal a product’s true identity.

example, by using warm colours and natural light, a sense of homeliness is created. Furthermore, these values are explained through journalistic references but there is a lack of critical understanding and a lack of academic sources that reveal the effect these values primarily have on a consumer. It therefore reveals questions such as; is it pivotal that these values are reflected through a product and should a consumer inhabit of feeling something when acquiring or utilising a piece of Scandinavian design?

2.4. The Scandi palette

Rodriguez (2016) explains that colour within Scandinavian design holds utmost importance and allows the interior to be further recognisable as scandi. Monochromatic tones of grey, white and black are a “main

ingredient” (Clarke, 2018) to scandi style. The use of monochrome to comfortably combine modernity and simplicity is an “enduring classic” (Robertson and Ulin,

2015) for interiors. It is

described time and time again as the base colour scheme of the design trend (Braithwaite, 2014) and can be combined with other colours to be built upon. It exudes simplistic minimalism and can make an interior more flexible into using complementary colours. This research fails to take into account historical findings with that of the “Swedish Grace”5 (Martelius and Elmlund, 2015) movement in the

FIGURE 10 – A Scandinavian Home with a Modern Monochrome Interior by Erika Vierto

5 The Swedish Grace was influenced by Art Deco and the dominance of neutral tones within interiors only became apparent in the 1990’s.

1920’s, and the dominance of neutral tones within interiors only became apparent in the 1990’s.

Despite the recognition of monochrome interiors and features, the research by Davis-Brown (2017) implies that Scandinavian design is initially characterised by its light colours and neutral hues. This approach is affirmed as white walls are commonly used to emphasise available natural light and illuminate space in both domestic and commercial settings (Barry, 2018). Where Davis-Brown suggests that more subtle and muted colours are familiarly linked to the trend, others argue that in recent years there has been a “dramatic shift” (Petersons, 2017, p. 7) towards colour, utilising more colourful hues. She questions why there has been a sudden influx of the use of colour in Scandinavian and Nordic homes. It is almost a

contradiction of what is commonly known as the scandi colour palette. This demonstrates that as society changes and advances, the movement is influenced and follows. However, as Martelius and Elmlund (2015) notes, the movement only developed during the 1990’s6, when scandi neutrality became globally recognised.

Research carried out by Horn, Ling, Bertilisson and Potter (2018), further suggests

that there is a continuation to the trend as time progresses. It poses the question as to why this change is now happening. According to Opstad, when discussing Jotun’s new colour theme, “colours have a great influence on our well-being, and therefore an important part of creating spaces for good experiences and balance in life” (Opstad, 2019). Thus, the shift in culture that the trend is following may be the increased emphasis in recent years on mental well-being (Kristiansen, 2013) and the movement is therefore emerging to promote this unique focus. As Scandinavia is a collection of the “happiest nations” (Wiking, 2016, pp. 74-79), it indicates a responsibility to inspire well-being.

6 The notion of colour is not new and according to Petersons (2017, p. 13), it should be embraced again.

2.5. Scandinavia in the UK

Analysis into the globalisation of Scandinavian design has shown that the Festival of

Britain in 1951 was pivotal in order to showcase “vibrant modernism to the British for the first time” (Parmar, 2014). It generated post-war optimism and a lack of design constraints, which continue to show through in British aesthetics. The trend’s popularity is continuously discussed through literature and has been described as “unashamedly humanistic” (ibid. ), with a major focus on ergonomics and the effect of a product on a consumer. This means that the love for scandi furniture stemmed from the desire for furniture that matched a user's desires and provided features above all else. This is shown by famous retailers, such as IKEA, that generate profit by selling products that meet these criteria.

Demand for IKEA furniture continues to increase and is now palpable across Britain and in 2012 was voted “Britain’s largest furniture retailer” (Fairlie, 2017). This shows that the British deem to be enticed by the phrase ‘made in Sweden’ as the term suggests “reliability and value” (Hammonds, 2019). It’s convenience and affordability, as suggested by Mullen (2019) further encourages the stereotype of Scandinavian design. The success signifies that a product which a person has assembled themselves, holds personal value, “giving flat-packed furniture a value beyond the monetary” (Norton, Mochon and Ariely, 2011, pp. 3-4).7 Although, being also popular for a range of other factors, like affordability and ease of use, it suggests that the personal value of a product is ultimately down to the individual

consumer.

7 This is consistent with Grimmer, Mathmann and Mortiner’s (2019) depiction of IKEA being a phenomenon which is more widely known as the Ikea Effect.

2.6. Literature Review Summary

In conclusion, the Literature Review confirmed that there is a specific perception of Scandinavian design which has made it recognisable post globalisation. The claims that Scandinavian style is recognisable for neutral hues and minimalism, and this has been strongly contested in recent years by a number of academics and literature. It proves that a look back in history suggests further values that built up the trend, stemming from Art Deco as well as Bauhaus. This therefore demonstrates a change post-war, with optimism and a desire for modernism.

The study's aim was to look at the relationship with the British customer, and further analysis is required to find out what makes the buyer want to acquire a scandi styled product. This provides the potential to further examine whether this stems from a widespread fetishism among British consumers and whether it is produced from a specific source, such as IKEA. It questions whether Scandinavian design has a certain stereotype surrounding it and whether these views are distributed from Scandinavia or if they are derived in Britain.

Although, many research questions were answered, there remains aspects which are still relatively unknown, including the classification of the region, which is still disputed in literature. Finland was recognised as the nation debated by most authors. The evidence reviewed seems to indicate a pertinent role for the analysis to decipher why Finland is repeatedly left out despite having renowned designers who have added to and influenced the Scandinavian style over the years.