A Journey through the Virtual City. by Harley Borrell

Declaration AB 420 Dissertation 2017/18 BSc Honours Architectural Studies â&#x20AC;&#x153;I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged.

I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.â&#x20AC;? Name: Harley Borrell Signed: Date: 08 March 2018

a journey through the virtual city an analysis of how architectural storytelling guides us through spaces within video games

University of Strathclyde Department of Architecture BSc Hons Architectural Studies Harley Borrell

Table of Contents Title Acknowledgements Abstract Introduction Aim Research Question Methodology Game Title Identification and Review

1 3 4 6 8 10 12 18

Chapter 1: Images of cities Chapter 2: Buildings together Chapter 3: The Rules of the game

24 36 44

Case Study 1: A mere image Case Study 2: Unconcise townscapes

54 88

Conclusions List of figures Works Cited

106 108 112

With special thanks to Prof. David Charles Reat for reinforcing faith in ones own unique interests and guidance throughout this immensely entertaining journey through the world of virtual architecture.

ABSTRACT: The gaming industry is quickly emerging as a driving force in interactive entertainment, pioneering many features of design we utilize within the field of architecture. This dissertation will attempt analyse more profound interactions to see how much more the world of architecture and gaming influence each other. All games are somehow linked to reality, some through characters, objects or physics, and some through architecture. Often the most memorable element of these virtual worlds is the built environment, as in the post-apocalyptic city of Boston in The Last of Us. The creators of these worlds develop architecture in a void, as such representations of reality never deal with structural, social and economic circumstance. And yet, gaming architecture has a visceral effect on those playing, prompting the question whether architecture can exist in a purely visual, storytelling form. Architecture in games is a completely controlled environment utilized solely to influence the receiver, creating a medium that focuses entirely on the experience of architecture. The dissertation attempts to identify the way such environments lead us through their worlds by drawing parallels between virtual and real.

Fig. 1.

Screenshot: “forgiveness...? just get out of the way”

Introduction The gaming or interactive entertainment industry is fast becoming a sizeable global market. A valuation of 2016 total consumer spend was estimated to have exceeded 30 Billion USD (as a comparison, the film industries box office for 2016 was 38.6 Billion USD).1 67% of American households own a device used solely for gaming and in 65% of US homes at least one person spends 3 or more hours a day gaming.2 The rise in value and exposure has grown simultaneously with an increase in variety. Over recent years blockbuster titles have increasingly placed cinematic experience and storytelling on par with mechanical gameplay. This, paired with a flourish of independent titles has created a revolution in gaming, transcending what was classically known as a “game”.3 The expansion of the genre and recipient base has seen emphasis being shifted from what used to be considered core gaming experiences into other areas such as score writing and cinematography. Some have even gone as far as saying that games are now “fulfilling genuine human needs”.4 As an example, games have created such tangible links between virtual and real, that the Peoples Bank of China had to intervene in gamers purchase of in-game magical swords and prevent the devaluation of China’s real-world currency. Collectively as a planet, we’re spending 3 billion hours a week gaming.5 Most of the games we play attempt to mirror parts of the real world, and by proxy contain many architectural features. These elements are not purely visual, but ones that we virtually inhabit, form memories of, and develop emotional connections to. In some, architectural representation plays an even more crucial role. My focus will be devoted to games where architecture takes centre stage and either builds a narrative pertinent to the game or is the visual centrepiece.

1 https://www.mpaa.org/research-and-reports/ 2016 Theatrical Market Statistics Report 2 “2017 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry.” The Entertainment Software Association, ESA/ESRB/EEDAR, Apr. 2017, www.theesa.com/article/2017-essential-facts-computer-video-game-industry/. 3 McGonigal, Jane. Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World; Includes Practical Advice for Gamers. Vintage, 2012 4 “MINISTRY OF COMMERCE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.” China Bars Use of Virtual Money, english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/newsrelease/commonnews/200906/20090606364208.shtml. 5 McGonigal, Jane. Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World; Includes Practical Advice for Gamers, Vintage, 2012, pp. 4–4 6

Fig. 2.

Screenshot: “The player on the right didn’t know this screenshot was important academic work”

AIM The analysis will be based around critically acclaimed titles where architecture was established as a prominent feature, identifying the role it played in creating a gaming experience. The analysis will focus on games driven by story, taking on a human perspective by delving deeper into a first-person experience. While appreciating the broad architectural experiences games have to offer (city building games, house design, etc.) focusing on a single genre will allow for a distillation of more concrete findings and, if valid, leave room for further exploration. The goal is to draw similarities between the process of creating architecture in games and that of the real world, bearing in mind the inherent drawbacks and possibilities of each. The aim of the exploration will be to convince the reader that the interactive entertainment industry offers equally profound architectural experiences and as a medium, by way of its title feature, a greater interaction with architecture.

Fig. 3.

Screenshot: “Can you smell smoke?”

Research QuestionS The research will revolve around trying to answer questions that pertain to both architecture and games. Through answering these, the goal is to create a more universal and interdisciplinary view of video game architecture. The dissertation will ultimately aim to exhibit game architecture as a valuable medium for conveying architectural ideas. I hope to formulate the research questions as statements that I will set out to prove:

RQ1

The gaming industry’s built environment is largely influenced by the style trends of the real architectural world.

RQ2

Virtual architecture can teach the appreciation of more subliminal architectural notions, such as wayfinding and imageability. Devoid of certain distractions of non-fictional cities it can be used to focus on Christopher Alexanders “quality without a name”.

There are secondary questions that will inevitably need answering once the subject is explored further:

RQ3

Can virtual Architecture begin to create its own language? Can it develop new descriptors, or is it bound by those of reality?

RQ4

How accurate are the virtual representations of architecture?

Fig. 4.

Screenshot: “cosy...”

Methodology 1. Identification: From the onset I hope to familiarize the reader with titles that include architecture as a base of their success and hope to begin the analysis with identification of gaming titles acclaimed for architectural references. This, in the gaming industry, does not necessarily correlate to great buildings. An emphasis could be potentially placed on graphical fidelity and mistakenly identified as an enticing environment. The next step will be to analyse these titles by determining the architectural features they represent. These will undoubtedly be elements within the full spectrum of the built environment: Buildings Paths Streets Viewpoints

Urban Districts

Cities Details Landmarks A natural question arises once we identify these features. Mainly, are they all being controlled by the designer, and if they arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t, can they be? 12

Fig. 5,6,7,8

Screenshots: “Towards the light then...?”

Reasons and methods:

The reasons for employing architectural representations vary between games and between stages of the game. This analysis of the aforementioned features will be centred around the very basic questions of where, when, and why. The most interesting of these is the “why”. There are many reasons one would project the built environment into the virtual world as it is ever-present in our daily lives. Games, on the other hand, hope to achieve a certain reality by associating with the “real”. This creates a relationship that can be divided into 3 main branches (these naturally overlap and include each other) and can be used as a way of ordering ideas :

Fig. 9. Screenshot: 3 colours of the night. 14

BACKGROUND REALISTIC AND SURREALISTIC

PATHS AND LABYRINTHS

WORLDBUILDERS AND SANDBOXES

These depictions, potentially the most interesting from an architectural point of view are vehicles for the story and scene creation. They include many features of real world architecture as they try to convey the realistic or surrealistic nature of the world they are packaged with. Game wise, they offer little interaction and exist mainly as a visual guide. They suggest a journey, often changing throughout the game and evolving simultaneously with the story.

Traversable architecture, these are predominantly game elements. When skilfully deployed these become dream-like states of transportation from point A to B. They become the Minotaur’s labyrinth or in the case of Doom, the infinite car park.

The user generated architecture. These games use simulation and creation to allow the gamer the freedom of design and decision making. From city simulations to procedurally generated worlds, these games often allow full interaction with the built environment. As the name “sandbox” suggests, these offer building blocks for the gamers imagination.

This division will act as a starting point for the analysis.6 The timing of architectural features is largely exclusive to the first category. A pace is dictated through story and this is often correlates to the architecture. The “when” is perhaps of little value at the beginning of such analysis. The question of “where” can be approached by analysing locations, the positioning of buildings, paths and streets. These are often confused as game developers utilize the virtual environment and location becomes fluid. 7 6 Artemel, AJ. “How Video Games Use Architecture.” Architizer, 9 July 2013, architizer.com/blog/how-video-games-use-architecture/. The idea of ordering games into 4 categories was initially proposed by Artemel. The categorization in this dissertation is simplified in into 3 branches. 7 Bogost, Ian, and Dan Klainbaum. “Experiencing Place in Los Santos and Vice City.” In The Culture and Meaning of Grand Theft Auto, edited by Nathan Garrelts, 162- 176. McFarland Press, 2006. 15

Referencing and Citations

As this subject is largely focused on a contemporary field, instead of finding sources with an interdisciplinary approach to the subject - books that talk about the integration of architecture and the gaming industry, the research methodology will revolve around establishing parallels between game architecture and reality and assessing them in such context. For example, cities exist in games, and my research will focus on “cities” rather than “cities in games” – this will allow me to draw more meaningful parallels.

Game screenshots

The discussion will take place through an analysis of largely visual representations of cites. This is the strongest relation architecture has with cities and is reflected as such in games. All the images, unless otherwise noted, are taken during the authors gameplay and from the game character perspective. There are images where the game code needs to be manipulated to capture specific plans and they are noted as such.

Fig. 10

Screenshot: “This way...”

Game introduction and review The games chosen for the case study in the final chapter will be ones that the author has played through. The study consists of two primary games that attempt to highlight the difference between two types of narrative scope. Both Bioshock and Assassin’s Creed are parts of a broader series, suggesting their commercial success and by proxy, their relatively wide audience and successful reception. Their approach to architecture varies slightly, one recreating built form as a background to the story while the other builds core experiences around an interaction with said build environment. The quality of these landscapes is largely dependent on the size of the environment, one of the genres requiring a singular path through a city and the other, an explorable city. Secondary titles will be used to reinforce arguments stemming from an analysis of the primary titles. These will serve to provide points of reference and comparison, establishing themes within the discussed virtual worlds. These will also be researched personally by the author and include screen captures from the Uncharted series, Grand Theft Auto, Last of Us and Journey. The two primary titles develop their narratives within fictional cites. These provide the developer with more malleable worlds that need not be geographically correct. 8 Although many games often employ geographical accuracy to reinforce the believability of their worlds, exhibited in some of the secondary titles, this is not requirement for the topic of this work.

8 Holly Nielsen. “How Ubisoft Painstakingly Recreated Ancient Egypt.” The Guardian, 5 Oct. 2017, www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/05/assassins-creed-origins-recreated-ancient-egypt-ubisoft. 18

Fig. 11.

Screenshot: “This better be worth it...”

Primary Game: Bioshock Infinite This story takes us on a journey through a fictional American utopia. The prominent feature is the Neo-Classical architecture mixed with steampunk elements. Praised for its story, the game plays out in the city of Columbia and has received overwhelmingly positive reviews for its stylistic elements and graphical representation. The architecture in this game fits mostly into the first category of background game architecture, with few elements requiring interaction and none being created by the player.

Primary Game: Assassins Creed Origins This particular chapter of the series explores the story of an ancient Egyptian assassin. The game builds its experiences on the sport of freerunning and as such, the player is actively encouraged and, in some sequences, required to explore the verticality of a city. The architecture of the game attempts to recreate the time of Cleopatra’s ascension to throne, the studio however, is known to forsake historical accuracy in the name of gameplay. 9 In this particular example, creating towering structures that in reality rarely exceeded 1 story.

9 Manuel Saga. “Consultant for Assassin’s Creed II.” Translated by Matthew Valletta, Arch Daily, 7 Oct. 2015, www.archdaily.com/774210/maria-elisa-navarro-the-architectural-consultant-for-assassins-creed-ii. 20

Fig. 12.

Fig. 14.

Screenshot: “Welcome to Rapture”

Fig. 13.

Screenshot: One of the many temples.

Screenshot: Light guiding the way in Bioshock

Fig. 15.

Screenshot: “Don’t mind me”

Secondary GameS: Uncharted SERIES The “Uncharted” series is identified as a pinnacle of story driven game, although 4 separate titles, they have a consistent enough structure and story to be considered as a whole. The gameplay experiences lie somewhere in between the ones exhibited in the two primary titles and will be referenced to reinforce the arguments of those.

Secondary Game: Journey As the title suggests, the game follows the journey of a mute player through the ruins of an ancient city. The game heavily incorporates use of light and visual storytelling to guide the player on his trek to the top of the mountain. The game cannot be “lost” and by way of its narrative, is more reminiscent of a film than a game. The clear structure of the game will aid in addressing similarities between primary and secondary titles.

Fig. 16.

Screenshot: Light in Uncharted: Lost Legacy guiding the player.

Fig. 17,18.

Screenshot: Light in Journey guiding the player.

Chapter 1: Images of Cities â&#x20AC;&#x153;You take delight not in a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s seven or seventy wonders, but in the answer it gives to a question of yours.â&#x20AC;? 10 Can a description of a city be so complete that it may be recreated from the description alone? If not, which rendition would be closest in creating such image? What elements would be most important in defining cities? Is it their visual character; the atmosphere; the people; the cultural heritage? Which of these captures such a coherent image, that the remaining elements fall into place? To talk about cities in games, a comparison needs to be made to real cities. All virtual cities are based to some degree upon a real city. The qualities emphasized within reality can vary widely and its these qualities that can be masterfully employed to create experiences within the virtual. The freedom within the game environment allows game developers to harness such experiences and manipulate a player further into a dream-like state. This chapter will first attempt to develop an understanding of what non-fictional cities are to the individuals that live within them. It will attempt to identify the feelings that accompany an experience of a city and how vividly we recount them. The analysis will then move to a more formal critique of how we understand and navigate through a city.

Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities. Vintage, 2009. 24

Fig. 19. Screenshot: Zork 3 containing some of the first â&#x20AC;&#x153;Imagesâ&#x20AC;? of architecture in games.

1.1 Cities in colour: Painting is perhaps the most interesting medium through which to look at cities. When speaking of wayfinding and an individuals perception of a city, Cullen found that: “This image is the product of both immediate sensation and of the memory of past experience” 11 The appeal to our strongest sense and the ability of the artist to render subconscious details provides both an objective representation as well as one riddled with personal observations. This is especially so for cities represented in modern art. With fewer constraints, these depictions are more fluent in defining the abstract qualities of life in an urban context. One such painting is the depiction of London from 1906 by Andre Derain. London Bridge draws attention to the crowds of people on the bridge, the multiple barges and the monuments along the river Thames. If the title had not revealed the location, would it be possible to derive which city is replicated in this painting? Based on the little information given, we can begin to develop an understanding of where this painting was made, the character of the city, its importance, and even reconstruct the paths Andre Derain frequented on his visit to London.

“Introduction.” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 4. 26

Fig. 20. London Bridge by Andre Derain 1906

The urban fabric is also revealed through the painting. The spires in the distance suggest where the city centre is located, while the loaded barges and larger bodies on the bridge give an impression that Derain painted this upon the industrial bank of the Thames river. Reconstructing the scene in plan-view allows for a better understanding of the setting:

Fig. 21. Authors plan view of London Bridge

Derain

MINECRAFT

Moving further, the Fauves use of colour was described by their contemporaries as “animalistic” and yet, modern games employ similar colour tactics to evoke a coherent image. A colour palette can be used to create entire cities in similar brushstroke. This can be often used define a theme and to aid consistent world crafting:

The building blocks of Minecraft have allowed the rendition of Derain’s London. Perhaps not complete, but enough to draw visual parallels and recreate a particular atmosphere once established by the painter. Upon examination of the colour palettes we can see the similarities in hues the game developers chose.

Fig. 23.The Pool of London in Minecraft.

Fig. 22. The Pool of London, Andre Derain 1906 29

1.2 Cities in geometry: Piet Mondrian throughout his career abandoned any form of representation and instead, chose to focus on pure geometric form and primary colour. Even with these basic tools, Mondrian had managed to capture the true essence of New York’s Broadway district, reducing urban form to its purest geometry and its vibrant lights to 3 colours (right). ”…A collision of two delighted references to things that made Mondrian so enthusiastic about his new life in New York City: Broadway, a very busy, broad thoroughfare full of interesting stores, but also full of theatres representing the novelty and the liveliness of the American musical tradition, and boogie-woogie, the jazz music that Mondrian discovered here and loved so much. That combination of references in the title is really a tribute to New York City at that moment.” 12 Architectural notions such as rhythm can be derived from the painting as both spatial and cultural qualities are seemingly represented. One can easily imagine the colours of night-time New York and the vibrant music of the city’s golden age. Mondrian’s painting isn’t of course supposed to be a geographical depiction of the streets, but rather, similarly to how New York is represented in the Grand Theft Auto game, it:

Fig. 24. Authors plan view of Broadway, New York

“…Creates an amalgam of real and mediated places (…) whose cultural rules prove more salient than their physical geography.” 13 12 Temkin, Ann. “Piet Mondrian. Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43.” | MoMA, Moma, 2017, www.moma.org/audio/playlist/1/196. 13 Garrelts, Nate. “Experiencing Place in Los Santos and Vice City.” The Meaning and Culture of Grand Theft Auto: Critical Essays, McFarland, 2006. 30

Fig. 25. Broadway Boogie-Woogie by Piet Mondrian, 1943.

1.3 Cities in time: “Golden ages are windows of light, that briefly illuminate the world both within them and outside them.” 14 Cities are often recounted during their cultural golden ages. During the height of their glory, their influence on us is the strongest. As Mondrian was deeply moved by New York during his European war-time exodus, so was Stefan Zweig described in Cities in Civilization by Peter Hall. Zweig’s elegiac and haunting reflections of pre-war Vienna capture its great imperial character, a host city to a large part of Europe at that time: “Within, the old palaces of the court and the nobility spoke history in stone. Here Beethoven had played at the Lichnowskys’, at the Esterhazys’ Haydn had been a guest. (…) In the midst of all this, the new architecture reared itself proudly and grandly with glittering avenues and sparkling shops”. 15 The cultural aspect of a city often alters our perception of it. This artistic influence is what made Zweig recollect the city of his youth so fondly. He ascribes the reasons for the city’s golden age to the sheer quantity and quality of art. His account of Vienna attempts to capture the artistic essence of the city and suggests links between the memory of an urban setting and its cultural background. “…an uncommon respect for every artistic presentation, then, through centuries of practice, a connoisseurship without equal, and finally, thanks to that connoisseurship, a predominant high level in all cultural fields. The artist always feels at his best and at the same time most inspired where he is esteemed or even over-estimated. Art always reaches its peak where it becomes the life interest of people.” 16

14 15 16

“Cities in Civilization.” by Peter Hall, 2001 pp. 3-4. Zweig, Stefan. The World of Yesterday. Cassell, 1953. “Cities in Civilization.” by Peter Hall, 2001 pp. 501 32

Fig. 26. Screenshot: “Damascus is widely believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world.” Damascus in Assassin’s Creed.

This unforgettable picture could only be fully appreciated by someone who lived the city during this age. The brevity of creative artistic glory is attributed to the even the greatest cities: the rise and fall of Athens in the fifth century, London in the sixteenth and Paris at the end of the nineteenth. 1.4 Cities in virtual: Technological innovation and culture fused massively within the 19th and 20th century. This marriage of art and technology was a remarkable event in human history and developed new ways of looking at cities. This fusion is also vividly exhibited in the 21st century, in the form of virtual entertainment, attracting many to indulge in the virtual. This exodus to virtual space is often seen as a distraction to the issues of the modern world, especially true in games, where each year billions of hours are spent experiencing worlds so different from our own. Is it a distraction or is there a golden era happening in countless cities within the virtual world? Perhaps it is the inherent ties of culture to the virtual world that have spawned the next Golden Age within virtual cities and built on virtual experiences. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Anyone who sees a hurricane coming should warn others. I see a hurricane coming. Over the next generation or two, ever larger numbers of people, hundreds of millions, will become immersed in virtual worlds and online games (â&#x20AC;Ś) The exodus of these people from the real world, from our normal daily life, will create a change in social climate that makes global warming look like a tempest in a teacup.â&#x20AC;? 17

17 2008.

Castronova, Edward. Exodus to the Virtual World How Online Fun Is Changing Reality. Palgrave Macmillan, 34

Fig. 27.

Screenshot: “Climate Hope City” built in Minecraft. Courtesy BlockWorks.

Chapter 2: Buildings Together “…an argument parallel to the one put forward above holds good for buildings: bring people together and they create a collective surplus of enjoyment; bring buildings together and collectively they can give a pleasure which none can give separately.” 18 Knowing what contributes to cities being vividly memorized and cerebrally reconstructed we must also understand how we move through cities, what guides us and what allows us to find ourselves within an urban setting. These vast landscapes are mazes of our own creation and yet, people have an intrinsic ability to read such urban form. This chapter will focus on how we navigate through cities, regardless of their real or virtual character.

“…Division is 1200 north and Armitage is 2000 north and therefore, 1 mile north of Division.” 19

18 “Introduction.” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 7. 19 Harding, Jim. “Episode 126: Walk This Way .” 99% Invisible, 8 Apr. 2014, 99percentinvisible.org/episode/walkthis-way/. 36

Fig. 28. Map of Chicago street grid. 37

2.1 Imageability As humans developed cities and built environments they also developed means of finding their way through them. Wayfinding is a branch of environmental graphic design and yet, Jim Harding, lead environmental graphic for the Terminal at Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia, argues that signage is the least effective tool in wayfinding. “Good” architecture is, in his opinion, the easiest way of guiding us through buildings. Talking specifically about his design for the terminal, Jim mentioned maximizing “sight lines” was the most important factor in users’ ability to gauge location. 20 These invisible qualities bare some similarity to the aforementioned abstract elements of a city. They do, however, have more structure and can often be applied universally to urban form. Kevin Lynch introduced his Images of a City by arguing that many the elements, outlined in the first chapter, contribute to a “meaning” of the city that often varies between individuals. He then postulated that if we focus entirely on physical clarity, we allow a broader meaning to develop on its own. If the physical environment is the only independent variable, we can begin to disregard social parameters of the “perceiver”. 21 By employing the correct manipulation of the physical object, we can evoke a similar image in any observer. This is incredibly important for architecture in games, as game designers hope to utilize the architectural features of cities for a single purpose, the progression of the story and development of “meaning”. They have the freedom to do so as the constraints they operate within are diminished by the nature of the virtual world – it’s architecture not needing to conform to social or physical requirements.

20 Harding, Jim. “Episode 126: Walk This Way .” 99% Invisible, 8 Apr. 2014, 99percentinvisible.org/episode/walkthis-way/. 21 “The Image of the City.” by Kevin Lynch, M.I.T. Press, 2008, p. 7. 38

Fig. 29. Map of Grand Theft Auto 4. Liberty City

This, in conjunction with the fact that all architectural features in games are there for a reason suggests that, in a perfect game, all virtual features should be “Imageable”. There are of course, other influences on “Imageability”, but in the same way as Lynch glosses over them, the research objective will be to uncover the role of the built environment. The 5 main elements of the city are: 1. Paths: Channels along which the observer moves. They may be streets and walkways. 2. Edges: Boundaries between two kinds of elements. 3. Districts: Can be mentally inhabited and have a common character 4.

Nodes:

Specific foci that most commonly appear at junctions of paths 5. Landmarks: References visible to the observer at varying scale Walking, although only mimicked within the context of a game, is arguably the most efficient way of exploring a city. As Edmund White notes in his book on the Flaneurs of Paris, a city is meant to be seen as a walker. Similarly to Mercier, the latter case studies of fictional cities will assume to role of a loiterer and hopefully, keen observer.22 22

“The Flaneur.” by Edmund White, Bloomsbury, 2015, pp. 34–41. 40

Fig. 30. An analysis of Broker, district of Liberty City by author.

2.2 Faculty of sight: It is almost entirely through vision that the environment is apprehended as Cullen suggests that 3 categories of urban form emerge from focusing entirely on vision, and while this becomes a simplification of the deep interaction we can achieve within cities, be it through sound or touch, the further analysis serves to complement the notions discussed within the first chapter.23 The ultimate aim of categorizing these is so an impact on the emotions is achieved. The three urban subcategories concern optics, place and content and these will be later useful in dissecting the elements within virtual cities: 1. Optics. People travelling through built form often experience it as a sequence of images. Cullen coined this as serial vision. As our mind seemingly reacts to contrast, a sequence of images yields a stronger imprint on our perception of an urban environment. Even though we travel at uniform speed, the context reveals itself to us through series of jerks or revelations. Perhaps most interestingly, this can be divided into two elements of perception: the existing view and the emerging view. 2. Place Place considers our relationship to the environment. It builds on our subconscious analysis of where our body is in relation to the environment. The height of a tower emphasizes our conscious capacity to sense position within an environment. A dungeon, however, will instil a feeling of enclosure. A city can be imagined as contractions and expansions of these experiences. Moving from one to another, we not only get a sense of movement and distance travelled, but also a notion of here and there. According to Cullen, the greatest townscape effects are achieved through an interplay of these.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Introduction.â&#x20AC;? The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 7-11. 42

Content

Cullen discusses the fabric of towns in the categories of colour, texture, scale, style, character, personality and uniqueness. Interestingly, he points out that crafting a city from anew, we risk a certain loss of vibrancy. Cullen posits that conformity can result in a â&#x20AC;&#x153;boringâ&#x20AC;? urban context and forms yet another dichotomy of this and that, further stressing the value a varied landscape possesses.

Contrast is perhaps the most dominant theme within these features, reiterating Cullenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in in both variety and juxtaposition in urban context. It is often this juxtaposition that creates a seemingly unexplainable attraction to elements within a city. Whereas uniformity suggest a monotone in both spatial and contextual qualities, variety implicitly spikes our interest.

Chapter 3: The rules of the game At a time when games are moving away from traditional gaming experiences, it’s a variety of qualities that game developers seek to make their games unique. This chapter will delve into the mechanics behind crafting such worlds in an attempt to clarify the broad interactions that can be achieved in virtual exile. Skolnick notes that beyond simply containing a player within a prescribed play space, the architecture is utilized to convey the history, values and cultural background of its fictional designers.24

24 “Environments.” Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 149. 44

Fig. 31. Screenshot: “Hope there’s an elevator...”

3.1 Believability: Story-rich games discussed in this analysis owe their commercial success to their overarching narrative. The key feature that marks the quality of such a narrative is the “believability” of the world that has been crafted. The so-called consistency of the world contributes to its overall reception. All players have a perception of the real world and use their expertise in what is “real” to judge the quality of the landscape of the game. This includes the assessment of virtual architecture and its complementation of the world it exists within. The often-fictional rules of such worlds become the criteria of assessment of its architecture. 25 This criterion is exemplified in the stylistic character of the buildings of fictional Columbia. The world that is created by the game designer is one that flies and as such, relinquishes itself from the need to conform to most physical constrains. The architecture however, only partly builds on this paradigm, with buildings with structural columns gliding into place. Clearly a paradox, the player ignores it as the world is masterfully coherent within these particular constraints.

25 “Believability.” Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 73–75. 46

Fig. 32. Screenshots: “Flying oxymoron, I mean... Aerodrome”

The success or failure of creating believable architecture hinges on the storyteller’s ability to convey an artificial world; featuring custom constraints and design rules; that is tailored to the events that occur within this world, in a way where the audience believes it to be a real, complete world; with genuine requirements and where seemingly spontaneous events yield coherent experiences.26 It is useful to reiterate these criteria in the context of an exemplary world: Assassin’s Creed Origins takes place in an ancient Egyptian context. The events of the story require it to be set within a city. These cities, although stylistically correct, forsake vertical believability in the name of gameplay. The proximity of cities also yields accuracy to gameplay as the journeys between seemingly large metropolis only take around 10 minutes by foot. They exhibit a set of real world constraints, such as larger settlements requiring access to water and economical purpose (one of the cities is a port and trade-hub, while another is the religious and scholarly capital of the region). One particular element that feels incoherent in Assassin’s Creed is the protagonist’s ability to scale the seemingly smooth walls of ancient Egypt. In previous titles, this was addressed through minor alterations to the façades of buildings, allowing for reveals which could be climbed. 27 The historical significance of the Ptolemaic era architecture clearly prohibited this approach. The gamer expects and deserves a certain amount of internal logic and uniformity within the built landscape of a game. The designers of a fictional world present the rules to the audience and then attempt to conform to them as they navigate players through the narrative. This creates a coherent structure which allows the player to fully immerse themselves in the world they mentally inhabit. Stylistically, this could mean a range of approaches that contribute to a holistic depiction of a city, street or building, especially within a fictional context.

26 “Believability.” Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 73–75. 27 Manuel Saga. “Consultant for Assassin’s Creed II.” Translated by Matthew Valletta, Arch Daily, 7 Oct. 2015, www.archdaily.com/774210/maria-elisa-navarro-the-architectural-consultant-for-assassins-creed-ii. 48

Fig. 33. Screenshot: “Man and his cat”

3.2 Narrative Scope: Game story: LINEAR

The games will also be discussed in terms of their structure and the freedom of choice the player is given. These influence the narrative of the game, as well as its physical structure. The way elements are ordered and structured along a single traversable path, or in vast explorable cities influences their utility in a game environment. The terms linear and non-linear are jargon widely used to define game genres and will be used throughout text.

Same story for all players

Features

Opportunities for player choice only in small gameplay sequences Moderate opportunities for choice of “play style” Single rich story at expense of player freedom

Bioshock Series Examples

Journey Batman: Arkham Asylum Uncharted: Thief’s End Series

28 “Overall Game Design.” Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 119-120 50

Player story: nonlinear

Game story variations based on player actions or decisions Interaction with computer-controlled characters provide potential for emergent stories Overarching game story similar for all players.

Assassinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Creed Series Fallout 3 Tomb Raider (2013)

Fig. 34.

Author sketch analysis of paths in linear and non-linear gameplay.

The narrative scope of the analysed games also deeply influences the environment that they create. It must be noted that there is a core difference in the way these layouts utilize the built environment. One confines a player within a prescribed path exposing features along the way, while the other allows the player to choose their own path. The diagrams on the right provide an insight of how to urban fabric is wrapped around the player: As the environments vary, so do the methods employed by the game designer to lead a player down a specific path. They nature of a single path ultimately means that wayfinding clues contribute to a more enjoyable experience, devoid of â&#x20AC;&#x153;feelingâ&#x20AC;? the edges. In a non-linear scenario, wayfinding is employed to drive us to the goal, without which we may never reach it. Journey is a game where seemingly one should not be able to reach the destination, a metaphor for life and death, the player is guided through ruins of an ancient city to the top of a mountain by nothing more than sound and symbol. The game has no text or dialogue, and its gameplay is restricted to basic movement controls. Devoid of typical gameplay elements, many players describe it as a remarkable emotional experience. Instead of using traditional methods of path suggestion, the game brings the architecture alive with music and reactive buildings.

Fig. 35. Screenshot: “Of thy sins shall I wash thee”

Case Study 1: A Mere image of a city How the “Imageability” of built form contributes progress in linear gameplay. The first case study will outline the similarities between real and virtual cities by using a formal analysis proposed in the “Image of the City”. The object of discussion in Lynch’s book are 3 American cities. He outlines the importance of features that contribute to the notion of “Imageability”, a clarity of object. The tools he provides for dissecting a city are broad enough to be applied to almost any city, including a fictional city within a game. This case study will categorize the built environment within Columbia and attempt to assess its “Imageability”. It will supplement arguments by referencing a fictional city set in India and in an active warzone, as presented in Uncharted: The Lost Legacy and the city-like landscape of Journey.

Fig. 35. Screenshot: Soldiers field, Bioshock (code edited) 54

PATHS LANDMARKS EDGES DISTRICS NODES 55

Paths The clarity of paths and their dominance over other elements is a necessity in a game environment. The route along which a player travels is a key element of the game and all progression of story is ultimately tied to distance travelled from the beginning of the game. This is especially so in the linear gameplay of “Bioshock: Infinite”. This single route a player is directed down is seamlessly achieved by “Imageability” of the path. The very first steps we take in Bioshock are being scripted. An analysis of the image below can help us decipher such guiding mechanisms:

Fig. 36. Screenshot: First frame of Bioshock: Infinite 56

Fig. 37. Screenshot analysis: Visual clues that suggest a route and a destination.

Two lights (the only illumination sources) indicate a journey needs to be made from point A to point B and a vague path can be seen winding around the lighthouse. These simple elements immediately guide us on a path towards the lighthouse node. 57

Once in the lighthouse, we are further guided by illuminated elements (right). It is worth noting that these guide lights are manipulated and bear no resemblance to true physical light:

Fig. 38. Screenshot analysis: Discrepancies in light

These draw attention to signs or the foot of a stair and guide us towards the top of the lighthouse, and eventually to the fictional city of Columbia: 58

Fig. 41. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair.

Fig. 39. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair.

Fig. 40. Screenshot: Light directing the player.

Fig. 42. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair. 59

The paths within the city are even further accented, partly due to the symbolic nature of the religious backstory, but also due the grandeur that accompanied the Neo-Classical World’s Fair: Columbian Exposition, which the fictional city is based upon. This grandeur lends itself to the creation of “Imageable” destinations, ones that clearly have more importance over other city elements:

Fig. 44. Screenshot: Symbolic character of Bioshock: Infinite

Fig. 45. Screenshot: Contrasting colours of light

The light of the temple and the strong axis of symmetry draws us towards the city. The grand columns and prophetic signage introduce the tone of the backstory.

Fig. 43. Worlds Fair: Columbian Exposition

Path-like imageability throughout the game is there as a suggestion. The elements that contribute to wayfinding are a decipherable code that guides us, but only on a subconscious level. The influence is further emphasized in faster-paced gameplay sections, ones where we have no time to think about the right path, but rather, do so intuitively. A sequence where the player is escaping something will naturally need stronger path suggestion and contribute to a faster pace of game:

Fig. 48. Screenshot: Contrast between lights sequences the path.

Fig. 49. Screenshot: Contrast highlighting the escape.

Fig. 46. Screenshot: Light highlighting an escape

With stronger light and hue contrast and lamps highlighting both Edges and Paths we can make quicker decisions, both required by and contributing to gameplay atmosphere.

Fig. 47. Screenshot: Walkway doused in light, Edges dark. 61

Moving away from Bioshock Infinite, we notice this is employed in a chapter in Uncharted: The Lost Legacy. The lights are clearly emphasized during this particular chase sequence:

Fig. 52. Screenshot: Signage beacons the player.

Fig. 50. Screenshot: Light spilling out of shed.

Fig. 53. Screenshot: Cover image.

The above image clearly highlights the bottom of the ladder suggesting the path. Such clues are reiterated throughout the chapter. Note the convention of wayfinding elements - the bright lights always contrasting with the dark background.

Fig. 51. Screenshot: Light illuminating a means of escape. 62

Lights in the distance are often used as general orientation. They are utilized as a macro â&#x20AC;&#x153;point Bâ&#x20AC;?. The player should be orienteering himself in relation to their source, as well as treating it as an general destination:

Vibrant signage can be used as both wayfinding clue, and traversable path. The player is required to jump from sign to sign:

Fig. 54. Screenshot: Signs as a path. Fig. 56. Screenshot: Purple light in contrast to surroundings

Fig. 55. Screenshot: Signs

Fig. 57. Screenshot: Pink Lotus. 63

Interestingly, we can create parallels between the below capture from Uncharted and the one seen in first frame of Bioshock. Although completely independent titles, they seemingly employ the exact visual clue to suggest a starting point and destination.

The final frame of the chase sequence exhibits the strongest path suggestion:

Fig. 60. Screenshot: A cable and illuminated destination.

Fig. 58. Screenshot: Two lights in Uncharted.

Fig. 61. Screenshot: Chole using her gun to zipline along the cable.

Here we notice both the destination and path are suggested. There is a clear contrast between the lit-up space and the dark surroundings. This sequence employs some theatricality as the path, initially illuminated, darkens as the player ziplines across to the destination. Fig. 59. Screenshot: Two lights in Bioshock. 64

Fig. 62. Screenshot: “knock knock... “

Landmarks: Within the city of Columbia, a wider range of architectural features can be identified. The first glimpse of the city we get, is that of its central Landmark, a point reference which perpetuates throughout the further journey and guides us towards the centre of the city:

Fig. 63. Screenshot: An angel in centre of the city. The players first glimpse of Columbia.

Fig. 64. Screenshot: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Suns out, Guns outâ&#x20AC;?

Fig. 65. Screenshot: An angel statue and a sign of an angel. 66

Fig. 66, 67, 68, 69. Screenshots: The angel landmark accompanies the player throughout the first chapter.

We see that the statue of an angel acts as symbol for the game objective. Throughout the first chapter, the landmark follows the pace of the game, reappearing after completing small tasks and navigating sections of the city. The statue fulfils all of Lynch’s requirements for an “Imageable” landmark; it has a clear form; contrast with its background; and is visible for a large part of the journey.29 Naturally, this was the designer’s intention and is easy to create. However, it’s the way the angel interacts with the Paths, Edges, Nodes and Districts that contributes to making it a memorable image. Note the manipulation of sunlight and the sun’s position as always being behind the statue. 29

“The City and its Elements” The Image of the City by Kevin Lynch, M.I.T. Press, 2008, p. 78. 67

Journey utilizes the same reiteration of landmark to point us towards the final destination of the game. The split mountain accompanies the player from first frame to last and symbolizes the ultimate goal of the game. In a game devoid of text and speech, it also acts as reminder, reappearing at key moments of the gameplay.

Fig. 70. Screenshot: The mountain is a landmark the player travels towards in Journey

Fig. 71. Screenshot: At first, the mountain is seen from a distance.

Fig. 72. Screenshot: Landmark interwoven with the Architecture.

Fig. 73. Screenshot: Moutain reappearing in certain frames. 69

Signage: Signage will be discussed as a subcategory of landmarks in this section. As Lynch observes, some landmarks are primarily local and can be visible only from certain localities.30 These include innumerable signs, storefront, doorknobs and other architectural detail. One particular type of signage in Bioshock is used as a reiteration of the landmark it represents. It is first introduced simultaneously with the landmark, in both pocket and sign version:

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The City and its Elementsâ&#x20AC;? The Image of the City by Kevin Lynch, M.I.T. Press, 2008, p. 78.

Fig. 74. Screenshot analysis: The game creates an accociation between 2 types of signage and the landmark they represent. 70

The initial frame creates an association between the varying scales of landmark. The signs are then used where the landmark cannot be utilized, to reassure the player that they are traveling in the correct direction:

Fig. 77. Screenshot: Angel sign reminding the player of the goal.

Interestingly, upon completing the chapter, and no longer needing to travel towards the angel, the monument not only stops appearing as frequently, but also changes its form and its relationship with the sun behind it:

Fig. 75. Screenshot: The sign reiterates the chapter destination.

Fig. 76. Screenshot: Signs used to reinforce players decisions.

Fig. 78. Screenshot: Landmark destroyed after first chapter. 71

Edges: Edges can be identified throughout the Bioshock gameplay, especially when infrequently stumbled upon, or restricting access to an area. They are required throughout the single narrative journey as a way of funnelling the player down the correct path, and a way of limiting game assets that can be interacted with. The most successful edges in Bioshock are the ones we feel, without being bound by them. The game designers task is significantly eased by the fact Columbia is in the sky, setting out some very basic clues as to what is treadable and what isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t.

Fig. 80. Screenshot: A barrier framing a road.

Most commonly, edges in linear games are reduced to physical barriers that are impenetrable:

Fig. 79. Screenshot: A barrier preventing a fall.

Fig. 81. Screenshot: A barrier framing the walkway. 72

In some cases, edges suggest there is little to be ventured from crossing them. In the case of the frame below, we were able to cross the tables of candles but gained nothing through doing so:

Fig. 82. Screenshot: The candles on the table act as an edge.

While most of them are physically impenetrable, their architectural language also suggests they are. 73

Districts: In order to classify as districts, we need an element that is of a larger, two-dimensional scale. It requires the ability to be entered and inhabited, and have a common, identifying character. Due to the linear way we explore Bioshock: Infinite, districts cede importance to paths. The way the game is structured, we are directed through these elements and seldom given the opportunity to explore a beachfront, boardwalk or market. The “Imageable” qualities sought in Bioshock’s districts will therefore be their visual character and ease of identification from within. They dictate the stylistic elements of paths and rather than an explorable domain, become a collection of linear sequences within a certain canon. They are employed as a way of pacing the journey, with districts corresponding to specific chapters within the story. The use of such feature helps organize the story and forms memorable links between event and architectural background. The associations also work on a more symbolic level, with scene mood corresponding to the events taking place at the given moment. The analysis will be conducted in parallel, attempting to define the architectural features implemented in creation of such districts, as well as isolating game events that build on the mood and setting of said architecture.

Fig. 83 Screenshot: A ballroom with colour palette below.

Fig. 84 Screenshot: Rapture with colour palette below.

Fig. 85. Screenshot: The Welcome Center with colour palette.

Fig. 86. Screenshot: The Welcome Center with colour palette.

Fig. 87. Screenshot: “Welcome to Soldiers Field”

Fig. 88. Screenshot: The boardwalk of Soldiers Field.

We can immediately recognize specific districts through the use of colour palettes. This is the basic way the gamer can tie specific background to story element. The warm colours in the first chapter are also closely related to the setting: an introduction to Columbia and its utopian backstory. Once the player begins to uncover the truth about Columbiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shortcomings (militaristic government, racism, elitist community) the tone of the surroundings shifts towards a colder palette and is discernible throughout the second chapter. The materials used to create these districts also vary. The Welcome Centre and Raffle Square are predominantly paved in cobble and stone, while the boardwalk of Soldiers Field, its walls and buildings all clad in wood. An absence of trees can be noted in the latter, and yet the most distinguishable features are the lighting fixtures throughout the boardwalk. Even prior to the sun setting and colours changing, we are introduced to this stylistic element:

Fig. 89 Screenshot: Boardwalk of Battleship Bay. 76

Although the districts being of different styles, the game designer has sought to make a coherent image of Columbia by incorporating themes from a certain period. The Columbian World’s Fair architecture shifts into a style heavily influenced by the periods Amusement Park Culture, borrowing elements from the likes of Coney Island theme parks.31 These elements are accented through colour and illumination, mediums previously discussed in implementation of wayfinding clues:

Fig. 90. Screenshot: One of the many stylistic elements of Battleship Bay.

Fig. 91. Screenshot: The vibrant signage ties place with name. 77

31 Edelson, Zachary. “Summer Video Game Series: Bioshock Infinite And The Architecture of Utopia - Architizer Journal.” Journal, 6 Nov. 2017, architizer.com/blog/inspiration/ collections/summer-video-game-bioshock-infinite/.

Nodes: Nodes can exist as gateways within cities, as prominent junctions that signal a change of pace or direction. Lynch argues that the elements around such nodes are perceived with greater clarity, a by-product of heightened awareness and decision making required at junctions. Nodes appear throughout the game as strategic foci.32 The game rids them of their junction-like character, but nevertheless, they can still be entered and experienced as a concentration of some characteristic. The player is presented with an illusion of choice at such junctions, at first, not realizing which path is the correct one, but subconsciously knowing there is a single path throughout the game. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s at these transitions within Columbia, the player is encouraged to explore, albeit briefly, the notion of choice. The choice ventures little in terms of story, but being a game, offers bonus material for the keener gamer. With such bonuses being implemented into the game, nodes need to be somehow clearly conveyed to the player. A change of pace or foot of a landmark are the most common moments where such deviation is allowed, and a visual analysis can help identify the language Bioshock uses to signal these:

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The City and its Elementsâ&#x20AC;? The Image of the City by Kevin Lynch, M.I.T. Press, 2008, p. 72. 78

Fig. 92. Screenshot: A statue pointing the player in the direction of his goal.

The screenshot above shows one of the first nodes we experience in the game. The node is strongly accented - almost obvious, alerting the player to a possibility of bonus gain. The central square has two branching routes with one clearly being more important. The second is a small detour. There are two reasons for implementing such a node at this point of the story: one is to suggest the immediate bonus and the other creates an association with such spaces and the potential reward. The player is then tuned to react to such nodes as they become subtler further into the game. Such small achievements are ultimately tied to our positive experience of a game and their seemingly random appearance drives players to search for more. 33 33 â&#x20AC;&#x153;What Makes Video Games Addictive?â&#x20AC;? The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 18 Feb. 2014, www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2014/02/electronic-entertainment. 79

The design anticipates the route the player will take, and cones of vision are tailored to fit the scripted path. The sequence of cones of vision is as follows (note the player can never experience this type of view and the image below requires altering the code of the game):

Fig. 93. Screenshot analysis: A node with cones of vision. (game code manipulated to achieve this shot.) 1 cone Fig. (top left) 94 .Screenshot analysis: The player comes to a junction. 2 cone Fig. (bottom left) 95. Screenshot: Bonus Content 3 cone Fig. (top right) 96. Screenshot: Signage 4 cone Fig. (bottom right) 97. Screenshot: Light floods the streetscape.

1. At this point the gamer is given a choice, either explore bonus content or continue with the main story. The two branches are symbolized through buildings. A single building on one side and a collection of them on the other:

3. Once bonus material is explored, we are â&#x20AC;&#x153;reattachedâ&#x20AC;? to the main story through familiar symbols and reminded of the main objective. It is worth noting that the image of sign below is only visible from the stairs of the bonus content building. A player that opted out of the bonus content and took the main route right away would miss this reminder:

2. As the junction attempts to raise our awareness, the bonus content then draws us in through an architectural language; an isolated building with an open door and broad staircase:

4. The main route then reassures us that the correct decision was made through implementation of light and blurring of the architectural features on either side of the path:

This aforementioned junction is particular in its clear signal and sequencing of cones of vision. Nodes throughout the game are often subtler if not larger in size. The node below is one such example:

ANALYSIS

Fig. 98. Screenshot analysis: A node with cones of vision. (game code manipulated to achieve this shot)

Fig. 99. Screenshot: “Welcome to Soldiers Field”

Fig. 100. Screenshot: Aerodrome visible in top left corner.

Fig. 101. Screenshot: Along the Edge to the Aerodrome.

Fig. 103. Screenshot: New plan, Hall of Heroes.

Fig. 102. Screenshot: Gondola to Aerodrome broken.

Fig. 104. Screenshot: “Do not” means the opposite in Bioshock. 83

Fig. 105. Screenshot: Hall of heroes.

The objective throughout the first part was to get to the “Aerodrome” visible in the distance of the upper left corner of the first 4 frames. It is worth noting that between frame 4 and 5 the game changes the objective by telling us to travel towards the “Hall of Heroes”. Frame 5 immediately guides a confused player by providing signage to direct them to an illuminated area in frame 6, previously hidden outwith our cone of vision. The sign in the final frame reinforces the players direction and the warmer tone draws the eye. The area offers many explorable niches, but by way of the signage above them (right), we know these are bonus areas. 84

Fig. 106. Screenshot: Not the Hall of Heroes.

Fig. 107. Screenshot: Not the Hall of Heroes either.

Fig. 108. Screenshot: Duke and Dimwit.

Fig. 109. Screenshot: Ice cream.

Fig. 110. Screenshot: “Pint sized firearms?” 85

Conclusions: Case study 1: A key factor in generating a game environment which is â&#x20AC;&#x153;Imageableâ&#x20AC;? is the way the design anticipates the gamers interaction. The way light draws the eyes, grand staircases suggest an entrance and colours form relationships between place and event. Its these methods the game employs to create identifiable pathways through its story. This language needs to be learned and the player is initially aided in deciphering such symbolism. Some players, having invested thousands of hours into a plethora of games are better tuned to these, and yet, as Bioshock: Infinite progresses and the player has invested more time and effort, the symbols fade, and increase the difficulty of the game. The increase is tangible even between the first and second chapter, as we are no longer directed towards a monumental statue, but rather, find ourselves deciphering subtler signage and piecing together smaller bits of information.

Based on an analysis of how each of these elements interact with a player, we can begin to formulate a basic structure of the purpose of each element. Throughout the city elements guide us, be this through light, stylistic elements, grand entrances or landmarks and signage. In an attempt to classify how games influence our decision-making through architectural features, we need to identify the elements; the medium through which they interact; the type of interaction and ultimately; their purpose (see table right):

CONVENTION

Examples

Feature

Window

Sign

District

Medium

Light

Character shape

Colour

Interaction with player

Illumination of specific foci

Reiteration of symbol

Emphasis of specific place

Purpose

Path suggestion

Reassurance of travelling in the correct direction

Helps divide story into memorable segments

Case study 2: Unconcise townscapes How the faculty of vision in cities of Assassinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Creed contributes to crafting a player story. With the first case study focusing on how cities within games interact with us and employ various methods of guidance, the second will attempt to exemplify the intricacy of those interactions. The title selected for the further analysis has a more realistic tone, the creation of which was aided by architect and historian consultation. The anticipation is, the reader will construct parallels between the architecture of the second title and what had been discussed in the previous chapter, the focus however, shifting away from guidance and wayfinding in a linear context to focus on a more complex interplay of architectural context.

Fig. 112. Screenshot: Lighthouse of Alexandria in Assassinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Creed. 88

The freedom of exploring the city in Assassin’s Creed allows for a greater interaction with the urban fabric. Rather than being funnelled down a prescribed path, the player is encouraged to explore the cities. These explorations often lead to bonus content such as in-game currency, collectibles and lore. Due to no longer being confined to a sequence of spaces within a city, the player must assume a more conscious role in deciphering the elements of a city. Questions naturally arise regarding the players relative location. These are more similar to ones a person might ask themselves in a non-fictional urban context:

Fig. 112. Screenshot: Flowers on a temple floor.

Which way are the key points in a city and what part of the city is one in? What elements can one identify and what do they reveal? Is one inside “it” or outside of “it”? Which path looks most interesting from this point?

This is often the sequence of questions one will ask themselves and will serve to structure of the case study. In subconsciously answering these, the player builds an understanding of their surroundings and eases his passage through a game. Naturally, there are gamers that have more advanced spatial awareness and those that struggle are aided by various gameplay elements like waypoints, maps and compasses. The game however, is entirely decipherable without these and will be analysed as such. Serial vision will be used to dissect the architectural encounters the player can experience within the game. The dynamic character of a game, emphasized by the game characterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to freely climb and perform acrobatic feats, is one that contributes to a possession in movement and therefore is well suited to be experienced as a sequence of images rather than a static point of view. 34

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Possesion in Movementâ&#x20AC;? The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 23 90

Advantage: When answering the first question we can often build assumptions based on the content of our surroundings. The game discussed in this particular example places large emphasis on the ability to traverse the built form, be it vertically or otherwise. Similarly to when analysing the painting of Andre Derain, one can position himself in relation to landmarks in Assassin’s Creed, and the game actively encourages this through elevated “synchronization” spots. As with orienteering, throughout the game the player is required to ascend above general built form to achieve a certain advantage over the landscape.35 When discussing one’s own datum-line, the context of an infinitely scalable landscape places the protagonist’s datum slightly higher than that of an average person.36 As these particular locations can only be colonized by the protagonist, as associated with Cullen’s “above level”, they allow for the command over built form and a superiority over other inhabitants of the fictional city.37 Such ascension is associated with going up into the unknown but in the context of the game, also allows the player to decipher the unknown from an advantageous perspective. 35 36 37

“Advantage” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 24 “Change of level” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 175 “Above level” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 38

Fig. 113. Screenshot: Pyramids in the distance

Fig. 114. Screenshot: Egyptian Pyramids 91

Hazards are an important factor in addressing the context of vertical gain. The game requires a certain responsibility and yet, through providing an opportunity to leap off certain locations into a safe medium (water or hay), diminishes the boundaries set out by change of level. Its these objects, that often allow the player to backtrack to a point of interest. These elements act as a marker for an “exit”, suggesting a space one needed to exit, and therefore, his position outside of “it”.

Fig. 116. Screenshot: “Weeeee”

Fig. 117. Screenshot: A staple of Assassin’s Creed games.

This leads us on to the content of the city and how some of its objects are considered “markers” for sequences the developer has put extra design work into:

Content: The content of the cities can be also ordered into groups and sets of interactions the player can achieve. The safe medium allows the player to leap off a building while the tipped cart to ascend into the unknown. The freerunning character of the gameplay encourages players to utilize elements of environment. Ian Borden noted a similar interaction occurs with skateboarding, where skaters illustrate that: “Architecture, like all other cultural objects, is not made just once, but is made and remade over and over again each time it is represented through another medium”. 38 Again, the freedom to traverse the environment contributes to this notion and by providing exits and entries from street level, as well as theatrical interactions such running across ropes above streets, the game allows for a player story to emerge – the player assumes the role of and feels like an assassin. These points of interaction with architecture, for sake of gameplay, often are of similar visual character:

38 “Skateboarding, Space and the City Architecture and the Body.” Skateboarding, Space and the City Architecture and the Body, by Iain Borden, Blommsbury Academic, 2014, p. 30.

Fig. 118. Screenshot: Ladder

Fig. 119. Screenshot: Ladder 93

Fig. 121. Screenshot: Ropes act as paths over the street.

Fig. 122. Screenshot: Cart.

Fig. 123. Screenshot: These allow the assassin to remain above ground...

Fig. 124. Screenshot: Cart.

Fig. 123. Screenshot:... or to leap down onto an unsuspecting victim.

Fig. 126. Screenshot: The whole city owns the same cart. 94

Paths: These elements eventually build paths, the game designers knowing the more intricate elements of freerunning they include, the more exhilarating the journey from point A to point B becomes.39 It is worth noting that these sequences often have further architectural guides along the path. They become a puzzle one can assemble and in a game environment one would refer to this as a combo. In many games, such combos are the main objective – in Assassin’s Creed, they become architectural combos that reinforce the player story. An analysis of these sequences through serial vision may evoke the feelings that accompany freerunning, which is the developers goal:

39 “Sebastien Foucan - Find Your Way | London Real.” Youtube, 28 Oct. 2012, www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qGq1j_xyzHM. 95

Serial Vision 1

Note how in the first frame, the leaning cart addresses the architectural reveals in the building as well as the opening in the top floor wall.

The entirety of the building can be scaled. This is the quickest and most efficient way.

Note the mat that further accents the landing and the mat further to suggest the point we can leap off.

Fig. 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134 Screenshots: Paths through cityscapes. 96

Once atop the building, the protagonist is lead through another opening in the wall, seemingly addressing the ledge and trees beyond.

Two unnaturally shaped trees suggest this is an intentionally crafted path.

Below the opening in the wall a cart softens the fall and as a static element which the player enters, signals the end of a sequence.

Above an analysis of the sequence for bird-eye view.

Serial Vision 2

Again note how the cart addresses the opening in the wall.

A light than draws the eye to the ladder.

The thrilling aspect of jumping over the street below is highlighted with the use of light.

Fig. 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142 Screenshots: Paths through cityscapes. 98

Atop the building an opening is presented .

Another opening that leads to a ledge .

Once again, a cart with hay will cushion the leap off the building.

Above an analysis of the sequence for bird-eye view.

Fig. 143 Screenshots: A gate beacons the player.

While the previously analysed sequences appeal to the parkour aspect of the game, the one below attempts to draw a player in off the street through promise of gain. Games set in a built environment often tie valuable content with buildings that exhibit some degree of importance. Note the player needs not explore this bonus content in order to complete the game and many may miss it completely, having little value in the context of the whole game. And yet, the visual storytelling in this passage is what achieves such great exposition and through nuance, draws the players attention. Through a seeding of delicate architectural clues the player is shown, not told, that there is content to be ventured: 40

1. We can immediately identify what Cullen would describe as an enclave in the form of a gate. A space out of the main directional steam and yet having free and direct access. The gate draws us in off the street, at this stage having received only hints of the addressed enclosure beyond. 41 40 41

“Seeding” Video Game Storytelling, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 58. “Enclosure” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 25. 100

2. The next frame spikes our interest. The symmetry of the focal point reinforces the intention of the exposition and the high walls surrounding the enclosure – its secluded character. It becomes an outdoor room and embodies the idea of hereness.42 It draws the player inside.

4. The symmetry that initially spiked our interest is now being utilized to guide us further. The two spires that we noticed from outside of the enclosure are now being used to frame another viewpoint:

42 “The outdoor room” The Concise Townscape, by Gordon Cullen, Architectural Press, 2015, p. 29.

Fig. 146. Screenshot: Symmetry.

Fig. 144. Screenshot: A focal point.

3. A new axis of symmetry is introduced.

Fig. 145. Screenshot: Symmetrical pillars, shrubs and hedges.

Fig. 147. Screenshot: A beautiful space with nothing valuable in it? 101

At this point, the exposition starts to implement gameplay mechanics – after a brief search, a player would find that there is no bonus material to be found. The clash of exposition with lack of reward is devoid of “fairness”. 43 The player knows there should be something. Verticality - the players advantage over the landscape.

Fig. 148 Screenshots: Through contrast we understand a division of space, a “here” and a “there”.

Note the clear contrast between spaces and seemingly no means of passage between one and the other. What further enforces the need for ascension is the way the statues in the space above are facing the room, rather than the observer below. Realising that there is a “there” one needs to somehow transport themselves between their current position and the desired one. Climbing one of the 6 columns, the player is rewarded with bonus content and a beautifully intimate space - a reward for deciphering the architectural clues: 43 146.

“Surprise, Believability and... Fairness” Video Game Storytelling, by Evan Skolnick, Watson-Guptill, 2015, pp. 102

Fig. 149. Screenshot: "What is a man but the sum of his memories, we are the stories we live, the tales we tell our selves"

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Conclusions: Case Study 2: Upon releasing, to some degree, oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s control over an environment various stories may form. The dichotomy of game and player story creates two different ways we both create and receive an environment. A non-linear or explorable city can be seen as superior to the way we experience linear sequences of architecture and story of the previous case study. Assassinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Creed not only expands on the interactions one can achieve within a fictional city, it also expands the glossary of architectural language that lends itself to guiding players. It utilizes these in a more toned character, through use of more subtle means such as focal points, advantage points, enclosures and enclaves.

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Fig. 150. Screenshot: A voice echoed through the room... “Conclusions on the next page...”

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CONCLUSIONs To conclude further, in answering the questions set out at the beginning of this journey through the virtual, one can, to some degree, admire the contribution virtual cities are having on the minds of the unsuspecting victims. Through visual implementation of complex architectural notions, gamers are being tuned to the receive information regarding their architectural surroundings, and through sheer force of scale, collectively may have developed an increased ability to decipher wayfinding clues. The historical accuracy of such reproductions has little effect on the final product and tends to only be sacrificed when it is important to do so, say for example, in the name of gameplay. The elements within a game often develop their own language, placing far more importance on graphical representation. The ability to freely copy elements, reinforces their rhythm and can often create quasi-associations between element and interaction. Game developers, by borrowing only some elements from non-fictional cities, are able to distil the information they provide and order it in a more digestible way. It is interesting to note how the control of space and user within that space is dependant upon the type of storytelling. The scalability of the interactive scope of a game is in a sense, directly proportional to the immersivity one can achieve within such cities.

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The Situationists, when talking about cities had noted that: “the benign professionalism of architecture and design had led to a sterilization of the world that threatened to wipe out any sense of spontaneity or playfulness”44 Has the spontaneous and playful gaming world developed a new way of thinking about architectural design? Is it not an emphasis on story of a city what the Situationists meant? When addressed in the context of two types of storytelling, one can construct parallels in the way linearity and non-linearity affect the reception of an environment. One, devoid of individuality and the other, “remade over and over again” but ultimately lacking true meaning. The degree of control seems to have a polarized effect on quality architectural experience. Linear games forsaking freedom in the name of defined architectural space and experiences that are consistent with architectural form, while non-linear, building a freedom of exploration and yielding defined experiences to achieve such. This dissertation, perhaps most importantly, leads us to consider the differences between types of storytelling and how the distinction between player and game story lends itself to a better understanding of how we might design space and city.

Sadler, Simon. Situationist City. N.p.: MIT, 1998. Print. 107

List of Figures: Fig. 1. Screenshot: “forgiveness...? just get out of the way” Fig. 2. Screenshot: “The player on the right didn’t know this screenshot was important academic work” Fig. 3. Screenshot: “Can you smell smoke?” Fig. 4. Screenshot: “cosy...” Fig. 5,6,7,8 Screenshots: “Towards the light then...?” Fig. 9. Screenshot: 3 colours of the night. Fig. 10 Screenshot: “This way...” Fig. 11. Screenshot: “This better be worth it...” Fig. 12. Screenshot: “Welcome to Rapture” Fig. 13. Screenshot: Light guiding the way in Bioshock Fig. 14. Screenshot: One of the many temples. Fig. 15. Screenshot: “Don’t mind me” Fig. 16. Screenshot: Light in Uncharted: Lost Legacy guiding the player. Fig. 17,18. Screenshot: Light in Journey guiding the player. Fig. 19. Screenshot: Zork 3 containing some of the first “Images” of architecture in games. Fig. 20. London Bridge by Andre Derain 1906 Fig. 21. Authors plan view of London Bridge Fig. 22. The Pool of London, Andre Derain 1906 Fig. 23. The Pool of London in Minecraft. Fig. 24. Authors plan view of Broadway, New York Fig. 25. Broadway Boogie-Woogie by Piet Mondrian Fig. 26. Screenshot: “Damascus is widely believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world.” Damascus in Assassin’s Creed. Fig. 27. Screenshot:“Climate Hope City” built in Minecraft. Courtesy BlockWorks. Fig. 28. Map of Chicago street grid. Fig. 29. Map of Grand Theft Auto 4. Liberty City Fig. 30. An analysis of Broker, district of Liberty City by author. Fig. 31. Screenshot: “Hope there’s an elevator...” Fig. 32. Screenshots: “Flying oxymoron, I mean... Aerodrome” Fig. 33. Screenshot: “Man and his cat” Fig. 34. Author sketch analysis of paths in linear and non-linear gameplay. Fig. 35. Screenshot: “Of thy sins shall I wash thee” Fig. 35. Screenshot: Soldiers field, Bioshock (code edited) Fig. 36. Screenshot: First frame of Bioshock: Infinite Fig. 37. Screenshot analysis: Visual clues that suggest a route and a destination. Fig. 38. Screenshot analysis: Discrepancies in light Fig. 39. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair. Fig. 40. Screenshot: Light directing the player. Fig. 41. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair. Fig. 42. Screenshot: Light highlighting the foot of a stair. Fig. 43. World’s Fair: Columbian Exposition Fig. 44. Screenshot: Symbolic character of Bioshock: Infinite Fig. 45. Screenshot: Contrasting colours of light 108

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Fig. 46. Screenshot: Light highlighting an escape Fig. 47. Screenshot: Walkway doused in light, Edges dark. Fig. 48. Screenshot: Contrast between lights sequences the path. Fig. 49. Screenshot: Contrast highlighting the escape. Fig. 50. Screenshot: Light spilling out of shed. Fig. 51. Screenshot: Light illuminating a means of escape. Fig. 52. Screenshot: Signage beacons the player. Fig. 53. Screenshot: Cover image. Fig. 54. Screenshot: Signs as a path. Fig. 55. Screenshot: Signs Fig. 56. Screenshot: Purple light in contrast to surroundings Fig. 57. Screenshot: Pink Lotus. Fig. 58. Screenshot: Two lights suggest points A and B. Fig. 59. Screenshot: Two lights suggest points A and B. Fig. 60. Screenshot: A cable and illuminated destination. Fig. 61. Screenshot: Chole using her gun to zipline along the cable. Fig. 62. Screenshot: “knock knock... “ Fig. 63. Screenshot: An angel in centre of the city. The players first glimpse of Columbia. Fig. 64. Screenshot: “Suns out, Guns out” Fig. 65. Screenshot: An angel statue and a sign of an angel. Fig. 66, 67, 68, 69. Screenshots: The angel landmark accompanies the player throughout the first chapter. Fig. 70. Screenshot: The mountain is a landmark the player travels towards in Journey Fig. 71. Screenshot: At first, the mountain is seen from a distance. Fig. 72. Screenshot: Landmark interwoven with the Architecture. Fig. 73. Screenshot: Mountain reappearing in certain frames. Fig. 74. Screenshot analysis: The game creates an association between 2 types of signage and the landmark they represent. Fig. 75. Screenshot: The sign reiterates the chapter destination. Fig. 76. Screenshot: Signs used to reinforce players decisions. Fig. 77. Screenshot: Angel sign reminding the player of the goal. Fig. 78. Screenshot: Landmark destroyed after first chapter. Fig. 79. Screenshot: A barrier preventing a fall. Fig. 80. Screenshot: A barrier framing a road. Fig. 81. Screenshot: A barrier framing the walkway. Fig. 82. Screenshot: The candles on the table act as an edge. Fig. 83. Screenshot: A ballroom with colour palette below. Fig. 84. Screenshot: Rapture with colour palette below. Fig. 85. Screenshot: The Welcome Center with colour palette. Fig. 86. Screenshot: The Welcome Center with colour palette. Fig. 87. Screenshot: “Welcome to Soldiers Field” Fig. 88. Screenshot: The boardwalk of Soldiers Field. Fig. 89. Screenshot: Boardwalk of Battleship Bay. Fig. 90. Screenshot: One of the many stylistic elements of Battleship Bay. 109

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Fig. 91. Screenshot: The vibrant signage ties place with name. Fig. 92. Screenshot: A statue pointing the player in the direction of his goal. Fig. 93. Screenshot analysis: A node with cones of vision. (game code manipulated to achieve this shot.) 1 cone Fig. (top left) 94. Screenshot analysis: The player comes to a junction. 2 cone Fig. (bottom left) 95. Screenshot: Bonus Content 3 cone Fig. (top right) 96. Screenshot: Signage 4 cone Fig. (bottom right) 97. Screenshot: Light floods the streetscape. Fig. 98. Screenshot analysis: A node with cones of vision. (game code manipulated to achieve this shot) Fig. 99. Screenshot: “Welcome to Soldiers Field” Fig. 100. Screenshot: Aerodrome visible in top left corner. Fig. 101. Screenshot: Along the Edge to the Aerodrome. Fig. 102. Screenshot: Gondola to Aerodrome broken. Fig. 103. Screenshot: New plan, Hall of Heroes. Fig. 104. Screenshot: “Do not” means the opposite in Bioshock. Fig. 105. Screenshot: Hall of heroes. Fig. 106. Screenshot: Not the Hall of Heroes. Fig. 107. Screenshot: Not the Hall of Heroes either. Fig. 108. Screenshot: Duke and Dimwit. Fig. 109. Screenshot: Ice cream. Fig. 110. Screenshot: “Pint sized firearms?” Fig. 112. Screenshot: Lighthouse of Alexandria in Assassin’s Creed. Fig. 112. Screenshot: Flowers on a temple floor. Fig. 113. Screenshot: Pyramids in the distance Fig. 114. Screenshot: Egyptian Pyramids Fig. 115. Screenshot: “Not so great now” Fig. 116. Screenshot: “Weeeee” Fig. 117. Screenshot: A staple of Assassin’s Creed games. Fig. 118. Screenshot: Ladder Fig. 119. Screenshot: Ladder Fig. 120. Screenshot: Ladder Fig. 121. Screenshot: Ropes act as paths over the street. Fig. 122. Screenshot: Cart. Fig. 123. Screenshot: These allow the assassin to remain above ground... Fig. 124. Screenshot: Cart. Fig. 123. Screenshot:...or to leap down onto an unsuspecting victim. Fig. 126. Screenshot: The whole city owns the same cart. Fig. 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134 Screenshots: Paths through cityscapes. Fig. 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142 Screenshots: Paths through cityscapes. Fig. 143 Screenshots: A gate beacons the player. Fig. 144. Screenshot: A focal point. Fig. 145. Screenshot: Symmetrical pillars, shrubs and hedges. Fig. 146. Screenshot: Symmetry. Fig. 147. Screenshot: A beautiful space with nothing valuable in it? 110

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Fig. 148 Screenshots: Through contrast we understand a division of space, a “here” and a “there”. Fig. 149. Screenshot: “What is a man but the sum of his memories, we are the stories we live, the tales we tell our selves”` Fig. 150. Screenshot: A voice echoed through the room: “Conclusions on the next page”

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Works Cited: Books: Borden, Iain. Skateboarding, Space and the City Architecture and the Body. Blommsbury Academic, 2014. Castronova, Edward. Exodus to the Virtual World How Online Fun Is Changing Reality. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Cullen, Gordon. The Concise Townscape. Architectural Press, 2015. Garrelts, Nate. The Meaning and Culture of Grand Theft Auto: Critical Essays. McFarland, 2006. Hall, Peter Geoffrey. Cities in Civilization. Fromm International, 2001. Lynch, Kenneth. The Image of the City. MIT Pr., 1979. McGonigal, Jane. Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World. Vintage, 2012. Sadler, Simon. The Situationist City. MIT Press, 1998. Skolnick, Evan. Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques. Watson-Guptill, 2015. White, Edmund. The FlaĂ&#x152;Â&#x201A;Neur. Bloomsbury, 2015.

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WEbSITES: https://www.mpaa.org/research-and-reports/ 2016 Theatrical Market Statistics Report Tate. “Tate Worlds: Soul of the Soulless City.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/about/projects/ tate-worlds-art-reimagined-minecraft/games/soulless-city. “Minecraft Architecture: What Architects Can Learn From a Video Game.” Redshift, 18 Oct. 2017, www.autodesk.com/redshift/minecraft-architecture/. “Summer Video Game Series: Bioshock Infinite And The Architecture of Utopia - Architizer Journal.” Journal, 6 Nov. 2017, architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/summer-video-game-bioshock-infinite/. “2017 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry.” The Entertainment Software Association, ESA/ESRB/EEDAR, Apr. 2017, www.theesa.com/article/2017-essential-facts-computer-video-game-industry/. “MINISTRY OF COMMERCE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.” China Bars Use of Virtual Money, english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/newsrelease/commonnews/200906/20090606364208. shtml. Artemel, AJ. “How Video Games Use Architecture.” Architizer, 9 July 2013, architizer.com/ blog/how-video-games-use-architecture/. The idea of ordering games into 4 categories was initially proposed by Artemel. The categorization in this dissertation is simplified in into 3 branches.

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Holly Nielsen. “How Ubisoft Painstakingly Recreated Ancient Egypt.” The Guardian, 5 Oct. 2017, www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/oct/05/assassins-creed-origins-recreated-ancient-egypt-ubisoft. Manuel Saga. “Consultant for Assassin’s Creed II.” Translated by Matthew Valletta, Arch Daily, 7 Oct. 2015, www.archdaily.com/774210/maria-elisa-navarro-the-architectural-consultant-for-assassins-creed-ii. “What Makes Video Games Addictive?” The Economist, The Economist Newspaper, 18 Feb. 2014, www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2014/02/electronic-entertainment. Interviews Temkin, Ann. “Piet Mondrian. Broadway Boogie Woogie. 1942-43.” | MoMA, Moma, 2017, www.moma.org/audio/playlist/1/196. “Sebastien Foucan - Find Your Way | London Real.” Youtube, 28 Oct. 2012, www.youtube. com/watch?v=qGq1j_xyzHM. Podcast Harding, Jim. “Episode 126: Walk This Way .” 99% Invisible, 8 Apr. 2014, 99percentinvisible. org/episode/walk-this-way/.

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