Rise and Fall of Apartheid

Page 1


Rise and Fall of

AparthEid Photography and the Bureaucracy of Everyday Life Edited by

Okwui Enwezor and Rory Bester

Jurgen Schadeberg, At the end of the Defiance Campaign Trial, the freed defendants assemble for the photographer in front of the Johannesburg Magistrates Court, September 1952

International Center of Photography | New York DelMonico Books • Prestel | Munich London New York


Dedicated to

Paul Alberts, Alf Kumalo, Colin Richards, and Gisèle Wulfsohn Published on the occasion of the exhibition Rise and Fall of Apartheid: Photography and the Bureaucracy of Everyday Life, curated by Okwui Enwezor, with Rory Bester, for the International Center of Photography. Exhibition dates: September 14, 2012–January 6, 2013. Published by the International Center of Photography and DelMonico Books, an imprint of Prestel. PAGE 1: Jurgen Schadeberg, During the Defiance Campaign Trial at the Magistrates Court, three of the leaders outside of the court, August 1952 PAGES 2–3: Peter Magubane, The “All-In” Congress: The annual African National Congress conference at Bloemfontein; (from left to right) Lillian Ngoyi, M. Molefi,

F. Mkhize, V. Gqirana, C. A. N. Kuse, Frances Baard, February 1956 PAGES 4–5: Unidentified Photographer, The Black Sash, November 1956 PAGE 7: Jurgen Schadeberg, Miriam Makeba, 1955 PAGES 8–9: Peter Magubane, Nanny and Child, Johannesburg, 1956

1114 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10036 www.icp.org Prestel, a member of Verlagsgruppe Random House GmbH Prestel Verlag Prestel Publishing Ltd. Prestel Publishing Neumarkter Strasse 28 4 Bloomsbury Place 900 Broadway, Suite 603 81673 Munich London WC1A 2QA New York, NY 10003 Germany United Kingdom tel 212 995 2720 tel 49 89 4136 0 tel 44 20 7323 5004 fax 212 995 2733 fax 49 89 4136 2335 fax 44 20 7636 8004 sales@prestel-usa.com www.prestel.de www.prestel.com © 2013 International Center of Photography ISBN 978-3-7913-5280-0 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any other information storage and retrieval system, or otherwise without written permission from the publisher. Director of Publications, ICP: Philomena Mariani Production Manager, DelMonico Books • Prestel: Karen Farquhar Design: Maya Peraza-Baker Separations: Robert J. Hennessey Printing and binding: Midas Printing, China Library of Congress Control Number: 2012955948


TABLE OF CONTENTS 16 DIRECTOR’S FOREWORD Mark Robbins 18 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Okwui Enwezor

2 48 1970–1979 Legitimizing Apartheid The Soweto Uprising, June 16, 1976 Black Consciousness Images of Public Protest Artists Respond to Apartheid

20 RISE AND FALL OF APARTHEID Okwui Enwezor

Leslie Lawson, Crown Mines

46 “NATIVE STUDIES” Michael Godby

3 42 UNITY AND STRUGGLE Patricia Hayes

66 ZERO WORLD Achille Mbembe

3 48 INSURRECTIONAL VISIBILITY Andries Walter Oliphant

72 1948–1959 The Defiance Campaign and

3 54 1980–1989 Public Mourning, Mass Politics

the Strategy of Noncooperation

Afrapix

The Freedom Charter and the Treason Trial

Forced Removals The Black Sash Drum Magazine and the Black Fifties 170 1960–1969 Repression, Prosecution, Militancy Apartheid Signs Ernest Cole and House of Bondage George Hallett and District Six

Chris Ledochowski, Harfield Village

The Struggle Intensifies 4 64 1990–1995 Civil War and the Escalation Of Violence The Bang Bang Club The 1994 Elections 5 08 THE POLITICS AND AESTHETICS OF THE RISE AND FALL OF APARTHEID Rory Bester

Billy Monk and Cape Town Night Life 2 26 SIZWE BANSI AND THE STRONG ROOM OF DREAMS Darren Newbury 2 34 RETOUCHING APARTHEID Eli Weinberg, Newclare Branch delegates, Congress of the People, Kliptown, 1955

Colin Richards

5 22 EPILOGUE: LOOKING BACK 5 34 BUREAUCRATIZATION OF MEMORY Khwezi Gule 5 40 CONTRIBUTORS 5 43 PHOTO CREDITS


PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PICTURING APARTHEID: TOWARD THE EXHIBITION OF RESISTANCE

The project would not have been possible without the

Ractliffe, Rashid Lombard, Omar Badsha, George Hallett,

deep commitment and institutional support of ICP. From the

Graham Goddard, Gavin Jantjes, Zwelethu Mthethwa, Paul

very first exhibition, the ICP staff and board members have

Weinberg, Santu Mofokeng, Gideon Mendel, Gail Behrmann,

welcomed me to the museum with the kind of generosity

Angus Gibson, Claudia and Jurgen Schadeberg, Peter Ma-

that I can hardly hope to repay. I am deeply grateful to Buzz

gubane, Michael Stevenson, Joost Bosland, Federica An-

Hartshorn, ICP’s director of eighteen years. With his char-

gelucci, Jack Shainman, Adrian Piper, Antoinette Murdoch,

Over the last two decades, my curatorial work has been funda-

not only an image, but a portrait of the people of South Africa

acteristic elegance, disarming wit, and trenchant observa-

Herbert Mabuza, Vuyi Mbalo, Robin Comley, Natasha Fuller,

mentally shaped around what could be described as the mod-

during the period between 1948 and the demise of apartheid

tions, Buzz always offered me his encouragement. Though

Prospero Bailey, Michelle Leon, Christina Barton, Jackie Pot-

ern African imaginary. Rise and Fall of Apartheid: Photography

in 1994.

his stewardship of the museum concluded as the final details

gieter, Lunetta Bartz, Warren Siebrits, and Liza Essers.

and the Bureaucracy of Everyday Life marks the latest iteration

The project has been organized with an awareness of the

of the exhibition were put in place, I owe every bit of the proj-

Numerous others, including friends and family, as well as

of that ongoing intellectual concern. The thinking behind this

fact that most previous examinations of apartheid focused on

ect’s success to his support. Mark Robbins, the new direc-

colleagues, have at different junctures contributed to enlarg-

exhibition was formed within the context of another exhibition

its brutality, especially the petty and violent humiliations it

tor of ICP, has equally demonstrated support for this project.

ing the network of analysis, responses, and conversations

project: The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Move-

imposed on the lives of black and other nonwhite communi-

I have benefited immensely from the commitment of many

that sharpened the thinking that propelled us along. As al-

ments in Africa, 1945–1994 (2001). At the International Center of

ties. In visual terms, the tradition of representing apartheid

colleagues at ICP, beginning with Brian Wallis, chief cura-

ways, Uchenna Soraya Enwezor has been a constant pres-

Photography, Rise and Fall of Apartheid represents the second

in this way tended to treat African subjects as victims rather

tor and deputy director, Kristen Lubben, associate director,

ence in the course of planning this exhibition. She was a very

in a trilogy of exhibitions conceived around the history of pho-

than agents of their own emancipation. While a lot has been

Christopher Phillips, senior curator, and Carol Squiers, se-

able research assistant during one of the pivotal trips to Jo-

tography and its legacy in Africa. The first, Snap Judgments:

learned from these representations through books and exhi-

nior curator. I thank Philomena Mariani, who expertly edited

hannesburg and Cape Town. I thank my mother Bernadette

New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (2006),

bitions, the ways in which apartheid as a social system was

and shepherded this publication, and Maya Peraza-Baker,

Enwezor for her constant example, and for her insistence that

focused on emerging artists of the twenty-first century. Rise

normalized within institutions, bureaucracy, and everyday

for the distinctive design. The planning and organization of

we all have stories to tell and that the duty of telling resides

and Fall of Apartheid is a case study of a specific historical pe-

life has rarely been properly examined.

an exhibition this complex would have been impossible with-

in the fidelity of making vivid the narratives that help shape

riod within the twentieth century. The third and final install-

The exhibition and this volume cover more than fifty years

out the active engagement of the ICP staff. I thank Vanessa

the comprehension of the past. Francesco Bonami, Stefano

ment, Sun in Their Eyes: Photography and the Invention of Africa,

of photographic and visual production that forms part of the

Rocco, Africia Heiderhoff, Todd McDaniel, Maanik Chauhan,

Boeri, James Casebere, Lorna Simpson, Thelma Golden, Luz

1839–1939, focuses on the first 100 years of photographic rep-

historical record of modern South African identity. With the

Barbara Woytowicz, Katerina Stathopoulou, Joe Ketner, and

Gyalui, Chika Okeke-Agulu, Salah Hassan, Louise Neri, Geof-

resentations of the continent and its peoples.

notable exception of some key Western figures such as Dan

Maren Ullrich for overseeing every aspect of the intricate,

frey Batchen, and Artur Walther have each given the many

The interplay between these different histories of pho-

Weiner, Margaret Bourke-White, Hans Haacke, Adrian Piper,

and sometimes vexing, details that an exhibition of this scope

ideas that flow from the project a dutiful hearing. I thank my

tography situates the present exhibition. One of the most re-

and Ian Berry, Rise and Fall of Apartheid focuses almost exclu-

inevitably generates.

colleagues at Haus der Kunst, Munich, particularly Ulrich

pressive and detested political systems ever devised, apart-

sively on the work of South Africans. This decision is based on

Craig Konyk and members of his team, Christina Ostermeir,

Wilmes, Marco Graf von Matuschka, Jacqueline Falk, Elena

heid came into existence at the very moment anticolonial

the visual power of the images produced by South Africans.

Darion Washington, Caroline Vickery, and Michael Palmer, at

Heitsch, Tina Köhler, Anton Köttle, Casandre Schmid, Mar-

movements were undoing the colonial state. Essentially a

No one else photographed South Africa and the struggle

Konyk Architecture were always there with humor and con-

tina Schmid, Anna Schneider, and Anna Schueller for their

neofascist culture, almost all of apartheid’s defining features

against apartheid better, more critically, and with deeper pic-

centration to help render the diversity of images legible and

work in support of the project.

were put in place between 1948 and 1955, and incrementally

torial reflection, complexity, and insight than South African

make the path of exhibition seem capacious even in very limit-

The publication has benefited from the support of Mary

narrowed into more restrictive policing mechanisms. Apart-

photographers. It is the goal here to explore and pay tribute

ed confines. Alicia Cheng at mgmt.design developed a graphic

DelMonico and Karen Farquhar at DelMonico Books and

heid’s web of laws had a single crude goal: absolute seg-

to their exceptional photographic achievement.

structure that further clarified the reading of the exhibition.

Katharina Haderer and Curt Holtz at Prestel. Thanks are

Years of research that accompanied the planning of the

due to Michael Godby, Khwezi Gule, Patricia Hayes, Achille

laws and the systems contrived for their enforcement—what

This exhibition has been realized in very close collaboration

project have meant that I have accrued huge debts of gratitude

Mbembe, Darren Newbury, Andries Oliphant, and Colin Rich-

may be called the bureaucratization of everyday life—a well-

with Rory Bester, a friend and colleague of long standing dat-

to many people who at one time or another provided support,

ards, the contributors to this volume whose critical insights

organized, robust resistance movement comprising South Af-

ing back to our work together at the 2nd Johannesburg Bien-

expertise, and all manner of encouragement. I want to thank

and carefully argued essays have enlarged and added sub-

ricans of all racial and ethnic backgrounds and diverse politi-

nale. From our first meeting in 1997, we have established not

Mark McCain, Peter Guggenheimer, and the Warhol Founda-

stantially to the immense literature surrounding the inter-

cal beliefs mobilized in what became an epic struggle, written

only a close intellectual rapport and professional relation-

tion for their critical financial support and grants made to the

pretation of apartheid.

in both blood and courage, against the apartheid state.

ship, the fifteen years that have passed have led to many pro-

exhibition. At a very early stage of the planning, Leigh Illion

Finally, there would not be an exhibition were it not for the

Rise and Fall of Apartheid is not a history of apartheid itself,

ductive and fruitful projects. And each time, Rory’s work as a

served as my research assistant, traveling to Johannesburg

revealing and penetrating vision of all the photographers and

but a critical visualization and interrogation of its normative

critic, theorist, and historian has been a tonic to clear think-

and Cape Town to examine the holdings of various collections

artists who committed themselves to documenting and bear-

symbols, signs, and representations. Through photographic

ing, analytical precision, and studious determination. Rory

and archives. Makgati Molebatsi provided crucial research

ing witness to the malevolence of apartheid. This project is

and artistic production, it presents reflections on the rep-

brought the same generosity and ethical stance to this proj-

support throughout. I am always grateful for her friendship.

a tribute to their courage and resilience in the face of unac-

resentations of apartheid culture and documentation of the

ect that have made all collaborations with him so rewarding.

Among supporters too legion to name, I thank Monna

struggle against its rules and norms. However, it is above all

I cannot state enough the depth of my gratitude to him. All the

Mokoena, Bongi Maswanganyi, Hedwig Barry, Dave Mey-

concerned with exploring the role of photography in shaping

people I address here, I do so on behalf of both of us.

ergollan, David and Lillie Goldblatt, Greg Marinovich, Jo

regation along racial and ethnic lines. In the wake of these

18

countable power. Okwui Enwezor 19


1948-1959 July 17. The Bantu Authorities Act no. 68 establishes and recognizes traditional tribal authorities. The Act precipitates rebellions in rural areas such as Pondoland against chiefs, charged with enforcing the new education system, and consequently seen to be lackeys of the apartheid state.

1952 April 6. Tercentenary celebrations of the arrival of the Dutch colonist Jan van Riebeeck at the Cape. June 26. The Defiance Campaign includes the first group of women defiers. The campaign lasts until October 1952. June 27. The Black (Native) Laws Amendment Act No. 54 mandates that all black people over the age of 16 carry pass books, and prohibits black people from remaining in urban areas longer than 72 hours without permission. November 12. Chief Albert Luthuli is stripped of his position as a traditional chief for refusing to resign as ANC leader in Natal.

1953 Unidentified Photographer, Treason Trial, first day of the preliminary hearings, Johannesburg, December 19, 1956

1948

1950

May 26–28. The general election is held. The Afrikaner National Party emerges the victor, with Daniel Francois Malan, the leader of the party, elected as prime minister.

Walter Sisulu’s book South Africa Behind Bars is published and distributed at the United Nations.

1949 The new government begins the process of consolidating apartheid as official state policy with the introduction of the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act No. 55, which forbids marriage between whites and nonwhites. December. The African National Congress (ANC) adopts a Program of Action that includes more robust forms of resistance to apartheid, including boycotts and civil disobedience. December 16. The Voortrekker Monument is inaugurated in Pretoria.

Black people living in Pageview are forcibly removed to Orlando. Dutch-born Hendrik F. Verwoerd, the future “architect” of apartheid, is appointed Minister of Native Affairs.

July 7. The Population Registration Act No. 30 mandates registration of the entire South African population by racial classification, while the Group Areas Act No. 41 transforms segregated urban areas into racially segregated zones. December 2. The U.N. General Assembly passes Resolution 395(V), declaring that “a policy of ‘racial segregation’ (apartheid) is necessarily based on doctrines of racial discrimination.”

1951

May 12. An amendment to the Immorality Act extends the 1927 prohibition on sexual relations between whites and blacks to include whites and Coloureds; the Act is further amended in 1957 to prohibit sexual relations between whites and nonwhites.

June 18. The Separate Representation of Voters Act No. 46 removes Coloured voters from the common roll in the Cape. The Act is challenged constitutionally by a group of disenfranchised Coloured voters, but is eventually revalidated in March 1956.

June 18. The Communist Party of South Africa is banned under the Suppression of Communism Act No. 44.

July 6. The Prevention of Illegal Squatting Act No. 52 makes it illegal for prohibited persons to enter or remain on land or in a building without lawful reason and permission.

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January. Formation of the Congress of Democrats (COD), a white group aligned to the Congress Alliance. Following discussions with the Congress Alliance, it is decided that since ANC membership is not open to whites, the COD should operate as a whites-only wing of the Alliance. At the first conference in October 1953, the executive includes (among others) Ruth First, Bram Fischer, Rica Hodgson, Helen Joseph, and Yusuf Cachalia’s brother Maulvi. Many white members of the banned Communist Party join the COD, but it is too radical for some whites, who leave to form the Liberal Party. The Springbok Legion is the Johannesburg branch of the COD. The COD is banned in September 1962. April. The National Party wins its second general election. October 9. The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act No. 49 segregates common, public, and social spaces, including ambulances and hospitals, buses and trains, cafés and restaurants, cinemas and theaters, schools and universities.

1954 January 1. The Bantu Education Act creates a curriculum that lowers the quality of and reduces resources for the education of black people. April 17. The Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) is launched in Johannesburg. The Black Resettlement Act No. 19 establishes a Resettlement Board responsible for the removal of black people from townships, including Sophiatown.

1955 February 10. Forced removals commence in Sophiatown when 2,000 policemen descend on the area to evict families and demolish their homes. These forced removals last until 1959, by which time 60,000 people have been evicted and Sophiatown has been reduced to rubble. The area is renamed Triomf (Triumph). April 1955. The ANC calls for a mass boycott of the Bantu education plan. The government responds by banning students who do not return to school by April 25, and imposes fines and imprisonment on anyone running an unlicensed school. June 25–26. The Congress of the People, attended by more than 3,000 delegates, is held in Kliptown. The Freedom Charter, the historical document representing the core principles of the South African Congress Alliance, which consists of the African National Congress and its allies the South African Indian Congress, the South African Congress of Democrats, and the Coloured People’s Congress, is ratified. It is characterized by its opening demand: The People Shall Govern!

1956 March 2. Coloureds are struck from voter rolls in the Cape Province, after the 1951 Separate Representation of Voters Act is revalidated by the South Africa Amendment Act No 9. March 16. The Riotous Assemblies Act No. 17 prohibits open-air gatherings (like the Congress of the People) that the Minister of Justice deems a danger to public order. August 9. The Women’s March to Pretoria follows nine months of planning and organization; 20,000 women protest the extension of the pass laws to women.

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December 5. Police arrest leaders of the Congress Alliance and charge them with treason. The Treason Trial begins on August 3, 1958, and lasts until March 29, 1961. All the accused are acquitted.

1957 All remaining “nonwhite” residents of Pageview (Fietas), one of the oldest multiracial areas in Johannesburg, living south of 22nd Street, receive eviction notices and are relocated to Soweto (black), Western Areas (Coloured), and Lenasia (Asian). The removals last until 1977, when the area is declared “white.” January–June 1957. Black residents of Alexandra Township boycott buses of the Public Utility Transport Corporation (PUTCO). The action—called Azikwelwa (We Will Not Ride)—is joined by boycotters in Sophiatown, Newclare, and other areas of Johannesburg, many of whom walk a 20-mile round trip every day. The boycott forces PUTCO to reduce bus fares. April 12. The Sexual Offences Act (Immorality Act) No. 23 criminalizes sexual intercourse between whites and blacks.

1958 August 24. Prime Minister J. G. Strijdom dies. September 3. Hendrik F. Verwoerd becomes prime minister.

1959 June 19. Black students are barred from the University of Cape Town and the University of the Witwatersrand without a permit from the Minister of Bantu Education. The same day sees the commencement of the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act No. 46, which transforms tribal reserves into ethnically discrete “independent” bantustans and removes all parliamentary representation for black people. June 26. In response to an appeal by Albert Luthuli, the Boycott Movement is founded in London at a meeting of South African exiles and their supporters. With the Introduction of 14-day detention without trial, some leaders of the resistance, including Nelson Mandela, go underground.


1948-1959

THE DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN AND THE STRATEGY OF NONCOOPERATION The Defiance Campaign Against Unjust Laws was one of the

coincide with the 300th anniversary of the white settlement

first organized mass actions against the new apartheid gov-

of South Africa on April 6, 1652, by Jan van Riebeeck and his

ernment. The campaign was launched at a conference orga-

group of traders from the Dutch East India Company. The re-

nized by the ANC in December 1951 in Bloemfontein, Orange

sponse by the apartheid state was swift and massive. Of the

Free State. At the conference, the ANC issued a call for na-

10,000 people who joined in the defiance and noncooperation

tional action based on noncooperation with the pass laws,

actions, more than 8,500 were arrested and imprisoned.

forced removals, laws of segregation, and prohibition against the mixing of races. The campaign began on April 6, 1952, to

Eli Weinberg, Pondo tribespeople at a meeting during the Pondoland Uprising, Eastern Cape, 1954

Eli Weinberg, Anti-apartheid action on the steps of Johannesburg City Hall (Amina Cachalia, second from left), ca. 1956

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THE DEFIANCE CAMPAIGN

Jurgen Schadeberg, 29 women of the ANC Women’s League are arrested for demonstrating against the laws prohibiting them from entering townships without a permit, August 26, 1952

Eli Weinberg, Hands and pass burning in protest against the pass laws, ca. 1952

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1948-1959


THE FREEDOM CHARTER AND THE TREASON TRIAL

THE FREEDOM CHARTER AND THE TREASON TRIAL Perhaps the most important document to emerge from the

A watershed event in the confrontation between the apart-

anti-apartheid struggle, the Freedom Charter was created

heid regime and its well-organized opponents, the Treason

in direct response to the antidemocratic and segregationist

Trial began in 1956 and concluded in 1961 with the acquittal

policies of the National Party. In 1955, the ANC called for a

of all the defendants on charges of “High Treason.” These

meeting of democrats throughout South Africa. Along with its

charges had been proffered against 156 members of the Con-

allies in the Congress Alliance comprising the South African

gress Alliance after the Congress of the People meeting in

Indian Congress, South African Congress of Democrats, and

Kliptown on June 25 and 26, 1955. The police broke up the

Coloured People’s Congress, the ANC sent more than 50,000

meeting on its second day, deeming it illegal, and leaders of

volunteers into the townships and rural areas to collect

the umbrella organization were charged with breaking the

“freedom demands.” The core of these demands concerned

law; among them were ten women. The trial galvanized the

human rights, labor rights, land reform, and citizenship. The

entire anti-apartheid movement and brought to the streets

Freedom Charter was adopted on June 26, 1955, by the Con-

and courthouse huge numbers of supporters of the “trial-

gress of the People, as the meeting in Kliptown, attended by

ists.” Out of the trial emerged a number of iconic images of

more than 3,000 delegates, was known. The opening sen-

the anti-apartheid movement of the 1950s. Documenting the

tence of the Charter, “The People Shall Govern,” represented

proceedings were photographers from Drum magazine such

not only a slogan for the anti-apartheid mass movement, it

as Peter Magubane (who was arrested while photographing

articulated the fundamental principle of a modern, nonracial

the trial), Jurgen Schadeberg (who was detained for coming

democracy. The Freedom Charter would play an important

to Magubane’s defense), Eli Weinberg, Bob Gosani, Alf Kuma-

role in the fashioning of the post-apartheid constitution in

lo, and a host of others.

1994 that established the long-denied representative, nonracial democracy of Mandela’s Rainbow Nation.

Unidentified Photographer, Treason Trial, crowds outside of Drill Hall, Johannesburg, December 20, 1956 OPPOSITE : Eli Weinberg,

Freedom Volunteers (Congress of the People) standing in the street, Kliptown, 1955

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1948-1959


FORCED REMOVALS

1948-1959

Dan Weiner, [Graffiti protesting the government’s removal and resettlement of Africans to reserves, Sophiatown], 1954

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133


1948-1959

DRUM MAGAZINE AND THE BLACK FIFTIES After 1948, African photographers became visible protago-

new South African photography made its debut, including the

nists in shaping the image of their world. Drum magazine,

exuberant, documentary-style work of Peter Magubane, Bob

initially published as The African Drum in 1951, was both the

Gosani, Gopal Naransamy, G. R. Naidoo, German expatri-

catalyst and principal outlet for the work of African photog-

ate Jurgen Schadeberg, Ranjith Kally, and Alf Kumalo. Two

raphers. Designed in the mold of Life and Picture Post, Drum

narrative strands intersect in the work of Drum. The first is

jettisoned the rural “native� in favor of the urban black,

the establishment of the first serious photographic outlet in

chronicling the so-called cultural renaissance of 1950s black

which the work of African, Indian, and white photographers

life, with the occasional piece of investigative journalism.

appears in the same media context. The second is the emer-

Jazzing up its hard-hitting documentary photography with

gence of a documentary sensibility that would come to play

camp imagery of popular culture and township life, Drum

an important role in both the documentation of political is-

somewhat ironically came to exemplify the golden age of po-

sues and the representation of popular culture.

litical awareness. Still, it was in the pages of Drum that the

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1960-1969 1960

1963

January 1. Black students are prevented from attending formerly “open” universities.

May 1. The Minister of Justice announces that Robert Sobukwe has been taken to Robben Island where he will be interned indefinitely under the General Laws Amendment Act. The section of the Act allowing a prisoner’s incarceration to be renewed annually at the discretion of the Minister of Justice becomes known as the “Sobukwe Clause.” He is released in 1969 and allowed to live under house arrest in Kimberley. When he is hospitalized with lung cancer in 1977, his request for freedom of movement on humanitarian grounds is refused indefinitely. He dies in February 1978.

February 3. In his “Winds of Change” speech to parliament in Cape Town, British prime minister Harold Macmillan declares that Britain cannot support South Africa’s racial policies. March 21. The Sharpeville Massacre: Police kill 69 people marching on the Sharpeville police station to protest the pass laws. The pass laws are temporarily lifted in an attempt to defuse the situation, but Chief Albert Luthuli takes it as an opportunity to burn his pass book, prompting a wave of similar burnings. The pass laws are reinstated on April 6. March 30. The government declares a state of emergency and arrests more than 2,000 people. The state of emergency is not lifted until August 31. April 1. The U.N. Security Council adopts Resolution 134, deploring the Sharpeville Massacre. It calls on the South African government to abandon apartheid and racial discrimination. April 8. The ANC and Pan-African Congress (PAC) are immediately banned following the speedy passage of the Unlawful Organisations Act on April 7. April 9. A white farmer at the Rand Easter show, an annual agricultural festival held in Johannesburg, attempts but fails to assassinate Prime Minister Verwoerd. May 4. Robert Sobukwe, leader of the PAC, is sentenced to three years imprisonment for his role in organizing the Sharpeville protest. June 6. Police open fire on rural black farmers in Pondoland, killing 11 people protesting the increasingly restrictive agricultural reforms and ineffective tribal authorities. In November, as protests escalate, a state of emergency is declared in the area; by the same time the following year, 30 Pondo have been sentenced to death for their involvement in the revolt. October 5. In a referendum, white voters narrowly approve South Africa becoming a Republic (850,000 to 776,000).

May 2. The 90-day detention-without-trial law is introduced, with detainees having no access to a lawyer, doctor, or family members. More than 70 people die in detention following the introduction of this law.

Alf Kumalo, South Africa Goes on Trial: Police and crowd outside the Palace of Justice, Pretoria, during the Rivonia Trial, 1963

1961 March 15. Prime Minister Verwoerd announces the withdrawal of South Africa from the Commonwealth.

substation. On December 21, Robert Strachen is arrested in connection with the bombings; he is sentenced to three years imprisonment in May 1962.

March 29. The remaining 30 Treason Trialists are acquitted of all charges.

1962

April 1. Robben Island is turned into a maximum security prison for political prisoners. May 19. The 12-day detention-without-trial law is introduced. May 31. South Africa withdraws from the Commonwealth and becomes a Republic. July 5. The Indemnity Act No. 61 indemnifies government officials and those acting on behalf of government in respect of action undertaken to uphold law and order in South Africa.

June 27. Sabotage Act No. 76 outlines those actions for which one can be tried for sabotage. August 5. Nelson Mandela is arrested outside Durban for leaving the country without a passport, and is sentenced to five years in prison. While serving this sentence, he becomes a defendant in the Rivonia Trial and receives a life sentence. September 7. The Congress of Democrats is banned under the Suppression of Communism Act.

December 10. Albert Luthuli, retrospectively awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize, accepts the prize in Oslo.

October 13. Helen Joseph is the first person placed under house arrest under the newly introduced Sabotage Act, and is confined to her home in Norwood, Johannesburg, for five years.

December 16. On the Day of the Covenant, a semi-religious holiday celebrated by Afrikaners, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), the armed wing of the ANC, launches its campaign of sabotage by setting off ten bombs; targets include a post office and an electricity

December 10. Albert Luthuli and Martin Luther King Jr. issue a joint statement, “Appeal for Action Against Apartheid,” one of the first major acts of solidarity between the South African anti-apartheid movement and the U.S. Civil Rights movement.

172

July 11. The Rivonia Trialists are arrested at Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia. August 7. The U.N. Security Council adopts Resolution 181, calling upon all states to participate in an arms embargo against South Africa. The arms embargo only becomes mandatory on November 4, 1977. August 11. Harold Wolpe, Arthur Goldreich, Mosie Moola, and Abdulhay Jassat escape from Marshall Square police station, with the help of policeman Johan Greeff, and flee the country. October 9. The Rivonia Trial opens at the Palace of Justice in Pretoria and lasts until June 11, 1964, when all the defendants (except Lionel “Rusty” Bernstein) are found guilty of treason.

September 4. Prime Minister Verwoerd declares that no Maoris will be allowed to visit South Africa as part of any New Zealand rugby team.

1966 March 18. The Defence and Aid Fund, an internationally funded South African organization that provides legal aid to people accused of political offenses and financial support to their families, is banned under the Suppression of Communism Act. May 9. Bram Fischer, who led Nelson Mandela’s legal defense at the Rivonia Trial, is sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to commit sabotage and for his association with the Communist Party. Fischer was arrested in November 1965 after spending 290 days in hiding. May 31. South Africa celebrates its fifth anniversary as a Republic with a massive show of military force, witnessed by a crowd of 500,000 people. June. U.S. Senator Robert Kennedy arrives in South Africa for a short visit. He meets with Ian Robertson, president of the banned National Union of South African Students (NUSAS), in Cape Town, and Chief Albert Luthuli in Groutville, but not with any member of the South African government. September 6. H. F. Verwoerd is stabbed by Dimitri Tsafendas, a parliamentary messenger, and is declared dead on arrival at Groote Schuur Hospital. September 30. Neighboring country Botswana becomes an independent state.

1967

May 23. Chief Albert Luthuli’s first banning order expires, but he is immediately served with a second, stricter order.

June 27. The Terrorism Act No. 83 allows for indefinite detention without trial.

June 12. Nelson Mandela and his co-accused are sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. On June 13, Mandela is transferred to Robben Island to begin his sentence.

1965 June 25. The 180-day detention-without-trial law is introduced.

September 22. The South African Council of Churches publishes a report condemning apartheid as antithetical to Christian belief. December 2. The U.N. General Assembly requests all states and organizations to suspend cultural, educational, and sporting ties with South Africa.

1969 April 1. The Public Service Amendment Act allows for the establishment of the soon to be notorious Bureau of State Security (BOSS). BOSS involvement in the use of state funds to establish a pro-government English-language newspaper, The Citizen, leads to a public scandal and, in 1980, the agency is replaced by the National Intelligence Service (NIS). May. Winnie Mandela is arrested under the Suppression of Terrorism Act and spends 17 months in solitary confinement.

1964

June 9. U.N. Security Council Resolution 190 urges the South African government to end the Rivonia Trial.

September 17. South African prime minister John Vorster announces the cancellation of Britain’s cricket tour to South Africa, following the inclusion of black South African Basil D’Oliveira on the British side. To an ovation at Bloemfontein City Hall, Vorster declares: “the team with Basil D’Oliveira was not a team of the MCC but a team of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, the team of SANROC, and the team of Bishop Reeves. . . . We are not prepared to accept a team thrust upon us by people whose interests are not the game, but to gain certain political ojbectives which they do not even attempt to hide. It is the team of the antiapartheid movement. They are not welcome.” D’Oliveira, a South African of Indian and Portuguese descent, left the country shortly after the events at Sharpeville in 1960.

1968 March 27. An amendment to the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act invalidates mixed race marriages entered into outside South Africa. Nonracial political parties are prohibited, and political parties are no longer allowed to receive foreign funding under the terms of the Prohibition of Political Interference Act No. 51. May. The International Olympic Committee announces an indefinite ban on South Africa’s participation in the games.

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May. The South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) is founded at Turfloop University. Led by Steve Biko and aligned with the Black Consciousness movement, SASO advocates a black student identity separate from the multiracial but predominantly white National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). In 1974, as a result of their political actions, nine SASO leaders are arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state, and imprisoned at Robben Island for between five and ten years.


1960-1969

REPRESSION, PROSECUTION, MILITANCY THE CONSOLIDATION OF APARTHEID AND THE SHIFT FROM NONVIOLENCE TO ARMED RESISTANCE

The transformation of the struggle against apartheid began

we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), the ANC’s military wing,

in earnest with the call by the Pan-African Congress (PAC)

signalled the abandonment of nonviolent resistance and the

for massive defiance of the pass laws on March 21, 1960. The

commencement of armed struggle. As the apartheid govern-

subsequent shooting and killing of 69 unarmed protesters

ment successfully silenced the domestic opposition by im-

by the police in the black township of Sharpeville, 30 miles

posing life imprisonment on its leaders, or forcing them into

south of Johannesburg, shocked the resistance movement. In

exile, activists turned to the international stage to challenge

the wake of the Sharpeville Massacre, the apartheid govern-

apartheid hegemony. The international campaign led to South

ment of Hendrik Verwoerd launched a campaign to quell all

Africa’s expulsion from the Commonwealth in 1961. The next

opposition to white rule and, on March 30, 1960, declared a

year, Albert Luthuli and Martin Luther King Jr. issued a joint

state of emergency; the ANC and PAC were banned on April

statement, “Appeal for Action Against Apartheid,” one of the

8, following the speedy passage of the Unlawful Organisa-

first major acts of solidarity between the South African anti-

tions Act. With the imposition of bans on organizations and

apartheid movement and the U.S. Civil Rights movement.

individuals, the apartheid state aimed at the total destruction

Highlights of this period include the Rivonia Trial, which im-

of all dissent by putting the resistance leadership on trial on

posed a life sentence on Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and

trumped-up charges.

many other members of the ANC and the Communist Party;

The government crackdown in turn radicalized the opposition. On December 16, 1961, the formation of Umkhonto

the assassination of Prime Minister Verwoerd; and the massive cultural, sports, and scientific boycott of South Africa.

Peter Magubane, Sharpeville Shooting, March 21, 1960

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175


REPRESSION, PROSECUTION, MILITANCY

182

183

1960-1969


ERNEST COLE AND HOUSE OF BONDAGE

ERNEST COLE AND HOUSE OF BONDAGE

Ernest Cole, Men who have finished their sentences depart under guard for their home towns, 1958–66 OPPOSITE : Ernest Cole, Handcuffed blacks were arrested for being in white area illegally, 1958–66

206

207

1960-1969


1970-1979

THE SOWETO UPRISING, JUNE 16, 1976 Like Cornell Capa’s idea of “concerned photography,” post1948 photographic production in South Africa was often referred to as “struggle photography.” The notion of struggle photography was especially pronounced in the wake of the Soweto Uprising, given the powerful pictures of that event made by such key photographers as Peter Magubane, Sam Nzima, and Alf Kumalo. In Soweto, on June 16, 1976, police attacked high school students protesting the imposition of Afrikaans as a language of instruction. This event fundamentally changed the direction of opposition to apartheid. Nzima’s photographs of Hector Pieterson, the first publicly identified student killed during the uprising, contributed to a new pictorial and documentary impulse in depictions of the resistance. The photograph of Pieterson’s lifeless body in the arms of another student was as horrifying as it was iconic, and soon became one of the most famous images to emerge from the history of apartheid. So compelling was the propaganda value of the picture that Nadine Gordimer christened it the “pietà” of the struggle. Along with Nzima’s photographs, Magubane’s more diverse pictures captured the dramatic, chaotic confrontations between students and police. By 1976, Magubane had worked for two decades on the frontlines of the struggle. From his early days with Drum, he suffered relentless government harassment. His Soweto images appeared a year after the apartheid regime had lifted a five-year ban on his work as a photographer. Before the ban, he had been imprisoned and placed in solitary confinement for some 500 days. For his Soweto work, he was beaten and jailed again. The riveting and powerful images that Magubane produced during and in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising ushered in a new era of struggle photography.

Peter Magubane, Soweto Uprising, June 16, 1976

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265


THE SOWETO UPRISING

276

277

1970-1979


1970-1979

BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Led by the charismatic Stephen Bantu Biko, the Black Con-

and leadership positions. In a sense, Black Consciousness

sciousness movement emerged from the political vacuum

was the radical antithesis of the ANC’s nonracialism.

created by the imprisonment and banning of the anti-apart-

Despite the resistance movement’s stance of nonviolence,

heid leadership in the 1960s. Inspired by the successful in-

the apartheid security apparatus responded to its activities

dependence and decolonization movements sweeping across

and membership with brutality. After the Soweto Uprising of

Africa and the radicalism of the U.S. Black Power movement

June 16, 1976, 123 of its key members were banned and exiled

of the mid-1960s, Black Consciousness articulated goals

to remote rural areas. In 1977, many leaders were arrested,

along two linked platforms: psychological liberation and

and their social programs dismantled under provisions of the

physical emancipation from the institutional and structural

newly implemented Internal Security Amendment Act. Among

dependencies of all African social classes under apartheid.

those arrested and jailed was Steve Biko, who died from mas-

Crucial to these ideological orientations were the creation of

sive internal injuries while in police custody on September 12,

positive values of blackness, which had been denigrated by

1977, at the age of thirty.

colonialism and apartheid, and the formation of African organizations with black people occupying the core intellectual

Unidentified Photographer, [Steve Biko funeral], September 25, 1977

282

283


1970-1979

ARTISTS RESPOND TO APARTHEID: HANS HAACKE

Hans Haacke, A Breed Apart (2 of 7 panels), 1978

316

317


1970-1979

ARTISTS RESPOND TO APARTHEID: WILLIAM KENTRIDGE

ABOVE : William Kentridge, Felix in Exile, 1994

William Kentridge, WEIGHING . . . AND WANTING, 1998

332

LEFT: William Kentridge, Mine, 1991

333


1980-1989

DAVID GOLDBLATT, THE TRANSPORTED OF KWANDEBELE

David Goldblatt, The Transported of KwaNdebele. Boarding the first bus at Mathysloop. It should reach the terminal at Marabastad, in Pretoria, two and a half hours later, at 5:15 a.m., 1984

David Goldblatt, The Transported of KwaNdebele. 5:40 a.m.: After arrival at the Marabastad terminal in Pretoria, many of the passengers from the Wolwekraal bus join others to line up for local buses that will take them to work in the suburbs and industrial areas of the city. Some will travel for another hour, 1984

David Goldblatt, The Transported of KwaNdebele. 2:45 a.m.: The first bus of the day pulls in at Mathysloop on the Boekenhouthoek-Marabastad route from KwaNdebele to Pretoria, 1984

David Goldblatt, The Transported of KwaNdebele, 1984

410

411


1990-1995

CIVIL WAR AND THE ESCALATION OF VIOLENCE Between Mandela’s release from prison in February 1990

Communist Party, was gunned down in front of his home by

to his inauguration as president, various parties, organiza-

a white right-winger. In June 1993, the white supremacist Af-

tions, and stakeholders engaged in a negotiated settlement

rikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) rammed trucks into the

that led to the 1994 elections. But these negotiations and the

glass-and-steel building where the multiparty negotiations

election process itself took place against a backdrop of politi-

were being held. The Bophuthatswana government’s deci-

cally motivated uprisings and violence that at times verged on

sion not to register the homeland for the elections resulted

civil war. Much of the violence stemmed from the politiciza-

in massive protests and a public employee strike. Over a pe-

tion and intensification of conflict in the KwaZulu-Natal and

riod of three days in early March 1994, more than 60 people

Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vereeniging (PWV) regions, with

were killed in events that included Bop police opening fire

train attacks, drive-by shootings, massacres, and assassi-

on demonstrators and looters, and the right-wing AWB “in-

nations, variously caused by a “third force” of police; polar-

vading” the homeland and randomly massacring people

ization between hostels dominated by the Inkatha Freedom

in the streets of the capital, Mmabatho. In a government-

Party (IFP) and ANC-aligned township residents (who some-

commissioned report on “third force” activities within the

times formed Self-Defence Units); Zulu nationalists; white

South African police, Justice Richard Goldstone implicated

supremacists; and police failures to maintain public order.

three senior generals in supplying the IFP with weapons. In

As many as 14,000 people died.

the month prior to elections, Zulu king Goodwill Zwelithini

In March 1990, police opened fire on a crowd of protesters

called on his subjects to defend Zulu sovereignty and pro-

in Sebokeng, killing 17 and injuring 447. At the end of March,

posed a unilateral declaration of independence. More than

during the Seven Day War in the Edendale Valley of KwaZulu-

30 people were killed when Zulu royalists marched on Jo-

Natal, over 100 people were killed, 3,000 homes destroyed,

hannesburg in support of their king. One week before the

and 30,000 people displaced. In 1991, massacres occurred at

elections, the IFP finally agreed to participate. And two days

Sebokeng, Daveyton, and Alexandra townships. In Boipatong

before voting began, a car bomb exploded in central Johan-

Township in June 1992, Inkatha groups massacred 37 resi-

nesburg, killing nine people and injuring 92.

dents. In September 1992, troops from the Ciskei homeland opened fire on ANC supporters marching to the capital; 29 died. In April 1993, Chris Hani, leader of the South African

Fanie Jason, Pallbearer attending a mass funeral in Bisho, where 36 anti-apartheid protesters were killed in a hail of bullets by the Ciskei government, 1992

468

469


CIVIL WAR

472

473

1990-1995


CIVIL WAR

Robert Botha, Pro-apartheid march in Pretoria, ca. February 1990

Jodi Bieber, Protest against Chris Hani’s assassination, 1993

474

475

1990-1995


1990-1995

THE 1994 ELECTIONS Beginning on April 27, 1994, nearly 20 million South Africans cast their national and provincial votes. The 19 parties on the ballot included the main ones involved in the negotiations, as well as smaller parties such as the Keep It Straight and Simple (KISS) Party, the Sports Organisation for Collective Contributions and Equal Rights (SOCCER) Party, the Pro Death Penalty Party, and the Abolition of Income Tax and Usury Party. The last-minute inclusion of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) at the bottom of the ballot upset the National Party, as it had in part campaigned around voters putting an “X� next to the last party on the list. Due to massive turnout, polling stations opening late, and a ballot shortage, voting was extended to a second day, and even a third day in certain parts of the country. Officials struggled to process the sheer volume of ballots. By May 3, it had become clear that the ANC had received a majority of the votes; the party held a celebration in the Carlton Hotel that evening. After many delays, the final results were announced on May 6: the ANC and its alliance partners had captured 62.6 percent of the vote. April 27 is now a public holiday in South Africa, called Freedom Day.

George Hallett, Mandela, first encounter, 1994

500

501


THE 1994 ELECTIONS

1990-1995

Arishad Satter, ANC supporters in Hillbrow, Johannesburg, celebrate the election victory, May 2, 1994

Andrew Browns, ANC supporters with poster bearing the face of Nelson Mandela during the 1994 elections, ca. 1994

Herbert Mabuza, F. W. de Klerk’s road show in OFS, December 2, 1994

502

503


CONTRIBUTORS Rory Bester is an art historian and critic, as well as a curator and documentary filmmaker. Based at the Wits School of Arts in Johannesburg, his teaching and research areas include archive and museum practice, curatorial studies, exhibition histories, migration and diaspora studies, photographic histories, postcolonialism, and postwar South African art. He regularly writes art criticism for the Mail and Guardian newspaper, as well as for Art South Africa, Camera Austria, and Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art. Bester has curated and co-curated a number of exhibitions in Denmark, Germany, South Africa, Sweden, and the United States. Okwui Enwezor is director of Haus der Kunst, Munich. Before joining Haus der Kunst, Enwezor was adjunct curator at ICP and dean of academic affairs and senior vice president at San Francisco Art Institute. Most recently, he was the artistic director of La Triennale 2012 at Palais de Tokyo, Paris, and has served as the artistic director of the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale (1997), documenta 11 (2002), and 7th Gwangju Biennale (2008), among many other international exhibitions. Enwezor served as the Kirk Varnedoe Visiting Professor at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University. He is the founding publisher and editor of Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art. Michael Godby is Emeritus Professor of History of Art at the University of Cape Town. He has published and lectured on early Renaissance art, English eighteenth-century art, particularly William Hogarth, nineteenth- and twentieth-century South African art, and the history of South African photography. He has curated exhibitions on South African art, notably Is there Still Life? Continuity and Change in South African Still Life Painting (2007) and The Lie of the Land: Representations of the South African Landscape (2010). He is currently preparing a collection of papers for a book on the history of photography in South Africa and is planning a new exhibition on the theme of the interior in European and South African painting. Khwezi Gule is a curator and writer based in Johannesburg. He is currently chief curator at the Soweto Museums, which includes the Hector Pieterson Memorial and Museum and the Kliptown Open Air Museum. Prior to that, Gule held the position of curator: contemporary collections at the Johannesburg Art Gallery, where he worked on a number of significant exhibitions, including: Meschac Gaba’s Tresses and Other Projects (2007), Kay Hassan’s Urbanation (2008), and Tracey Rose’s Waiting for God (2010–12). In addition to numerous speaking engagements, Gule has written for many catalogues, newspapers, and magazines both locally and internationally. Gule is a founding member of a collective of creative intellectuals dubbed the Dead Revolutionaries Club. This collective has produced a number of exhibitions, discussion forums, and launched a webzine (www.deadrevolutionariesclub.co.za).

Achille Mbembe is a philosopher, political scientist, and public intellectual. He is currently on the staff of the Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research (WISER) at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, and is a contributing editor of the scholarly journal Public Culture. He also has an annual appointment as a visiting faculty member in the Department of English at Duke University. He has held appointments at Columbia University, the Brookings Institution, Yale University, and CODESRIA in Dakar. Mbembe is the author of On the Postcolony (University of California Press, 2001), co-author of Johannesburg: The Elusive Metropolis (Duke University Press, 2008), and a frequent contributor to books and journals. Darren Newbury is Professor of Photography at Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, Birmingham City University. His books include Defiant Images: Photography and Apartheid South Africa (University of South Africa Press, 2009) and People Apart: 1950s Cape Town Revisited. Photographs by Bryan Heseltine (Black Dog Publishing, 2012). He has been editor of the international journal Visual Studies since 2003. Andries Walter Oliphant is a literary scholar and cultural policy advisor. He chaired the Ministerial Arts and Culture Task Team appointed by the Mandela government and co-wrote the White Paper on Arts, Culture, and Heritage. He chaired the South African Arts and Culture Trust from 1995 to 2007. His writings on South African literature, art, and photography are published locally and internationally. He is the recipient of the Thomas Pringle Award for Short Stories and the Book Journalist of the Year Award. He was Special International Guest of the Nobel Prize Awards held in Stockholm in 1998 and a participant in the First White House Seminar on Culture and Diplomacy hosted by Bill Clinton in 2000. He chairs the Council of Ditsong: Museums of South Africa and serves on the Council of the National English Literary Museum. He heads the Theory of Literature division at the University of South Africa. He is a research fellow at the Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection. Colin Richards is currently Professor in the Michaelis School of Fine Art, University of Cape Town. His research interests are contemporary art theory and practice with a focus on Africa and South Africa, and he has published widely in this area. He is also an exhibiting artist and curator. His most recent major publications are “In Human History: Pasts and Prospects in South African Art Today,” in Visual Century: South African Art in Context (Wits University Press, 2011), and “Seeing, Believing and the Dead,” in Figuring Faith (Wits University Press, 2011). He is currently working on a retrospective and a monograph on the South African artist Durant Sihlali at the South African National Gallery.

Patricia Hayes is Professor of History at the University of the Western Cape, where she directs the Visual History research project, part of which involves researching Southern African documentary photography. Her co-authored book The Colonising Camera: Photographs in the Making of Namibian History (University of Cape Town Press, 1999) was shortlisted for the Sunday Times Alan Paton Award. She has published several other works on the history of colonial Namibia, gender, visuality, and struggle photography in South Africa, and is co-author, with John Liebenberg, of Bush of Ghosts: Life and War in Namibia, 1986–90 (Struik, 2010).

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PHOTOGRAPHERS Paul Alberts Jane Alexander Joe Alfers Omar Badsha Roger Ballen Ian Berry Jodi Bieber Robert Botha Margaret Bourke-White Geoff Bridgett Andrew Browns Kevin Carter Ernest Cole Michael Davies gille de vlieg Jillian Edelstein Christian Gbagbo David Goldblatt Bob Gosani Paul Grendon

Hans Haacke George Hallett Brian Hendler Jon Hrusa Gavin Jantjes Tim Jarvis Fanie Jason Ranjith Kally William Kentridge Tom Killoran Alf Kumalo Leslie Lawson Chris Ledochowski Leon Levson John Liebenberg Rashid Lombard Herbert Mabuza Peter Magubane Greg Marinovich Peter McKenzie Gideon Mendel

Eric Miller Sabelo Mlangeni Absalom Mnisi Santu Mofokeng Billy Monk Zwelethu Mthethwa G. R. Naidoo Tony Naidoo Gopal Naransamy Juda Ngwenya Themba Nkosi Jerry Ntsipe Cedric Nunn Sam Nzima Ken Oosterbroek Ambrose Peters Adrian Piper Douglas Pithey Raymond Preston Jo Ractliffe Jeeva Rajgopaul

ARCHIVES AVUSA (Mr. Phillip Kgaphola, Michelle Leon) Center for Historical Reenactments (Gabi Ngcobo, Donna Kukama, Kemang Wa Lehulere) Museum Africa (Diana Wall) Bailey’s African History Archive (Bongi Maswanganyi, Prospero Bailey) South African History Archive (Debora Matthews) South African National Film Archives UWC–Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives (Graham Goddard) National Archives and Records Service of South Africa (Dr. Graham Dominy, Mandy Gilder, Michelle Boshoff) Ronald Ngilima Archive, University of Cape Town Libraries / Farrell Ngilima University of Cape Town Libraries (Paul Weinberg, Kayleigh Roos) Bomb Archive (Gail Behrmann, Angus Gibson) Adrian Piper Research Archive Foundation Berlin (APRA Foundation Berlin) GALLERIES/MUSEUMS/COLLECTIONS Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg Bailey Seippel Gallery, Johannesburg BHP Billiton Collection (Natasha Fuller) Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg (Liza Essers) Marian Goodman Gallery Hasselblad Foundation (Gunilla Knape, Leslie Matlaisane) Johannesburg Art Gallery (Reshma Chhiba, Antoinette Murdoch) MAKER (Lunetta Bartz) National Gallery of Canada Jack Shainman Gallery (Jack Shainman) Smithsonian Institution (Amy Staples) Stevenson Gallery (Michael Stevenson, Joost Bosland, Federica Angelucci) Weatherspoon Art Museum, University of North Carolina at Greensboro MEDIA African Film Productions (Isidore Schlesinger, Joseph Albrecht [Director]) Government Communications and Information Services (South Africa) ITNSource Milestone Film and Video New Zealand Film Archive South African Broadcasting Corporation Villon Films/Firehorse Studios

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Catherine Ross Robin Ross Arishad Satter Andrzey Sawa Jurgen Schadeberg Wendy Schwegmann Thabiso Sekgala Justin Sholk Phillip Sillivan João Silva Cecil Sols Selwyn Tait Guy Tillim Robert Tshabalala Noel Watson Eli Weinberg Paul Weinberg Dan Weiner Graeme Williams Sue Williamson Gisèle Wulfsohn


PHOTO CREDITS 1 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 2–3 © BAHA; 4–5 Courtesy Museum Africa; 7 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 8–9 © Peter Magubane; 10 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 14 © IDAFSA/ANC; 22 (left) Courtesy National Archives, Pretoria; 24, 27 Courtesy UWC–Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives; 28–29 International Center of Photography, The Life Magazine Collection, 2005; 30 © IDAFSA/ANC; 34–35 Courtesy the artist and Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg, © David Goldblatt; 37 (top) Courtesy Museum Africa, (bottom) © BAHA; 39 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 40 © AVUSA; 42 © Graeme Williams; 48–49 Courtesy the Bensusan Museum & Library of Photography, Johannesburg; 50–51 Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, (left) EEPA 1998–060527, (right) EEPA 1998-061673; 52 Courtesy Iziko Museums of Cape Town; 55 Courtesy UWC–Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives; 62–63 Ronald Ngilima Archive, University of Cape Town Library, Photography Archive, (left) RN1085B, (right) RN1868F, by kind permission of Farrell Ngilima; 74 Courtesy Museum Africa; 76–79 Courtesy Museum Africa; 80–81 Courtesy UWC–Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives; 82–83 International Center of Photography, The Life Magazine Collection, 2005; 84–89 © IDAFSA/ANC; 90 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 91 © IDAFSA/ANC; 92–93 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 94–99 © BAHA; 100–103 © IDAFSA/ANC; 104–5 © Peter Magubane; 106–7 © IDAFSA/ANC; 108 Courtesy Museum Africa; 109 © IDAFSA/ANC; 110 Courtesy Museum Africa; 111 © SAHA; 112–28 Courtesy Museum Africa; 129–130 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 131 © IDAFSA/ANC; 132–33 International Center of Photography Museum Purchase, International Fund for Concerned Photography, 1974; 134–35 Courtesy Museum Africa; 136 (top) International Center of Photography Museum Purchase, International Fund for Concerned Photography, 1974, (bottom) © Peter Magubane; 137 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 139 © IDAFSA; 140–41 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 142–45 Courtesy Museum Africa; 146 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 147 Courtesy Museum Africa; 148–49 © gille de vlieg; 150–56 © BAHA; 157 (top and bottom left) © BAHA, (right) © Jurgen Schadeberg; 158 © Jurgen Schadeberg; 159 © BAHA; 160 (top) © Jurgen Schadeberg, (bottom) © BAHA; 161–67 © BAHA; 168 (top) © BAHA, (bottom) © Jurgen Schadeberg; 169 (top) © Jurgen Schadeberg, (bottom) © BAHA; 172 © BAHA; 175 International Center of Photography, Gift of Dr. Peter Magubane, 2010, © Peter Magubane; 176–81 Courtesy Museum Africa; 182–84 © BAHA; 185 Courtesy Museum Africa; 186–93 © BAHA; 194–95 Courtesy Museum Africa; 196–98 Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust; 199 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 200 Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust; 201 (top) Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust, (bottom) © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 202–3 © Johncom/AVUSA; 204–13 Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust; 214–21 © George Hallett; 222–25 Courtesy Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town and Johannesburg, © Estate of Billy Monk; 235 Courtesy Bailey Seippel Gallery, Johannesburg, © Cedric Nunn; 236 (top) Courtesy Apartheid Museum, (bottom) © Ben Maclennan; 238 Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust; 240 (top) Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust, (bottom) Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, EEPA 1998-060675; 240 (top) Courtesy the artist and Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg, © David Goldblatt, (bottom) Courtesy the Hasselblad Foundation, © The Ernest Cole Family Trust; 242 Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, (left) EEPA 1998-060876, (right) EEPA 1998-060576; 243 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 244 © Chris Collingridge; 250 © SAAN/AVUSA; 252–53 Courtesy National Archives, Pretoria; 254–55 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Estate of Paul Alberts; 256–63 Courtesy National Archives, Pretoria; 265 © Peter Magubane; 266 © Sam Nzima; 267 © Peter Magubane; 268–71 © IDAFSA/Noel Watson; 272 (top) © IDAFSA/Noel Watson, (bottom) © Sam Nzima; 273 (top) © Peter Magubane, (bottom) © IDAFSA/Noel Watson; 274–75 © Sam Nzima; 276–77 © Peter Magubane; 278 © IDAFSA/Noel Watson; 279 International Center of Photography, Gift of Dr. Peter Magubane, 2010, © Peter Magubane; 281 © Peter Magubane; 282 © SAHA; 283 © BAHA; 284–85 © SAHA; 286 © AVUSA; 287 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 288 © Rand Daily Mail/AVUSA; 289 (left) © Sunday Times/AVUSA, (center) © AVUSA, (right) © SAAN/AVUSA; 290–93 © Rand Daily Mail/AVUSA; 294 © AVUSA; 295 © Rand Daily Mail/AVUSA; 296–97 © AVUSA; 298 (top left and bottom) © SAAN/AVUSA, (top right) © AVUSA; 299 © AVUSA; 300 © SAAN/AVUSA; 302 © SAAN/AVUSA; 303 © AVUSA; 304 (top) © AVUSA, (bottom) © Rand Daily Mail/AVUSA; 305 (bottom) © Rand Daily Mail/AVUSA; 306–7 © Rand Daily Mail/ AVUSA; 308–15 © Gavin Jantjes; 316–17 Courtesy Tate Gallery, © Hans Haacke/Artists Rights Society; 318–19 Courtesy National Gallery of Canada, Purchased 1983, © Hans Haacke/Artists Rights Society; 320–23 Courtesy BHP Billiton Collection, © Jane Alexander; 324–27 Collection Adrian Piper Research Archive Foundation Berlin, © APRA Foundation Berlin; 328–29 Courtesy University of Cape Town Works of Art Collection, © Jo Ractliffe; 330–31 Courtesy the artist and Goodman Gallery, South Africa, © Sue Williamson; 332–33 Courtesy the artist and Marian Goodman Gallery, New York, © William Kentridge; 334–37 © Lesley Lawson; 338–41 © Chris Ledochowski; 356 Courtesy the artist and University of Cape Town Libraries, © Paul Weinberg; 358–59 © IDAFSA/Tim Jarvis; 360 © Omar Badsha; 361 © Peter Magubane; 362–63 © Cedric Nunn; 364 (top) © IDAFSA/Tim Jarvis, (bottom) © gille de vlieg; 365 (top) © IDAFSA/Tim Jarvis, (bottom) © gille de vlieg; 366–67 © Gideon Mendel; 368 © Omar Badsha; 369–71 © Gideon Mendel; 373 © Peter McKenzie; 374–77 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Estate of Paul Alberts; 378–79 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Joe Alfers; 380–83 © Omar Badsha; 384–85 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Michael Davies; 386–87 © Paul Grendon; 388–91 Courtesy Lunetta Bartz, MAKER, Johannesburg, © Santu Mofokeng; 392–93 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Juda Ngwenya; 394–95 © Cedric Nunn; 396–97 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Jeeva Rajgopaul; 398–99 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Wendy Schwegmann/UCT; 400– 407 Courtesy the artist and University of Cape Town Libraries, © Paul Weinberg; 408–9 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Estate of Gisèle Wulfsohn; 410–13 Courtesy the artist and Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg, © David Goldblatt; 414–17 © Roger Ballen; 418–19 Courtesy the artist and Jack Shainman Gallery, New York, © Zwelethu Mthethwa; 420–23 Courtesy UWC–Robben Island Museum Mayibuye Archives, © Jillian Edelstein; 424 © gille de vlieg; 425 © IDAFSA/Tim Jarvis; 426–27 © Rashid Lombard; 428 (top) © Rashid Lombard, (bottom) Courtesy the artist and University of Cape Town Libraries, © Paul Weinberg; 429 (top) © Rashid Lombard, (bottom) Courtesy the artist and University of Cape Town Libraries, © Paul Weinberg; 430 © Gideon Mendel; 431 © IDAFSA/Noel Watson; 432–35 © Rashid Lombard; 436–37 © Gideon Mendel; 438–39 © Eric Miller; 440 © Gideon Mendel; 441 Courtesy the artist and University of Cape Town Libraries, © Paul Weinberg; 442 © Graeme Williams; 443 © Gideon Mendel; 444–45 Courtesy University of Cape Town Libraries, © Themba Nkosi; 446 © Kevin Carter/Corbis Images; 447 © Greg Marinovich; 448–49 © Gideon Mendel; 450–55 Courtesy Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town and Johannesburg, © Guy Tillim; 456–63 © John Liebenberg; 466 © AVUSA; 469 © Fanie Jason; 470–71 © Business Day/ AVUSA; 472–73 © Graeme Williams; 474 © Business Day/AVUSA; 475 Courtesy Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg, © Jodi Bieber; 476 © Fanie Jason; 477 © Graeme Williams; 478–79 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 480–81 © Graeme Williams; 482–83 © Fanie Jason; 485–87 Courtesy the artist and Greg Marinovich, © João Silva; 488–91 © Ken Oosterbroek/PictureNET Africa; 492–93 © Kevin Carter/Corbis Images; 494–499 © Greg Marinovich; 501 © George Hallett; 502 © AVUSA; 503 (top) © AVUSA, (bottom) © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 504–5 Courtesy Goodman Gallery, Johannesburg, © Jodi Bieber; 506 © Business Day/AVUSA; 507 © Sunday Times/AVUSA; 511–12 © Gideon Mendel; 524–27 Courtesy the artist and Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town and Johannesburg, © Sabelo Mlangeni; 528 © Center for Historical Reenactments; 530–33 © Thabiso Sekgala. BAHA = Bailey’s African History Archive IDAFSA = International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa SAHA = South African History Archive

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