VOLUME 15 2022 EDITION
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS EDITORS’ WELCOME .................................................................................................. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. 6 HEALTH ISSUES OF MIND AND BODY .................................................................... 7 A Classification of Dietary Trends in 2021 ....................................................................... .8 Joanna Wolter The Negative Role that Nicotine Plays on the Brain ....................................................... .10 Johanna Su Finding the Importance of Rare Diseases and Their Study through the Lens of Corticobasal Degeneration ............................................................................................... .17 Katherine Hurlbut How Does Music Influence Our Behavior? ..................................................................... .24 Munkhtur Od Live, Laugh, & Locating Accessible Medicine ............................................................... .28 Princess Pascua The Keto Diet Kraze ........................................................................................................ .35 Staecia Silofau Virtual Reality as Therapy? ............................................................................................. .43 Emily Colmenares Is Napping Good for Our Health? .................................................................................... .48 Maja Ravlo Reconnecting the Body Using Eastern and Western Medicine ....................................... .53 Shaileyah Amolsch An End to a Tragic End: Legalizing Active Euthanasia .................................................. .58 Serena Clarke RESPONDING TO SOCIAL, LEGAL, AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS ............... 67 Drunk Driving in the United States .................................................................................. 68 Sarah Balto Trimming the Hedges ...................................................................................................... .71 Tucker Pellicci Sexual Assault on College Campuses .............................................................................. .79 Micaella Haban Should Self-Driving Cars Be Legal? ............................................................................... .84 Joanna Wolter Out of Sight, Out of Mind ................................................................................................ .86 Ray Crichton Unmasking the Web......................................................................................................... .92 Jayden Doong Redlining: The Invisible Walls ........................................................................................ .98 Olivia Cropper 2
MILITARY ISSUE(S) .................................................................................................. 104 Military Suicide: Protecting Those Who Protect Us....................................................... 105 Tiara Richardson Adolescent Dependents: Silent Soldiers in a Military Lifestyle .................................... .112 Cassandra Walti INVESTIGATING POPULAR CULTURE ............................................................... 120 I’m Sorry, Youtube ......................................................................................................... 121 An Tran Mukbang Unhinged ....................................................................................................... .128 Lucia Stith Eating Your Own Words: The Analysis of Cannibalism in the Representation of Indigenous People .......................................................................................................... .139 Ron Calimlim Soccer Career Comparison and Contrast of Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo ........ .147 Oliver Enevoldsen LIVING ENVIRONMENT .......................................................................................... 150 Changing the Current Reputation of Sharks ................................................................... 151 Taylor Lagorio Baleen vs. Toothed Whales............................................................................................ .157 Theresa Marzano-Furuly Are Electric Cars Better for the Environment than a Petrol or Diesel Car? .................. .160 Oliver Enevoldsen The Negative Effects of Overconsumption on People and the Planet ........................... .163 Estela Evangelista The End of the Vaquita .................................................................................................. .171 Carli Furmanski CULTURE CONCERNS IN DEPTH ......................................................................... 175 The Societal Impact of Colonialism on Native Hawaiians ............................................. 176 Nicole Query A Different Perspective on Facial Plastic Surgery in Korea.......................................... .182 Janaira Cabias Exploring Hayao Miyazaki’s Animated Worlds Through the Perspective of Shinto .... .188 Saige Ranon Hikikomori: The Silent Rebellion.................................................................................. .195 Kalli Sunahara Adults Still Play with Dolls ........................................................................................... .203 Sydney Fourby The Truth of the American Dream................................................................................. .208 Micaela Diaz Paez 3
The Importance of Sex Ed: Phillipines .......................................................................... .217 Valentina Diaz Paez Tipping in Food Service: Cultural and Social Differences ............................................ .223 Allyza Pineda
4
EDITORS’ WELCOME We are pleased to introduce our thirteenth issue of Fresh Perspectives. Once again, we solicited essays from our first-year writing courses, covering a range of topics and approaches. Because these writers are relatively new to the academy, we do not expect disciplinary mastery. Our goal is to provide a venue for dissemination of ideas by our first-year students, who may still be learning the nuances of academic discourse yet who have compelling things to say and who offer, in the words of our title, “fresh perspectives.” Promising student essays were nominated by the students’ instructors and underwent a full editorial process by our interns. You will notice a wide range of views here, some of them perhaps contradictory; these pieces represent the opinions of the writers alone and are not necessarily endorsed (nor denounced) by HPU, the College of Liberal Arts, the Department of English and Applied Linguistics, or the editors. Rather than selecting pieces that toe any particular “party line,” we have attempted—in the spirit of academic freedom—to present a range of perspectives, some of which may be proactive. This is fitting for a first-year writing program that emphasizes argumentation. Whether you agree, disagree, or have a complex reaction, we hope you will enjoy hearing from the newest members of our HPU ohana!
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors and contributors would like to acknowledge the support of the following people: Allison Gough, Dean, College of Liberal Arts Laurie Leach, Associate Dean, College of Liberal Arts Elizabeth Vang, Assistant to the Dean Algeo Rosario, HPU Web Services David Falgout, Faculty Editor Gina Muench, Managing Editor Allyza Marie Pineda, Managing Editor Jo Roberto, Managing Editor Ron Calimlim, Editorial Intern Arianna Haynes, Editorial Intern Athena Iopeka, Editorial Intern Laeila Leslie, Editorial Intern Lucia Stith, Editorial Intern Lorraine Jimenez, Cover Design Nominating Instructors: Chadia Chambers-Samadi David Falgout Angela Gili John Honey Tad Matsunaga Tyler McMahon Travis Nishii Deborah Ross Caitlin Yamamoto
Contributing Artists: Rylea Bush Heidi Roach
6
HEALTH ISSUES OF BODY AND MIND
Buzz by Rylea Bush
7
A Classification of Dietary Trends in 2021 By Johanna Wolter People choose to eat different types of diets for many different reasons. Trends on how, what, and when to eat change very quickly in today’s world, making diet advice confusing. A ‘diet’ in this essay will be defined as a plan for eating and drinking that is fixed to the amount and type of food and drinks that can be consumed to achieve a specific goal. In contrast to the diets of the last few years, where the goal of a diet was a rapid weight loss, we see in 2021 a concentration on more mindful eating – listening to what your body is telling you. Instead of fearing carbs, mindful eating can help you enjoy them. Whole-grain carbohydrates, like brown rice and quinoa, provide essential nutrients and a low burning form of energy (Gold, 2020). This is why the plant-based diet, the Mediterranean diet, and intermittent fasting died, which focuses on whole foods and mindful eating, are so trendy in 2021. The most popular diet trend this year is plant-based eating. The term 'plant-based’ covers different eating patterns and does not mean that a plant-based diet is a vegan diet. Each type of diet depends on how many animal products are included, like meat, dairy, and eggs. This also means the main parts of your meal will come from plant foods like vegetables and legumes. If you follow a plantbased diet, there are different variations, which include flexitarian, pescatarian, vegetarian and vegan. The flexitarian diet is also known as 'semi-vegetarian' diet and includes eggs, dairy, and small amounts of meat and fish. While the pescatarian diet only excludes meat from the meal plan, the vegetarian diet on the other hand excludes meat, poultry, fish, and seafood. The last variation of the plant-based diet is called ‘vegan.’ It excludes all food that comes from animals, like meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, and dairy. Regarding the health of this diet, it is common to think that a plant-based diet is immediately healthier. However, in grocery stores, there is a large offer of highly processed foods that are vegetarian or vegan but are not considered as a part of a healthy eating behavior. You should focus on less processed foods like vegetables, fruits, and whole grains as the main part of your diet (Hursthouse, 2021). In addition, the diet is also good for the planet, since plants have a lower carbon footprint than animals. Mindfulness and plant-based eating go hand in hand; following this diet means being mindful of your food, looking at how it is produced and where it is sourced from, and how it affects your body and the environment (Jordan, 2020). The Mediterranean diet is another current diet trend that has been popularized for many years prior to 2021. This diet is based on different scientific studies that have shown that people who live in the Mediterranean, like Greece or the South of France, have a lower number of diseases like heart attacks, diabetes, or strokes than Americans. The diet is famous because of the thinking that, if you eat like the people from that region, you will be healthy too. And, when we look at the diet strategy of the Mediterranean area, we can see why. The diet eaten in this area contains a big amount of extra-virgin cold-pressed olive oil, leafy green vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and seeds. It also contains a moderate amount of seafood, meat, and, of course, not to forget the glass of red wine. At the same time, processed foods and sugars, like processed meat, refined grains, and trans fats are excluded. This is the reason why it is known as a heart-healthy diet; the Mediterranean diet is full of unprocessed plant-foods and healthy fats from olive oil. It has been found to lower the risk of heart disease and improve risk factors such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood glucose levels. This diet is not known for easy and fast weight loss, but it has been consistently, for many years, linked to good health in the long term (Vencat, 2021). 8
The third diet trend in 2021 is intermittent fasting. This diet focuses on cleansing your body during the hours your body does not take in any foods. For many years, fasting was used to increase awareness (Burkhardt, 2019). Weight loss is a natural result by breaking the constant snacking cycle of modern life by not eating for the majority of the day. The most popular version is the 16/8 method. Dieters here have an eating period of 8 hours and a fasting period of 16 hours. For example, you’ll eat from noon to 8 pm and fast for the other 16 hours – from 8 pm until noon the following day (Vencat, 2021). It is important to eat healthy during the eating period by having lots of plant-based foods and good quality protein sources. Since there is a long period of not eating, though, some people might experience side effects. These can include dizziness, low energy level, headaches, loss of concentration, extreme hunger, and mood swings (Hursthouse, 2021). However, fasting can be seen as a doorway to mindful eating by making specific times when to eat and conscious decisions of what to eat. In 2021 the goal of a diet is to achieve maximum well-being through being more mindful of what we are eating. This is why the plant-based diet, the Mediterranean diet, and intermittent fasting are the most popular trendy diets in 2021. Food determines how we feel, look, and think. The media made us believe that, if one diet is working for someone, then everyone else should eat that way too. This leads to a belief that there may be one way of eating that is better than another. In 2021 there is no clear separation between diets because there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to healthy eating. Many aspects of one diet can be found in other diets as well; for example, whole foods and eating mindfully are included in the plant-based diet, the Mediterranean diet, and intermittent fasting. These diet trends in 2021 can help you in making the best choice for yourself to boost mindful eating and to achieve maximum well-being. REFERENCES Burkhardt, M. (2019). The power of intermittent fasting and mindful eating combined. Medium. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@michael.burkhardt/the-power-of-intermittenfasting-and-mindful-eating-combined-c847a57a8aa8 Gold, B. (2020). 21 Delicious Food and Dining Trends Coming Your Way in 2021, According to Food Experts. Real Simple. Retrieved from https://www.realsimple.com/food-recipes/shopping-storing/food/food-dining-trends-2021 Hursthouse, N. (2020). Which Diet is Right for You? Heart Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.heartfoundation.org.nz/about-us/news/blogs/which-diet-is-right-for-you Jordan, A. (2020). Why mindfulness and a vegan diet go hand in hand. Karina Inkster. Retrieved from https://www.karinainkster.com/post/vegan-and-mindfulness Vencat, E. (2020). Top 10 Diet Trends for 2021. YouBar. Retrieved from https://youbars.com/blogs/news/top-10-diet-trends-for-2021
9
The Negative Role that Nicotine Plays on the Brain By Johanna Su Smoking cigarettes, chewing tobacco, smoking pipe tobacco, and vaping are some of the many ways that a person can expose their body and brain to nicotine. Many teenagers still find ways to get their hands on these products, especially e-cigarettes, even though the age requirement to purchase tobacco-based products is 21. Many people are selling disposable e-cigarettes, seeking to make money off of desperate minors. Lindsey Hudson is a board-certified family nurse practitioner. She completed her Bachelor of Science in Nursing at Southern Nazarene University and her Master of Science in Nursing at Frontier Nursing University. In one of Hudson’s articles, she stated, “In the year 2018, there were about 41 million e-cigarette users worldwide, however, that number is expected to reach 55 million by 2021” (Hudson, 2021). Many, especially teenage smokers, underestimate the role that nicotine plays in a teenager’s life. By researching how nicotine negatively affects the brain of a teen, this will emphasize why teenagers should not be smoking, vaping, or exposing themselves to other products that contain nicotine. This essay will use health-related and scientific-based articles that explain how nicotine affects the body and the brain of a teenager. Additionally, studies will be included to explain what parts of the teenage brain are affected when it is exposed to nicotine. The articles included in this paper are mostly reviewed by medical reviewers with medical and master’s degrees in sciences. Many people can agree that smoking and vaping can relieve stress and enhance a person’s alertness, but too many people fail to recognize that smoking, vaping, or being exposed to nicotine can also negatively affect the brain in many ways, often leading to addiction, cognitive impairments, and mental disorders. What is nicotine? Adam Felman is an editor for Medical News Today. The article he wrote was medically reviewed by Deborah Weatherspoon, an advanced practice nurse who graduated with a PhD from the University of Tennessee in Knoxville. In Felman’s article, he states, “Nicotine is a chemical that contains nitrogen, which is made by several types of plants, including tobacco plants” (Felman, 2018). Nicotine is known for being an addictive substance, similar to caffeine. As mentioned before, many smokers use e-cigarettes. E-cigarettes can come in many different sizes, flavors, and shapes. Some e-cigarettes are disposable, and others have batteries. E-cigarette smoking is not usually called “smoking,” but it is usually referred to as “vaping.” People can be exposed to nicotine through smoking cigarettes, e-cigarettes, chewing tobacco, and even secondhand smoke. Other than nicotine, Felman reports that there are other toxic chemicals in e-cigarettes, such as carcinogens, acrolein, diacetyl, diethylene glycol, heavy metals (nickel, tin, and lead), cadmium, and benzene. Each of these chemicals can harm the body in various ways. For instance, carcinogens, like acetaldehyde and formaldehyde, are known to cause cancer. Acrolein is an herbicide that is used to kill weeds; however, it can be found in e-cigarettes and can cause smokers to get irreversible lung damage. Similarly, diacetyl and diethylene glycol are chemicals that are linked to lung diseases, including bronchitis. Nickel in the body can lead to lung fibrosis (lung tissue is damaged and scarred), kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer in the respiratory tract. Tin, on the other hand, can increase the risks of stomach aches, anemia, liver problems, and kidney problems. Lead in the body can cause anemia, kidney damage, and brain damage. Cadmium, a toxic metal, can cause breathing problems, kidney disease, weakened bones, liver and heart problems, and in most severe cases, death. Lastly, benzene, a volatile organic 10
compound (VOC) that is found in car exhausts, in the body can lead to bone marrow issues, a decrease in blood cells, which can cause anemia, excessive bleeding, and a weakened immune system, making you more prone to infections. All of these toxic chemicals can be found in ecigarettes. Nicotine can also affect the brain by causing an addiction. Many may disagree on what the word “addiction” means, but in this case an addiction is a compulsive need for or use of a substance, like nicotine, caffeine, or heroin. Sara Lindberg is a freelance health and fitness writer with a bachelor’s degree in exercise science, as she has a master’s degree in counseling. Many of her articles focus on mental and emotional well-being. In one of Lindberg’s articles, “What You Need to Know About Smoking and Your Brain,” she states, “Nicotine mimics several neurotransmitters, which send signals in the brain. Since nicotine is similar in shape to the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, signaling increases in the brain” (2019). Acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system. This body system is important for smooth muscle contraction, blood vessel dilation, bodily secretions, and heart rate. As the brain continues to compensate for the rise in signaling by reducing the amount of acetylcholine receptors in the brain, this allows the brain to tolerate nicotine even more. As the cycle continues, more and more nicotine is “needed.” This causes the body to become nicotine dependent, causing an addiction that may be difficult to break. In another article by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, an institute made to share information about drugs and substances and how they can affect the body and the brain with youths and teens, it states, “Consuming nicotine—through regular cigarettes or vaping—leads to the release of the chemical dopamine in the human brain. As with many drugs, dopamine prompts or “teaches” the brain to repeat the same behavior (such as using tobacco) over and over” (“Why is nicotine so addictive?”, 2019). This evidence demonstrates how dopamine (a chemical messenger in the brain that is important for rewards, motivation, memory, and attention) associates with nicotine use and exposure to feeling good. So, if the brain thinks that nicotine makes you feel good and makes you think that you need nicotine in your system, your body will constantly crave and have the need for nicotine. This cycle is what causes first time smokers, as well as regular smokers, to become nicotine dependent. Therefore, the exposure or intake of nicotine can negatively affect the brain due to the fact that it can lead to an addiction. While the exposure of nicotine can lead to an addiction, it can also cause cognitive impairments. A cognitive impairment is when a person has trouble learning new things, concentrating, remembering, or making decisions that will affect their life. Erica Holliday and Thomas J. Gould did a study on the relationship between nicotine and adolescent brain. Erica Holliday has a PhD in psychology and neuroscience. Holliday is the lead principal investigator at the Center for Young Adult Addiction and Recovery, as well as an assistant professor of psychological studies. Thomas J. Gould has a PhD in psychology and neuroscience as well. Gould is currently the head of a Department of Biobehavioral Health. Their study focuses on what happens to the brain when it is exposed to nicotine. In the article, they state, “adolescent nicotine exposure leads to changes in structure and function of the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) that may underlie persistent cognitive impairments, with earlier age of initiation leading to greater deficits later in life” (Gould & Holliday, 2016, p. 179). With this piece of evidence, it is safe to say that nicotine plays a role in the changes of the hippocampus and the mPFC. In another study by Thomas J. 11
Gould, Dana Zeid, and Munir Gunes Kutlu, the changes of the hippocampus after it is exposed to nicotine is also discussed. Dana Zeid is a graduate student from Marshall University with a bachelor’s in psychology. Munir Gunes Kutlu is a research instructor with a PhD in Pharmacology. In the study, the authors state that nicotine exposure in the brain “may disrupt hippocampal learning and memory by altering the molecular cascades and cell signaling associated with memory formation and storage; multiple studies have shown altered learning” (Gould et al. 2018, p. 394). The hippocampus plays a major role in learning and memory, while the mPFC is important for decision making, social cognition, and behavior. If the hippocampus is affected, then the way the person learns and the way the person will remember things will also be affected. Similarly, if the mPFC is affected, then the person will not be able to make decisions properly, interpret social information, or act and behave appropriately. One thing to remember is that the brain does not stop its development processes until the age of 25. In the same study, Holliday and Gould (2016) emphasized the fact that “chronic administration of nicotine during adolescence leads to lasting changes in hippocampus-dependent learning tasks in adulthood” (p. 179). Some of these changes include the inability to memorize certain facts or events and the inability to remember routes or pathways. This piece of evidence accentuates that continuous exposure of nicotine to the brain can lead to long-term difficulty in learning certain tasks or things in adulthood. The results highlighted how there is a correlation between adolescent nicotine exposure and poor cognitive performances. If the brain is still developing until the age of 25 and the individual is constantly exposing their brain to nicotine, the brain will not be able to develop properly, causing long-term cognitive impairments. On the same note, Lindberg (2019) states, “researchers found that smoking negatively affected the structural integrity of subcortical brain regions.” Compared to nonsmokers, smokers had greater amounts of brain volume loss in the brain, which indicates that the brain has shrunk or that the functions of the brain are heavily decreasing. Therefore, the exposure of nicotine on the brain can definitely lead to cognitive impairments. While many people can agree that nicotine negatively affects the brain, some people also believe that nicotine exposure can help the brain in multiple ways, such as improving one’s attention, memory, working memory, and motor skills. Gerald Valentine is a lecturer of psychiatry with a medical degree from Indiana University School of Medicine. Mehmet Sofuoglu is a professor of psychiatry with a medical degree from Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine and has a PhD degree from the University of Minnesota. Valentine and Sofuoglu did a study on the cognitive effects of nicotine. In the study, it was found that “nicotine had significant positive effects on fine motor skills, episodic memory, and working memory performance. In addition, alerting attention (maintenance of an alert state) and orienting attention (directing attention to sensory events) were also positively impacted,” (Sofuoglu and Valentine, 2018, p. 407). Fine motor skills involve the ability to make movements in small areas, such as the hands and wrists. Some of these movements are holding a pencil, writing, and buttoning up a shirt or coat. Episodic memory is an individual’s memory of a specific event that was experienced. These memories can range from your last vacation to another state or island, your first roommate, and the first movie you watched with your family. Working memory is information that is stored in the brain and can be used to execute cognitive tasks. Some examples of working memory include listening to a story or reading a book, while trying to comprehend what you are listening to or reading. Another example may be reading cooking instructions while preparing the food as you read. In addition, Sofuoglu and Valentine 12
(2018) state, “the prefrontal cortex and hippocampal brain regions have been implicated in the cognitive effects of nicotine and cognitive enhancement,” (p. 406). This actively demonstrates that nicotine exposure sometimes helps the brain. In spite of the fact that nicotine negatively affects the hippocampus as it affects one’s ability to learn, this study puts emphasis on the fact that particular doses of nicotine can actually improve one’s ability to learn. In another academic-based article, by Kate Kelland, a journalist who focuses on health and science, it features the benefits and the downfalls of nicotine exposure. According to Kelland, nicotine is a stimulant that “raises heart rate and increases the speed of sensory information processing, easing tension, and sharpening the mind,” (2015). In a scientific study by Damee Choi, Shotaro Ota, and Shigeki Watanuki, scholars from Kyushi University, they aim to determine whether or not smoking cigarettes helps relieve stress. Damee Choi studies industrial science and technology. Shotaro Ota studies frontier science. Shigeki Watanuki studies physiological anthropology. Their study showed that “cigarette smoking decreases the arousal level and perhaps relieves stress for smokers” (Choi et al., 2015, p. 475). This piece of evidence indicates that, when someone smokes in an unpleasant state, this leads to a decrease in arousal level, even faster than a non-smoker. Thus, the exposure to nicotine can help the brain in multiple ways, such as improving one’s attention, memory, and fine motor skills, as well as relieving one’s stress and decreasing arousal levels faster than nonsmokers. Although the exposure of nicotine can help the brain in many ways, the exposure of nicotine in the brain can also lead to mental disorders. Some of these mental disorders are depression, anxiety, and agoraphobia. The article, “Association of Smoking and Nicotine Dependence with Severity and Course of Symptoms in Patients with Depressive or Anxiety Disorder,” by Mumtaz Jamal, A.J. Willem Van der Does, Pim Cuijpers, and Brenda Penninx highlighted the severity of depression, anxiety, social anxiety, and agoraphobia symptoms in nicotine-dependent smokers. Jamal, Van der Does, and Penninx are graduates from Leiden University Medical Center, while Cuijpers is a graduate from VU University in Amsterdam. All of the authors studied clinical psychology. In the study, the results demonstrated that the “symptoms of depression, general anxiety, and agoraphobia were more severe in nicotine-dependent smokers than in never-smokers, former smokers, and non-dependent smokers” (Cuijpers et al., 2012, p. 140). This evidence shows some of the different mental disorders that may be caused due to nicotine exposure. For those that do not know, agoraphobia is a type of anxiety disorder in which the person fears and avoids places and situations that can make the individual feel helpless, embarrassed, or trapped. Some examples of situations that complicate agoraphobia are leaving home alone, using public transportation, or being in enclosed areas like movie theaters. It was also found that there is a correlation between nicotine-dependent smokers with depression, anxiety, and agoraphobia symptoms and a slower recovery time. This highlights the fact that people who become nicotine-dependent or more likely to experience symptoms of different mental disorders. In addition to nicotine exposure leading to mental disorders, mental disorders can also occur due to the attempt to stop an addiction. Shawn Bishop, a senior communications specialist at Mayo Clinic, was asked if smoking can change the brain and make it harder when you want to quit. Even if a smoker did want to quit, the individual will experience nicotine withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, restlessness, irritability, and depressed moods. This is in light of the fact that, as smokers continuously smoke, “the number of nicotine receptors in your brain increases. Addicted 13
smokers have billions more of these receptors than nonsmokers do” (Bishop, 2012). As the receptors in the brain are no longer receiving nicotine, the pleasure or sensation that it usually gets when there is nicotine no longer exists. The fastest way to regulate the brain and stop the nicotine withdrawal symptoms from occurring is to smoke another cigarette, vape, or expose your brain to nicotine. This will release dopamine in the brain, activating the pleasure response that the brain feels when it is exposed to nicotine. Therefore, the exposure of nicotine in the brain can cause mental disorders, such as anxiety and depression, even when the smoker is trying to stop smoking. There are other addictive substances, such as caffeine, that can harm the brain. Ann Pietrangelo, an author and health writer, and Natalie Olsen, a registered dietician and exercise physiologist who specializes in disease management and prevention, wrote an article about the effects of caffeine on the body. This article features the positive and negative effects of caffeine on the body. To start off, some ways that caffeine can positively affect the body is by “reducing the risks of suicide and increasing the alertness of the brain” (Olsen & Pietrangelo, 2018). Caffeine can reduce the risks of suicide because caffeine acts as a mild antidepressant by increasing the production of neurotransmitters in the brain. Some of the neurotransmitters are serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline. Caffeine can increase an individual’s alertness by acting as a stimulant to the brain, such as acting as an adenosine receptor antagonist. Adenosine is a substance in the body that promotes sleepiness; however, when caffeine is in the body, it blocks the adenosine receptor and keeps the person from feeling tired and rather more awake and alert. Although caffeine has some positive effects, there are more negative effects. An overconsumption of caffeine can cause the brain to overstimulate, causing confusion, and can cause headaches. Like with nicotine, when a person has caffeine withdrawal and their body feels that it needs caffeine, headaches may also occur due to the lack of caffeine in the body. This is because the person has become caffeine dependent. Along with headaches, caffeine-dependent people may also experience irritability and anxiety as a symptom of caffeine withdrawal. People may express their caffeine addiction as a love for coffee or carbonated drinks because they tend to forget the fact that caffeine is a dangerous substance. Caffeine can cause addictions as it can mimic a molecule in the brain, such as adenosine, similar to the way nicotine mimics acetylcholine in the brain. Other stimulants, like dopamine, become used to adenosine being blocked and adapt to the changes. This causes a need for caffeine in the brain due to the fact that the brain is used to having adenosine being blocked. As previously stated, a need and craving for a substance is an addiction. Caffeine can help the brain by decreasing one’s risk of committing suicide and by increasing one’s alertness, but caffeine can also cause confusion, mental disorders, such as anxiety, from caffeine withdrawal and addictions. There is no way to say which substance, nicotine or caffeine, is “safer” for the body due to the fact that both substances can harm the brain and body in various ways, especially when they are combined. In conclusion, nicotine can negatively affect the brain in many ways as the exposure to nicotine on the brain can lead to an addiction, cognitive impairments, and mental disorders. Addiction and mental disorders are correlated in certain ways. For instance, a nicotine-dependent person may be trying to put an end to their addiction, and, in the process of doing so, the individual may experience mental disorders, such as anxiety and depression. Addiction is caused due to the fact that nicotine mimics a neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, in the brain. As the brain adapts to the lack of acetylcholine in the brain, it causes the brain to need more nicotine as the tolerance increases. Cognitive impairments, such as damage to the hippocampus and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), can also occur due to the brain being exposed to nicotine. But, why is any of this 14
important? As of 2019, there were about 3.6 million youths who vaped in the United States. Along with the 3.6 million teens, there are about 34.1 million adults who are exposed to nicotine through smoking. Many of them know of the effects that it can do to the body, such as causing bronchitis, popcorn lungs, lung disease, or cancers, but little to none of them are informed about the negative effects that nicotine can have on the brain, and I say “negative” for a reason. Nicotine-dependent individuals claim that smoking and vaping helps calm them by relieving their stress and by increasing their alertness, but, as they are calming down each time that they smoke, they allow their body and the brain to become more exposed to nicotine and other harmful chemicals. So, again, are you really relieving your stress every time you smoke, or are you addicted and cannot admit that you, not your body, crave nicotine? REFERENCES Bishop, S. (2012, February 24). Smokers' brains change in response to high levels of nicotine. Mayo Clinic. https://newsnetwork.mayoclinic.org/discussion/smokers-brains-change-inresponse-to-high-levels-of-nicotine/ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 16). Quick facts on the risks of ecigarettes for kids, teens, and young adults. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risksof-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html Choi, D., Ota, S., & Watanuki, S. (2015, October 20). Does cigarette smoking relieve stress? Evidence from the event-related potential (ERP). ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167876015300374?via%3Dihub Dresden, D., & Murrell, D. (2017, December 7). What is the hippocampus? Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313295#what_does_the_hippocamus_do Felman, A., & Weatherspoon, D. (2018, January 11). Everything you need to know about nicotine. Medical news Today. from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/240820 Goriounova, N., & Mansvelder, H. (2012, December 1). Short- and long-term consequences of nicotine exposure during adolescence for prefrontal cortex neuronal network function. PubMed Central. from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543069/ Holliday, E., & Gould, T. J. (2016, June). Nicotine, adolescence, and stress: A review of how stress can modulate the negative consequences of adolescent nicotine abuse. ScienceDirect. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.04.003 Hudson, L., & Team, S. (2021, January 21). Vaping statistics 2021. theCheckup. https://www.singlecare.com/blog/news/vaping-statistics/
15
Jamal, M., Van der does, W., Cuijpers, P., & Penninx, B. (2012, November 1). Association of smoking and nicotine dependence with severity and course of symptoms in patients with depressive or anxiety disorder. ScienceDirect https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.001 Lindberg, S. (2019, August 23). What you need to know about smoking and your brain. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/smoking/smoking-effects-on-brain National Institute on Drug Abuse Blog Team. (2020, August 03). Why is nicotine so addictive? https://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/why-nicotine-so-addictive Olsen, N., & Pietrangelo, A. (2018, September 28). The Effects of Caffeine on Your Body. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/caffeine-effects-on-body Valentine, G., & Sofuoglu, M. (2018, May). Cognitive effects of nicotine: Recent progress. PubMed Central. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6018192/ Zeid, D., Kutlu, M., & Gould, T. (2018, May). Differential effects of nicotine exposure on the hippocampus across lifespan. PubMed Central.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6018186/
16
Finding the Importance of Rare Diseases and Their Study Through the Lens of Corticobasal Degeneration By Katherine Hurlbut When research is done on diseases and health conditions, there is a limited amount of money and resources, and decisions have to be made about which diseases get priority. There are several factors to consider when deciding which disease studies to fund most urgently: how many people are affected, mortality rate, life expectancy, quality of life, and what the public is most concerned about. By researching the rare neurological disease corticobasal degeneration (CBD), we can get a better view of what is important when allocating resources. Rare diseases are often overlooked compared to ones that affect a larger portion of the population. CBD in particular is unknown to most people, and to some people this means that it is less important. This leads to a deeper issue relating not just to CBD, but to all diseases. How do we determine how much resource, funding, and work should be put towards studying diseases based on rarity? Should the percentage of the population affected even be a factor in deciding how to fund medical research? Common diseases like diabetes, heart disease, or Alzheimer’s are already widely studied, but not many people know or care about rare diseases like corticobasal degeneration because they are seen as less important, or even a fluke. However, rare diseases pose a very serious problem because they greatly affect quality of life and lifespan. The best respond to this problem, we need to put greater research and funding into finding causes and treatments for rare disease, which can also be used to aid the research of other diseases. So, what even is corticobasal degeneration? Corticobasal degeneration (CBD), often called “Corticobasal Syndrome” in living patients, is a rare neurological disorder that can cause loss of fine motor skills, memory, facial expression, balance, and cognitive abilities, as well as mood changes, and difficulty eating and drinking. The National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD), the authority on rare conditions in the US, describes some of the most prevalent symptoms, In many cases, affected individuals develop progressive stiffening or tightening of muscles in the limbs (progressive asymmetric rigidity). Affected individuals are often unable to make voluntary, purposeful movements with the affected limb (apraxia). Affected individuals have sufficient muscle power for manual tasks but have difficulty directing their movements appropriately. Difficulties with the affected limb progressively worsen over time. (National Organization for Rare Diseases, n.d.) These symptoms can greatly affect quality of life, hindering basic functions like walking, picking things up, eating, and talking. Certain symptoms might present differently or not occur in some patients. There can be large variation in symptoms of affected individuals, and, according to NORD, “The symptoms, progression, severity and presentation of corticobasal degeneration can vary greatly from one individual to another. It is important to note that affected individuals may not have all of the symptoms” (National Organization for Rare Diseases, n.d.). This disease affects life span too, typically beginning at age 50-70 and having a short life expectancy of 6-8 years after onset of symptoms (National Organization for Rare Diseases, n.d.).
17
When looking at the pathology of CBD, it is also important to understand the broader concept of tauopathies. N. Nishida et al., a group of Japanese researchers publishing for the British Neuropathological Society journal Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, have done a study on the autopsies of three CBD cases. They state, “The most important pathological finding of CBD is accumulation of phosphorylated 4-repeat-tau in neurones and glia, as well as neurofibrillary tangles” (Nishida et al., 2015, p. 893). These are common traits of tauopathies, where “tau” refers to a protein found in neurons. Nishida et al. explain that, in tauopathies, tau is unevenly deposited and accumulates in certain parts of the brain. The term “neurofibrillary tangles” is used to refer to these aggregations of tau. Nishida et al. describe the effects of tauopathies as “characterized by both motor and cognitive disturbances with a variety of symptoms, such as corticobasal syndrome that was proposed to characterize the array of clinical features, progressive non-fluent aphasia, behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia and Richardson syndrome” (2015, p.894). These clinical features include struggles with speaking and other fine motor skills as well as regulating behavior and emotions. CBD is not the only tauopathy, with several other diseases sharing similar symptoms. The study also finds that, “In addition, the clinical features of CBD are found in other neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Pick’s disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration” (Nishida et al., 2015, p.894). These three diseases are forms of dementia. They present through behavioral issues, memory loss, and confusion, with less emphasis on the physical symptoms found in CBD. Even though there are differences, they all can present similarly, especially in early stages. This means that there can be confusion when diagnosing CBD and differentiating between different disorders. On the other hand, it implies that any causes and treatments found for CBD might be applicable to tauopathies. This means CBD research has a wider range of positive effects than for CBD patients alone. CBD and tauopathies can help us look at the factors that are used to determine the priority of funding and research. One important factor to look at is life expectancy. Life expectancy plays an important role in determining which disorders are our first priority in treatment research. Some diseases shorten life expectancy, and this means they generally have a larger impact than non-terminal diseases. Rare diseases often shorten life by years, maybe even decades. CBD is an example of this. The Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) is a program funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH), and, according to the program, “People with corticobasal degeneration usually do not survive beyond an average of 7 years after symptoms begin” (Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center, 2017). Having less than a decade to live after diagnosis is life changing for many people. Furthermore, the changes to someone's life might be largely negative. G. Zanni and C. Browne are two doctors who write on the effects of terminal illness for the journal Pharmacy Times. Terminal illnesses, similar to conditions that limit life expectancy, are when patients are in end stages of disease and are expected to die from that disease. Both give what is essentially a ‘life sentence’ to patients. Zanni and Browne describe how this affects patients: “The negative psychological effects of a terminal diagnosis include anger, denial, insomnia, depression, anxiety, and substance abuse” (2010). Having a shorter life expectancy is not only important because it makes people die younger than they should, but it also can affect other factors, such as quality of life. This means that people with rare diseases, who tend to have shorter lifespans or are terminally ill, are more likely to see a decrease in quality of life as well. This would indicate that these diseases should be of high priority for finding treatments or cures.
18
As mentioned, quality of life is another deciding factor. Quality of life is a person’s overall health, comfort, and ability to complete daily life activities. With rare diseases like CBD, we see how bad it really is. Health worsens as the disease progresses, and comfort is lost. Basic functions like talking and eating become difficult, not to mention more general functions like walking become near impossible. In the beginning patients may lose their ability to do hobbies or other activities that they enjoyed, and by the end may be struggling to complete simple tasks. In a testimonial on a CBD patient’s life, Jocelyn Gervais describes how her husband Pierre’s life was affected by the disease: “As the disease progressed, Pierre suffered debilitating physical symptoms like falls, gaze palsy (inability to move the eyes up and down), slow speech and the near constant, uncontrollable humming and moaning that tortured him” (Gervais, n.d.). Not only will patients’ quality of life be greatly reduced, but it will continue to decline as the disease progresses. Even the most minute and basic of functions can become increasingly difficult for patients. Another aspect of quality of life is mental health. CBD and rare diseases like it have higher incidence of mental illnesses, such as depression, whether it is from the degradation in the brain or the emotional impact of dealing with the disorder. Alberto C. Hurtado Gonzālez and his research teams from several prominent Colombian universities, including the School of Psychology at Cooperativa University Cali Colombia, conducted a case study on a CBD patient’s neuropsychological symptoms. They describe the results: “CBD is a neuropsychiatric condition associated with neurobehavioral disorders such as depression and anxiety, [...] associated with a decline in emotional well-being, low self-esteem and a worsening of basic, instrumental and advanced activities of daily living” (Hurtado Gonzālez et al., 2015). This study indicates that CBD has the potential to not only affect quality of life through direct physical symptoms, but also mental health and ability to complete general life activities. Overall, quality of life is an important part of deciding what disease or disorder deserves precedence. As can be seen with CBD, basic functions are greatly impacted by certain disorders. It stands to reason that improving quality of life for these patients is imperative and is a good reason to prioritize funding and research into possible treatments. When we consider quality of life, we also have to consider not only the effects of the disease, but also the effects of the treatments. Medications might have uncomfortable side effects, and some treatment regimens can be very difficult for patients. For example, chemotherapy, which is used to treat cancer, can make patients sicker before they get better. CBD also can have some grueling treatments. Things like physical, occupational, or speech therapy might be used to retrain patients’ life skills and physical abilities. Some patients might find this hard since it can be physically difficult and takes much time and effort to see results. Dealing with different treatment options might also affect patients’ mental health if they are not seeing results. While different treatment options can lessen the symptoms, it is not a fix or ‘cure’ for the disease. It is important to put research towards diseases with particularly difficult or less effective treatments so that better solutions can be found. Finally, mortality or death rates are important in understanding which diseases are deadliest. Organizations such as the Alzheimer’s Association give us a view of a variety of statistics that can be related to effects on the population. Deadlier diseases, such as terminal illnesses, are a priority because they kill such a large proportion of patients. Alzheimer’s, for example, killed 122,019 people in 2018 making it the 6 leading cause of death (The Alzheimer’s Association, 2020, p. 391). While direct statistics on mortality and death rate are not available for CBD, it could be considered to have high mortality because it’s similar to Alzheimer’s and most people with the th
19
disease die from it or its comorbidities. Mortality rates, especially high ones, can be indicative of problems in a population. The Connecticut State Department of Health explains why examining mortality rate is important: Mortality statistics provide a valuable measure for assessing community health status. The importance of mortality statistics derives both from the significance of death in an individual’s life as well as their potential to improve the public’s health when used to systematically assess and monitor the health status of a whole community. (Connecticut State Department of Health, n.d.) In essence, diseases that are fatal have a larger effect on the population than diseases that are not. This means that high mortality rates could contribute to other issues within communities and populations, and rare diseases with high mortality rates might become a big problem. When we look at CBD for example, all patients with the disease die, often much sooner than they would naturally. If we see trends of people getting rare diseases like this, which are fatal, it could point to a growing problem and the need for further research and study. If these factors are so important, then why do people still fund common diseases more than rare diseases? Despite these issues, the fact remains that public health officials as well as the general public are typically more concerned with conditions that affect the most people. According to the University of Nevada, Reno (UNR), “A public health problem, therefore, is a medical issue that affects a significant portion of a specific population. Some examples include chronic illnesses like Type 2 diabetes, infectious diseases such as HIV and tuberculosis, [and] mental health challenges” (University of Nevada, Reno, n.d.). It is important to consider that diseases or conditions that affect a large proportion of the population might be a more immediate threat to public health. These problems are what policymakers primarily look at when they are deciding distribution of funds and resources. UNR goes on to say, “While every public health initiative is different in terms of funding and institutional support, most depend on the government in some way” (University of Nevada, Reno, n.d.). This means that government influence can affect policy and programs. Government policy tends to focus on large populations and highest prevalence of disease to address priority. At the end of the day, the public and public health authorities find most concern with diseases that affect the most people. On an individual level, members of the public might worry more about getting a common disease like diabetes. Public health officials are concerned with what seems to be a threat to many people, because it could have negative consequences for the population as a whole, such as large decreases in population or a drop in overall life expectancy. Going back to rare diseases, however, it is important to consider that there are many of these diseases and as a whole they affect many people. This could indicate that research for rare diseases overall should be increased, since when treated as a whole they affect a large proportion of people. Danielle Whicher, of the National Academy of Medicine, and her co-authors write for the Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. They state, Current estimates indicate that there are close to 7000 rare diseases and that about 30 million individuals in the United States are living with a rare disease. While individually, each rare disease impacts a small population, collectively, a large number of individuals
20
are affected by these conditions. Therefore, improving the ability to conduct research on rare diseases would have a broad population impact. (Whicher et al., 2018) Essentially, if rare diseases are viewed as a single entity, then they affect a very large number of people, which is something that many people agree makes its study a priority. If one of the main criteria for allocating funds and research resources is the number of people affected, then rare diseases might fit the bill. While each disease on its own does not affect many people, cumulatively rare diseases affect a large portion of the population. Another thing to consider is that rare disease research can be used to find causes and treatment for other diseases as well. CBD in particular is related to several more prominent diseases, such as Alzheimer’s. Even though it is less prevalent, researching it could lead to answers for multiple diseases in the tauopathy family. I had the chance to interview Dr. Michael Mega, a cognitive neurologist who specializes in tauopathies. He says, The tauopathies across the spectrum are having increasing funding because of the understanding that they are all related to misfolded tau protein. Previously, corticobasal syndrome was neglected in terms of research funding because it was not clear its place within the family of tauopathies, but now because it’s joining all the other members of tauopathies in common research trials it is receiving greater funding. (M. Mega, personal communication, 2021) What Dr. Mega is describing here is that a disease’s relationship to other disorders can play a role in deciding how research is funded. If researching a disease can lead to benefits for patients of multiple diseases within the same family, then it becomes a higher priority. While rare diseases like CBD might not seem like a big concern, especially to public health officials who focus on larger and more prevalent cases, it is important to consider the relationships between diseases. Not only do rare diseases affect many people, but their research can also be applied to related diseases that might be much more common. For example, Alzheimer’s is a very common disease, and studying CBD more thoroughly might lead to answers for both diseases, benefitting more people in the long run. Dr. Mega goes on to explain that the relationship between rare and common diseases can go both ways. He states that, Previously, corticobasal syndrome was neglected in terms of research funding because it was not clear its place within the family of tauopathies. But now because it’s joining all the other members of tauopathies in common research trials, it is receiving greater funding. (M. Mega, personal communication, 2021) The way we approach disease research might be changing as discoveries like the relationship between tauopathies are made. Even if we do not currently know of connections between certain diseases, looking into overlooked rare diseases could lead to discovering more possible relationships and paths of research. It might be more pertinent than ever to preemptively fund research into rare diseases because they can potentially give us insight into a multitude of different conditions. 21
Considering all these factors, we can conclude that research into rare diseases has much room for improvement. When examining CBD, it was found that people with rare diseases have shorter life expectancy, higher mortality rates, and a reduced quality of life. While they may not outnumber many prevalent diseases, research into rare diseases can lead to a heavy contribution regarding breakthroughs for many related diseases. In the end, it seems like rare diseases are important to study, and they could be a crucial part of researching major public health concerns. By examining related organizations, case studies, and articles by doctors and experts, we can see how CBD can be an example of the importance of rare disease research. Organizations like the Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center and the National Organization for Rare Diseases give us a basic understanding of what CBD is: a neurological condition that affects primarily motor and cognitive skills. They also give us guidelines for what makes certain public health problems a priority. Case studies, like the one by Nishida et al., gives us some insight into how diseases may be related, such as how tauopathies have a similar origin, and how this relationship can connect research opportunities. Personal testimonies, like that of Jocelyn Gervais, show that rare diseases can have an especially large impact on certain factors, such as quality of life and mortality. All in all, rare diseases should be given greater priority than is currently the case. As medicine changes and evolves and the line between different conditions blurs, it is important to study overlooked diseases that could potentially connect to wider solutions. There is a great deal to be learned from diseases like CBD. REFERENCES Alzheimer’s Association. (2020). 2020 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12068 Connecticut State Department of Health. (N.d.). Mortality Statistics. Connecticut State Department of Health. https://portal.ct.gov/dph/Health-Information-Systems-Reporting/Mortality/Mortality-Statistics Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center. (2017). Corticobasal Degeneration. National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/46/corticobasal-degeneration Gervais, J. (n.d.). Pierre Gervais’ Story. CurePSP Inc. https://www.psp.org/ineedsupport/personal-stories/pierre-gervais/ Hurtado Gonzālez C. A., Piedrahita C., Álzate D. V., García Borrero J. J., Marmlejo Escobar C. S., Otalvaro S. O., Arango P. M., Gutiérrez Lenis P. A., Varela D. D., Molano E. L., Allin Ramírez D. V., Rinco A., Sánchez J., Hernández V. (2015). Neuropsychiatric Aspects in a Patient Diagnosed with Corticobasal Degeneration: Clinical Case of Low Incidence and Prevalence in Colombia. Case Reports in Neurology 12, 387-401. https://doi.org/10.1159/000509073 Nishida, N., Yoshida, K, Hata, Y., Arai, Y., Kinoshita, K. (2015). Pathological features of preclinical or early clinical stages of corticobasal degeneration: a comparison with advanced cases. Neuropathy and Applied Neurobiology 41, 893-905. https://hpu.blackboard.com/courses/1/1080.202120/db/_2681067_1/Pathologicalfeatures ofpreclinicalorearlyclin.pdf 22
National Organization for Rare Diseases. (N.d.). Corticobasal Degeneration. https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/corticobasal-degeneration/ University of Nevada, Reno. (N.d.). Top Public Health Problems and Concerns. University of Nevada, Reno. https://onlinedegrees.unr.edu/blog/top-public-health-problems-concernsunr-online-degree/ Whicher D., Philbin S., Aronson N. (2018). An overview of the impact of rare disease characteristics on research methodology. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-017-0755-5 Zanni G. R., Browne C. L. III. (2010). Coping with Terminal Illness. Pharmacy Times 76(8). https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/counselingterminalillness-0810
23
How Does Music Influence Our Behavior? By Munkhtur Od Music is a universal language, and it goes without saying that we all have our own favorite types of music. In this essay, we will be looking at the different ways in which music can benefit us mentally and enhance our behaviors for the better. This topic can be very controversial to some, as music has also been perceived to invoke many unacceptable influences, such as drugs, sex, and alcohol. However, multiple articles from the likes of Kathleen M. Higgins, Harvard University, and Clifford K Madsen suggest that music can indeed have a good influence on one’s behavior and can help people with their struggles. We will also take into account what is good behavior and not, how these behaviors affect other people, and the different types of music that help each individual person. Music can influence one’s behavior by strengthening their relationships with people around them. Kathleen M. Higgins has stated that music can be used as a bridge to social harmony (Higgins, 2018). Higgins is a philosophy professor who had studied in the University of Texas in Austin, and she specialized in the field of music philosophy. She wrote the article “Connecting Music to Ethics,” which presents us with multiple tactics on how music can assist people and their children’s behaviors and maintain a healthy relationship with one another. She had presented 4 main ideas on how we could reach this goal. The four main strategies were: • • • •
Broadening one’s musical perspective; Developing music education for children; Allowing people to take part in musical performances; Diversifying different types of music
If you take riots and protests for example, one of the things that connect people the most is music. Not only does this first strategy apply to a community taking a stand, it could also apply to much simpler things such as a fanbase singing for their favorite sports teams. The types of music that these sub-groups sing or listen to can differ from one another, but Higgins views that as a good thing, as she stated, “Depending on the nature of the atmosphere, music might benefit ethical attitudes either by reinforcing or counteracting it” (Higgins, 2018). She is indicating that relaxing music can help people calm down from times where your tensions are rising, whereas more cheerful and livelier music can help you feel more optimistic from times you feel sad and depressed. This shows that music can play a vital role in human behaviors, and, by being involved with music, people can guide their emotions for themselves. The second strategy that Higgins proposed was that music education should be developed so that kids can become familiar with different types of music. By exposing these children to different types of music from a young age would presumably help them understand different cultures and their respective tastes in music. Higgins said, “this would develop comfort with a wide range of music and make students less likely to experience other people’s music as alien. If they develop an appreciation of what various kinds of music have to offer, they may come to appreciate its originators (both specific performers and, in some cases, populations) as well as to be less rigid in their views about music.” (Higgins, 2018). Not only would these children be more understanding of different cultures, but also, with the help of music education, they tend to become less likely to 24
be manipulated by the subliminal messages that some songs may convey through their melodies and lyrics (Higgins, 2018). The third strategy that she proposes is solely based on cooperation and communication between people. She believes that taking part in a “participatory performance” will enhance people’s ability to communicate and partake in collaborative work all while satisfying their musical interests. “The implicit invitation to join in with an open-ended group and the experience of cooperating with a mass of humanity encourages participants to feel a connection that is not bound up with concern for the sharp lines that divide social groups” (Higgins, 2018). Being able to work together while also creating a musical composition will definitely help with building up good relationships whether it is with a stranger, friend, or family member. The main point of this strategy is to help people that have little knowledge of music feel challenged so that the more skilled participants can stay more engaged in the project (Higgins, 2018). At the end of the participatory performance, these participants will definitely feel good about the work that they have done, and that shows how music can influence their moods and their self-confidence. The final strategy that Higgins has proposed was to use more “hybrid music.” Hybrid music is the combination of instruments and sounds from two or more different cultures (Higgins, 2018). Creating more music that involves different cultures may open doors for people of those specific cultures and even for people of different cultures. Higgins believes that hybrid music can create something that seemed impossible for some. “It shows that music from quite distinct points of origin can be combined in ways that help people to navigate socially in all kinds of circumstances in which they find themselves brought together” (Higgins, 2018). This strategy also creates more opportunities for people to express their own cultures, which can lead to creating meaningful relationships with people of other cultures. These four strategies that Higgins proposed have their benefits and can definitely be a key to social harmony, but we cannot conclude that these strategies will all go smoothly and work with everyone in the world. The article also presented the possible negative responses that these ideas could possibly give off. For example, musical hybridization has been implemented in the past, and it did not really work out well. Issues surrounding authenticity would emerge from non-Western culture music as they were heavily criticized in the past by the Westerners themselves (Higgins, 2018). In an article by Arlene R Taylor, she shares a quote by Aristotle: “If one listens to the wrong kind of music he will become the wrong kind of person; but conversely, if he listens to the right kind of music he will tend to become the right kind of person” (Hegarty, 2019), which tells us that the music you grow up listening to and the music you grow up liking is going to be a big factor in how you see the world. Higgins also said that “each of us has a different musical biography” (Higgins, 2018), saying that people cannot truly see eye to eye when it comes to their tastes of music because of their own musical backgrounds. Even the people from familiar backgrounds may have some differences due to the particular instruments used in their music. We have to keep in mind these limitations when it comes to the influence of music on human behavior. Looking at the strategies that Higgins proposed, it seems to rely on communication often. Communication and the way you receive information about music is also vital when it comes to the influence of music on one’s behavior. Clifford K Madsen was a former professor of music at the College of Music in Florida State University. He wrote the article “Research in Music 25
Behavior,” and he talks about a study that was conducted on musicianship. Experts in the field of music, whether it be an artist, composer, or a teacher often commented on musical performances with an intuitive feeling, using phrases such as “it was technically proficient, yet musically uninspired” (Madsen, 1999). Words can be used in many different ways and especially for musical experts, expressing their feelings and using words from their intuition is very common. This is a factor to keep in mind, especially if you are working with children, who may not understand the abstract ideas. This particular study was conducted a total of 3 times, and it was an observational study. First with 300 normal people from different age groups (children, young adults, and older adults), then a second time with a number of musical experts asked about music “ideas”, and the third one being exactly the same as the second study, but with more additional questions for the musical experts. The main objective of study was for the people to describe two behaviors for certain ideas. For example, behaviors that show appreciation would be “saying thank you” and “expressing positive gestures,” for cooperation they would say “sharing something” and “asking for assistance” (Madsen, 1999). The results showed that the musical experts were not so different with their responses from the normal people and interestingly, they were not so better at defining musical behaviors than defining social behaviors. The musical experts were questioned at the end of the study and told Madsen that the task was pretty difficult due to the fact that they knew what the words meant but they couldn’t find a way to appropriately describe them (Madsen, 1999). This is an interesting point of view that we should take into account because, without the right words that can truly engage with the people or students, it will be hard for them to understand the emotions that the music is trying to convey. Now that we have discussed the socio-cultural effects of music on human behavior, we need to also look at the aspects of the cognitive and biological parts. The brain’s functions help you suit your emotions, and human emotions are very complex in the way that they can be divided into 4 main groups. It depends on how positive or negative the valence is and also how high or low the arousal may be. When people are listening to music, there are various parts of the brain that become activated. These parts include the auditory cortex, frontal cortex, cerebral cortex, and the motor cortex (Geethanjali et al., 2018). All of these parts are activated in different forms depending on the structure of the musical composition, like the loudness, pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody. Researchers have found out through an MRI scan that when people listen to music that is pleasant to them, their blood oxygen level dependent increases in different places as it does when people listen to unpleasant music (Geethanjali et al., 2018). It was also found that when people listen to fast tempo songs, their blood pressure seems to increase whereas when they listen to slow tempo songs, their blood pressures go down (Geethanjali et al., 2018). These findings show that there is indeed a link between the brain and emotions, and it can be based on the type of music that they listen to. There was also a study that was done in New York, which was discussed in an article published by Harvard Medical School. This study was conducted on forty willing cataract patients all around the same age, and half of them were randomly assigned to receive ordinary care, and the other half got the same treatment but with the addition of listening to music of their own choice. Prior to the surgery, both groups had the same heart rate with all of their heart rates increasing by 17 beats per minute. However, the results showed that the patients who had no music stayed with a high heart 26
rate, but the group that listened to music had their heart rate go down very fast, with an average of 35mm Hg systolic and 24 mm Hg diastolic (Harvard Health Publishing, 2011). It was also found that the group who had listened to music felt more relaxed and better during the surgery. In another study involving 80 patients that were going through urologic surgery, there were two groups with the same variances as the other study (no music vs. music), and they were given the control of how many sedatives they took. The results showed that the group that was listening to music had less need to take sedatives than the group that was not listening to music (Harvard Health Publishing, 2011). These studies show that music can have a vital role in reducing stress and helping people cope with their anxiety during tough times. In conclusion, there are many ways by which music can benefit us for our emotions and behavior. We can see from the different strategies that Higgins proposed that collaboration and diversifying music is a key way to build healthy and thriving relationships. I was quick to notice that most people feel more connected and they feel most comfortable around their in-groups and their own music. We did look at some implications where music may have negative tendencies when using Higgin’s strategies, but it seems that the positives weigh out the negatives. We also saw that the use of words is very important in order to convey emotions to the audience. Not only does music affect behavior through communicating with other people, but it also affects the brain and can have a big impact psychologically. Your mood might alter from the type of music you listen to and what you perceive as pleasant and unpleasant music. We also found that music can help people cope with stress and during anxious times. We can conclude that music is very beneficial for us socially and mentally. REFERENCES Geethanjali, B., Adalarasu, K., & Jagannath, M. (2018). Music Induced Emotion and Music Processing in the Brain– A Review. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH. Published. https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2018/30384.11060 Harvard Health Publishing. (2011, July). Music and health. Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/music-and-health Hegarty, J. (2019). Potential Negative Impact of Music. Arlene R Taylor PhD, Realizations Inc. https://www.arlenetaylor.org/music-and-the-brain/7410-potential-negative-impact. Higgins, Kathleen M. (2018). “Connecting Music to Ethics.” College Music Symposium, vol. 58, no. 3, 2018, pp. 1–20. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26608534. Madsen, C. K. (1999). Research in Music Behavior. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 33(4), 77. https://doi.org/10.2307/3333722
27
Live, Laugh, & Locating Accessible Medicine By Princess Pascua The questions of healthcare’s relevance in society and who is eligible to receive it are the most critical questions that require an answer. There are many different factors in the world, especially in the United States, that play a role in determining one’s access to healthcare. Influential factors within Big Pharma, such as originators and political members, no longer finance the research and production of medicine for the betterment of society. Instead, they do it for their own financial gain. This gain can be examined by the pharmaceutical industry’s strategic patenting, which demonstrates how pharmaceutical companies stifle the generic production competition of drugs. Ola Gurgula, from Brunel University in London, is a senior lecturer in patent law. She aims to educate readers on the existing law regarding how pharmaceutical companies finance their medicine. Gurgula identifies the adverse effects of strategic patenting. It is harmful to a large portion of society’s access to treatment; higher-priced drugs make it harder for individuals to access the needed remedies to heal. Many others, such as Gregg Fields, professor of Biology and Chemistry at Florida State University, voice their criticisms towards Big Pharma. Fields closely relate his Big Pharma criticisms to the national government, stating that there are more significant political ties in the medical industry than many anticipate. Fields explains the amount of influence policies in the government have on communities that need medical attention. The medical prioritization of individuals and the level of medical treatment are not based on need but on wealth. Robert Blaskiewicz, a professor from the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, identifies themes, between Big Pharma and the United States government, that suggest there are people who exist within both systems and work against the public good for their benefit. It is crucial that people realize the true narrative behind their misconceptions of the United States government’s role in the pharmaceutical industry, as they are greatly impacted by policies that political members make. These articles argue their best criticisms against Big Pharma’s corrupted processes for financing medicine and its close affiliation with governmental ties. Evidently, there are loopholes within Big Pharma’s strategy to pass drugs as medicine and the finance that goes into the research and development of new medicine. The research and development of medicine is greatly impacted by government law and influential people within Big Pharma. Stephen C. Taylor measures America’s healthcare system and continuously asks: to what degree are people in the United States granted access to health care? Taylor answers the question by supporting his argument in philosophical teachings that should be ethically applied in the healthcare system. The mixed healthcare system that currently exists in the United States of America consistently fails its financially disadvantaged citizens with over-priced medicine which Big Pharma controls. Because Big Pharma and political individuals are heavily corrupted by greed, they take advantage of the most vulnerable citizens within the country. It is important to approach this problem to help all people seeking medical attention, but, due to political constraints, it is difficult for them to access affordable healthcare. To first understand the implications of Big Pharma and the United States’ influence in drug policymaking, it is important to understand the healthcare system structure that exists in the country. Taylor clearly outlines the healthcare system’s foundations that exist in the United States and compares it to other countries, stating that the system in America is based on the public policy 28
perspective called “libertarianism.” According to Taylor, the libertarian principles of justice applied in the American healthcare system make it such that “citizens might or might not have any kind of right to health care, but even if they do, it should not result in the placing of financial burdens on wealthier citizens to fund, in part or whole, the health care of their less financially welloff counterparts” (Taylor 49). This is shockingly different from other first-world countries that have universal health care systems, like Japan and South Korea. Contrastingly, these countries follow a different principle of justice, egalitarianism, which indicates that “each citizen in society has an equal right to health care services and procedures because each citizen in society has equal value as a person” (Taylor 50). Evidently, there is a stark difference between the two health care systems that exist in South Korea and the United States. According to a profile of the United States by Roosa Tikkanen et al. from the “Commonwealth Fund,” the United States of America is mainly covered with healthcare. However, 55% is covered under employer-sponsored health insurance, while 17.9% is covered under Medicaid. Although many individuals have health insurance, their insurance cannot fully cover their financial burdens. In the United States, only a small percentage of the population can access quality healthcare that covers the cost of hospital visits, primary care visits, and medicine. All the while, a large percentage must carry the large financial burdens that do not cover the same financial scope as other health care providers. In countries that practice universal healthcare, every individual has access to healthcare and medicine to treat their illnesses. The difference is evident between the United States and other countries, where citizens are prioritized over their financial and influential power. Despite the belief that there is a lower quality of care and accessibility to medical attention in countries that practice universal healthcare, countries such as South Korea and Japan are considered to have some of the best healthcare systems in the world. According to Sophie Ireland, attributing author to CEOWORLD magazine, South Korea holds the highest-ranking quality in healthcare, and Japan holds fifth place. CEOWORLD’s health care index statistically analyzed the quality of 89 countries’ healthcare systems according to their infrastructure, healthcare professional competencies, cost, quality of medicine, and government readiness (Ireland). The United States is placed near the middle, coming in 30th place. The greatest advantage South Koreans have over many other countries is their flexibility, in terms of their freedom of choice. Young Joo Song, an assistant pathology professor at City of Hope Medical Center, wrote about the South Korean health care system: Korean patients can go to any doctor or any medical institution, including hospitals, which they choose. The referral arrangement system is divided into two steps. The patient can go to any medical practitioner office except specialized general hospitals. If the patient wants to go to a secondary hospital, he/she has to present a referral slip issued by the medical practitioner who diagnosed him/her first. There are some exceptions. The patients can go to any hospital without a referral slip. There are colossal differences when compared to the United States. In the United States, without universal health care, citizens can only use their healthcare benefits where they are covered (Tikkanen). There are many individuals who have trouble accessing health care in the United 29
States due to its high cost, as the United States is notorious for its high-priced medicine. However, the disparity of uninsured individuals in the country was noticed by the legislature. They created the Affordable Care Act (ACA), which “resulted in the largest expansion to date of the government’s role in financing and regulating health care” (Tikkanen). Although the ACA granted individuals more accessible health care, it does not compensate for the large number of individuals who are still disadvantaged. The healthcare systems in the United States and other countries are distributed differently which is primarily due to the pricing of medicine and how much Big Pharma charges. It is believed that the main goal of Big Pharma is to fund drug research and development so it can later be marketed to society as medicine. Gurgula outlines the drug development process, as explained by the European Commission, in three steps: “(i) the R&D [research and development] stage, which ends with the launch of a drug on the market” (1068). As Big Pharma increasingly turns toward “Open Innovation” concepts in its research and development, they do not make room for generic companies to develop medicine with the same elements at a lower price. “Despite the alleged surge in investments into pharmaceutical R&D, current statistics indicate that the number of breakthrough medicines is decreasing” (Gurgula 1063). This shows that Big Pharma no longer fosters an “Open Science” method of research and development. The second and third stages are the “period between the launch and the patent expiry; and (iii) the period after the patent expiration, when generics can enter the market” (Gurgula 1068). Gurgula identifies the increasing volume of high-priced drugs that circulate throughout the United States and explains that strategic patenting “affects dynamic competition by stifling innovation of both innovation of both originators and generic companies.” This is detrimental to society as a whole and the scientific community. Large pharmaceutical companies engage with their competition; generic drug companies do so using strategic patents. Strategic patents are simply legal rights to an “invention,” in this case a drug, without interference from others who wish to replicate, use, or sell it (Gurgula). According to Gurgula, there is a more suitable alternative to strategic patents called competition law. Strategic patents protect the chemical makeup of medicines, which makes them the property of the pharmaceutical companies for a short period of time. Overall, the whole purpose behind patenting is to create intellectual rights to property, meaning that there is a price to pay to access knowledge about medicine(s). As identified in the third stage of drug development, when the patent expiration is reached generic companies can enter the market with the same medicine. This stage is called “generic competition,” which can be identified when generic companies with generic drugs enter the market. Gurgula states that generic competition is beneficial for society. This is because it reduces the financial pressure on healthcare budgets and increases the accessibility of drugs. Gurgula discusses patent law: “despite there being solid evidence that such strategies [strategic patents] may block generic competition, allowing originators to maintain artificially high drug prices and preventing patients from accessing cheaper generics, they remain outside the ambit of the Commission’s activities.” This is an identified loophole within Big Pharma that pharmaceutical companies take advantage of to produce medicine for the market at an increasingly high price. Gregg Fields compares this manipulative nature of power used by Big Pharma to the United States Congress and simply calls it “institutional corruption” (557). This is because:
30
When the independence of the pharmaceutical system—everything from research labs to drug manufacturers to health providers—is compromised by related dependencies. Like Congress, pharmaceutical firms have innumerable groups that can influence its actions— e.g., shareholders, health care providers and regulators to name a few. The politics and policymaking in the United States has a strong presence that institutionally corrupts Big Pharma, although Big Pharma’s original purpose was to research and develop medicine for the benefit of society. But, why is the United States’ drug development (in terms of the three stages presented by Gurgula) heavily impacted by Big Pharma? What is the purpose of the relationship in terms of accessible health care in the United States? The largest issue for Big Pharma, in the past and present, is that pharmaceutical company employees do not accept that they are not masters at their jobs. Anne Pollock explains that companies within Big Pharma, such as Pfizer, have admittedly turned away from certain research and development programs for some diseases because the profit that scientists and developers would gain from conducting their R&D (research and development) in said programs was too low. Pollock identifies that those primary areas of research within pharmaceutical companies include Alzheimer’s, diabetes, immune disorders, cancer, pain, and mental illnesses (Pollock 113). Although these areas of research are heavily concentrated on by pharmaceutical companies, there are exceptions that the general population accepts. For example, “Consumers are less sensitive to price for treatments for symptomatic pain and mental illnesses…and are more sensitive to price for asymptomatic conditions of risk…many blockbuster patents are running out and there are signs that consumers are no longer accepting their price” (113). Consumers are willing to pay for medicine that can relieve them of their symptoms or cure their illnesses, but there are still many that refuse to pay the price. Many medicine prices are influenced by the legal patents placed on them without consumer knowledge. Although research areas that are heavily studied by Big Pharma are highly equipped with sufficient resources, Big Pharma continues to take advantage of the masses by upscaling the prices of medicine. These research areas are described by Pollock as “diseases of the rich,” solely based on the financial profit that is gained from Big Pharma’s medicine. Pollock continues to critique Big Pharma due to its influence on healthcare policy. Political influence and power pressure the United States to ignore the option of having universal healthcare systems like other countries. “Ronald Reagan identifies in 1961 and conservatives have fretted about since, that socialized health care would effectively lead to socialized care” (Pollock 111). This fear of a socialized nation is valid as Big Pharma continues to maintain a financial hold on the government, which negatively impacts individuals because highpriced medicines are inaccessible to many. These identified problems within Big Pharma, such as the corruption of its research and development, as well as its inaccessibility due to high prices and relation to government influence, are all large topics of discussion between scientists and health care providers. Robert Blaskiewicz states that the United States government and Big Pharma are “working in consort against the public interest” (Blaskiewicz 259). Many can identify these problems in the corrupted system that exists within the United States, although there are not many willing to work towards a solution. Access to quality medicine and care is an ongoing problem in many countries and usually resides around money indifferences. The United States does not face professional medical shortages or resource shortages. Instead, they face high-priced medicine. Quality care exists but is only financially 31
accessible to some. It can be argued that this problem is recognized by powerful influencers within Big Pharma and the government and that the struggle for the mass majority to gain access to affordable medicine through their health care may have been premeditated. This same claim is supported by Fran Quigley, who acknowledges the government’s role in the health care society. Quigley announced that “Governments take an extreme active, hands-on role in the medicines industry, creating the very opposite of laissez-faire market…Governments are both the leading funders of medicine research and the top purchasers of the end products of that research” (110). Quigley identifies that studying medicine in society may be intimidating to some but reassures readers that it is only a façade for big corporations to keep away from prying eyes. This is because the current model that exists within Big Pharma—strategic patents, research and development, and marketing being so tied together—is considered a prize model. However, this model comes with many flaws. The characteristics, which make up the model within Big Pharma, foster inflated prices and siloed research. Big Pharma then fails to provide incentives for developing medicines for the poor, as it only concentrates on R&D for the “diseases of the rich.” There is a large amount of government funding that is used throughout Big Pharma. This enables the government to reinvestigate the prioritization of drug marketing strategies so that more can become available to the general population. Quigley supports this concept and expresses that “[w]e simply need to change the direction of those government funds to benefit patients rather than enrich corporations” (Quigley 140). This redirection requires Big Pharma to return to its Open Science concept in its R&D. Open Science application in Big Pharma would have a narrower emphasis on curing diseases and healing, rather than focusing primarily on financial profit. Although the redirection focus of Big Pharma from Open Innovation to Open Science would positively impact the drug market, it cannot fully resolve the problems in accessing existing healthcare in the United States. Quigley communicates that Big Pharma is comfortable with its role in society and only works for profit when stating, “This thicket of complexity provides cover for corporations that rely on the for-profit medicine model and are determined to protect the status quo” (3). Quigley supports this by stating that access to medicine is a human right. “But human rights history also gives us reason for some optimism. That history shows that discussions about a right usually goes on for decades before it becomes an enforceable reality” (Quigley 143). In other words, the concept of medicine in society is a constant conversation with global policymakers and is historical. Panels composed of human rights activists, some being individuals within Big Pharma as well as some government officials, have been created for the purpose of addressing how to make more drugs generic and ultimately accessible to general populations. “Ultimately, the panel issued a strong call of governments to exercise their existing legal rights to pursue generic manufacturing of unaffordable patented medicines and tightly restrict medicine patents and extensions” (Quigley 144). Although this concept was agreed to be a positively impactful decision, the panel could not reach a consensus to allow immediate generic manufacture. This is only one of many conversations that occurs between global policymakers. Above all, the right to access health care and essential medicines is fundamentally supported by esteemed organizations, such as The World Health Organization, The Human Rights Council, and the UN General Assembly (Quigley 150). It has been continuously displayed that there are strong connections between Big Pharma and government policymaking. Generally, it is difficult to make changes to small communal 32
organizations. Because the problem of access to health care and adequate priced medicine in the United States requires national change, as well as an international organization change (in terms of Big Pharma), it will be more than difficult to solve this problem. As identified by Quigley, human rights activist reform may take decades to see change. It is crucial for Americans to realize that they can access information about the United States healthcare system as well as its impact on health and medicine, especially as compared to other countries and pre-existing concepts. This is important because, as more individuals become educated about human rights, they can influence their state representatives and local governments with their opinions on healthcare. The United States has a unique political structure that relies on many different individuals representing a decision. Educating oneself on healthcare policies and medicine should be prioritized. It is not difficult to access this information or reach out to individuals within certain corporations and organizations, as long as the information is not withheld. It is a human right to have access to healthcare and medicine, which implies that it is also a human right to understand the related laws within a society. Finding and applying solutions to these problems cannot be resolved within this essay, as these decisions must be made by powerful, influential individuals. Instead, recognize this essay as a reminder of your individual rights as a human. I urge you to educate yourself and those around you about the systems that exist within our society and the impact the power of knowledge can make within a society. WORKS CITED Blaskiewicz, Robert. “The Big Pharma Conspiracy Theory.” Medical Writing, vol. 22, no. 4, 2013, pp. 259–261., https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480613z.000000000142. Fields, Gregg. “Parallel Problems: Applying Institutional Corruption Analysis of Congress to Big Pharma.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2013, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2293620. Gurgula, Olga. “Strategic Patenting by Pharmaceutical Companies – Should Competition Law Intervene?” IIC - International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law, vol. 51, no. 9, 2020, pp. 1062–1085., https://doi.org/10.1007/s40319-020-00985-0. Ireland, Sophie. “Revealed: Countries with the Best Health Care Systems, 2021.” CEOWORLD Magazine, 27 Apr. 2021 https://ceoworld.biz/2021/04/27/revealed-countries-with-thebest-health-care-systems-2021/. Pollock, Anne. “Transforming the Critique of Big Pharma.” BioSocieties, vol. 6, no. 1, 2011, pp. 106–118., https://doi.org/10.1057/biosoc.2010.44. Quigley, Fran. Prescription for the People: An Activist's Guide to Making Medicine Affordable for All. ILR Press, an Imprint of Cornell University Press, 2017. Song, Young Joo. “The South Korean Health Care System .” International Medical Community. Tikkanen, Roosa, et al. “United States.” Home, https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/countries/unitedstates#integration-and-coordination. 33
Taylor, Stephen C. “Health Care Ethics.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://iep.utm.edu/h-c-ethi/#SH4e.
34
The Keto Diet Kraze By Staecia Silofau Can you actually imagine fats being viewed as healthy? If not, tell that to the keto diet itself. In a world where fats are usually considered unhealthy and highly avoided, this diet counters it. With the majority of the diet being made up of fats, it's crazy how this can truly be considered an actual diet. Celebrities and influential figures with envied bodies, such as Lebron James, the Kardasians, and Vanessa Hudgens, have sworn by this diet. We have all seen the results, but it is not all rainbows and bursts of sunshine. Weight loss from the keto diet has received a vast amount of research, but not enough has been done for the people that have special health and lifestyle restrictions. The keto diet has been highly successful and safe for short-term weight loss, but it has yet to establish a proven beneficial significance for other communities with ongoing health conditions and for athletes. In the past, it has been used for epilepsy patients and is gaining more attention as the years go on. Keto diet is increasing in popularity and has a significant historical use for therapy regarding epilepsy patients. As the years continue on, the rave over this diet stays alive and vibrant. Dieters have gotten very creative with their meal plans and are low-carb addicts. According to Kat Perry (2018), who is known in numerous dependable health and wellness magazines, the keto diet is making a bold appearance in the weight loss realm. People are going crazy over the results that it brings (para. 1). The hype for the keto diet is definitely not something to ignore. Users are getting real-life results and loving what it does for their body and goals. However, the way that the keto diet functions is not the initial natural instinct for our bodies. The mechanics of the keto diet are unusual and work in an unfamiliar way for the body. Naturally, the body is most familiar with burning glucose for energy, but the keto diet will use ketone bodies instead. This leads further into the supporting evidence. The star of the show, ketosis, is the magic behind the entire diet. In the film Pruvit (2021), Dr. Andrea Campitelli, a naturopathic doctor, describes it as a transition of fats for fuel. When our bodies complete all the glucose burning, we transition into fat-burning to give us energy. This is the state of ketosis. Initially, our body’s natural instinct is to burn all the carbohydrates that we have consumed and then get our energy from the fats. However, the goal of the keto diet is to skip that first step as much as possible and go right into the second step. To our surprise, the keto diet has been around for much longer than we think. The keto diet has a significant history of being used to treat epilepsy patients. According to Dr. Ananya Mandal (2019), who holds multiple medical degrees, in the early 1900s the ketogenic diet was commonly used for epilepsy patients. Before that, fasting was a successful and popular therapy for epilepsy, but the keto diet got offered in replacement of it. As expected, the world evolved and resulted in a complete lack of use of the diet since new methods were developed (Mandal para. 1). This diet has been present in human life before it became a trend for weight loss. Although it is no longer a common treatment for epilepsy because of evolving times, it still played a huge role in the past. In these terms, it is more so considered to be increasing in popularity. But, just like any other diet, it has limitations on certain important nutrients. The Keto Diet has nutrient restrictions that limit carbohydrate intake and increase fat intake. The nutrients in a diet are very important and play different roles. The three main nutrients in a diet are 35
carbohydrates, fats, and protein. In the keto diet, fats are highly emphasized throughout the entire diet and act as the power plant behind it all. In a review published by Chang et al. (2017), it explains that the ketogenic diet is very unique and carb-avoiding as any diet can get. Most of the keto diet get less than 20% of it’s energy from carbohydrates, and half of it from fats (Chang et al. para. 6). Nevertheless, developing knowledge of all three nutrient groups will develop a better understanding of the mechanics behind the keto diet. First, the keto-enemy, carbohydrates, will be analyzed. The keto diet drastically reduces carbohydrate intake. However, carbohydrates are more than just an energy source, it provides beneficial impacts for the body. In the article by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) (2019), carbohydrates also can provide fiber that prevents stomach internal issues, cholesterol, and blood sugar problems. It is encouraged to consume carbohydrates through natural food groups, rather than those that contain added sugars and other highly processed foods. According to the NIA, it is most common to have carbohydrates present in “fruit, vegetables, dairy, and grain food groups” (paras. 2 and 3). These are the purposes of carbohydrates and the role that they may play in our human bodies. However, estimating the proper amount of carbohydrates is extremely tricky during the keto diet. In the article by Daily Times (2020), it states that just a small exposure to an abnormal amount of carbohydrates will transition the body back to burning sugar for energy. To stay in ketosis, about 20-50 grams of carbohydrates need to be consumed (para. 4). The main goal of the keto diet is to stay in a state of ketosis to achieve fat-burning for body fuel. Without ketosis, the keto diet is dysfunctional and falls out of its sole purpose. Commonly, fats are overlooked and are usually highly avoided by diets. In contrast, the Keto Diet embraces it fully. As previously mentioned, more than half of the diet consists majorly of fats. In the article, by the NIA (2019), it explains that fats are an energy source and assist in the absorption of vitamins; through the consumption of food, fatty acids are provided and help bodies function. There are plenty of foods that already have fats in it such as “dairy products; meats, poultry, seafood, and eggs; and seeds, nuts, avocados, and coconuts” (para. 5). These foods are very likely to be seen in a keto diet, full of fats. Since there is an extreme absence of carbohydrates (the first energy source), these fatty foods can replace them and keep a person’s energy levels going during ketosis. However, there is more than just one type of fat. There are two types of fats, unhealthy (saturated and trans-fat) and healthy fats (unsaturated). According to an article by the NIA (2019), saturated and trans fats are very bad for the health of people. These fats are usually in a solid state while at room temperature and should be avoided as much as possible. It is recommended to keep saturated fats below 10% of your caloric intake and trans-fat to a bare minimum (paras. 6 and 7). Some examples of saturated fats are butter, bacon, cheese, and much more. As predicted, yes, these are all foods that are consumed daily, especially in America. On the contrary, we have healthy fats that can be consumed more towards our advantage. In this article by the NIA (2019), Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are encouraged to be used in place of unhealthy fats. These fats are usually in a liquid state when at room temperature. Although they are seen as healthier, that does not give consent to overconsumption (paras. 8 and 9). These foods are all great examples that can be used to form a solid base for creating a diet plan. Some examples of unsaturated fats are avocados, nuts, seeds, and olive oil. These foods are usually not consumed in large amounts, making it an easier route to portion control. In addition to fats, protein is a popular nutrient group used in diets. 36
Protein will make up the remaining part of the diet. It has a huge reputation in the fitness industry that people tend to overconsume. In an article by Daily Times, it states that during the keto diet, the amount of protein that is appropriate for your body’s needs should be consumed. It is best to avoid over-consuming and under consuming protein because it will result in either muscle loss or a conversion of protein to carbohydrates (para. 6). Moreover, it is incredibly important to understand our bodies to ensure the proper nutrition that will benefit us. If an excessive amount is eaten, we can kick our body out of ketosis and ruin the whole point of the keto diet. According to the NIA (2019), proteins are essential in repairing and building tissues within the body. In addition, they are used in spite of treatment for infections and excess is used for energy. The common food groups for protein are “seafood, lean meat and poultry, eggs, beans and peas, soy products, and unsalted nuts and seeds...also found in the dairy group”. Usually, plant-based proteins contain lower levels of saturated fat and cholesterol (para. 1). Protein does more than just build and recover muscles; it is a great nutrient that supplies resistance and energy as well. These featured foods are the common sources, both containing options for meat-eaters and vegetarians. Weight loss is one of the main reasons for the keto diet craze going on. The keto diet has proven to be beneficial for short-term weight loss with evident proof from experts and people that tried it. Keto is a great way to cut down on weight because of the way that it causes the body to react. In an article published by Women’s Health Letter (2019), it is reported that fats reside on the higher side of the caloric scale, which causes a rapid feeling of fullness to be sensed by the individual (para. 3). This feeling of fullness will give the body its signal to stop consuming more food. Although the fat nutrients are higher in calories, less will still be eaten, resulting in a calorie deficit. Being in a caloric deficit is crucial for losing weight because the caloric intake and the calories that get burned are what generates the results. For example, if 1,200 calories are eaten in a day, but 1,300 got burned off, then a significant weight change will occur. According to Fletcher (2020) and the registered dietician reviewee, Seize, a reduction of up to 500-1,000 calories daily, compared to the usual amount of calories, is ideal for 1-2 pounds of weight to be lost weekly (para. 3). However, it does not have to be that extreme, of course. A smaller caloric deficit is still able to produce similar results, if physical activity and proper sleep is added to the regimen. The Keto diet is more of a short-term than long-term solution. Weight loss is the main reason why the keto diet got incredibly popular in the first place, but it is much more than others think. In an evaluation of the diet’s pros and cons by O’Neill and Raggi (2019), it states that, in addition to other benefits regarding health, an entire 0.9kg extra, on average, was lost for those on the keto diet (para. 17). It is to no surprise how effective keto is right off the bat, during short-term use. Many people are likely to see their results very soon, if disciplined enough. In an experiment done on a group of keto dieters versus a group of low glycemic dieters, by Vranceanu et al. (2020), the following information was discovered. After a six-month period, the results were in favor of the keto diet regarding weight-loss effectiveness; however, the weight was not maintained as well as the other group a year later (para. 36). This supports the claim of the keto diet working well for short-term weight loss. A diet may work for the first few months, but it does not guarantee any stability in managing the weight. This
37
maintenance problem is not exactly the only obstacle, though; there are so many others to consider. Behind all the glory and hype given, the keto diet still has its downsides. Critics suggest that there are negative effects to this diet. According to a book by Maswood et al. (2020), which was published in the National Center for Biotechnology, there are the following negative short-term use effects: “nausea, vomiting, headache, fatigue, dizziness, insomnia, difficulty in exercise tolerance, and constipation.” These symptoms are better known as the “keto flu,” which will occur within the first few days, and can last a few weeks. Although this flu is not an actual sickness that contains any type of virus or bacteria, it is still considered a risk. Many of the effects listed can lead to increased health issues shortly soon. In addition to this, the long-term use of the keto diet has incredibly detrimental consequences. Long-term use of the keto diet can lead to more serious health issues. According to the article “7 potential risks of the Keto diet” by Times of India (2020), there are many the long-term effects of the keto diet. People could be left with vitamin deficiency, bone density loss, and an increased risk of chronic diseases. Vitamin deficiency may result in additional treatment, such as supplements to keep it in balance. Bone density is a major issue because your bones will no longer contain as much mineral density, which affects bone health immensely. Chronic diseases can include even heart diseases and cancer that will have a horrible impact on overall health (para. 1). The longterm effects that the keto diet will have on your body and health are crucial. These conditions are highly avoidable and should be taken into serious consideration prior to your starting use of keto. Although this may be true, it is still possible to safely participate in the keto diet fun. Red flags will arise once these risks are discovered by potential users, but professionals in this area of study suggest otherwise. It is important to understand the sustainability of the keto diet and the correct amount of time to stay on it. In the book, the doctors state that the keto dieters should only use this diet for 2 or 3 weeks at the least, and 6 to 12 months at the most (Maswood et al., 2020, para. 14). This is the recommended time of use of the keto diet. It is definitely not a diet that should be used for over a year or for longer terms. If a year is exceeded, long-term health issues will come into play. Maswood et al. state that it has shown primary dominance in terms of weight-loss effectiveness, but its safety is still yet to be confirmed for long-term use. It can raise potential red flags for those that are using it for longer than the suggested timeframe (Maswood et al., 2020, para. 14). Those red flags will include serious health issues that can be highly avoided if proper steps are taken during the diet. It is proven safe and effective for weight-loss but needs to be switched once a year of usage on the diet passes. The keto diet can absolutely make a significant and safe difference with short-term use, but it does not necessarily mean that it is the proper diet for just anyone. Although the keto diet is highly praised for weight loss, it does not work in favor of everyone. As with any other diet, it is not a “one size fits all” situation. Those with pre-existing health problems and different lifestyles are encouraged to avoid the keto diet. The list consists of pregnant women, vegans, people with a digestive disorder, and kidney issues. People of these conditions have various reasons for their relationship with this diet, many being uncontrollable. Pregnant women need to provide proper nourishment for two humans through one mouth, it’s amazing. This can only be accomplished if an adequate amount of food and nutrients are being consumed by the 38
mother. The proper diet leads to a healthy baby that will lack health problems and be less likely to occur in their early stages of life. However, eliminating an essential nutrient negatively affects the baby. In the article by the Times of India (2020), it explains that pregnant women need to have a balanced diet that positively contributes to properly developing the baby inside of them (para. 3). The keto diet or any heavy restrictive diet are not smart choices for pregnant women because they will lack the important nutrients (macro and micro) that play a huge contribution to the growing baby. According to the American Pregnancy Association (2012), 6 servings of carbohydrates are required for pregnant women to be properly nourished (para. 5). It is not possible to meet this recommended amount while on such a carb-discouraging diet. The effects will be detrimental for both the mother and the baby if the keto diet is followed. Not only are pregnant women at risk, but vegans will have a hard time as well. Vegan diets are intense and complex. If under a keto diet, vegans’ meals will fail entirely and lack most of the nutrients. Vegans rely heavily on carbohydrates and fiber. According to WebMD (2019) the leading source for credible health and medical information, a vegan's most common diet staples are “fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts” (para. 9). Vegans will more than likely feel the side effects of feeling ill and of low energy if the majority of their foods are stripped away by the keto diet. In the article by Times of India (2020), it states that, without carbohydrates, the majority of their diet and nutrients will be nonexistent; resulting in an unfunctional body (para. 4). Since vegans already take additional precautions to avoid animal meat (a common source of protein), modifying yet another important nutrient would be inconvenient. Although it is not entirely impossible to achieve a keto diet while vegan, it is still not recommended. In addition to vegans, people with a digestive order should avoid the keto diet as well. People with health problems put themselves at an even more critical risk. Some related digestive disorders involve the stomach, which the keto diet can affect. According to MedlinePlus, during digestion, your nutrients are used to generate energy for the body to use (para. 1). People with a digestive disorder can experience an increased amount of pain by this low-carb diet that causes stomach issues. According to the Times of India, with an existing dysfunctional digestive system, staying on a diet that usually leads to constipation would not be the smartest idea (para. 5). Staying on the diet will result in extreme discomfort very frequently and may cause additional stomach issues further down the line. Also, people with a pre-existing kidney issue should not be on the keto diet. Kidneys are important contributors to your body and its functions. The NIH of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (2018), observes that their functions are assisting to maintain a proper amount of “sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium” in our blood (para. 3). Without a functioning kidney, you are going to be missing a natural filter that helps rid of waste and other harmful substances that develop your urine. As stated by the Times of India (2020), people with kidney issues should highly avoid this high-fat diet that will make your kidney work overtime. A pre-existing kidney problem will worsen if more pressure is being put on it to break down additional fat from a keto diet (para. 6). Since at least half of the keto diet consists of fat, it is only in the best interest for the health of your kidneys to escape the urge to try a keto diet. This will only result in worsening the current condition of the kidney and risk producing even more problems.
39
Keto is trending and constantly growing every day, but it is not beneficial for all. Those that have a pre-existing health problem, personal preferences, and other life occurrences are recommended to not try the keto diet. These types of people are at high risk of causing themselves detrimental effects by following a keto diet. It is more ideal for them to go according to a diet that is customized to their personal health needs and preferences. In addition to these conditions, even athletes have been having a hard time trying to strive off the keto diet. Athletes may want to understand whether or not this diet can work for them, especially since the traditional diet for athletes consists of high carbs, protein, and moderate fat. Compared to the ideal diet, the keto diet differs greatly and does not support the same expectations. Athletes are expected to carb-load and fill themselves up with energy, but the keto uses fats in replacement. There are two major types of athletes: endurance and strength athletes. An endurance athlete participates in activities that require a long duration of performance. A strength athlete is involved with activities that primarily involve muscle strength and power. Each type of athlete will be expecting different results based on their activities. In a review by Chang, Borer, and Lin (2017), the impacts of the Keto diet on endurance athletes were evident. For short-term use, it was not beneficial, and instead resulted in hypoglycemia and continuous fatigue (para.14). However, after long-term use (at least one month), endurance athletes saw a meaningful change to their performance. These athletes had a change in metabolic benefits resulting in “higher rate of fat oxidation and lower rates of carbohydrate oxidation and glycogenolysis.” Those who are adapted to the diet can use energy throughout the endurance part of events but then switch to muscle glycogen as the end of the race is ending (para. 16). The keto diet has provided significant benefits for endurance athletes, such as multiple oxidations occurring within the body. This is surprising because the famous tradition of eating a big bowl of pasta the night before a marathon has been normalized in the sports community. However, the process of ketosis has been starting to take over and take the place of traditional glucose for required energy. In contrast to the positive impacts on endurance athletes, strength athletes are seeing negative results. When it comes to strength athletes, a larger portion of protein is required to build and recover the main large muscles than other athletes. Also, more food for energy is most likely required, regarding the needs of football players, bodybuilders, and other strength athletes. Dr. Tamanna Singh (2020), a clinical cardiologist, puts this into a unique perspective. Singh uses football linemen as an example of this, explaining the risk that occurs with these diet conditions. She says that since fat is heavily calorie-dense, it makes it hard for athletes to consume proteins and fats that will positively contribute to their performance. It is more common for these types of athletes to consume saturated (bad), over unsaturated (healthier) fats (para. 5). With the high consumption of saturated fats, these athletes will become vulnerable to health conditions sooner or later. It is very easy to understand the negative effects that the keto diet can have on strength athletes unintentionally. Still, we are left with an inadequate amount of information to be able to reach broad conclusions. Unfortunately, not enough research has been solely dedicated to the athletic use of the keto diet. Therefore, we are not being able to receive a solid answer to conclude what its true potential is for athletes. So far, experts are not thoroughly impressed with the keto diet because of the current 40
information that has been found. Once more information has been gathered, it will be less challenging to make a solid claim and get athletes to treat their bodies properly. Overall, the keto diet’s true potential is not based on a one-size-fits-all theory. Rather, the needs of your own body and activities are what should determine its usefulness. Just as every other diet, it has its pros and its cons. After establishing what roles ketosis and main nutrients play, it becomes easier to understand what exactly the keto diet is and does. The keto diet has been highly successful and safe for short-term weight loss, but it still needs additional development to provide those with ongoing health conditions and athletes an answer regarding whether they should try it. More research definitely has to be performed, but, until then, the keto diet will hold its place in the weight loss community. REFERENCES American Pregnancy Association. (2012, April 27). Pregnancy nutrition. https://americanpregnancy.org/healthy-pregnancy/pregnancy-health-wellness/pregnancynutrition-1008/ Chang, C., Borer, K., & Lin, P. (2017, February 1). Low-Carbohydrate-High-Fat Diet: Can it Help Exercise Performance? Europe PMC. https://europepmc.org/article/MED/28469746?singleResult=true#j_hukin-20170025_ref_029 Daily Times. (2020, February 29). Foods that are allowed in Keto diet. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A620022751/GIC?u=hono53192&sid=GIC&xid=83dd30b 2 Fletcher, J. (2020, December 22). Calorie deficit for weight loss: How it works, tips, and safety. Medical and health information. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/caloriedeficit Mandal, A. (2019, February 26). History of the ketogenic diet. News-Medical.net. https://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-the-Ketogenic-Diet.aspx Masood, W., Annamaraju, P., & Uppaluri, K. (2020, December 14). Ketogenic diet - StatPearls NCBI bookshelf. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499830/#_article-23879_s2_ MedlinePlus. (n.d.). Digestive diseases: MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007447.htm National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2018, June 18). Your kidneys & how they work. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/kidney-disease/kidneyshow-they-work
41
NIA. (2019, April 29). Important nutrients to know: Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. National Institute on Aging. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/important-nutrients-know-proteinscarbohydrates-and-fats O'Neill, B., & Raggi, P. (2019). The ketogenic diet: Pros and cons. Science Direct. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.11.021 Perry, C. (2018). FUELED BY FAT: Why the nearly 100-year-old keto diet is finding some modern-day love. Muscle & Fitness/Hers. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A531979631/HRCA?u=hono53192&sid=HRCA&xid=db 60b0f6 Pruvit. (2021, January 15). Keto 101 - What is a ketone and what is ketosis [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/cvUYRbEmu7c Singh, T. (2020, January 2). Expert opinion: "Crazy for ketones" – The ketogenic diet in athletes: Variable effects on athletic performance with potential for cardiovascular harm. American College of Cardiology. https://www.acc.org/latest-incardiology/articles/2020/01/02/10/33/expert-opinion-crazy-for-ketones Times of India. (2020, March 31). 7 potential risks of the Keto diet. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A618958747/GIC?u=hono53192&sid=GIC&xid=a1beb9c d Vranceanu, M., Pickering, C., Filip, L., Pralea, I., Sundaram, S., Al-Saleh, A., Popa, D., & Grimaldi, K. (2020, September 24). A comparison of a ketogenic diet with a LowGI/nutrigenetic diet over 6 months for weight loss and 18-month follow-up. BMC Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-020-00370-7 WebMD. (2019, October 2). Vegan diet: Foods, benefits & more. https://www.webmd.com/diet/vegan-diet-overview#1 Women's Health Advisor. (2019, February). How a Modified Keto Diet Can Help You Lose Weight and Keep It Off. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A576210502/ITBC?u=hono53192&sid=ITBC&xid=3329c 43b
42
Virtual Reality as Therapy? By Emily Colmenares Virtual reality (VR) has great potential to help people overcome mental health problems when high levels of presence are achieved for situations that trouble them (Freeman et al.) Research indicates that over the past two decades, virtual reality has developed as a considerable tool for the investigation, assessment, and management of medical and psychiatric disorders (Srivastava et al.). However, some research has suggested that acknowledging potential challenges related to VR could be helpful in the crucial decision-making process to implement and expand this technology in the medical field (Baniasadi et al.). The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of virtual reality on mental health, especially when it came to the treatment of psychological disorders. The study investigated the benefits and consequences on mental health as well as its application in healthcare. In recent years, mental health awareness has become more accepted and recognized as people experiencing mental health issues such as bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has increased. People try to deal with their mental diseases in different ways such as meeting with therapists and psychologists, but VR is an emerging form of therapy that is highly effective in treating mental health disorders. While VR immersion therapy is still advancing, it is challenged by factors such as high cost and the need for education. Exploring sources written in the past decade, the literature demonstrates that people are not aware of the benefits and consequences of virtual reality in the treatment of mental disorders. Recent studies have focused on the utilizations and considerations of virtual reality as a form of psychological therapy. Virtual reality allows people to be immersed into a computer-generated world where they have the perception of being in a new, lifelike environment. The virtual worlds that they are transported in are completely controlled by researchers or clinicians (Bell et al.). It is described that “with VR, individuals can enter simulations of the difficult situations and be coached in the appropriate responses, based upon the best theoretical understanding of the specific disorder. The simulations can be graded in difficulty and repeatedly experienced until the right learning is made” (Freeman et al.). VR allows people to try different strategies in the simulation where they can determine their best method of response. Also, VR produces fast results and lowers the discrepancy of treatment delivery. Both articles painted a clear picture about virtual reality’s role in immersive therapy, especially the Bell et al. article because it provided pictures of what the VR simulations looked like. However, the articles could have given examples of different environments that could be used in VR immersive therapy. The contribution from the sources is important because it presents an informative background of how virtual reality functions when it is used in therapy. As the idea of VR immersive therapy becomes more popular, universities such as the University of Oxford and the University College London start their own research projects to find more information about the arising therapy treatment. For example, “at the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience (IOPPN) at King’s College London, Dr. Lucia Valmaggia and her colleagues are working with individuals who experience psychosis” (Maddox). Dr. Lucia Valmaggia is the head of the Virtual Reality Lab at the Wellcome Trust King’s Clinical Research Facility and is a professional consultant clinical psychologist. Dr. Valmaggia and other researchers are trying to determine if VR is an ideal match for exposure therapy and whether it is the best 43
method for treating mental disorders (Parkin). Although virtual reality is a new, evolving piece of technology, it can be one of the best mechanisms for treating mental health issues, changing the way people view technology’s involvement in medicine. Both articles gave details about how researchers at universities or institutions were trying to discover the effects of VR on the treatment of psychological disorders. However, both articles were not peer-reviewed journal articles and were from less reliable sources such as magazines and newspapers. This indicates that there is a possibility that not all of the information in these articles is completely accurate or true. The input from the sources is significant because it provides crucial information on how people across the world are discovering methods to utilize virtual reality with mental health issues. Although virtual reality is shown to be highly effective in the therapy of mental disorders, it is still an advancing piece of technology that has room for improvement. Studies have asserted that “the technique is still in its infancy and much work is needed including controlled trials before they can be put to routine use” (Srivastava et al.). The controlled trials allow researchers and clinicians to experiment with the immersive therapy in order to discover discrepancies within the VR simulation. By uncovering these issues, therapists or psychologists can decide the best method to fix the problems so that VR can be more efficient in the medical field. “Thus, recognizing the opportunities and challenges of VR will have an important impact on the effective use of this technology in the healthcare sector” (Baniasadi et al.). Both articles clearly stated the challenges and possible concerns of having a new piece of technology such as virtual reality as a therapy method. However, the articles could have suggested possible solutions for the challenges of VR. The contribution from the sources is crucial because it shows readers the reality of VR immersive therapy and that there are factors to consider when doing this type of therapy. Mental health is an important aspect to maintain in life as it is the foundation of people’s wellbeing. As new forms of psychological therapy are arising, researchers and clinicians are analyzing the types of therapies that are the most effective in treating mental health issues. It is recognized that virtual reality is a promising piece of technology that has been successful in mental therapy because it gives valuable feedback and produces quick results. Even though VR immersive therapy has its benefits, it does come with some obstacles with it being an evolving piece of technology. The literature displays how VR simulations are used in therapy and that it comes with many advantages and disadvantages. The sources have fixated on the applications and concerns of virtual reality as a type of mental therapy. The most common misconception about virtual reality is that it is used exclusively for video games and is damaging to our eyes and minds. However, virtual reality is more than just entertainment as it consists of many applications such as education, design, engineering, and more. Virtual reality requires a headset that creates a computer-generated simulation in which individuals can play and interact in a 3-D environment. With the headset, VR comes with a pair of fitted gloves with sensors in order to interact with the simulation. VR simulation is valuable in the medical field because it helps treat patients with psychological disorders and can be used as a form of psychological therapy that allows patients to interact and complete tasks. Simulations are specialized and designed based on different mental disorders. For example, an anxiety simulation would be different to simulations designed for depression. VR is flexible when it comes to treating different mental disorders such as psychosis, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Researchers of virtual reality widely agree that virtual reality can be a practical tool in 44
mental health treatment, and all point to research which supports the belief that virtual reality has a significant impact on our mental health. Virtual reality has been successfully used in therapy and treated many psychological disorders. For example, “VR can safely assess psychotic experiences in patients with schizophrenia and related diagnoses” (Freeman et al.) because patients can be placed in “proactive environments and systematically control the stimulus presentation” (Parkin). VR allows people to be in a safe environment where their actions in the simulation will not lead them to direct harm. Through their decisions, individuals can “be coached in the appropriate responses” where they can “try out new therapeutic strategies” (Freeman et al.). VR simulations are also able to be repeated in order to ensure that patients know how to overcome their challenges. In addition, the minds and bodies of patients treat the simulations as if it is real even though the patient self-consciously knows that they are participating in a simulation. As a result of this, patients are more willing to face more difficult challenges that they are not likely to face in real life. VR therapy is also used in the treatment of depression and researchers hope that VR “can help people increase their ability for self-compassion” (Maddox). The simulation is designed to teach people about compassion and not be self-critical of themselves. One of the common uses of VR-assisted therapy is to treat anxiety disorders such as acrophobia (fear of heights), arachnophobia (fear of spiders), and aerophobia (fear of flight). When it comes to these types of phobias, “VR can be used to expose the person to that fear gradually and safely” (Maddox). For certain phobias, it is effective to expose people to their fears in order to help them overcome it. Some may say that VR therapy does not work for everybody as individuals manage their mental disorders in different ways. Even though this is true, there is strong evidence that VR treatments are helping people with their psychological disorders such as the Freeman et al. journal articles. Daniel Freeman works in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. He has a doctorate in psychiatry, and he has written many journal articles that are peer reviewed and available at many universities across the globe. In addition, in the magazine article written by Lucy Maddox, there are multiple examples of VR-assisted therapy helping patients with their mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and paranoia. The evidence clearly demonstrates that virtual reality has a crucial impact on our mental health. Virtual reality is a complex piece of technology that comes with many challenges such as cost and design. VR programs require considerable applications such as high-quality hardware, high-speed computers, efficient graphics cards, accurate tracking systems, high-resolution displays, and highly specialized accessories (Baniasadi et al.). As a result, “VR applications for research should be warned that considerable technical, design, and computational expertise is required” (Bell et al.). Since VR demands a lot of utilization and expertise, it is expensive to maintain, especially when it comes to repairs. It is also important to note that there are some negative side effects that come withprolonged exposure to VR such as headaches, cybersickness, and eye strain (Baniasadi et al.). Cybersickness is an uneasy side effect that is experienced by virtual reality users, and it causes symptoms such as nausea, disorientation, and dizziness. Tayebeh Baniasadi mentions the exhausting side effects of virtual reality in her articles. She works at Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences in Iran. She has a doctorate in medical informatics, and, like Freeman, she has also written many journal articles that are peer reviewed and are available worldwide. In addition, it is often forgotten that there are many considerations when it comes to virtual reality such as individual characteristics (age, gender, health history). “For example, VR-based therapy that is 45
suitable for children’s treatment may not be useful for older people and may provide different outcomes'' (Baniasadi et al.). Everyone has different characteristics, and it is challenging for VR to be calibrated in order to be suitable for all the features. Some may argue that even though there are some challenges that come with VR, it is still worth the time and investment because it produces good results for some patients. Even though this is a good point, it is still worthwhile to evaluate the affordability of this type of treatment. Also, it is worth considering the negative side effects that are due to prolonged exposure when investigating VR immersive therapy. The literature demonstrates that there are factors to be considered when it comes to virtual reality, especially since it has a great effect on our mental health. Virtual reality is useful for medical providers and researchers because it is not only therapeutic for patients, but it helps with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. VR is an effective tool when it comes to the education of medical staff because it has a wide range of applications “from diagnosis, treatment, counseling and rehabilitation, to designing of hospitals” (Srivastava et al.). Kalpana Srivastava is also a noteworthy researcher of virtual reality as she works at Armed Forces Medical College in the department of psychiatry. When expanding the knowledge of medical providers, they can be more competent in finding the proper treatment that works best for their patients. “VR technology applications in medical education and treatment” can help spread awareness of uncommon psychological disorders by identifying its symptoms (Baniasadi et al.). In addition, when the medical staff are well educated on virtual reality, there is a higher chance that they will treat successful therapies. Medical providers who are trained “in launching any new system are one of the success factors in the implementation and execution of programs” (Baniasadi et al). It is important to have trained personnel when experimenting on a new system in order to have the most desirable results. Some may disagree and claim that medical staff should not only rely on virtual reality for their education and instead rely on the information that they learned from school and experience. Although this is a relevant point, the world is evolving around technology such that VR is becoming a helpful tool in the medical field. In addition, virtual reality can produce a new perspective on mental health issues that is beneficial to both the patient and medical staff. The information establishes that virtual reality is a beneficial device to the education of medical staff and that virtual reality has an important impact on mental health. Although virtual reality consists of many utilizations, it is known to be successful in the treatment of mental disorders. Virtual reality allows patients to try new healing techniques, which can lead to quicker, more effective results. VR-assisted therapy has a wide range of treatable psychological disorders, such as eating disorders and behavioral disorders. In addition, VR therapy has helped medical providers with their education about mental disorders, which results in more successful therapy sessions. Even though virtual reality has its advantages, it still comes with a price due to the fact that it is expensive and difficult to maintain. Also, there are other considerations about virtual reality, such as side effects like cybersickness and headaches. Regardless, the idea of virtual reality being beneficial in the treatment of psychological disorders is agreed upon by researchers. In addition, it has a therapeutic effect on mental health and is supported by the literature.
46
WORKS CITED Baniasadi, Tayebeh et al. “Challenges and Practical Considerations in Applying Virtual Reality in Medical Education and Treatment.” Oman medical journal vol. 35,3 e125. 18 May. 2020, doi:10.5001/omj.2020.43 Bell, Imogen H et al. “Virtual reality as a clinical tool in mental health research and practice .” Dialogues in clinical neuroscience vol. 22,2 (2020): 169-177. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.2/lvalmaggia Freeman, Daniel et al. “Virtual reality in the assessment, understanding, and treatment of mental health disorders.” Psychological medicine vol. 47,14 (2017): 2393-2400. doi:10.1017/S003329171700040X Maddox, Lucy. “Phobias, Paranoia and PTSD: Why Virtual Reality Therapy Is the Frontier of Mental Health Treatment.” BBC Science Focus Magazine, 14 Feb. 2021. Parkin, Simon. “How Virtual Reality Is Helping Heal Soldiers With PTSD.” MACH, 16 Mar. 2017. Srivastava, Kalpana et al. “Virtual reality applications in mental health: Challenges and perspectives.” Industrial Psychiatry Journal vol. 23,2 (2014): 83-5. doi:10.4103/09726748.151666
47
Is Napping Good for Our Health? By Maja Ravlo Do you take naps? Napping is considered an integral part of numerous cultures and societies. In the United States, only one-third of the population naps during the day (PEW), although one-third of Americans do not get enough sleep (Bilodeau). Sleep deprivation is related to severe medical conditions and can be harmful to one’s physical and mental health. Napping, however, can improve several cognitive functions and benefit individuals’ health in many ways if done correctly. Finding an appropriate balance for napping is a potential solution for many common health issues and can improve many aspects of health. Sleeping and napping are topics that are connected to many myths, mysteries, and misconceptions. I will deny some of them right away: your body will not get used to less sleep, more sleep is not always better, everyone should not necessarily sleep 8 hours each night, and taking an afternoon nap does not have to make it harder to fall asleep in the evening. How much sleep we need varies, even within the same age group. In general, adults need at least 7 hours (CDC), but this depends on overall health, daily activities, and genetics. In countries like Spain, Italy, and Japan, napping is a part of their daily life. A “siesta,” which is the Spanish word for napping, is an old tradition still practiced in Italy, Spain, and many Latin American countries. The original purpose of the siesta was to take a break when the heat is at its worst and was essentially a time to recover between morning and afternoon working shifts. Today, people practice siestas where the heat is not overwhelming for the purpose of increased relaxation to “help you feel more rested and finish your workday strong" (Shoen). Another country that understands the value of napping is Japan. The Japanese word for napping is "inemuri." According to Brigitte Stenger, a senior lecturer in Japanese studies at Downing College, “inemuri” roughly translates to "sleeping while present." In Japan, napping is not only seen as acceptable but "it is often seen as a subtle sign of diligence: You must be working yourself to exhaustion" (Rosseau). Therefore, napping is a socially acceptable norm in the previously mentioned countries. However, if you get caught napping in the United States on a workday, you may be subject to scrutinization for lack of work ethic. Technological development has affected our sleeping patterns. Before the innovation of artificial light, people went to sleep when it was dark and woke up when it was light. The human sleeping cycle quite literally revolved around the sun. Ten hours of sleep was not uncommon. Today the average sleep lasts 6.7 hours on weekdays (Wise 1), and in today's productive society, it continues to show a decreasing trend. Not to mention, finding time to nap can be challenging for people in today's modern society. The world is changing faster than ever before, and technology like smartphones, tablets, and laptops are now a significant part of most people's life. Several studies have looked at the relationship between sleeping and technology and state that these technical devices can lower our sleep quality, primarily when used close to bedtime. Due to technological development, our sleeping pattern is constantly changing, and it is time to implement napping as a part of people's daily lives.
48
Some people and organizations support the idea of a napping revolution. Companies like Google have implemented policies that encourage napping and have set up “nap pods” where their employees can go to rest (“Napping”). Several businesses and college libraries are now offering these “nap pods,” or nap rooms, as they’ve noticed the consequences of lacking sleep and how napping can help increase productivity in the workspace. A study from 2011 showed that “test subjects who napped immediately after learning and those whose naps were delayed did much better on recall and relational interpretation than did those subjects who did not nap at all after learning” (Wise 198). Therefore, napping facilities in schools can help improve students’ academic outcomes. In the article, "Sleep Deficit: The Performance Killer," Bronwyn Fryer writes about some of the fatal consequences that sleep deficits can have on us. Fryer mentions the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s research on how "driver fatigue has accounted for more than 1.35 million automobile accidents in the United States alone" (Fryer). Other consequences of sleep deprivation include, but are not limited to, high blood pressure and obesity. Therefore, sleep deficit can create significant threats to both individual and public health. The cycles of production and economic output have left biology behind. Thus, it creates a problem with how we function in our work life. "In a study conducted of hospital interns who had been scheduled to work for at least 24 consecutive hours, they found that their odds of stabbing themselves with a needle or scalpel increased 61%, their risk of crashing a motor vehicle increased 168%, and their risk of a near-miss increased 460%" (Fryer). In other words, the consequences of too little sleep can be lifethreatening! It can be hard to get the amount of sleep needed in modern and productive societies, and people should therefore consider splitting up their sleep schedule. In research done by Cousins et al., they experiment by splitting sleep between six-and-a-half hours of night sleep (nocturnal sleep) and a ninety-minutes afternoon nap. They also tested splitting between eight hours and a ninety-minute afternoon nap. The result showed that “splitting sleep significantly enhanced afternoon picture encoding and factual knowledge under both six-and-a-half-hour and eight-hour durations. Splitting sleep also significantly reduced slow-wave energy during nocturnal sleep, suggesting lower homeostatic sleep pressure during the day” (Cousins et al. 1). This proves that taking an afternoon nap can benefit people who sleep less than needed and those who sleep the hours recommended because it improves memory and reduces sleep pressure. It indicates that napping can make up for reduced night sleep, and it further suggests that natural biological processes have inherent ways of correcting a lack of sleep. One of the most significant impacts that frequent napping may have on us is how it boosts our brain's capabilities. Several studies have shown that sleep improves learning, memory, and creativity. Harvard sleep researcher Robert Stickgold states, "napping makes people more effective problem solvers. His research group has shown that taking a nap seems to help people separate important information from extraneous details. If the nap includes REM sleep—the phase during which dreaming occurs—people become better at making connections between seemingly unrelated words" (“Napping”). The "brain boost" nap increases general performance. "Results from a New Zealand study published in 2009 showed that air traffic controllers working the night shift scored better on tests of alertness and performance if they took advantage of a planned nap period of 40 minutes" (“Napping”). Several businesses now facilitating napping during the 49
workday are intelligent because naps improve their employee's performance and, in turn, the company's results. Napping can better our mood and reduce stress with the “stress hormone” cortisol and blood pressure drops (Donvito). According to The American Institute of Stress, “77 percent of people experience stress that affects their physical health” (Patterson). Considering the consequences stress can have for our health, it is crucial to take it seriously by implementing stress-relieving alternatives, like napping, into our lives. As both stress and sleep deficits can affect our mood negatively, napping will also have an indirect effect on our mood. “Research suggests naps help improve emotional regulation, including increasing your ability to tolerate frustration and reducing your tendency to be impulsive” (Breus). However, not all naps are healthy naps. The importance of napping should not be overstated. Excessively long naps can exaggerate symptoms of exhaustion and correlate with severe consequences, such as an increased risk of contracting diabetes. A study on older adults done by Qun Xu et al. concludes that people napping for more than one hour have a higher risk of diabetes than people who sleep less than one hour or do not nap at all (1). Napping is often falsely correlated with being more harmful than beneficial. However, the same study shows that a higher risk of diabetes can link to people who sleep minimally, while a shorter nap has not been proven to be related to such consequences. The best way of napping needs planning. A regular nap can help people fall asleep more easily, so napping at a similar time each day is wise. Another factor that affects the quality of rest and how long people need to fall asleep is the environment. The best place to nap is somewhere cool, quiet, and dark. Lighting is crucial, as a lack thereof triggers biological processes that remind us to sleep. In addition, coordinating caffeine intake can be beneficial. Lastly, to optimize the nap, timing is essential. The length is up to the individual, but taking a twenty-minute or ninety-minute nap is recommended. This causes the napper to not wake up during the slow-wave sleep stage, preventing a groggy feeling (Wise 198). Therefore, to achieve the best possible outcome of napping, people should make strategic choices. Napping is not for everyone. It is essential to keep in mind the individual differences between us humans. Some people need more sleep than others, as some can become overwhelmed with little effort. McDevitt et al. completed a study titled "The impact of frequent napping and nap practice on sleep-dependent memory in humans" that concludes, "individual differences may impact the potential benefits of napping on performance and the ability to become a better napper" (1). They also found that "non-nappers often report that they eschew the practice because they wake up feeling groggy, unproductive, and do not receive any benefits from a nap" (McDevitt et al. 1). For some medical conditions, napping can have disadvantages. Research examining the association between fibromyalgia and napping showed that "Daytime napping was significantly associated with increased pain, depression, anxiety, fatigue, memory difficulties, and sleep problems" (Theadom et al. 1). They concluded that "frequent use and longer duration of daytime napping was linked with greater symptom severity in people with fibromyalgia" (Theadom et al. 1). Due to individual differences, we cannot explicitly state that napping will benefit everyone's health. Another thing to keep in mind is that napping can be a sign of an underlying health problem. Daytime sleepiness can be a symptom of sleeping disorders, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, etc. 50
Therefore, people suffering from daytime sleepiness should talk to their doctor to rule out serious illness(es). This also applies if "correct" napping does not reduce sleepiness. To sum up, one-third of Americans are not getting enough sleep. This has consequences for our health and performance. In some countries, napping is a part of people's day-to-day lives, although, in the United States, people are still skeptical about napping. Sleeping, in general, is a subject characterized by many misconceptions. However, a napping revolution might be on the way, as we now see companies and colleges facilitating napping by implementing nap pods or rooms. Napping has proven to have several benefits related to memory, performance, mood, and stress relief. Unfortunately, more extended napping can increase the risk of diabetes. Also, people with disorders like fibromyalgia have been shown to worsen their symptoms by more prolonged or frequently napping. Therefore, napping might not be for everyone, as people have different individual needs. Another important thing is to rest "correctly" to get the most out of the nap. Naps less than ninety minutes are recommended. In conclusion, finding an appropriate balance for napping, adapted for individual needs, can improve one’s health by boosting one’s brain, bettering performance, and decreasing the risk of accidents. There is no need to feel guilty for taking an afternoon nap. Napping and splitting sleep can be potential remedies for insufficient night sleep and can improve individuals’ health. Societies within the United States have phased out sleep in favor of productivity, which has led to a combination of health issues from lack of sleep and other stressors. It is essential to understand that, if the benefits of sleep are known to improve functioning, society should implement naptime standards to improve societal functions. When an individual’s health can be enhanced in less than ninety minutes a day, it should not be unreasonable for a company to implement napping standards into its policies. WORKS CITED Bilodeau, Kelly. “Is Your Daily Nap Doing More Harm Than Good?” Harvard Health Publishing. 1 Jun. 2021, https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/is-your-dailynap-doing-more-harm-than-good. Accessed 1 Nov. 2021. Breus, Michael J. “9 Interesting Ways Napping Can Make Your Life Better.” Psychology Today. 18 Jun. 2018, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sleep-newzzz/201806/9interesting-ways-napping-can-make-your-life-better. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021. Cousins, James N., et al. “Splitting Sleep between the Night and a Daytime Nap Reduces Homeostatic Sleep Pressure and Enhances Long-Term Memory.” Scientific Reports, vol. 11, no. 1, Mar. 2021, pp. 1–15. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84625-8. Donvito, Tina. “10 Things that Happen to Your Body When You Take a Nap.” The Healthy, 14 Mar. 2020, https://www.thehealthy.com/sleep/benefits-of-napping/. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021. Fryer, Bronwyn. “Sleep Deficit: The Performance Killer.” Harvard Business Review, Oct. 2006. https://hbr.org/2006/10/sleep-deficit-the-performance-killer. Accessed 1 Nov. 2021. 51
“How Much Sleep do I need” Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2 Mar. 2017, https://www.cdc.gov/sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.html. Accessed 14 Nov. 2021. McDevitt, Elizabeth A., et al. “The Impact of Frequent Napping and Nap Practice on SleepDependent Memory in Humans.” Scientific Reports, vol. 8, no. 1, Oct. 2018, p. 1. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1038/s41598-018-33209-0. “Napping May Not Be Such a No-No.” Harvard Health Publishing, 1 Nov. 2009, https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/napping-may-not-be-such-a-no-no. Accessed 1 Nov. 2021. “Nap time.” PEW, 29 Jul. 2009, https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-andanalysis/reports/2009/07/29/nap-time. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021. Patterson, Eric. “Stress Statistics”. The Recovery Village, 05 Aug. 2021, https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/stress/related/stress-statistics/. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021. Qun Xu et al. “Day Napping and Short Night Sleeping Are Associated with Higher Risk of Diabetes in Older Adults.” Diabetes Care, vol. 33, no. 1, Jan. 2010, pp. 78– 83. EBSCOhost, doi:10.2337/dc09-1143. Rousseau, Bryant. “Napping in Public? In Japan, That’s Sign of Diligence.” The New York Times, 16 Dec. 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/16/world/what-in-theworld/japan-inemuri-public-sleeping.html. Accessed 15 Nov. 2021. Shoen, Sarah. “Siestas.” Sleep Foundation, Jun. 30, 2021, https://www.sleepfoundation.org/circadian-rhythm/siestas. Accessed 14 Nov. 2021. Theadom, Alice, et al. “Daytime Napping Associated with Increased Symptom Severity in Fibromyalgia Syndrome.” BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, vol. 16, no. 1, Feb. 2015, pp. 1–9. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1186/s12891-015-0464-y. Wise, Mary J. “Naps and Sleep Deprivation: Why Academic Libraries Should Consider Adding Nap Stations to Their Services for Students.” New Review of Academic Librarianship, vol. 24, no. 2, Apr. 2018, pp. 192–210. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13614533.2018.1431948.
52
Reconnecting the Body Using Eastern and Western Medicine By Shaileyah Amolsch The main focus that will be addressed is how “eastern” practices should be ultimately combined with western treatments to provide medicinal benefits for humans. As far as the natural use of herbal products, there has not been much research done in combining eastern methods with western medicine. The article, “Complementary and Alternative Healthcare: Is it Evidence-based?” by Syed Amin Tabish, an editor-in-chief at International Journal of Health Sciences, states that Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) dates back to 200 B.C. (Tabish 1). Practitioners utilize herbs, diets, and specific health practices composed solely of plants or animals to treat illnesses. Eastern healing methods are based on the premise that each individual has within them the ability to recover. The idea that healing can be done with thought alone, combined with the actual properties of these practices and herbs, can ease the harsh side effects of Western medicine. There is a clear divide between traditional and alternative medicines when the goal should be finding ways to treat both the body and the disease at hand, not one or the other. As a nation, we need to bring the Federal Drug Administration's (FDA) attention to TCM to help combat illness, and this implementation could improve our population’s general health. By getting the FDA involved, we could further bring awareness towards research opportunities to combine eastern practices with modern practices to improve health conditions. Certain studies will be presented, such as the ones conducted by Brita Belli and Weidong Lu, which exemplify how these herbs can inhibit disease progression, hold the potential to combat certain illnesses, improve quality of life, and treat many varieties of ailments. “Naturopathic medicine” can aid patients in various types of treatment, eradicate tumors, and treat diseases without giving the patient an addiction; even though these anticancer agents have not been thoroughly studied, some have displayed how they can target signaling pathways to regulate the immune system. The use of TCM as an alternative cancer treatment is worth noting. According to Yuening Xiang, a Master of Health Sciences at Northeastern University, cancer is the leading cause of death in humans; it is considered a significant threat to the improvement in life expectancy in every country in the world (Xiang 1). Cancer is classified as a genetic illness and, in western practices, is met with treatments such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or surgical resection. Many individuals are faced with choosing one of these treatments and consequently have to deal with the agony of receiving all of these chemicals into the body. What if there was a way to help resolve all of those nasty side effects without adding more prescriptions into the equation? According to an article by Brita Belli, a writer for Yale School of Medicine, a solution may have been discovered, and this newfound drug relies on four naturally derived ingredients: licorice, skullcap, peony, and dates (Belli 1). This botanical drug, found by Yale pharmacology professor Yung-Chi Cheng and fellow researchers, has been proven to provide an increase in anti-tumor activity. The discovery of “YIV906”, the end product of these natural ingredients, has also had an impactful result on patients for decreasing the side effects of chemotherapy. This formula was developed from an 1800-year old Chinese practice, and Belli states that, when it was tested for effectiveness in different types of cancer, “YIV-906 not only diminished the side effects of chemo drugs and radiation therapy, but also led to a stabilization of cancer, faster recovery, and longer survival rates” (Belli 2). The reduction in side effects of chemotherapy was noted, as well as the increase in chemo action against the tumors. This new drug is not FDA approved, but this study shows how there are elements to YIV-906 that could change the way we look at our health care. Belli further states that “the 53
combination of the drugs not only eradicated all tumors in mice, but when new tumors were implanted, the tumors did not grow. This suggested that YIV-906 created a tumor-specific vaccinelike effect” (Belli 3). This research could unlock new possibilities for medicine in human history and could be the start of eastern medicine being implemented into modern treatments. While western medicine has been researched and practiced thoroughly, Chinese medicine has been used in Asia for thousands of years; yet, it still isn’t FDA approved or implemented into modern practices, which the majority of the United States uses. Further, acupuncture is another treatment that holds the potential to improve life quality for individuals. Acupuncture is an ancient treatment originating in China that involves stimulating specific points on the skin with tiny metal needles. The science behind acupuncture has not been thoroughly researched in depth. Still, according to John Hopkins Medicine, acupuncture points are believed to activate the central system, which in turn releases chemicals into the muscles, spinal cord, and brain. While there is no extensive research on the science behind acupuncture, some hypothesize that it balances vital energy, while others believe it causes a neurological reaction. One study, however, proves the value it can have on individuals suffering from side effects of chemotherapy and many other western treatments. This study, conducted by Weidong Lu, a faculty member at Harvard Medical School, is titled “The Value of Acupuncture in Cancer Care'' and represents how this complementary therapy can have various benefits, especially in cancer patients experiencing treatment-related side effects. Lu states how “Randomized clinical trials (RCT) have demonstrated that acupuncture is effective for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Research studies also suggest acupuncture may help manage cancer-related pain, chemotherapyrelated neutropenia, cancer fatigue, and radiation-induced xerostomia” (Lu 1). “Neutropenia” is when an individual has a low level of white blood cells, and “xerostomia” is when the salivary glands does not produce enough saliva, resulting in a dry mouth. Other treatment-related side effects are post-operative pain, chemotherapy-induced leukopenia, insomnia, and anxiety. RCT provides relief from many of these symptoms and could be beneficial for those struggling with their current quality of life after going through treatment. Another significant side effect of chemotherapy among cancer patients is insomnia. This study reports an increase in nocturnal melatonin secretion after acupuncture, which could be incredibly effective in treating insomnia in these patients and the general population. A study done by David Warren Spence, an author at Montevideo, Uruguay, in the Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, proves that acupuncture can help the body produce melatonin during the night to relieve insomnia and anxiety. The article titled, “Acupuncture increases nocturnal melatonin secretion and reduces insomnia and anxiety” highlights a graph (see fig. 1) that reflects the urinary concentrations of the melatonin metabolite after receiving acupuncture treatment.
54
Fig. 1. Graph from “Acupuncture increases nocturnal melatonin secretion and reduces insomnia and anxiety/ a preliminary report” (Spence 24). 2004. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neuroscience. Accessed 14 November 2021.
The findings of this study tell us that patients had more melatonin after acupuncture, which aided them in sleep, and their reports stated how this could be an effective way of relieving pain. This demographic includes individuals who could benefit from acupuncture the most, so, if this method works for them, imagine the variety of advantages others could reap. A hurdle with fully utilizing TCM is the conservation aspect. The conflict with using natural resources is you have to get rare medicinal and animal natural resources for human consumption. Sustaining our natural resources is of utmost importance and especially if they are at risk of extinction. Implementing treatment, which requires these resources, would be a difficult task. Yet, herbal therapies aren’t the only aspect of TCM, and other therapies could benefit many people without using up all of our resources, one of these being acupuncture. As previously stated, acupuncture could be a major way we could ultimately get rid of some of our modern society’s health issues. Another way to ensure that we have a sustainable supply of natural resources is to strengthen the research of domesticated species to see if we can make them adapt to the wild environment. The endangered species of these populations could then be recovered, and the conflict between demand and supply could be resolved. Why would it take so long for the FDA to test these medications when people claim they hold beneficial properties? The FDA is the regulatory body with the most substantial influence over 55
Americans’ health, yet they display a lack of interest in addressing regulations for alternative medicine. Alternative medicine is already widely used by many Americans, and they demand immediate attention for it to be an option as a viable health care decision. Tricia Hwang, an expert on food and drug law, points out some fundamental concepts in her paper “FDA and the Challenge of Alternative Medicine.” Hwang states that, when the FDA is questioned about their lack of regulations around alternative medicine, they explain that these medicines cannot be tested in a laboratory since every case is different. However, prescription drugs have varying effects on different people and cannot be generalized for the entire population. Prescription drugs are often not personalized. The doctor administers what they believe to be the right amount for your physical characteristics but doesn't consider the essential factors of what is suitable for you as an individual. There are very few risks to public safety when using Chinese medicine, in fact, far less than prescribed pharmaceuticals, which can leave you with withdrawal symptoms such as pain in the muscles, nausea, fatigue, seizures, hallucinations, depression, and many other changes that bring discomfort (Hwang 4). Administering drugs with withdrawal symptoms or even side effects as harsh as these is viable, yet unconventional therapies are not trusted? Is the government fearful of recommending these natural herbs and treatments because the pharmaceutical companies would lose profit? Of course, in situations where diseases have progressed for a long time already and require immediate action, western therapies can be beneficial, but using alternative medicine to counter some of the side effects can be incredibly helpful. One disagreeing viewpoint is that plants as medicine are not incredibly valuable in terms of medical worth or do not effectively benefit humans. An article, “Different perceptions of narrative medicine between Western and Chinese medicine students” by Chien-Da Huang, a medical professional at Chang Gung Medical Education Research Center, reflects a limited perspective since his profession would urge him to associate with this belief unconsciously. He states that “Chinese medicine, however, lacks proper diagnostic tools, whereas Western medicines’ strength is its powerful diagnostic ability” (Huang 2). This interpretation of eastern medicine’s potential in actuality is biased since he is in a specific field using western medicine. The issue here is not that TCM lacks the proper diagnostic tools; the problem is that we haven’t attempted thorough studies to prove how these practices have clinical benefits. If there was more research done, we could learn which Chinese herbs are toxic to the body and further incorporate them into treatments. Western medicine is considered to have some distinct weaknesses, while TCM typically has little to no side effects. Eastern medicine is more about preventative care; it works to make sure body systems such as the immune and digestive systems are functioning at their best. Natural herbs and traditional Chinese therapies hold the potential to treat the body as a whole, yet they work best as a complementary medicine in combination with some western practices. Many people believe that these are two entirely different practices that have nothing to do with each other, but they both aim to work for the greatest good of the patient. Some people claim that traditional medicine does not work effectively to treat certain illnesses as well as modern medicine does, yet this can be countered with countless studies, such as the one by Brita Belli, that prove how people have had faster recoveries with the use of acupuncture. These types of medicine are often incommensurable since different elements go into each practice. Still, the best way to get results that ensure one’s health conditions are improving is by implementing components of both. Combining elements of herbalism to treat illnesses is a personalized and highly varied approach from person to person, which gives the patient optimal care and the ability to decide their treatment 56
option. Eastern medicine can provide benefits as a complementary treatment, as well as a cure on its own for lower-scale health issues. There are shared elements of both medical systems, and many of these traditional healing methods are used to treat the body as a whole instead of just treating the disease. Practitioners of ancient medical systems look at a person and their body as a complex interconnected system. WORKS CITED Belli, Brita. “Ancient Chinese Medicine Unlocks New Possibilities for Cancer Treatment.” YaleNews, 26 May 2021, https://news.yale.edu/2020/03/13/ancient-chinese-medicineunlocks-new-possibilities-cancer-treatment. D. Warren Spence, M.A. Kayumov L, Chen A, et al. Acupuncture increases nocturnal melatonin secretion and reduces insomnia and anxiety/ a preliminary report. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neuroscience. 2004, https://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/jnp.16.1.19. Huang, Chien-Da. “Different Perceptions of Narrative Medicine between Western and Chinese Medicine Students.” BMC Medical Education, BioMed Central, 10 May 2017, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5424351/. Hwang, Tricia. “FDA and the Challenge of Alternative Medicine: Realistic Assessments and Regulatory Flexibility.” Harvard Library Office for Scholarly Communication, 24 January 1997, https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8852106/Tricia_M_Hwang.pdf?sequence=1 &isAllowed=y. Lu, Weidong. “The Value of Acupuncture in Cancer Care.” Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Aug. 2008, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2642987/#. Tabish, Syed Amin. “Complementary and Alternative Healthcare: Is It Evidence-Based?” International Journal of Health Sciences, Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Jan 2008, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068720/. Xiang Y, Guo Z, Zhu P, Chen J, Huang Y. Traditional Chinese medicine as a cancer treatment: Modern perspectives of ancient but advanced science. Cancer Med. 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6536969/.
57
An End to a Tragic End: Legalizing Active Euthanasia By Serena Clarke For some, it feels nearly impossible to wake up ready to conquer the world. Their first awareness of consciousness is not greeted with thoughts of “today is a new day, what opportunities may come?” but rather with chronic pain, unpleasant symptoms, or pessimistic thoughts. Other people do not even wake up to their usual self; those with dementia may be confused or act in ways their true self might not fathom. Hardly anything seems to solve their issues, and even treatments seem trivial. Of course, some lucky people can stumble upon the “right” treatment or are miraculously free of the conditions that previously held them back. Nevertheless, there are people who are treatment-resistant, such as those with aggressive cancer or severe major depressive disorder; they seem to have exhausted all of their options. There are many reasons for people to want to end their life early, yet not all of these are unreasonable. More specifically, active euthanasia should be legalized in the United States for the terminally ill or sufferers of chronic conditions to allow these people a less troublesome death that preserves their dignity. While family and friends may see it as unethical, those with terminal illness see euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide as an option that would provide a peaceful end to their life. From an outside perspective, it can be sad and potentially painful to see your loved ones go sooner rather than later. It also may be seen as losing time with someone you care about. Although, from an inside perspective, some people with terminal illnesses would prefer these policies or options, as shown by a study of seventy patients in which it was reported, “Most participants (73%) believed that euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide should be legalized, citing pain and the individual’s right to choose as their major reasons” (Wilson et al.). From this, it is obvious that these participants believe that euthanasia should be an option over suffering through intolerable pain. “Forty (58%) of the 69 participants who completed the entire interview also believed that, if legal, they might personally make a future request for a hastened death, particularly if pain or physical symptoms became intolerable” (Wilson et al.). So, while family and friends may not understand why somebody would want to choose euthanasia over a prolonged life, they may be able to empathize with the idea that “Many patients with advanced cancer favor policies that would allow them access to both euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide if pain and physical symptoms became intolerable” (Wilson et al.). As a large number of people do not like pain, nor want others to experience it, they can comprehend the need for euthanasia to prevent an agonizing death. Many people unintentionally think that euthanasia is just assisted suicide and may know little to or nothing about physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia as a whole generally “implies an intentional termination of life by another” (“Active Euthanasia”). Meanwhile, physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is the term used for when “…a physician supplies information and/or the means of committing suicide (e.g., a prescription for lethal dose of sleeping pills, or a supply of carbon monoxide gas) to a person, so that that individual can successfully terminate his or her own life” (“Active Euthanasia”). From this, it is clear that physician-assisted suicide has more risks than euthanasia due to the possibility of the drug or information getting into the wrong hands. There is also an increased chance that the person administering the drug or procedure to themselves will make a mistake. On the other hand, euthanasia is the practical option as it is safer for both the patient and other people as the procedure would have less risks and be less likely to fall into the wrong hands. 58
Within the category of euthanasia, there are a few different types: Involuntary euthanasia and two forms of voluntary euthanasia – passive and active. It is important to understand the differences between them as some of the differences determine the safety of the types. By understanding the distinction, many people can change their perspective on euthanasia, especially active euthanasia, as it is not just “killing people.” First, involuntary euthanasia is primarily what it sounds: ending somebody’s life without specific request from the person involved. Rather than being murder, this term encompasses situations such as where patients who are on life support and will likely never wake up have the machines keeping them alive turned off or removed. In other situations, patients may be in an unconscious state where they are not able to wake up and specifically request euthanasia. While involuntary euthanasia can be ethically reasonable, this is not the main focus. Under voluntary euthanasia, there is two types. First, passive euthanasia is the term for bringing death by reducing support and allowing people to die naturally. For example, somebody who has terminal cancer may stop chemotherapy or other treatments, allowing them to die sooner than they would using these critical treatments. In addition, patients may be given a larger dose of drugs which in return increases the probability of lethal consequences and the possibility of an earlier death. Second, active euthanasia describes “…the death of a person through a direct action, in response to a request from that person” (“Active Euthanasia”). This would be an instance where a medical professional would administer a lethal drug at the request of the patient. Active euthanasia is the most empathetic and secure out of all of the different types of euthanasia because patients are taking dangerous and lethal drugs. With active euthanasia, a medical professional would administer the drugs and make sure the procedure happens with the least amount of trouble possible, as well as guarantee the drugs would not be provided to anybody aside from the requesting and eligible patient. During active euthanasia, the procedure is quick and painless. In most cases, the basics would include the patient scheduling two appointments, each with one a separate physician. After two extensive consults and thorough reviewing of the patient’s medical history and condition, the physicians would come to a decision on whether the patient would be eligible for active euthanasia. If the patient is deemed eligible, then they would schedule another appointment with the physician for when the procedure will occur. In this appointment, the patient would provide government identification to ensure they are the eligible patient and the patient would be asked whether they want to go through with the procedure. The patient is made aware that they can choose to change their mind if they would like. If the patient still agrees to go through with the procedure, a lethal dose of a drug would be administered by the physician to the patient in the safest way possible: cleaning the area of injection, carefully but efficiently issuing the shot, and avoiding causing pain to the patient. One could argue that the Hippocratic Oath compels doctors to pledge they are against the harming and killing of others. In the original text of the oath created by Hippocrates, there was to be a complete separation between “curing” and “killing,” and as “the famous American anthropologist Margaret Mead wrote: ‘For the first time in our tradition there was a complete separation between killing and curing’” (Bjelica, 6). The text has doctors swear that they should not harm anybody in 59
any circumstance but only attempt to cure or help treat those who must tolerate incurable conditions, “I will keep them from harm and injustice” (Bjelica). In this case “harm” is referred to by Hippocrates as any ill-intent directed towards patients as well as the killing of any human, “I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody who asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect” (Bjelica). However, this classic version of the oath has a differing perspective of mischief and wrongdoing than many of the other versions that exist and were used throughout the years. Although the classic Hippocratic Oath encourages doctors to oblige to refuse “killing” or euthanizing patients, the commonly used, adapted, version of the oath is accepting of this in certain circumstances. “If it is given me to save a life, all thanks. But it may also be within my power to take a life” (Bjelica). Overall, the adapted version of the Hippocratic Oath by Louis Lasagna, also known as the modern version, shows more empathy: “In contrast to the old version, in which the physician’s empathy for his patients is not stated explicitly, Lasagna expressed it in a beautiful way as ‘warmth, sympathy, and understanding may outweigh the surgeon’s knife or the chemist’s drug’” (Bjelica). This empathy encompasses the understanding that some people are better off being euthanized than living a miserable life filled with suffering and pain. Therefore, people are generally not vowing to be against euthanasia and may even be swearing to an oath that is supportive of euthanasia. Furthermore, the Hippocratic Oath encourages doctors to oblige to refusing abortions: “I will not give a woman an abortive remedy,” (Bjelica) which is seen as “killing a human.” Despite this opinion, the adapted version of the oath is more empathetic to particular cases. Although not common, a mother may endure an abortion because she suffers great risk of a condition that is lethal to both her and the fetus or unborn child. In this case, a physician would be serving the patient’s best interest by actively euthanizing the fetus to increase the probability of at least the mother surviving, rather than both the mother and fetus dying. If you knew two people were presumably going to die, wouldn’t you rather save at least one of the two if you could? With this version of active euthanasia being legal, more lives will be saved. Subsequently, not only are abortions legal, which can be considered euthanasia, but so is the death penalty in many parts of the United States. Currently, the death penalty is legal in twenty-four states. This is an interesting number considering the number of states, six, that allow legal euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide: Oregon, Washington, Montana, Vermont, California, and Colorado (Kavehrad). Despite using euthanasia as a form of sympathy and ending suffering, more states use it as a way to punish criminals for their crimes. Statistically, capital punishment, commonly known as the death penalty, is not an effective form of punishment; “it does not deter murder or crime in general. It is also extremely expensive” and “We discriminate by race in imposing the death penalty” (Gross). Even though it is proven inefficient to have the death penalty, we still will not allow euthanasia to those who are suffering in many places and could use the procedure to peacefully end their life, yet we continue to “kill” people who are allegedly guilty of crimes which do not decline in response. Even so, the death penalty is seen as an “ethical way” to punish those with death. Why is euthanasia not seen as an ethical way to prevent suffering in those with chronic conditions or terminal illness? Just like the death penalty, euthanasia would end suffering in an ethical way, proving that since capital punishment is legal, euthanasia should be too.
60
Another interesting part of the United States law is the “right to die.” People can choose to refuse treatment for any conditions; “the right to refuse medical treatment is universally recognized as a fundamental principle of liberty” (“The Right to Refuse”) and decide to suffer through their symptoms which could mean death. However, they do not have the option to refuse treatment in a way that would end their suffering and pain like active euthanasia would provide. However, they do not have the option to refuse treatment in a way that would end their suffering and pain like active euthanasia would provide. Why are we offering the option to die a painful death, yet not an option to die in a more pain-free way? Active euthanasia should be legalized as a “right to die” or refusal of treatment without suffering. Euthanasia is not only a medical dilemma for people, but for veterinarians. While veterinarians experience these sad last moments of people’s beloved pets, they also know it is best for the pet to prevent a life of suffering and pain. Many people consider their pets family or loyal companions that they love and care for. Yet, a multitude of people are willing to put their pets down when it comes to them having a terminal illness, chronic suffering, or being significantly unwell for the rest of their life. This is not vastly different from euthanasia of humans- They are endlessly suffering, and they would like, just as they would their close pets, to be rid of their misery and crippling conditions. In fact, veterinarians face the very same dilemma proposed in the oaths mentioned before; “Veterinarians are trained to heal, but they are routinely confronted with ending life rather than saving it.” As “gatekeepers” for the animal’s end of life, veterinarians find themselves acting on behalf of the animal’s silent voice” (Knesl). However, unlike pets, humans do not have to have others acting on their behalf, they can choose euthanasia for themselves rather than give physicians an additional dilemma veterinarians must deal with. In this way, active euthanasia is more ethical than putting down pets. Veterinarians also find that prolonging terminal illness or related conditions is rather selfish and not in the patient’s best interest. “One student described that his major sense of stress occurred when he believed an animal’s suffering was prolonged because the owner did not want to accept that its condition was not likely to improve and that death was inevitable” and “Sometimes we take cases too far and subject dogs to radiation or chemotherapy to satisfy the client” (Knesl). Thus, sometimes people go through radiation, chemotherapy, or other treatments to satisfy other people. Animals and people do not enjoy suffering through treatments that they do not want to go through, especially if the treatment is aggressive with many side effects and has a low probability of success. As this situation with animals also applies to humans, unfortunately death sometimes is inevitable, and people should be allowed to peacefully choose euthanasia instead of forcing them to endure years of pain and likely useless treatments. Viewers of popular films or media find it “heroic” when characters euthanize each other to prevent suffering and pain towards other characters. For example, The Walking Dead, a popular TV series, promotes the euthanizing of characters when they are infected as an act of consideration and compassion. In the season eight episode “Honor,” the character Carl Grimes shoots himself in the head so he does not continue to exist as a zombie acting in ways he never would, especially including hurting those he does not want to. Patients with dementia likely feel the same; they act in ways they generally would not and in some cases hurt themselves or others when they act in abnormal ways. Carl is not the only character who is “spared” from this fate. Other characters are
61
put down after requesting friends or family do so in order to prevent pain and suffering from both themselves and the characters that care for them. Accordingly, euthanasia should be seen as an ethical way to allow victims of terminal illness, chronic pain, or other specific sufferers to be in control of their death and leave the world peacefully rather than troubled, discontent, and grieving. They have a chance to leave on good terms with themselves and others, such as family and friends. Final memories can be a complex planned occurrence or even simple as they know the person; they leave the Earth as themselves rather than somebody who lets grief or pain get the best of them. People have the freedom and inspiration to improve their life before they go or let go of past regrets or grudges and forgive in order to be happy in their last moments. Moreover, people can pass away in the comfort of their homes as most people would prefer. “One 2003 study found that nearly 90% of terminally ill cancer patients asked to choose where they would prefer to die cited their homes. Only one-third of those patients were able to make this desire a reality” (Henkel). Many of these people are able to also finish their wills. There are many people who should be eligible for active euthanasia, and there are several reasons that would justify it. So, who are these people that should legally have the right to euthanasia? For the most part, only those with unbearable chronic pain should be allowed to utilize active euthanasia. This would include debilitating chronic conditions, such as terminal cancer, severe osteoporosis, and even severe psychotic disorders, that are either incurable or treatment-resistant. Simply put, someone may not want to put their bodies through chemotherapy, or maybe they have tried chemotherapy and all the possible treatment options, and they are still suffering or even destined for death. Often you may hear somebody say, “I do not want to let my condition win or define me,” which can be applied to death too. Some would rather die on their own terms rather than let their illness dictate their life and death. Legalizing active euthanasia would allow an end to this suffering when people are ready and feel as though they have tried all the options they wanted without letting their condition control them. Conversely, many would argue a condition such as Alzheimer’s or those with dementia are not in a healthy enough mindset to make the kind of decision active euthanasia requires. A solution to this issue would involve combining legalizing euthanasia with something many states already have. The article “The Right to Refuse Treatment: A Model Act” explains how these states “have enacted so-called ‘living will’ or ‘natural death’ statutes.” These provide a way for people such as those who are at high risk for developing dementia to express how they would like to be treated if they did develop such conditions (“The Right to Refuse Treatment”). The United States could prevent people from losing themselves to disorders like Alzheimer’s if we allow active euthanasia and utilize these statutes so sufferers can die with dignity. Of course, another issue to be addressed is safeguards. Active euthanasia is not a procedure that should be taken lightly. It should be legalized in the United States with the assistance of safety nets. First, patients must be thoroughly evaluated by at least two physicians including a review of their medical history and condition to ensure there are no other suitable treatments for the patient. In addition, this would prevent those who may be suffering from treatable or a temporary condition from undertaking active euthanasia from making regrettable decisions due to a strong momentary mindset. Second, patients would be able to back out at any time. There should be no pressure for 62
people to choose active euthanasia or follow through with it, and an eligible patient should have made the firm decision to go through with the procedure. This is similar to most other medical procedures where you can decide even right before the operation to change your mind and not pursue the procedure. With safety measures, active euthanasia will be made a reasonable and safer procedure for those who wish to end their suffering. Various regions throughout the world have legalized euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide with differing consequences. Before legalizing active euthanasia in the United States, it is also important to observe these consequences to prevent similar consequences. The article “The Legal States of Euthanasia and Its Surrogates around the World” identifies the consequences and attitudes exhibited by many regions that have legalizes euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide. By observing the results of other countries’ legislations towards euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, it is easy to see that active euthanasia is not exceedingly dangerous nor always perceived as bad. Many examples people may use to argue against active euthanasia have flaws addressed earlier. Confronting possible conflicts is important as people should be confident in the decision to legalize active euthanasia. Beginning with America, the text lists the regulations and policies in a few of the states and each state’s consequences. A big example highlighted in the article is Oregon where physician-assisted suicide is legal. Although physician-assisted suicide is similar to euthanasia, the problems identified seem to be unique to physician-assisted suicide and would not occur in active euthanasia: “the complications were attributed to: incomplete substance consumption, medical tolerance or vomiting” (Vulcănescu). Because in active euthanasia the lethal drugs are administered by physicians, these complications would not occur. Additionally, Europe is also observed in the paper. As support for euthanasia increased in both citizens and researchers, there is a positive perspective on the procedure. There was also a lack of any negative consequences documented. It is even noted that “the concerns regarding the fact that people feel the pressure to commit suicide were not substantiated by the Dutch and Belgian experience” (Vulcănescu). In fact, Oxford professor Julian Săvulescu also proclaimed “People want to have control over their death, and there is no reason for the state to intervene in the liberty of one individual to access assisted suicide or euthanasia” (Vulcănescu). Europe is an example of a region that is successfully practicing euthanasia, and, therefore, active euthanasia should be legalized in the United States as there is a way to practice the procedure successfully. Similarly, Luxembourg adapted a positive attitude towards physician-assisted suicide. Being “the third European state to legalize the two practices [PAS and palliative care],” (Vulcănescu) despite being unpopular with the parliament, people strongly supported these legislations. “[T]he people’s endorsement was over 70%” (Vulcănescu). Surprisingly, as there was strong religious opposition to this government decision which resulted in a great debate to take place, people still showed strong favor towards the legalization of these policies. Active euthanasia should be legalized and will likely be supported by citizens. Lastly, Switzerland’s consequences of legalizing assisted suicide can be observed. In this country, “Offering assistance to suicide is tolerated and considered legal only if there aren’t any private interests being pursued” (Vulcănescu). Under this, people do not need to have a terminal illness or 63
even any medical conditions. This makes for dangerous possibilities, unlike the active euthanasia; "This process allows for the possibility that a non-resident patient obtain a lethal substance, barbiturates (sodium pentobarbital), within the right-to-die organizations” (Vulcănescu). People even came to Switzerland just because of the lack of legislation. “This led also to the creation of the term death tourism” (Vulcănescu), which could allow people to go through assisted suicide for a temporary or treatable issue. Because active euthanasia would prevent these lethal drugs from getting into the wrong hands due to physician administration rules, this issue would not be a problem for the United States as well. Viewing personal accounts and experiences is equally important in order for people to understand that these situations are realistic and not uncommon. There are many who have stories to tell, and listening to them shows that active euthanasia is ethical. To prevent pain and suffering, these people chose to die a dignified death where they can maintain their self-respect as well as the respect their family has for them. Addressing some of these people’s concerns and wishes can shine light on the positivity surrounding active euthanasia. It is because of these accounts that we can learn from these sufferer’s desires and legalize euthanasia for the sake of other people’s lives and dignity. Sandy Briden, who died in December 2017, had terminal cancer. She notes her personal experience, on Campaign for Dignity in Dying, that in December 2015 she was diagnosed with sarcoma when doctors found a tumor in her abdomen (Briden). She faced harsh symptoms and a serious operation. It had been determined that she showed no signs of illness following the procedure; however, she had developed more inoperable tumors the next year and was put on palliative care, expecting only a short time left to live. Because of her past struggles she was aware of what a natural death could mean for her, and she did not want to die in pain while her family saw her struggle. “I don’t want my family to see me suffering, I don’t want that to be their last memory of me,” (Briden) she said wishing for a peaceful and dignified death. Active euthanasia would have allowed Sandy Briden the death she longed for and deserved: one where her family could have one last happy moment, allowing for dignity and positive thoughts surrounding her death. Another story about John Close, written by his sister, promotes these same ideas. John Close was diagnosed at fifty-three with Motor Neuron Disease (MND). Unfortunately, this led to a slow decline until he could not live on his own nor fulfill his basic needs without assistance: “he needed full-time care: he could not stand or swallow and communicated through a computer because his speech was unintelligible” (Close). These events allowed his sister’s perspective to change as she knew a better option would be letting him die on his own terms. “I immediately understood. …it allowed him to choose a death which was guaranteed to be peaceful and dignified.” She explained that there was nothing to gain from him having a “natural death” besides pain whereas dying on his own terms brought comfort to the two. Active euthanasia simply allows those to avoid the pain and struggles of dying naturally and thus should be legalized. A third account tells the story of a woman, Heather McQueen, having to watch her mother, Sheena Caskie, tragically die from aggressive terminal cancer symptoms. Describing this experience as inhumane, McQueen recalls better memories of her mother’s bravery and strength in the past. Unfortunately, doctors discovered a treatment-resistant tumor that prevented her mother from 64
digesting food. “When mum’s Church of Scotland minister came to visit, she told her she was dying and did not feel afraid. That is the point at which she should have been allowed to die,” (McQueen), the daughter says. Yet as McQueen grew closer to death, this began to change. “That week that followed, as we watched everything unfold in its full horror, we watched the fear growing in her face” and “She was also in great pain from the radiation burns and tumors and all the tubes she was dealing with. They gave her morphine, but there are specific amounts of morphine you are allowed to give” (McQueen). Knowing morphine was not enough, you can imagine the great deal of pain the mother must have been in upon death. Sadly, her mother had died without dignity and suffered through great pain, and active euthanasia could have prevented these from happening. In conclusion, active euthanasia should be legalized to spare people from losing dignity and going through tremendous pain upon death. Not only is this justified by various other legislations that allow death, including abortions and the death penalty, but also by comparing the sympathy of euthanasia in pets to humans, as they may have similar experiences. Upon viewing the successes of euthanasia in other regions as well as addressing issues in regions that were not successful, it is evident active euthanasia can be carried out efficiently and humanely. Additionally, personal accounts and opinions should be considered, as they provide the positive perspective on active euthanasia that people should have. Overall, understanding the definition, effects, and perspectives regarding euthanasia, including that of the media, shows that active euthanasia is an ethical solution to those suffering terminal illness or chronic pain, and it should be legalized to ensure people do not lack dignity and do have peace, painlessness, and integrity surrounding their death. WORKS CITED "Active Euthanasia." West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. 2008. The Gale Group 10 Dec. 2021 https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/active+euthanasia Bjelica, Artur. "Relevance of the Hippocratic Oath Today." Medicinski Pregled / Medical Review, vol. 72, no. 1/2, Jan. 2019, pp. 5–10. EBSCOhost, doi:10.2298/MPNS1902005B. Briden, Sandy. "Sandy Briden." Personal Stories. Campaign for Dignity in Dying, features.dignityindying.org.uk/sandy-briden/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2021. Close, Lesley. "John Close." Personal Stories. Campaign for Dignity in Dying, features.dignityindying.org.uk/sandy-briden/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2021. Gross, Samuel R. "The Death Penalty, Public Opinion, and Politics in the United States." St. Louis University Law Journal, vol. 62, no. 4, Summer 2018, pp. 763–779. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=136685001&site=ehostlive&scope=site. Henkel, Gretchen. "Dying Wish." The Hospitalist, Apr. 2007. shm, www.thehospitalist.org/hospitalist/article/123300/dying-wish. Accessed 6 Dec. 2021.
65
Kavehrad, Christina, "Criteria for Active Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide" (2018). University Honors Theses. Paper 589. https://doi.org/10.15760/honors.598 Knesl, Oliver et al. "Veterinarians and Humane Endings: When Is It the Right Time to Euthanize a Companion Animal?" Frontiers in veterinary science vol. 4 45. 19 Apr. 2017, doi:10.3389/fvets.2017.00045 McQueen, Heather. "Heather McQueen." Personal Stories. Campaign for Dignity in Dying, features.dignityindying.org.uk/sandy-briden/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2021. "The Right to Refuse Treatment: A Model Act." American journal of public health vol. 73,8 (1983): 918-21. doi:10.2105/ajph.73.8.918 Vulcănescu, Sorin Grigore. "The Legal States of Euthanasia and Its Surrogates around the World." Apulia Theologica, vol. 4, no. 1, Jan. 2018, pp. 195–209. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=129724132&site=ehostlive&scope=site. Wilson KG, Scott JF, Graham ID, Kozak JF, Chater S, Viola RA, de Faye BJ, Weaver LA, Curran D. Attitudes of terminally ill patients toward euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Arch Intern Med. 2000 Sep 11;160(16):2454-60. doi: 10.1001/archinte.160.16.2454. PMID: 10979056.
66
RESPONDING TO COMMUNITY, LEGAL, AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Stables Glow by Heidi Roach
67
Drunk Driving in the United States By Sarah Balto Every year millions of Americans drive under the intoxication of alcohol, known as a “DUI,” but only around 2 million people actually get arrested for it. Drunk driving kills on average 28 people a day and has killed over 10,000 lives a year for the past decade, which makes it the number one cause for car accident deaths in the United States (Central for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020). Drunk driving is considered a major cultural issue in the United States, and millions of lives are depending on new solutions to this problem. By focusing on schooling young people on drunk driving and its consequences, lowering the accepted blood alcohol content (BAC) percentage for all ages, and establishing nationwide no tolerance punishments, we can change the bad habit of driving intoxicated and by that decrease the number of deaths caused by DUIs. The most common hobby in American society is drinking, and due to generally bad infrastructure, driving a car is the most common type of transportation (Myrick, 2016). Americans have the habit of enjoying alcoholic beverages on any occasion, whether it is the 4th of July, St. Patrick’s Day, a football game, or a 6-year-olds birthday party. Good public transportation and taxi availability is limited to the biggest cities, which is why people choose to drive themselves (2016). Drunk driving in the United States is normalized to the level that people do not even think about whether they should drive after drinking or not; there is really no hesitation. The problem with drunk driving in the United States is caused by a bad combination of America’s car and drinking cultures. In order to solve this issue, people need to be properly and thoroughly educated at an early age. Traffic safety and the consequences of drunk driving should be more in focus in school, because, no matter whether people are traveling by foot, bike, or a motor vehicle, they are a part of the traffic. It is important to understand that driving drunk does not only affect oneself, but also everyone else in traffic as well. More importantly, it is important to understand how the alcohol affects our body and the reason we cannot drive after drinking (Elder et al., 2005). People need to be taught at an early age how to make better decisions when drinking. Young people influence each other, and, by teaching them to separate drinking from driving, this will be creating a healthy habit for the future generations. As a solution, I propose to change the accepted blood alcohol content (BAC) to a lower percentage for all ages. All states share a common accepted BAC of 0.8% for everyone over the age of 21, and 0.2% for underaged people (Alcohol Addiction Centers, 2020). Having a different accepted BAC for different ages is basically sending a signal that it is okay for some people to drive intoxicated. Changing the accepted BAC to 0.2% for all ages signalizes that drunk driving is unacceptable no matter the age, whether one is legally allowed to drink or not. Lowering the accepted BAC makes the distinction between drinking and driving much clearer, making people think twice about whether they should drive or not. A phone survey conducted in Norway, before and after they lowered their BAC from 0.5% to 0.2% in 2001, revealed that the percentage of participants who would never consider driving after consuming alcohol rose from 82% to 91% after the change (Assum, 2010). Assuming that Americans will react the same, lowering the BAC will make people reconsider driving home after having a drink or two.
68
Another solution is to implement zero tolerance policies for drunk driving in all 50 states. Every state has their own laws and punishments for DUIs, and some states seem to take them more seriously than others. Considering the difference in punishment levels for DUIs today, it seems like certain states tolerate it more. Countries with harder punishments are shown to have lower deaths caused by DUIs. Take Sweden as an example, where fines are based on how much money you have, and prison sentences can be years. Only 3% of traffic deaths in Sweden are caused by alcohol abuse, making them the country with the lowest DUI rate in Europe, which is ten times less than in the United States (LifeSaver, n.d). This problem is extremely important, and there should be no tolerance for drunk driving in any state, which is why laws and punishments regarding DUIs should be the same nationwide. If the solutions discussed are taken to use, the number of deaths caused by drunk driving will decrease. By educating young people on the effects alcohol has on the brain and body, they will get an understanding of why drinking and driving do not belong together, and therefore know better than to drive after they have been consuming alcohol. Lowering the accepted BAC for everyone, and not only underaged, will signal that there is no tolerance for driving no matter the age. Also, people will be more aware of the amount they are drinking due to the “low” BAC allowed and think twice before driving, even after “only” one or two drinks. As drunk driving is a nationwide problem, the rules should be nationwide as well. By establishing zero tolerance DUI laws and punishments for the whole nation as one, there will no longer be a question about whether the issue is taken seriously or not. There will no longer be a difference of punishment level in the different states, and therefore the laws will be stricter and clearer. Implementing these solutions to resolve the problem will bring down the number of traffic deaths caused by drunk driving in the United States remarkably. WORKS CITED Alcohol Addiction Centers. BAC Legal Limits in Different States, Counties, & Cities. Alcohol.org. 15 April 2020. https://www.alcohol.org/dui/bac-limits/ Assum, Terje. Reduction of the blood alcohol concentration limit in Norway-Effects on knowledge, behavior and accidents. November 2010. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45799067_Reduction_of_the_blood_alco hol_concentration_limit_in_Norway-Effects_on_knowledge_behavior_and_accidents Central for Disease Control and Prevention. Impaired Driving: Get the Facts. 24 Aug 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/transportationsafety/impaired_driving/impaireddrv_factsheet.html#:~:text=In%202016%2C%2010%2C497%20people%20died,deaths% 20in%20the%20United%20States.&text=That's%20one%20percent%20of%20the,each% 20year%20 Elder, Nichols, Shults, Sleet, Barrios & Compton. Effectiveness of School-Based Programs for Reducing Drinking and Driving and Riding with Drinking Drivers. 2005. https://www.thecommunityguide.org/sites/default/files/publications/mvoi-AJPMevrev-aid-schoolbased.pdf
69
LifeSaver. How Sweden Figured Out Drunk Driving. N.d. https://www.lifesafer.com/blog/sweden-figured-drunkdriving/#:~:text=Take%20Sweden.,countries%20meant%20drinking%20to%20intoxicati on. Myrick, Daniel. Why Is Drunk Driving So Prevalent? 18 May 2016. https://swhelper.org/2016/05/18/why-is-drunk-driving-so-prevalent/
70
Trimming the Hedges By Tucker Pellicci Money is what makes the world go around. Financial freedom is what drives billions of humans to go after it like their lives depend on it. The backbone of such a capitalistic society is the participation in “free” markets by millions of Americans. Many are familiar with the principles of the stock market, but most fail to truly understand the actions and behaviors that take place in order to move a stock price in one way or another. A prime example of this is the GameStop (GME) short squeeze that started back in January 2021 on Reddit by a user posting on the WallStreetBets discussion board. The stock soon went viral on nearly all social media platforms, and millions of ordinary people wanted in on it. Large hedge funds took the brunt of the impact and incurred record losses due to this squeeze. In order to see how power-hungry hedge funds continue to run the stock market, we first need to identify methods behind short selling, short squeezing, why hedge funds targeted GameStop, how they use their leverage to maintain their status, and proposed regulation to control it. Furthermore, understanding how these all apply to the GME short squeeze, the effects it had on the stock market as a whole, and what hedge funds tried to do to stop the bleeding is absolutely crucial to recognizing the abuse we are seeing in today’s markets. Behind a short squeeze event is a large amount of short selling. Typically, the most common activity in the stock market is a market order where the goal is to buy a stock for a low price and sell it for a higher price later on. Selling short is the exact opposite of this type of trading. According to Adam Hayes, a writer for Investopedia, an online financial information outlet, “Short selling is an investment or trading strategy that speculates on the decline in a stock or other security's price” (Hayes par.1). This is done by a short seller borrowing shares of a particular stock for a certain amount of time, then selling that same stock for its current market price. “Borrowing” in this case would grant the short seller possession and complete control of the stock for the agreed upon amount of time. Before the borrowed shares must be returned, the short seller would buy them back at the current market price and return them back to the original owner. This creates a difference in the amount the particular stock sold for originally and the price the short seller paid to get it back. For example, if Investor A owns one share of GameStop (GME), Investor B can ask to borrow Investor A’s share for a certain amount of time, usually around 60 days. The act of borrowing said asset would allow Investor B to trade that particular stock as their own for the next 60 days. Once in possession of the asset, Investor B would then sell the share for the current market price, which in our case is $20, and, at the end of the 60 days, will purchase the same share for $15 and return the borrowed share to Investor A. Since the price went down over the course of 60 days, Investor B would make a profit of $5 for short selling GME. Consequently, if the stock price had increased $5, Investor B would be forced to buy back the borrowed share for $25, $5 more than the original price, which would result in a $5 loss. While there is money to be made in this method of trading, it can be extremely risky since the price of any stock has the potential to rise infinitely. A “short squeeze” is a phenomenon that occurs when a stock’s price spikes abruptly, causing short sellers to buy back their shorted stock in order to cut their losses. This increase in buybacks can result in a further hike in the stock’s price, which can drive even more investors to exit their positions. According to Corporate Financial Institute, a leading provider in online financial modeling and valuation tools, “Short squeezes are typically triggered either by unexpected good news that drives a security’s price sharply higher or simply by a gradual build-up of buying 71
pressure that begins to outweigh the selling pressure in the market” (“Short Squeeze - Overview” par. 5). We commonly see squeezes in companies that are perceived as not having what it takes to maintain a steady business model in the future, which makes them a perfect target for short sellers. The GME short squeeze of 2021 was a prime example of this vicious short squeeze cycle and how it impacts every party involved. GameStop first went public on the New York Stock Exchange in February 2002 at $18/share (“About GameStop” par.4). They were one of the first stores to target the lucrative gaming industry. Their growing popularity and ability to acquire competitors and further diversify their business proved to be an effective strategy at the time. According to GameStop’s Historical Price Lookup, on December 26, 2007 GameStop’s stock closed at an all-time high of $63.68, more than double than the year prior (“Historic Price Lookup”). Although, by 2018 sales started to take a downturn as consumers started to transition from purchasing physical games to buying digital direct-from-manufacturer copies. Consumer News and Business Channel (CNBC), a world leader in business news and real-time financial market coverage, reported that GameStop had also accumulated massive amounts of debt through its acquisitions of Simply Mac, an Apple Inc. Authorized Retailer, and Spring Mobile, an AT&T Authorized Retailer back in 2013 (“The Rise and Fall of GameStop”). By July 20, 2020 GME had reached a new low of a dismal $3.85 per share (“Historic Price Lookup”). GameStop soon became a victim of the dying brick-and-mortar retail industry as they recorded record losses, closed 1,000 stores between December 2020 and March 2021, and had gone through several upper-level management shake ups (“The Rise and Fall of GameStop”). Due to this decline in success, by fall 2020 the majority of GME shares were in shorted positions. According to modeling by Market Beat, a financial modeling firm, by December 31, 2020 the total number of outstanding shares was 102,270,000 with a float size of 55,880,000 shares and an astounding 71,200,000 shares sold short (“GameStop Short Interest Ratio” par.9). “Float size” refers to the number of unrestricted shares that is available to the public, while “outstanding shares” refers to the total number of shares in existence, including those held by company executives, which are not held by the public. Based on the data provided by Market Beat, a whopping 127 percent of the publicly traded shares (float) and 70 percent of all shares in existence (outstanding) were shorted (“GameStop Short Interest Ratio” par.9). With such an immense short interest, the weight on GameStop’s shoulders only kept growing. The people behind such a high short interest are the directional hedge funds that scourer the market for stocks they perceive as overvalued. As reported by Ben McClure, a venture finance advisor, in order to be eligible to participate in these short-only hedge funds, members are required to have a professional background in investing, prove they are making over 1-5 million dollars a year (depending on the specific fund), and be able to meet trading minimums of $100,000-$1,000,000 per transaction (also depending on the specific fund) (McClure par.19). In “Battle for Alphas: Hedge Funds versus Long-Only Portfolios,” written by Duen-Li Kao, the Co-CEO and Co-Chief Investment Officer at Secor Investment Management LP, he analyzes how hedge funds were able to make, on average, better annual returns than conventional long-term investors. He discusses the main structural differences that set hedge funds apart: “What lies beneath performance differences between hedge funds and long-only accounts are the different compensation structures of the two investment forms, differences in investment constrains from 72
guidelines and regulations, and other structural factors” (Kao 23). Hedge funds utilize strategies that take on larger than average risks to seek even bigger rewards that tend to benefit in the shortterm. They also are less regulated by the United States government, which makes it easier for them to take more calculated and advanced positions that thrive on short-term risk. According to Kao, “because hedge funds use diversified and dynamic trading strategies in rather loosely defined operating environment, the return-generating process of hedge funds can be complex and hard to analyze. Most studies show that factors based on market returns of standard asset classes are not sufficient to describe the risks taken by hedge funds” (Kao 25). Comparatively, long-term investors bank on the steady growth of a market over time and do not focus on the short-term loss or gain. This can ultimately limit their returns since its more difficult for these investors to enter or exit positions according to current market conditions. In terms of GME, hedge funds saw this as an opportunity to profit off of the company’s growing losses that were further fueled by the COVID19 pandemic. Much needed talks to increase regulation of hedge funds have been important in leveling the playing field for all investors and mitigating risk of market collapse. Regardless of strategy, class, or position, everyone should have to abide by appropriate rules and regulations. In a piece published by Kevin Campion, a financial advisor, and Arik Hirschfeld, director and senior member on the regulatory council at Guggenheim Investments, they discuss how to better regulate hedge funds to ensure fairness across the entire market. This particular article provides excerpts from a two-day Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) roundtable on stock lending and short selling. In this conversation, points are brought up to help deter aggressive short sellers that could end up blindly impacting the markets through increased stock lending disclosures and transparency; “You want to identify the position holder because you want to create a degree of deterrence against aggressive short sellers and cause such sellers to re-evaluate their strategies as they approach disclosure thresholds” (Campion and Hirschfield 29). This type of regulation should be encouraged to reduce unnecessary negative impacts on the markets. Research has suggested that the leverage hedge funds hold could be the start of the next global financial crisis. Robert Bianchi, leader of the Bianchi Law Group, and Michael Drew, Professor of Finance in the Department of Accounting at Griffith Business School, wrote “Hedge Fund Regulation and Systemic Risk.” The legal environment surrounding hedge fund activity is designed to provide exclusions from regulations and disclosures. Because of this, the hedge fund industry operates with the most flexibility in their investments (Bianchi and Drew 11). Due to the power hedge funds hold, regulatory reform is essential; “policy-makers tend to be concerned that hedge fund losses and failures may lead to financial contagion among other financial institutions, thereby causing a catastrophic failure of the entire system” (Bianchi and Drew 16). Regulatory reform would strive to achieve three goals: “(1) systemic risk reduction; (2) moderating financial innovation; and (3) investor/consumer protection” (Bianchi and Drew 20). Carefully and precisely incorporating these improvements into governmental regulation over hedge funds will help reduce the monopoly hedge funds have created in today’s market, and without this regulation our financial future is strongly manipulable by the financial elite. In contrast to hedge funds are individual investors, also known as “retail investors.” Retail investors are people like you and me, non-professional investors who generally stick to buying and selling securities but whose strategies vary greatly (e.g., long-term, short-term, day trading, etc.). 73
In the case of the GME short squeeze, a coalition of retail investors came together on a Reddit discussion board, WallStreetBets, to take advantage of the high short interest. The man who started the discussion was Keith Gill, also known as “DeepFuckingValue” on Reddit and “Roaring Kitty” on YouTube. According to Gill’s testimony before the United States House Committee on Financial Services, Gill grew up in Brockton, Massachusetts and was the first in his family to graduate college. In his later years, Gill bounced around from job to job and eventually accepted a position at Massachusetts Mutual as the director of Wellness Education in April 2019 (Gill 2). In a clarifying statement before the same committee Gill stated, “I want to be clear about what I am not. I am not a hedge fund. I do not have clients, and I do not provide personalized investment advice for fees or commissions. I am an individual investor” (Gill 1). According to the WallStreetBets discussion board, Gill had alerted users about his take on the undervaluation of GME in early 2019. Gill said he “believed the company was dramatically undervalued by the market. The prevailing analysis about GameStop’s impending doom was simply wrong. Hedge funds and other Wall Street firms have teams of analysts working together to compile research and critique investment ideas, while individual investors have not had that advantage” (Gill 4). As Gill’s message gained traction, so did the price of GME. Soon, hedge funds were pitted against retail investors such that retail investors’ gains were at the expense of the wall street elite. Social media acted as a catalyst to this growing interest in GME. As more and more people started investing in GME, more attention was brought to how social media worked to spread the message. A simple discussion on Reddit soon turned into an uproar on all social media platforms. In his testimony before the U.S House Committee on Financial Services, Gill said, “Social media platforms like YouTube, Twitter, and WallStreetBets on Reddit are leveling the playing field. And in a year of quarantines and COVID, engaging with other investors on social media was a safe way to socialize” (Gill 4). Thousands of memes were made by participants that made fun out of the current events revolving around GME (see figures 1 & 2 below). These memes circulated the feed of billions of users around the globe and created envy among everyday people. Everyone wanted in by way of FOMO, Fear of Missing Out, as record breaking numbers were being reported every day. The movement also caught the attention of big names across the nation. Pictured below (figure 3) is a Tweet posted by Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, a high-end electric vehicle producer. According to modeling by Ortex, a leading market data provider, following Musk’s Tweet the stock soared 157% (Global Financial Analytics). By January 28, retail investors were able to raise the price of GameStop’s stock to a whopping $483.00, which in turn “squeezed” the hedge funds who initially shorted GameStop. As of January 29, 2020, short sellers were on track for losses of about 19 billion dollars (Global Financial Analytics).
74
Ý Figure 1
Figure 3
Figure 2 Ý
Memes, such as the ones shown above (figures 1 & 2), worked as the main driver in the campaign to buy GME stock. It soon became a “meme stock” that allowed anyone to express their opinions and find humor in a world brought down by the global pandemic. While GameStop captivated the attention of billions across the globe, the rest of the stock market was in a downturn. According to charts provided by CNN Business, a financial news website, there was a clear decrease in the NASDAQ Composite Index price as the price of GameStop stock increased and vice versa. Similar social media phenomena and world events have been studied to see their effects on stock market indexes, such as the NASDAQ and S&P 500. An article published in the Science+Business Media academic journal analyzes how events, such as the 2016 Presidential Election, had an impact on the stock market. The article is by Rui Fan, Oleksandr Talavera, and Vu Tran, all of whom hold high-level degrees in academic fields. Both Fan and Talavera are professors at the Birmingham Business School at the University of Birmingham, while Tran is an author and writer who received his doctorate at the University of Nevada and is now an Assistant Professor of Practice in the Arts at the University of Chicago. Fan et al. used Twitter API to collect data that was capable of identifying the content of the Tweet, sending “requests to collect tweet messages that contain the keyword ‘Trump’ and a S&P 500 company name. [They left] the connections open to collect as many tweets as possible during the harvest periods… 3rd October 2016 to 5th May 2017” (5). Fan et al. then convert the raw data into
75
statistically significant information and draw further correlations and connections from it. Based on that data, the authors suggest: [T]he regression results based on tweets with ‘Trump’ and a firm name…are consistent with results in Table 3 (which shows associations between ‘Trump’ tweets and stock performance). There are statistically significant and negative relations between stock price volatility and trading volume. A possible explanation is that all Twitter messages about Trump, a company, and a policy keyword can be regarded as rumors about the referred firm and a political figure. (11) This conclusion, simply put, means that, when there’s a Tweet that contains the word ‘Trump’ and a firm name, that particular stock is more inclined to fall. By analyzing this data from a different event, we can start to form a better picture on why the markets dipped when GME stock price rose and vice versa. The effort to build this huge amount of market-moving momentum had never been seen before. As this exponential increase in GameStop share price dragged more and more hedge funds into debt, many were not ready to go down without a fight. Nathaniel Popper and Matt Phillips, both financial journalists for The New York Times, sat in on a hearing regarding a case of hedge funds potentially tampering with the free market. On January 28, 2021, popular trading app Robinhood decided it was time for them to take matters into their own hands. “Lawmakers at a congressional hearing kept coming back to the chief of the stock-trading app with pointed questions and a key argument: ‘Something very wrong happened here'” (Popper and Phillips par.1). As GME started to top $483/share, Robinhood (along with Charles Schwab) limited GME transactions to sell-only, which made it impossible for Robinhood’s 13 million and Schwab’s 11 million users to purchase GME stock. As trading came to a halt, GME share price plummeted 76 percent to $112.25 within hours (“Historical Price Lookup”). Robinhood was under extreme scrutiny due to what they claimed to be their purpose, to take from the rich and give to the poor. They were founded in Silicon Valley as a way for ordinary people to get involved in the stock market and rose “to success on the strength of its message to democratize finance” (Popper and Phillips par.6). This is the main reason they have been put under extreme pressure both politically and economically for such restrictive actions. Robinhood, like many other commission-free trading platforms, make money by routing their orders through Citadel Securities, one of the largest hedge funds in the game. Citadel then takes these orders and runs them through their trading engines to exploit tiny differences between buying and selling prices and gives Robinhood a cut. While these differences are very small, often mere fractions of a cent, the profits add up quickly (Popper and Phillips par.12). Due to this mutualistic relationship between Citadel and Robinhood, it is safe to say that Citadel has influence over how Robinhood functions, to some extent. In fact, just days before Robinhood halted all purchasing of GME stock, Citadel securities had made a 2-billion-dollar investment to help Melvin Capital, a large hedge fund, float its near 8-billion-dollar debt from its position in GME. While Citadel only had losses of about 3%, Melvin had experienced a near 49% loss on total investments just in the month of January alone (Popper and Phillips par.12). Suddenly, an app that was designed to be “for the people” was now involved with the same hedge funds that had been burned at the stake by retail investors. Only days after this investment in Melvin Capital, Robinhood halted trades that 76
drove the price of the stock down 76 percent (“Historical Price Lookup”). Rather convenient for a company who had just made an investment in one of the hardest hit from the GME short squeeze. In his testimony before The House Financial Services Committee, Robinhood CEO, Vlad Tenev denied claims of any collusion between the two companies. “We don't answer to hedge funds… we serve the millions of small investors who use our platform every day to invest” (Popper and Phillips par.24). Despite this, Tenev would not give straight answers to congresspeople when asked about Robinhood’s action; “Representative Maxine Waters, Democrat of California and chairwoman of the committee, pushed Mr. Tenev to acknowledge that he was not honest with customers about the reasons for the problems in January. When she asked for a yes or no answer, Mr. Tenev repeatedly launched into lengthy answers and Ms. Waters cut him off each time” (Popper and Phillips par.26). This also had Representative Brad Sherman, a Democrat from California, frustrated about his responses as well; “you are evading my question by making up other questions, you are doing a great job of wasting my time” (Popper and Phillips par.29). Evading questions proved to greatly hinder the investigation into this blatant abuse by hedge funds. Hedge funds have shown to hold a considerable amount of influence in today’s “free” markets. While the GME short squeeze was a true display of abuse by these hedge funds, it was not the first and most definitely will not be the last, that is, of course, if we do not mandate new regulations for the activities performed by these funds. Monitoring the potentially market-hindering activity performed by hedge funds can significantly reduce market volatility and risk for all investors involved. In terms of GME, it is crucial that we study the repercussions of this specific market event and learn from it going forward. Thanks to authors like Robert Bianchi and Michael Drew, the path to more regulation on hedge funds is in sight. Furthermore, having people such as Keith Gill leading the way to expose these power-hungry hedge funds works to show national leaders that regulation is desperately needed. In a financial world that is seemingly overgrown with such capitalistic ideals, it is time to rethink, redefine, and trim back the hedges. WORKS CITED “About GameStop.” GameStop Corporation, https://news.gamestop.com/about-gamestop. Bianchi, Robert J., and Michael E. Drew. “Hedge Fund Regulation and Systemic Risk.” Griffith Law Review, vol. 19, no. 1, July 2014, pp. 6–29. world, www.tandfonline.com, doi:10.1080/10854666.2010.10854666. Campion, Kevin, and Arik Hirschfeld. “SEC Holds Roundtable on Securities Lending/Short Selling.” Journal of Investment Compliance, vol. 11, no. 1, Spring 2010, pp. 17–31. Fan, Rui, et al. “Social Media, Political Uncertainty, and Stock Markets.” Springer Science+Business Media, Spring Nature, ser. 2020, 21 Jan. 2020. 2020. Gill, Keith. Testimony of Keith Patrick Gill. 16 Feb. 2021. United States House Committee on Financial Services, https://docs.house.gov/meetings/BA/BA00/20210218/111207/HHRG-117-BA00-WstateGillK-20210218.pdf. 77
“Global Financial Analytics - Short Interest - Trading Signals - Index Rebalance.” Ortex, https://public.ortex.com/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2021. “GME Short Interest Ratio (GameStop).” Market Beat, https://www.marketbeat.com/stocks/NYSE/GME/short-interest/. Accessed 8 May 2021. Hayes, Adam. “Short Selling.” Investopedia, 13 Mar. 2021, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shortselling.asp. “Historical Price Lookup.” GameStop Corporation, https://news.gamestop.com/stockinformation/historical-price-lookup. Kao, Duen-Li. “Battle for Alphas: Hedge Funds versus Long-Only Portfolios.” Financial Analysts Journal, vol. 58, no. 2, 2002, pp. 16–36. McClure, Ben. “Take a Closer Look at Hedge Funds.” Investopedia, 17 Feb. 2021, https://www.investopedia.com/articles/02/111302.asp. Popper, Nathaniel, and Matt Phillips. “Robinhood Takes Heat in Congress.” Gale in Context, The New York Times, 19 Feb. 2021, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A652228855/BIC?u=hono53192&sid=BIC&xid=f2b38dd 2. “r/Wallstreetbets” Reddit, www.reddit.com/r/wallstreetbets/. “Short Squeeze - Overview, How It Works, and How to Spot It.” Corporate Finance Institute, https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/trading-investing/shortsqueeze/. The Rise and Fall of GameStop. Consumer News and Business Channel (CNBC). www.youtube.com, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dX6xBdcdUCg.
78
Sexual Assault in College Campuses By Micaella Haban Sexual assault is a very disturbing and hard subject about which to talk. You will have people that have many different opinions. Sexual assault on college campuses becomes a bit more difficult due to most cases that are being reported having athletes as the offender (Green). Sexual assault needs to be brought into the light of the public eye because it is not taken as seriously as it should be. Many of these victims take their lives, get bullied, leave the school after being assaulted, or report it just to have nothing be done. Too many athletes get a slap on the wrist for the permanent damage they cause to the victims’ lives. “Coaches will protect their players at any cost to prevent them from getting expelled” (Green). Victims do not receive the justice they deserve, and there should be a bigger punishment for these offenders for committing such horrendous crimes. The world focuses so much on college athlete’s performances on the field or court, but that only shows their attitude and persona while in their element of the game. Why doesn’t the world also pay attention to what happens off the field in an athlete’s party life and behavior towards women in a public setting? With this essay, I am going to provide information on campus rape policy, Title IX, and the punishment student athletes receive when proven guilty of assault. I will also be using specific scenes in a documentary called The Hunting Ground, which focuses on college assaults and how the schools tried to take care of the problem. College should be one of the greatest experiences of anyone’s life. Granted, it definitely is, up until a certain point. You have fraternities and sororities to join, parties to go to, and new things to try. It is a rollercoaster of emotions and fun. Unfortunately, college isn’t just about the fun times; serious events happen all throughout college on and off campus, specifically sexual assault. “Know Your IX” is a project of advocates for youth. Their statistics are provided to assist survivors and researchers in accessing recent data around gender-based violence. Their prevalence is as follows: “Approximately 19% of women will be sexually assaulted during their time at college. 90% of campus sexual assaults are committed by perpetrators that the survivor knows. 80% of survivors of stalking know the person who victimized them” (Know Your IX). Colleges are well aware of what is happening on their campus, but only if students report it. Usually, offenders will go after someone they know. Knowing their victim makes it a bit easier to take advantage of them because the victim may not think that they have those intentions in mind. “12% of college student survivors report the assault to police. Survivors cite a number of reasons for not reporting: not wanting others to know; lack of proof; fear of retaliation; did not know how to report; and fear of being treated poorly by the criminal justice system” (Know Your IX). Survivors should not feel as though they cannot be helped in any way. It is mortifying to see this research be done and find out that survivors are scared to receive justice for themselves because the system will treat them poorly. For every 100 rapes committed, only two rapists will ever serve a day in prison. This needs to change. Rape will always be a part of the world, but more awareness needs to be brought up in order to have less cases and a safer college community. Survivors of sexual assault later experience PTSD, depression, drug and alcohol abuse, or, eventually, they take their life. Too many acts of retaliation come to surface when a victim reports an assault. No one seems to want to believe the truth and listen to the facts. Although in many cases that get reported the offender is found guilty, there are certain cases where it is a false report of sexual assault.
79
Only 2-10% of rapes are false reports (Yoffe). Small numbers, but a certain accusation like this can derail a person’s entire college education. Emily J Yoffe, born October 15, 1955, is an American journalist and contributing writer for The Atlantic. She wrote an article called “The Uncomfortable Truth About Campus Rape Policy.” This story follows a 23-year-old man, Kwadwo “Kojo” Bonsu. Bonsu was going to graduate in the spring of 2016 with a degree in chemical engineering from the University of Massachusetts. He is the son of Ghanaian immigrants. Bonsu had joined a fraternity, and he was the only Black member. While at the fraternity house, he ran into another junior who, in the article, was named “RM,” a white female marketing student. (Yoffe) RM declined to be interviewed for this story but provided a written account. They had started talking, smoking marijuana, and eventually kissed. RM had made it clear to Bonsu that she wasn’t interested in intercourse (while straddling him), and he was fine with that. As the moment intensified, RM got on her knees and started to give Bonsu a blow job. For the story, RM wrote that she didn’t realize how high she was; she felt conflicted and wanted to stop, but also felt bad for working Bonsu up then backing out. Bonsu told the reporter that RM said she needed to leave because her friend might barge in on them. The night ended with an exchange of phone numbers, and RM did not remove any clothing; no intercourse had happened. RM was a resident adviser, and, in her written account, she wrote that “as my RA training kicked in, I realized I’d been sexually assaulted” (Yoffe). RM reported him to the Amherst police. Police investigated and closed the case with no charges filed. Yoffe wrote that “[o]n January 12, 2015, Bonsu got an email from a school administrator informing him that a ‘very serious’ allegation of him sexually assaulting a student had been lodged against him and that until a hearing was held, he was subject to ‘interim restrictions’: He could not contact RM, he could visit no dormitories other than his own, he was limited to eating at a single dining hall, and he was forbidden from entering the student union.” (Yoffe). Bonsu received even more cruel restrictions as this case went on. RM had made more accusations, and, when Bonsu denied the allegations and had proof, the university did not appeal his restrictions. Bonsu eventually was totally banned from campus. During Bonsu’s lawsuit he had lost weight, contracted pneumonia, and was forced to drop two classes due to restrictions. During his hearing Bonsu was found not responsible for sexual misconduct but did not return to UMass after this incident. He had applied to universities in other states but was not accepted. Sexual assault should not be tolerated, but a case like this leaves a mess in the system, and unintended consequences. A man got robbed of his education. People should have a right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, but, with every investigation that was conducted, the allegation was never proven to be true. Numerous punishments were set in place for Bonsu, and he was found not guilty. Bonsu was not a student athlete. Student athletes represent colleges, but, when serious accusations are made against them, they receive little to no restrictions. Sports teams roar throughout colleges. They are the “celebrities” of the school. Alumni support them as well as boosters. Some athletes are the face of that college. The world pays attention to the athlete’s performance and attitude on the field, but why isn’t there attention also on their attitude off the field? Many sexual assaults get reported where a student athlete is the offender. Paula Levigne, who is an ESPN Staff Writer, wrote an article published on April 29, 2020 named “NCAA sued by 7 women for failure to protect in alleged sexual assaults.” The article explains how seven women, including three female athletes, are suing the NCAA for not protecting them from alleged sexual assaults by male college athletes. The NCAA has a duty to women “to 80
supervise, regulate, monitor and provide reasonable and appropriate rules to minimize the risk of injury or danger to student-athletes and by student-athletes” (Lavigne). Capri Davis, who was a student athlete at the time at Nebraska, later transferred to play volleyball in Texas due to “the university failing to appropriately respond to her report that two Nebraska football players grabbed her buttocks at a party and did the same to a friend who is also a plaintiff in the lawsuit” (Lavigne). The university had identified the two men to be redshirt freshmen Katerian Legrone and Andre Hunt. The school’s Title IX office found them not responsible for the alleged groping incident. In August 2018, Davis’ friend told university investigators that she had been raped by one of these men and another teammate. The school notified her in January that no finding was being made against the two players. A year later, both men were charged with first-degree sexual assault in connection with a report a different female student made. They were expelled as of April 3. Both of these men “have been named in several additional police reports of alleged sex offenses filed with Lincoln police since news of the university’s finding in the August case” (Lavigne). More allegations started coming up on these two men once the issues were brought to life. The problem with the NCAA is that they allow athletes who have been accused or convicted of sexual assault to avoid taking responsibility by transferring to other schools. Transferring will not stop them from committing these crimes, and a bigger punishment needs to come into play. Men like this believe that they can get away with what they are doing due to them being student athletes, and also they believe this because the university does not do what they should in order for the system to improve, and to prove to these men otherwise. Overall, student-athletes do receive special treatment compared to non-athletes. Many people question whether high profile student-athletes receive special treatment from law enforcement officials or from the athletics department when it comes to sexual assault simply because they are student-athletes. When the media has eagle eyes on certain colleges, many wrongdoings tend to pop up. Cydnee Green is a journalist for ESPN, and she wrote an article called “Student-athletes and crime: Punishment or a slap on the wrist.” In this article, Green mentions how “[i]n 2015 ESPN’s investigative team Outside the Lines explored campus and city police records, while cross-referencing the rosters from the football and men’s basketball teams at 10 college campuses that represent the major athletic conferences” (Green). This report discovered that, over the course of six years at University of Florida, 80 student-athletes had been named as suspects in more than 100 crimes. 56% of these athletes were not prosecuted. Similar numbers appeared with nine other universities (Green). When a crime is committed, every school has their own student code of conduct and a way to handle these crimes. However, it should be the same process for everyone who is enrolled at that college. At some universities, the chain of command can be swayed by the school’s athletics department. Non-athletes do not have this advantage when dealing will alleged sexual assault. This gives athletes an upper hand. In 2010, Darrel Williams of Oklahoma State men’s basketball team was under investigation for rape and sexual battery. Police officers showed up to practice and showed head coach Travis Ford a search warrant for Williams. Ford said they needed to wait because the athlete was required to be in a film. Thirty minutes later, Ford could not locate the player. A year later, Ford confessed that he had heard about the sexual assault allegations by a letter from the victim prior to police showing up. During the trial they “also found out that Ford had called his student-athletes into a meeting and made sure everyone was telling the same story regarding the questioning and investigation of the players” (Green). The article emphasizes that “the university immediately 81
began protecting the student-athlete and did not cooperate with law enforcement” (Green). Student athletes receive protection from their coach as well as the university because they are the brand of the school. They need to receive money for athletics, and student athletes are the way to do it. Student athletes have a fan base and people will come across the globe to come see certain players. They also get protection because the school does not want to have a bad reputation or label. Athletes are the key to funding the school, and schools believe that they need to protect them at all costs no matter the crime. Schools are under pressure from the federal government to show they take sexual assault charges seriously and give out appropriate punishment. Without change, more and more women will start taking their lives, drop out of college, or transfer. Women should be able to come forward as a victim, tell their story, and receive the help they need instead of discontinuing their education. A moving documentary called The Hunting Ground directed by Kirby Dick portrays young women as prey, frequently assaulted and ignored by their universities and law enforcement when they try to press charges. The movie features numerous interviews with women who describe mortifying experiences with raw, emotional power. The filmmakers make it known that victims generally discover that no officials at their schools will take action or even care. Occidental College Assistant Professor of Sociology and activist Danielle Dirks says, “schools are actively and aggressively not wanting to tell the truth about what is going on on their campuses. Because the first campuses to do so will be known as the rape campuses” (Lavigne). No parent will let their student attend let alone apply to a school that is known as a “rape campus.” Every school competes with each other to get students to attend. In this movie, women are asked specifically what fraternity to stay away from and why. Many responded with the frat “SAE,” because “SAE” stands for Sexual Assault Expected. Sexual assault has almost become normalized, and that is horrifying. Dick points a righteous finger at the administrations that know their campuses live up to the title of his movie. Still, nothing has been done to fix it. So many people that are in a position of power hear these stories and still turn their back on victims. Many victims do not report the assault because of the fear of falling into the category of a victim, and society is quick to blame the victim. In one scene, a rape victim reported the assault to an administrator and the administrator compared rape to a football game, and that administrator should think about what she could have done differently (Dick). James Winston was the No. 1 pick in the NFL draft. The fact that Winston was accused of rape in 2012 was not mentioned. He was told that he should not do anything to jeopardize his chances between then and the April 30th draft. The victim Erica Kinsman tells her story in The Hunting Ground. Winston acted as her protector after she was accosted at a bar, and he took her back to an apartment and raped her. Her account of what happened is graphic and frightening. Kinsman said, “Winston pushed [her] face into the floor as he raped her.” Two of Winston’s teammates were present and, when interviewed, said the sex was consensual (as did Winston), and one had filmed part of the encounter on his phone but later deleted it and threw the phone away. Police did not do their part in the investigations and did not interview other witnesses at the bar or question Winston before the case became inactive status, where it remained for most of a year until the media found out about the accusation. At this time, Florida State was on its way to a national championship, and Winston was portrayed on ESPN at the moments of his greatest glory. While he won the Heisman Trophy, Kinsman was called a “slut” and a “whore.” Kinsman received a lot of backlash, and fans of Winston said she was just “looking for attention.” Kinsman ended up leaving Florida State. Fans will unfortunately be very opinionated and blame the victim rather than the offender.
82
Sexual assault has become too normalized in today’s society. The system needs to be changed. Although many people think that sexual assault among college campuses should not be talked about due to the topic being very disturbing and involving clashing opinions, I think sexual assault needs to be brought into the light because it is a very serious topic that is not taken as seriously as it should be. Too many people have taken their lives due to nothing being done after they have been assaulted. WORKS CITED Dick, Kirby. The Hunting Ground. Radius-TWC, 2015. Green, Cydnee, et al. “Student-Athletes and Crime: Punishment or a Slap on the Wrist?” Signpost, 19 Apr. 2017 Lavigne, Paula. “NCAA Sued by 7 Women for Failure to Protect in Alleged Sexual Assaults.” ESPN, ESPN Internet Ventures, 30 Apr. 2020 “Statistics.” Know Your IX, 13 Mar. 2017. Yoffe, Emily. “The Uncomfortable Truth About Campus Rape Policy.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 29 Sept. 2017.
83
Should Self-Driving Cars be Legal? By Johanna Wolter Since the industrial revolution, humans have used technology and machines to make certain tasks easier; this includes paying for groceries with our phones and using 3D printers to build bridges and buildings. One of the biggest technological developments that might change our lives in the next few years is the adoption of driverless cars. From name brand companies such as Tesla, Lexus, Ford, and Toyota, every auto manufacturer is working on their visions of the driverless car and is actively testing on open roads. There is no question about the possibility of autonomous cars in the future. But, there are many potential pros and cons that these vehicles bring with them. I think that autonomous cars should be made legal because there are plenty of ways driverless cars could improve our lives in the future by reducing the number of traffic accidents, saving the environment by being more eco-friendly, creating new jobs, and lowering cost savings associated with time. Safety is the number one concern when it comes to driverless cars. Many people argue about the case of what happens if an autonomous vehicle crashes into a pedestrian or another car. Is it the driver's fault, who never had control of the vehicle in the first place? Is it the artificial intelligence or the automated system developers’ fault who created the software? Studies show that in 2010, there were nearly 5.5 million car accidents per year in the United States. This translates to one crash every 15 minutes, or around 88 crashes per day (Frickey, 2020). According to data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 81% of those accidents are caused by human error. Humans make mistakes. They are prone to getting distracted easily and to have poor judgment. I believe that while a self-driving car may not be perfect, the technology will be less flawed than a human driver. The computers used to calculate the proximity and stopping distance to other vehicles are more reliable than a human (Matthews, 2018). Unlike people, computers do not get distracted by other passengers or cell phones. This shows one of the biggest potential benefits of autonomous cars: the extensive reduction in traffic accidents, injuries, and deaths. Although some people believe that the gas industry would lose revenue, especially if driverless cars were 100% electric, I think that autonomous cars will benefit our planet by being more ecofriendly. The opponents argue that not only in the U.S. but around the world, millions of people who work in the fossil fuel industry are slowly losing their jobs. While this may be true, this argument does not take into account the new jobs that will be created if driverless cars are legal. Especially as multiple companies race to put the first self-driving car into action, the autonomous vehicle industry is creating jobs. According to the online employment marketplace ZipRecruiter, autonomous job listings increased by 27% in January 2018. After 2018, the number of job postings grew 250%, showing evidence that start-ups are expanding and hiring aggressively (Reinicke, 2018). Furthermore, according to the U.S. Department of Energy, automated cars could reduce energy consumption rates by 90% to 200% (Chang, 2021). Considering that the transport sector is responsible for over 1/4 of the world’s gas emissions, autonomous cars could make a huge difference for our environment. Finally, some say that the cost of a self-driving car would be substantially higher than an average vehicle. While it may be true that, in the beginning, the high price is too high for many people to afford an autonomous car, I think the cost will go down over time. Moreover, because self-driving cars are safer, they will reduce any accident-induced costs, which means insurance costs will be 84
lower as well. Additionally, these cars do not sustain the same kind of wear-and-tear as humanoperated cars, showing savings in slower depreciation and also in better fuel efficiency. These little things will add up, meaning that, while self-driving cars may be more expensive upfront, they can easily save more money in the long term (Hendricks, 2020). With autonomous cars also comes cost-savings over time. When a computer takes over the driving responsibilities, the driver can use the time to do other things like catching up on emails, homework, or chatting with passengers while not having to worry about road safety. Furthermore, self-driving cars could significantly improve traffic conditions and congestion, which would help to reduce commute times for drivers in high-traffic areas but also to maximize gasoline usage (Walker, 2020). Over time, higher speed limits might be installed as an option if a larger amount of people are using self-driving cars. Making autonomous cars legal will improve our lives by making our roads safer, lowering environmental pollution, creating new jobs, and bettering our cost and time efficiency. Fully driverless cars are still at a testing stage, but partially automated technology has been around for years, like automated parking. As self-driving cars continue to get closer and closer to being on the roads, there are still some barricades in the way. Also, driverless cars have to be widely adopted to see the full results of these improvements possible that come with them. Even though there are plenty of debates on both sides of the table, self-driving cars should be the way of the future and will eventually become the dominant mode of transportation. REFERENCES Chang, P. (2021). Will self-driving vehicles be eco-friendly? Environment. Retrieved from https://www.environment.co/za/eco-green-living/will-self-driving-vehicles-be-ecofriendly.html Frickey, J. L. (2020). Pros and Cons of Driverless Cars. The Frickey Law Firm. Retrieved from https://www.frickey.com/blog/pros-cons-driverless-cars Hendricks, D. (2020). 5 Reasons you should embrace self-driving cars. Startupgrind. Retrieved from https://www.startupgrind.com/blog/5-reasons-you-should-embrace-self-drivingcars/ Matthews, K. (2018). Legal Implications of Driverless Cars. American Bar Association. Retrieved from https://americanbar.org/news/abanews/publications/youraba/2018/ december-2018/legal-implications-of-driverless-cars/ Reinicke, C. (2018). Autonomous vehicles won’t only kill jobs, they will create them, too. CNBC. Retrieved from https:// www.cnbc/2018/08/10/autonomous-vehicles-are-creatingjobs-here-where.html Walker, A. (2020). Are self-driving cars safe for our cities? Curbed. Retrieved from https://archive.curbed.com/2016/9/21/12991696/driverless-cars-safety-pros-cons
85
Out of Sight, Out of Mind By Ray Crichton Have you ever had to wait at a bus stop with no seats? Or attempted to sit on a public bench between its oddly placed “arm rests”? These are just a few examples of what is known as defensive architecture. Defensive or hostile architecture is a way of styling infrastructure to restrict certain behaviors in people. Some of these discouraged activities include sleeping, sitting, standing, or generally using a certain space for too long. Hostile architecture can take many forms, ranging from mild to forceful. It can even be disguised as art to hide its true purpose. More forceful types of hostile architecture can be seen through the use of spikes, altered benches, or removing items completely (de Fine Licht 29-30). As more public infrastructure becomes regulated by hostile designs, people who rely on them, like the homeless, are forced to move elsewhere. By physically displacing homeless people out of cities, cities might get to claim a false sense of progress, but is it really working? Although defensive architecture may be successful at making homelessness less visible, it is an inhumane and ineffective approach to reducing homelessness. Hostile architecture worsens the living conditions of homeless people by making it difficult and uncomfortable to meet their bare necessities, like proper sleep. Many times, people without homes are left no other choice but to turn to the streets as their only form of shelter. Out of necessity, they may take cover under storefront awnings, bridges, or street corners. However, as hostile architecture becomes more prevalent in urban areas, homeless people are forced to either adapt to these uncomfortable structures or move somewhere else. One example of this can be seen through the use of anti-homeless spikes (Gavaghan). Certain urban areas choose to install anti-homeless spikes in spots that homeless people would usually use for cover, such as storefronts, shop windowsills, and underpasses. They are usually made out of metal or concrete, and they are arranged in such a way that makes sleeping on them very uncomfortable and impractical. While some homeless people may be able to outsmart these anti-homeless spikes (Loder), other times it can be impossible to sleep at all. More commonly seen, hostile benches deter homeless people from sleeping on them through the use of unnecessary “armrests” and impractical designs. Not having a comfortable or even remotely flat surface to sleep on can prevent homeless people from getting a full night’s rest. Those who do not adapt to these harmful structures are forced to move elsewhere, exposing themselves to additional complications. By preventing homeless people from sleeping on benches, doorways, and street corners, hostile architecture can cause homeless people to move out into less sheltered areas, putting their health more at risk. One of the leading health problems among homeless people is hypothermia (Zhang et al.), which worsens as homeless people lose access to urban wind barriers. Some of these wind barriers might include sleeping by the side of a building or doorway, both of which are made unavailable through hostile designs. In addition to dealing with harsh weather, a study by Vogel et al. found that homeless people are more likely to experience chronic pain than other groups of people, due to uneven sleeping surfaces and poor access to healthcare. The Vogel et al. report determined that 43% of homeless people experienced moderate to severe chronic pain. Another study reported this figure to be even higher, at 59% of homeless people reporting chronic pain (Fisher et al.). Both studies showed that chronic pain caused further complications with walking and sleeping, which increased the need to rest in 86
public. Implementing hostile architecture and intentionally making these spaces even more uncomfortable are a direct attack on the health of the homeless population. This creates an evergrowing loop where misery is treated with more misery. Although hostile architecture can be successful at deterring homeless people from public areas, it does not benefit homeless people the way some people claim it does. Opposing arguments, such as those presented by de Fine Licht in his publication “Hostile Urban Architecture: A Critical Discussion of the Seemingly Offensive Art of Keeping People Away,” claim that by taking away the ability to sleep on a public bench, homeless people will be encouraged to go to a homeless shelter instead. While this may be true in some cases, it is a politically based solution, rather than an evidence-based one. In his article, de Fine Licht states, “if benches that cannot be slept on are installed at bus stops, they could lead people to seek more secure places to sleep, such as shelters, which benefit everyone.” However, shelters are not a viable option for many homeless people. According to David Pirtle, a member of the National Coalition for the Homeless, many homeless shelters are highly overcrowded and can be hotspots for disease, lice, theft, and violence. Because of how crowded they are, shelters can also be overwhelming and difficult to live in for people with PTSD or other mood disorders (Pirtle). A Yale Law School report by Hunter et al. adds that many times shelters are unable to accommodate couples and families. Additionally, waiting in line to get a bed can take hours and is not guaranteed, making it difficult for homeless people working fulltime jobs to get back in time to secure a bed. It is because of these reasons that so many homeless people prefer to, or are unable to, stay at a shelter, and thus they sleep outdoors instead. Defensive architecture is not just a way to regulate homeless people, though, and it impedes everyone’s ability to interact with an urban area outside of consumerism. An impractical bench may be successful at deterring homeless people, but it is also successful at deterring everyone else. As Smith and Walters argue, urban areas are designed with the intention of creating revenue. “Property developers, regardless of whether they are developing shopping centers, office blocks or apartment towers, wish to attract users with some level of disposable income so they are able to engage with the consumptive paradigm that commercially governed spaces demand” (Smith and Walters 2). Any activity outside of this, like resting, is regulated through hostile architecture. Poor and underprivileged people, like the homeless, are often unable to participate in this consumerist lifestyle to the extent that a city may demand and are thus shunned by the city through the installation of hostile architecture. Similarly, Doherty et al. agree that any group of people who cannot afford this consumerist lifestyle is deemed “undesirable” by city expectations. Defensive designs reduce urban areas to commercialism by regulating the way people are expected and allowed to behave in an urban environment. Additionally, using hostile architecture to control who is allowed in a city and who isn’t is damaging to a city’s sense of community and promotes gentrification. Limiting non-profitable activities like resting reduces a city’s ability to interact outside of monetary situations. This breeds isolation and an “each-to-their-own” mentality, which is further emphasized by the way cities address homelessness. The use of hostile architecture not only shows that homeless people are not welcome, but it also demonstrates a city’s unwillingness to fix the root of its homelessness issues. Rather than spending money on installing hostile architecture, funds could be spent providing housing for the homeless, which could save the city money in the long run (Chung et al.; Larimer 87
et al.). Yet, governments continue to show “little commitment to developing affordable or social housing” (Boyd). Anti-homeless architecture tells the public that a city is more willing to remove its poor people through hostile designs and gentrification than help them recover financially. Another way that cities avoid taking responsibility for their economic inequality is by disguising their hostile architecture as inclusivity or art. Through the use of distraction, hostile architecture is able to fly under the radar of many people who are unaware of its true purpose. An example of this can be seen in the rainbow-painted boulders found around San Francisco’s Castro district (Brinklow). As discussed in the Smith and Walters report, hostile defenses can many times be "disguised” as art to cover up the negative ways that it's affecting marginalized groups. Although the restaurant that owns the boulder claims that the rock is a Zen garden, the size of the boulder compared to the size of the “garden,” its placement and the lack of raking patterns say otherwise. Additionally, by painting the boulder rainbow and making it seem as if it is part of the Pride aesthetic commonly seen around the Castro district, the restaurant is avoiding taking responsibility for the way that its boulder excludes homeless people. However, I do not blame the restaurant for placing the boulder, but rather I blame the city for its lack of affordable housing and lack of aid for the homeless. Hostile designs for deterring homeless people aren’t only used in San Francisco, though, they can be found in nearly every city around the world. Examples of these cruel designs have been observed from Honolulu to New York, to Paris, and all the way to Tokyo (Ruetas). In Europe, various cities have enforced similar hostile designs and policies to remove homeless people from public spaces (Doherty et al). Doherty et al. point out how defensive mechanisms in Europe might be disguised, similar to the distraction technique used for San Francisco’s anti-homeless rainbow boulder. By disguising their hostile architecture and making it seem like it isn’t being used to deter the homeless, European cities might trick the public into thinking these defenses are made for “the wider social good, rather than vested interests or personal benefit” (Doherty et al). Although they may vary in their approach, hostile architectures all share the common goal of making life for homeless people more difficult than it already is. But it doesn’t have to be this way, and it shouldn’t. What all of these points boil down to is an issue of ethics. As with other ethical issues, responses to the use of hostile architecture will differ depending on a person’s moral compass. De Fine Licht claims that defensive measures are meant to target behaviors, not people, even if the behaviors being regulated have a strong correlation to homeless people. He also claims that “Making it impossible to stand outside stores or in stairwells, or sleeping on benches should not be that detrimental to their chances of fulfilling their needs. Of course, we are not helping them either, but this is not something that is obligatory” (de Fine Licht 34). Essentially, de Fine Licht is defending the use of hostile architecture by turning a blind eye to who it affects the most by ignoring the trends that this type of architecture seems to follow and by questioning whether people in a community have the moral duty to help each other. On the other hand, Doherty et al. argue that, whether or not they are installed specifically to target homeless people, “the impact is disproportionately felt by homeless people because of their reliance on public space for conducting their day-to-day activities.” Boyd, and Smith and Walters further drive this point by arguing that allowing these hostile designs to continue harming and 88
displacing the homeless population is damaging to a city’s sense of community. Smith and Walters state, “the defensive architecture that shapes and disciplines desire in the city also begins to dictate who is considered a member of the ‘public’” (6). Rather than help those who are struggling, cities are using hostile designs and stigmas to exclude and dehumanize homeless people. So, what happens if one of us ends up in a situation like that? Who will help us when we’re the ones in need? Reducing homelessness should not be done through the use of hostile architecture, but rather by providing more affordable housing, easier access to government support, and free or affordable healthcare. Housing First is a policy that addresses housing as the first step to ending homelessness. The policy focuses on providing immediate housing for homeless people as quickly as possible and providing support for any additional issues once housing has been taken care of first (Tsemberis). This kind of housing model has been implemented in several cities around the world, improving the physical and emotional health of the previously unhoused people, according to a report done by Chung et al. and another report by Larimer et al. In contrast to “treatment-led” programs—which treat homelessness through a series of linear steps—permanent housing provided by the Housing First policy is a good way to give homeless people a head start to get back on their feet. Whether it’s in Europe or America, homelessness is a big issue worldwide, and the only way to fix it is by addressing it through housing, not by placing hostile architecture that removes a homeless person’s access to basic human comfort. Although supporters like de Fine Licht might claim that hostile designs encourage the homeless to stay at shelters, Pirtle and Hunter et al. demonstrate that homeless shelters aren’t an acceptable option for many homeless people. Furthermore, using hostile architecture is damaging to the community as a whole, as it breeds isolation, reduces cities to consumerism, and sets limits on who is “worthy enough” to exist in a public urban space. If cities were to address their economic inequality and implement the Housing First policy, not only would they save money in the long run, but they would also make some genuine progress on reducing homelessness as demonstrated by Chung et al. and Larimer et al. By providing housing for the homeless and helping them integrate back into society, there would no longer be a need for spikes, boulders, or hostile benches. WORKS CITED Boyd, Jade L. "Gentrification and playful disregard." Resources for Feminist Research, vol. 33, no. 1-2, spring-summer 2008, pp. 103+. Gale OneFile: Contemporary Women's Issues, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A195680109/CWI?u=hono53192&sid=oclc&xid=7d17bd3a. Accessed 19 Nov. 2021. Brinklow, Adam. “Giant Pride-Colored Rock Outside Castro Restaurant Sparks Controversy.” Curbed SF, Curbed SF, 24 June 2019, https://sf.curbed.com/2019/6/24/18715749/restaurant-castro-rainbow-lgbt-pride-rock-sanfrancisco.
89
Chad Loder [@chadloder]. "Paris. Metal poles (left) to keep homeless people from seeking shelter. People become hackers (right) out of necessity." Twitter, 28 December 2019, 9:50 AM, https://twitter.com/chadloder/status/1211011512225030144?s=20. Chung, Timothy E, et al. "Housing First for older homeless adults with mental illness: a subgroup analysis of the At Home/Chez Soi randomized controlled trial". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, January 2018. doi:10.1002/gps.4682. de Fine Licht, Karl. “Hostile Urban Architecture: A Critical Discussion of the Seemingly Offensive Art of Keeping People Away.” Nordic Journal of Applied Ethics / Etikk i Praksis, vol. 11, no. 2, July 2017, pp. 27–44., https://doi.org/10.5324/eip.v11i2.2052. Doherty, Joe, et al. “Homelessness and Exclusion: Regulating Public Space in European Cities.” Surveillance & Society, vol. 5, no. 3, Sept. 2002, https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v5i3.3425. Fisher, Rebecca et al. “The nature and prevalence of chronic pain in homeless persons: an observational study.” F1000Research vol. 2 164. 30 Jul. 2013, doi:10.12688/f1000research.2-164.v1 Gavaghan, Colin. “Lex Machina: Techno-Regulatory Mechanisms and 'Rules by Design'.” Lex Machina, vol. 15, no. 1, 2017, pp. 123–145., https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/handle/10523/9199. Accessed 8 Dec. 2021. Hunter, Julie, et al. Welcome Home the Rise of Tent Cities in the United States. National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty, March 2014, https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/WelcomeHome_TentCities_final_re port.pdf Larimer, Mary E, et al. "Health Care and Public Service Use and Costs Before and After Provision of Housing for Chronically Homeless Persons with Severe Alcohol Problems." JAMA, 2009. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.414 Pirtle, David. “Why Some Homeless Choose The Streets Over Shelters.” NPR, 6 Dec. 2012, https://www.npr.org/2012/12/06/166666265/why-some-homeless-choose-the-streetsover-shelters. Reddit user U/trustmeijustgetweird. “This just got installed on a popular sleeping bench. Honolulu, HI.” r/HostileArchitecture, Reddit, 19 Apr. 2021, Ruetas, Faith. “15 Examples of Hostile Architecture around the World - RTF: Rethinking the Future.” RTF | Rethinking the Future, https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/designingfor-typologies/a2564-15-examples-of-hostile-architecture-around-the-world/. Accessed 8 Dec. 2021.
90
Smith, Naomi, and Peter Walters. “Desire Lines and Defensive Architecture in Modern Urban Environments.” Urban Studies, vol. 55, no. 13, Oct. 2017, pp. 2980–2995., https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098017732690. Tsemberis, Sam J. Housing First: The Pathways Model to End Homelessness for People with Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders, Hazelden, Center City, MN, 2015, pp. xiv9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47669330_Housing_First_The_Pathways_M odel_to_End_Homelessness_for_People_with_Mental_Illness_and_Addiction_Manual Vogel, Marc, et al. "Chronic Pain Among Homeless Persons with Mental Illness." Pain Medicine, vol. 18, no. 12, Dec. 2017, pp. 2280+. Gale OneFile: Nursing and Allied Health, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A607480142/PPNU?u=hono53192&sid=bookmarkPPNU&xid=da4f2c4f. Accessed 30 Nov. 2021. Zhang, Paige et al. “Cold Weather Conditions and Risk of Hypothermia Among People Experiencing Homelessness: Implications for Prevention Strategies.” International journal of environmental research and public health vol. 16,18 3259. 5 Sep. 2019, doi:10.3390/ijerph16183259
91
Unmasking the Web By Jayden Doong Many people shop online today due to the convenience of doing it quickly and efficiently. Purchasing items online is also easy since we can use virtual methods of payments, such as credit and debit cards, and even cryptocurrency. However, when it comes to shopping online, there is a hidden “layer” of the internet that also is used for shopping. This hidden section of the internet includes areas known as the “deep web” and “dark web.” This includes hidden sections of the internet that require a special set of tools and knowledge to access rather than just a quick search on a mobile device or computer. This means that your everyday internet user most likely isn't capable of accessing the deep and dark web. However, a user who does gain access is able to browse sites anonymously and even purchase illegal goods with almost no ways to be tracked down easily. Despite the complexity of these webs, the deep web is easier to access compared to the dark web due to the infrastructure created and coding used to create these sites. With these webs in existence, it creates problems in society around the globe. Because of the nature of how users often use these webs, usually for contraband, items can end up in the wrong hands. Gemma Davies, an associate professor who has an intensive background surrounding criminal justice, states, “While it is difficult to ascertain the extent of offending on the dark web, a 2014 study found the most common type of content requested by those using hidden services via Tor was child pornography followed by black marketplaces” (Davies 2). This is merely one example of the uses of the dark web, and this can lead to other uses as well. With this in mind, users have to use cryptocurrency to purchase items. These items are mostly contraband, which can be potentially dangerous. However, tactics and tools are being used to combat these situations by law enforcement and military intelligence. This is why the deep and dark web need more regulation to deter criminals more now. Contraband is one of the most sought-after items on the deep and dark web. These items can range anywhere from individual goods like drugs and counterfeit items to dangerous weapons and stolen items. Drugs, the most common use for going on the deep web, are highly sought after. Because of the laws in place, gaining access to these drugs can be nearly impossible and expensive. However, on the deep web, finding a source can be easier and less expensive. This alone is a huge appeal to drug dealers and other criminals. Mihnea Mirea, who is a researcher and has intensive experience in criminal justice studies and Cybercrime, states a truly remarkable fact about drugs on the deep web. Mirea states, “In January 2016 alone, the total drug revenues, excluding prescription drugs, on the Darknet crypto-drug markets were estimated to be between $12 and $21.1 million” (Mirea 1). This is a staggering amount of illegal product that is being shipped and smuggled between countries. This has the potential to lead to more drug problems that some countries already face, and it encourages dealers to sell because of the simplicity and anonymity. While drugs are a large portion of products sold, they are not the only problems that exist. Firearms are also one of the most common purchases on the deep web. Firearms that are sold here can be anything from a common semi-automatic handgun to a fully automatic military grade rifle. Thomas J. Holt, a professor with a PhD in technology for crime and deviance, made a statement based on research he had conducted on sales of firearms. Thomas states that sales were, “Sixtyfour percent of the products advertised were handguns, 17 percent were semi-automatic long guns, 92
and fully automatic long guns were 4 percent” (Holt 1). This is a surprising statistic that mostly handguns were being sold rather than traditional automatic weapons. However, there are reasons for this. For starters, most people who are buying a gun on the deep web most likely can't legally own a gun due to a previous crime they may have committed. With this in mind they most likely could use the firearm they just purchased to commit another crime and potentially shoot someone. This would make sense why handguns were mostly purchased rather than a large rifle due to the practicality that a handgun has a superior advantage over large weapons. Handguns can be concealed and transported much more easily especially when a person can just put one in their pocket. Firearms are generally the most dangerous items sold, but, again, stolen and counterfeit items are just as big as firearms. Stolen virtual items and counterfeit items play just as big of a role in society. In terms of these items, stolen goods and counterfeit items can include: “counterfeit currency, stolen credit card details, forged documents” (Davies 1). Counterfeit items can also extend to faux clothing, physical dollar bills, fake identification cards, and passports. Various reasons for the purchasing of counterfeit goods, but it can lead to many problems as well. First, counterfeit items can hurt the economy and in the end consumers who purchase the items. Ryan Williams, a marketing content manager, states the effects of counterfeit items, such as “sales tax that nations lose out on globally each year is estimated to be from $70bn to $89bn, with an additional loss of $8bn to $22bn from other taxes. This is money that could be going into hospitals, roads and schools in order to keep citizens healthy, to facilitate economic growth in a country and to promote education and future innovation, but which instead finds itself in the hands of criminal organizations.” (Williams 1). All of the mentioned counterfeit items help create the problem of less money in the economy per country, but counterfeit money is generally one the worst causes of this problem but not limited to. Stolen identities and fake identification cards also have a large role because of the capabilities they can potentially have. Fake identities allow people to slip in and out of places while being disguised and safe. Meanwhile, stolen identities can cause the victims to be in a situation where they do not belong. Ben Luthi, who has worked in financial planning, banking and auto finance, states, “If an identity thief steals your Social Security number (SSN), opens new accounts in your name and never pays, it could ruin your credit history. Not only can this impact your ability to get credit, but it can also hurt your job prospects and increase your auto and homeowner’s insurance premiums” (Luthi 1). Services where one can hire someone on the deep and dark web to steal identities is common and can devastate one's life. This proves the power that exists on the deep and dark web and the damage that can be created. However, one important note is that there is only one way to purchase anything on these webs, and that currency is cryptocurrency. Cryptocurrency is slightly similar to a debit card or credit card but has some other drastic differences. Cryptocurrency is a digital form of payment that is essentially a medium of exchange that one can use to purchase items online. Just like in the world how there are different types of currency, it is the same for cryptocurrency. Cryptocurrency is known as “coins” with different types, such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Tether, Litecoin and XRP. There are many different types of cryptocurrencies that exist. As to how users gain access to these currencies can range from many methods. CryptoCurrency Facts, a website dedicated to providing useful information on anything related to cryptocurrency, states, “new coins are created when transactions are confirmed by a process known as mining” (CryptoCurrency Facts 1). To sum up this process of “mining,” a computer with a lot of processing power with graphics cards (used for 3d and intensive video uses) 93
solves complex equations in a program and then can in return create part of a cryptocurrency. This is only amongst one of the methods, but it is the most common and efficient. With this method for acquiring digital money, this allows users on the deep web and dark web to have more access to purchasing items. Various uses of using cryptocurrency exist but are often used for crime or illegal purposes. The U.S. Department of Justice, the federal government agency responsible for enforcing laws and administering justice across the United States, states the three main uses of cryptocurrency on the deep web being, “engage in financial transactions associated with the commission of crimes… engage in money laundering or shield otherwise legitimate activity from tax, reporting, or other legal requirements… implicating the cryptocurrency marketplace itself, such as stealing cryptocurrency from exchanges through hacking or using the promise of cryptocurrency to defraud unwitting investors” (U.S. Department of Justice 5). These are the most common uses of cryptocurrency for malicious reasons. With the example of blackmail and ransom, a form of attacking that takes place is where “criminals routinely infect victims’ computers and servers with ransomware, which is a type of malicious software designed to encrypt or otherwise block access to valuable data until the victim agrees to provide a specified payment” (U.S. Department of Justice 7). This form of attacking is highly important because users may think that there is no option but to follow the attacker’s instructions and pay them. This results in almost no possible way to be tracked because of the way cryptocurrency is created. This is merely one way of extortion and crime with cryptocurrency. With ransom as one typical use of crime with currency, another is gaining access or distributing items to create a crime. The items have a vast range of items. Criminals and terrorists “buy and sell “tools of the trade”—i.e., items that may or may not themselves be unlawful but are used for subsequent unlawful conduct. Such tools include raw materials to manufacture drugs or explosives, as well as cyber tools and computing capabilities (including servers and domains) to engage in cybercrime or to Figure 4: Examples of Cryptocurrencies in Investigations 7 conduct malign influence campaigns over social media” (U.S. Department of Justice 6). As mentioned, the items range from physical weapons and materials to computer software. For the raw materials and weapons, these can cause devastating damage to an area or even group of people. With the shipping of materials to potentially create a bomb, this puts a large amount of people and property at risk. As for the computer software side, with the tools spread and in the hands of criminals, they can leak classified information on the government or common individuals. Potential classified information leaks can lead to a large amount of loss in revenue, harm in relationships, and lawsuits. If an individual's information is leaked, they can potentially be targeted and lose access to their data or have others see their private information. With ransomware as a common use, fundraising is also surprisingly a use. Criminals can gain and accumulate cryptocurrency funds for criminal organizations or terrorists. Cryptocurrency has allowed organizations and terrorist groups to grow much larger than ever. There are many ways these groups can raise money for their efforts. One way is child exploitation. A case known as “Welcome to Video” “reveals, bitcoin has been used to monetize the production of child exploitation material—a development rarely seen before the rise of cryptocurrency” (U.S. Department of Justice 7). Along with just child exploitation for high sums of cryptocurrency, social media can also be a source of income: “In August 2015, for example, an individual was sentenced 94
to over 11 years in federal prison for conspiring to provide material support and resources to the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (“ISIS”), including by using social media to instruct donors on how bitcoin could provide untraceable financial support to terrorist group” (U.S. Department of Justice 7). Criminals have the capability to persuade donors to give large amounts untraceable funds. Social media provides an opportunity for terrorists and criminals to spread their influence and help gain efforts in their cause. Cryptocurrency provides a layer of security for them and is much safer and more efficient than traditional paper bills. Cryptocurrency helps their network grow larger without leaving almost any trace as to where the funds go and lead to. This is a large part of where regulation needs to be in place. It’s not just the deep web and dark web, but also cryptocurrency. With more regulation, it will cut down on crimes and help trace criminals. However, not all is malicious in certain scenarios. With the mentioned examples of how the deep web and dark web need more regulations because of the crime they create, there certainly are legitimate use cases of the deep and dark web along with cryptocurrency. Among the legitimate uses of cryptocurrency is, “by eliminating the need for financial intermediaries to validate and facilitate transactions, cryptocurrency has the potential to minimize transaction costs and to reduce corruption and fraud” along with “to avoid inflation in fiat currencies” (U.S. Department of Justice 5). When one travels to another country, inflation does occur so cryptocurrency bypasses inflation which is an attraction for the use of cryptocurrency. Cryptocurrency can help save money and time when making transactions which proves the effectiveness of using cryptocurrency. Besides saving money, “cryptocurrency can provide new access to markets, including to individuals in the developing world who are not served by banks or other financial institutions” (U.S. Department of Justice 5). With existing places where this is true, it allows individuals to be able to purchase items online with a safe currency rather than traditional paper. This will allow those specific places to slowly grow and expand economically over time. With these benefits in mind, another benefit that is right in between the problem and advantages is that cryptocurrency provides a layer of anonymity and privacy. On the other hand, this layer of secrecy is a large amount of what the problem is on the dark and deep web. The fact that there is little to no way to trace the cryptocurrency and where the money is transferred to is part of what needs more regulation. A counter to the benefits of cryptocurrency is that “cryptocurrency could, if widely adopted, reduce the ability of national governments to regulate their economies through monetary policy” (U.S. Department of Justice 5). This is part of where regulation needs to be in place since cryptocurrency could hurt the economy in specific scenarios. While there needs to be more regulation on the deep and dark web, there is a large set of tools and techniques that are currently being used during investigations and prosecutions. For instance, one current method of regulation in use today that law enforcement utilizes is “‘Open Source Intelligence’ (OSINT). OSINT is data and information that is collected legally from open and publicly available resources. Obtaining the information doesn’t require any type of clandestine effort and it is retrieved in a manner that is legal and meets copyright requirements” (Davies 2). OSINT data is one current method that is active in terms of policing the deep web, which can help track down a criminal. It helps jump start an investigation and narrows down the general activity of a criminal that law enforcement can pinpoint. Another strategy used by law enforcement is by going undercover or impersonation. What this means is the police will pretend to be a customer or other user. Davies states, “Infiltrating online forums requires police to establish a controlled surveillance operation in which officers covertly act as administrators or moderators of illicit 95
forums. Online undercover operations require a significant degree of skill as officers must learn to mimic the patterns and style of online personas they are impersonating, and this represents a significant investment of time and resources for LEAs” (Davies 4). With this type of method of regulation in place, this allows police to potentially capture a criminal or locate the location if possible and eliminate one criminal at a time, which will increase the safety of individuals depending on what the criminal was selling. A suspect will have almost no clue that they are communicating with law enforcement, so they may spill out other important information that law enforcement may use during a search or investigation. The most efficient method policing on the dark web is by hacking itself. Hacking is the process of gaining unauthorized access to data in a system or computer. Law enforcement uses this during investigations to help their search. With the process of hacking, law enforcement, “unmask a device’s identifying information, which will lead to its physical location, and then potentially the user’s identity, LEAs use hacking tools which enable them to remotely access and install malware on a computer without its owners’ permission” (Davies 2). Law enforcement hack the computer target “with the intention of accessing the target computer and converting it into a surveillance device thus circumventing the need to know a target’s location. Once installed the malware can cause a computer to perform any task, even forcing it to covertly upload files to a server controlled by law enforcement or instruct the computer’s camera or microphone to collect sound and images” (Davies 2). With these two methods of policing, they prove to be effective during investigations. What these methods result in is the location of a criminal and any illegal data that is stored on the target computer that can be used as evidence in a trial of the criminal. Removing one database from a computer at a time with the use of hacking is the most important tool right now in terms of regulation. Hacking by law enforcement, as long as it is needed in criminal investigations, needs to be pushed forward more so that there is less criminal activity. Despite the few benefits that the deep web and dark web along with cryptocurrency offer, it is clear there needs to be a substantial amount of ordinance in place. With strong evidence about the contraband that sells often on the webs, it is clear the damage they can potentially create. Physical weapons can put individuals at risk due to the potential damage that firearms can create. Along with just physical weapons, materials and drugs smuggled out, can place large areas at risk. Materials can be used to create explosives and drugs could end up in the hands of young adults or even children. Along with just weapons and materials, cryptocurrency itself is part of the problem. With little to no way of tracing where the money goes is the complete opposite of physical money or money with bank accounts. This provides an opportunity of secrecy for criminals to take advantage of and use at their will. With more regulation in place, law enforcement can prevent those transactions from being made in the first place for physical items. As for cryptocurrency, regulation could help increase the chances of being able to trace where large amounts of cryptocurrency is used and what it was spent on. Regulation increase is what matters on the webs and cryptocurrency. With clear evidence from the U.S. Department of Justice, the effects of the deep web and dark web are at a high toll today. It is irrefutable that crime exists with a layer of secrecy and that the tools that are in place today do in fact help during investigations but could be improved. Increases in regulation provide an even safer layer of security for victims who could fall victim to a criminal on the deep and dark web and would help law enforcement. With a more centralized structure of specific types of 96
cryptocurrency, this would allow for tracking if used for illicit uses. With the complexity of investigations on the dark web and deep web, there is no real way in today's time to prevent crimes from happening anonymously. However, tools and methods have the potential to become enhanced and provide improved safekeeping with an adjustment to current regulation in place. WORKS CITED Davies, Gemma. “Shining a Light on Policing of the Dark Web: An Analysis of UK Investigatory Powers.” The Journal of Criminal Law, vol. 84, no. 5, 2020, pp. 407–426., doi:10.1177/0022018320952557. Holt, Thomas J. “People Are Secretly Buying Handguns on the Dark Web.” Futurity, 24 Apr. 2019, www.futurity.org/guns-dark-web-2044652/. “How Is Cryptocurrency Created?” CryptoCurrency Facts, 18 Feb. 2021, cryptocurrencyfacts.com/how-is-cryptocurrencycreated/#:~:text=Cryptocurrency%20is%20created%20by%20code,created%20in%20so me%20other%20ways. Luthi, Ben. “What to Know About the Effects of Identity Theft.” Experian, Experian, 30 Sept. 2020, www.experian.com/blogs/ask-experian/how-long-can-the-effects-of-identity-theftlast/. Mirea, Mihnea, et al. “The Not so Dark Side of the Darknet: a Qualitative Study.” Security Journal, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 7 Aug. 2018, link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s41284-018-0150-5. Mittler, Elmar. “Exploring Criminal and Illegal Enterprise: New Perspectives on Research, Policy & Practice.” Bibliothek Forschung Und Praxis, vol. 44, no. 2, 2020, pp. 291–294., doi:10.1515/bfp-2020-2091. Royal, James. “What Is Cryptocurrency? Beginners Guide to Digital Cash.” NerdWallet, 25 Feb. 2021, www.nerdwallet.com/article/investing/cryptocurrency-7-things-to-know. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/taking-dark-web-law-enforcement-experts-idinvestigative-needs United States. Office of the Deputy Attorney General. Cyber-Digital Task Force. Cryptocurrency Enforcement Framework: Report of the Attorney General's Cyber Digital Task Force. United States Department of Justice, Office of the Deputy Attorney General, CyberDigital Task Force, 2020. Accessed 8 Apr. 2021. Williams, Ryan. “What Are the Economic Effects of Counterfeit Goods?” Red Points, 22 Jan. 2021, www.redpoints.com/blog/what-are-the-economic-effects-of-counterfeit-goods/.
97
Redlining: The Invisible Walls By Olivia Cropper I grew up in Indianapolis, Indiana, and when I say that most people think of corn fields, flat land, and every typical Midwest “drive-by” state. I can’t blame them because, if you don’t know where to look, you won’t see the millions of people in my city, and you certainly won’t see the Black communities who suffer. It’s a well-hidden secret, so much so that I couldn’t have told you the reason for the systematic disenfranchisement of Black people that I could see all around me. But like I said, I could see it. I could see it on the sidewalks, the highways, the houses, and the socioeconomic status of my peers that made no sense in connection with how hard their families worked. I have only recently come to know of one of the biggest contributing factors, and yet one of the least talked about, namely “redlining.” The kicker is, the practice of redlining occurred in the mid 1900s, but I can still see its effects today. Redlining is a historical zoning practice that restricted access to credit and disproportionately affected African American communities. It had detrimental effects, particularly economically, educationally, and socially on the future of the African American communities in Indianapolis, Indiana. This essay will explore the scope and depth of these effects as it is important to understand the root of the issue to take action against it. Ian Appel and Jordan Nickerson examined the long-term effect redlining had on the housing market through a statistical lens. Access to quality education is extremely connected to socioeconomic status and housing. Lawrence Yun and Nadia Evangelou evaluate this in their article titled “The Social Benefits of Homeownership and Stable Housing,” in which they detail how educational achievement is affected by stable housing. One of the largest social effects in Indianapolis was the building of highways through Black neighborhoods. Andrew L. Townsend Sr. assesses the highway’s role in the destruction of thriving communities and explores how they were strategically placed through the city. Redlining, sometimes referred to as “zoning laws,” started as a part of the New Deal Initiatives that began in the early 1930s (“New Deal Programs”). It was a practice in which financial maps were drawn by real estate professionals hired by the federal government to “grade” a neighborhood based on its financial state. The areas were marked by color and the neighborhoods marked in red, which indicated poor financial standing, were the “redlined” areas. These neighborhoods were disproportionately Black neighborhoods. The original reason this was done was to try to prevent the foreclosure of houses and to avoid giving out loans to people who wouldn’t pay them back. This was part of an effort to recover from, and prevent, another Great Depression (Krimmel). Redlining was not a practice that was exclusive to Indianapolis, it in fact took place all over the country. The exact lasting effects are different for each state and city that it happened in but one of the universal outcomes was the economic effects these zoning laws had on Black communities. As stated before, the purpose of these laws was to restrict credit access and loan access to people who lived in certain areas which were determined by maps drawn by the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) in 1940 (Appel). This is shown to be true in a paper written by Ian Appel and Jordan Nickerson in which they analyze exactly how much credit restriction has had a lasting effect on minority communities, specifically Black communities.
98
Because these maps were not presented under the pretense that race played a role in the creation of them, sufficient evidence has to be shown that it was a factor in order to make an investigation worthwhile. There are arguments that the zoning maps created by HOLC had nothing to do with race because it was never explicitly stated by the organization. The maps were rooted in the idea that the decline of urban neighborhoods was inevitable, which was a theory popularized by Homer Hoyt, an FHA chief economist. On the surface, this does not seem like a racially charged statement. At the time, many people were moving out of the city and into surrounding suburban areas. This shows that there was in fact a decline in demand for urban housing, however the actual methods used by the HOLC when creating these maps did have discriminatory elements. There were factors like age of housing and distance from industrial sites taken into account, but the deciding factor was the race and ethnicity of the neighborhood’s inhabitants (Appel 6). “The race and ethnicity of residents played an important role in determining neighborhood ratings; note that areas with even a small minority population were generally deemed riskiest.” (Appel) This is due to Hoyt and the HOLC working together to create the redlining maps based on an economic theory of Hoyt’s. He wrote a dissertation called One Hundred Years of Land Values in Chicago: The Relationship of the Growth of Chicago to the Rise of Its Land Values, 1850-1933 in which he ranked different races in order of desirability, Black people and Mexicans being at the very bottom. This theory was the other half of the foundation of redlining. Essentially, Redlining is based off of an inherently racist economic theory (“Racial Restriction”). Both private lenders and federal agencies used these maps to limit mortgage credit for minorities. This created a large discrepancy in mortgage markets for decades, for example “of the 2.7 million FHA-insured loans between 1935 and 1950, just 50,000 went to African American communities, half of which were under a military housing program” (Commission of Civil Rights). This fact helps to illustrate the enormity of a disadvantage people of color faced in the housing market, which in turn has lasting economic effects. The long-term effects were later seen in the 1990s and into the 2000s, decades after the zoning laws were ended through the Fair Housing Act of 1968. Appel and Nickerson’s study finds that in 1990 house prices at the census block level were approximately 5% lower for the areas that were redlined by the HOLC which resulted in a loss of about $7,500 per household. They also found that redlined areas have 5-7% more vacant homes and that there were 3.3% less homeowners which indicates that many families were inclined to rent. All of these things contributed to a drop in home prices in these neighborhoods which made it much more difficult to buy and sell property (Appel). This coupled with the demographic of these neighborhoods, that being predominantly people of color, in an area like Indiana where racism and the Ku Klux Klan have run rampant for decades, created a stark contrast in home prices and an unfavorable market for the redlined areas. Even if we don’t look at the circumstances of Black wealth before this time period, it is easy to see how much of a disadvantage the Black community had, especially within the housing market. Even in 2011, only 45% of African Americans were homeowners compared to 74% of white people (Yun). Home ownership has many benefits for a person’s wellbeing, including stable housing, educational achievements, health, crime, and more. This economic and housing crisis that redlining created would bleed into these other issues. There were many adverse effects which would tear apart communities and limit access to quality education, which was more accessible to homeowners. Research done by Andrew Yun and his associates suggest, “The decision to stay in school by 99
teenage students is higher for those raised by home-owning parents compared to renter households.” As per the economic side of this issue, it is easy to see that in redlined areas, and for the black communities that live there, stable housing and homeownership is not a guarantee. This leads to less people in these areas continuing on to higher education which contributes to a cycle of poverty. Your quality of life is improved with stable housing, and the absence of that contributes to all sorts of mental hardships, education struggles being one of them. Another way in which the education system has been affected by redlining is school funding. In the United States the school you go to is typically assigned by where you live. These are known as districts and each school is funded by the property taxes of the neighborhoods around them. As a result, in redlined areas, schools are typically severely underfunded. The funding that schools do not receive from their neighborhoods is supplemented by the government, but it is often not nearly enough (Edwards). This leads to disparities in education quality between neighborhoods. The only difference is that in Indiana there is a program called “school choice” in which students can choose whatever school in the state they would like to attend and are not confined to the district they live in. This is a great program that allows students to attend schools that better cater to their interests, meet their specific needs, or even have more funding. The issue comes in the fine print of this program. While there is school choice, if you are outside of the district of the school you wish to attend, you need to provide your own transportation. This leaves out a majority of children in redlined areas who do not have reliable transportation and subsequently cannot take advantage of this program. This is a particularly large issue in Indianapolis because of the condition of the public-school system. As I said earlier, there is a large disparity between the quality of education at each school. For example, I went to an International Baccalaureate high school, which was a part of the publicschool system. My sophomore year of high school there was a merging of multiple schools because the public-school system could no longer afford to keep all of its high schools open. Suddenly, I was teaching the boy sitting next to me in pre-calculus how to do division because the quality of education at his school was so different from mine. These are the kinds of hurdles that children in these neighborhoods still have to jump through to this day to try to escape from this cycle of poverty. It’s not easy and when you aren’t even given a basic resource such as education; it makes it infinitely more difficult. Lack of education and housing as a result of redlining causes adverse social effects of their own but if we go back to the source, we can see all of this intertwine through Indiana Avenue. Indiana Avenue was a thriving Black neighborhood in the middle of Indianapolis in the early 1900s. The residents, which were 1/3 of the city’s Black population, created a self-sustaining community within its confines against all the odds. There was a thriving jazz scene, an abundance of successful black-owned businesses, and they even created their own police and fire department. Eventually Madam CJ Walker, a Black woman who was the first female self-made millionaire, decided to call it home. She went on to build her factory there and contributed an enormous amount to the community. It was a sanctuary that the brutal racism of Indiana couldn’t touch. This community contributed greatly to the economy of Indianapolis. For that reason alone, it would be expected that the city would rather leave the community be than interfere but that was not the case. The city did a number of things to try to shut down Indiana Avenue once it started garnering too much attention from white people, the first being that the Indianapolis Police department started 100
conducting raids on establishments which slowed foot traffic (“The Ethnic Cleansing of Black Indianapolis”). The community was further destroyed by the construction of Interstates 65 and 70. The instances of running highways through Black communities was widespread throughout the United States. There is discourse regarding whether or not highway planning was racially motivated. Bradford P. Sherman takes a mixed methods approach to this argument and uses statistics to determine whether neighborhoods of color were truly disproportionately affected by the highways on a national scale. His findings conclude that, while there is not a statistical correlation, his research has shortcomings in the scope. He conducted his research on a national scale, which does not address the fact that a majority of these projects are conducted at a local scale. He states that “With such a large scope, there is very little ability to craft the narratives that transformed each of these communities” (Sherman). He also states that “Though there were very few instances where we could find a willful desire to break through and obstruct neighborhoods, as had been alleged, there were more cases, such as St. Louis or Baltimore, where the interstate highway planning was used as a method of keeping a racial divide in place between whites and blacks” (Sherman). In closing, his research challenges the stance that there was racial bias in all highway planning on a national scale, but it also recognizes that it did occur on a local level. Indianapolis is one of those locations in which there was racial bias within interstate planning. In Indianapolis, Interstates 65 and 70 run straight through Black communities on purpose. It cut off neighborhoods from each other, further lowered property values, and shut down businesses. Redlining had deemed all of these neighborhoods as credit risk areas so, to the city, they had no value. The community formed the Hubbard Center Civic League, which was meant to try to resist the plan, but they were steamrolled by the government and ignored (Townsend). All of the efforts to save the community were in vain and the interstate was built anyways. The government was able to build on private land by using eminent domain and took properties from the people (How I-65/70 Shattered Black Neighborhoods). The introduction of these interstate systems took all of the money out of these communities, which was already scarce. The decades of hard work were destroyed, and the residents were left without their income. This made it so that residents could not afford to live there without the money from their businesses and lack of access to credit as a result of redlining. The Black community that once thrived there either moved away or fell back into the cycle of poverty. Those communities that were destroyed were never rebuilt, and the decades of generational wealth that this community could have created was lost. To this day the areas around the highways are not home to thriving businesses as they are still undesirable and cut off from the city. Sanctuaries like that unfortunately don’t last in a place and time that will do anything to keep Black communities from succeeding. There is so much discourse in today’s day and age surrounding the existence of systemic racism in the United States. There will always be someone to argue that it is a new day and that the transgressions of our predecessors do not affect Black communities anymore. Unfortunately, these laws were built to outlast their makers, and they were created for the purpose of inequality long after they were taken out of practice. All of these studies show that they were extremely successful in their goals. What starts as an economic policy has the power to spread to every other aspect of life. Not everything is black and white, and not every issue can be solved by viewing it as such. If we continue to deny the lasting effects of practices such as redlining, there will never be enough 101
change. Equality does not come easy, but it is achievable, and the first step is recognizing our shortcomings. Redlining paved the way for years of struggles and hardships for Black communities. Its legacy is what we have to look at instead of the laws themselves. We can’t fix the damage done by their introduction in the 1930s, but we can look at what remains of them and try to remove them from our society. We have the responsibility to help the communities that have been actively and passively oppressed for so long. The second step comes when we look at Black communities and stop seeing their struggles as the fault of individuals. The reality is that our nation made it that way, and hopefully through education of Black history and current Black struggles there can be strides made towards a better future for those who have been pushed aside for far too long. WORKS CITED Appel, Ian and Nickerson, Jordan, “Pockets of Poverty: The Long-Term Effects of Redlining” (October 15, 2016). https://ssrn.com/abstract=2852856 “Commission on Civil Rights”, 1959, Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Edwards, Kelly “Redlining: How It Continues to Affect Education Today – Activism, Meet Impact: Novel Hand.” Activism, Meet Impact | Novel Hand, 17 June 2020, novelhand.com/redlinings-effect-on-education-today/. Edwards, Kelly “Redlining: How It Continues to Affect Education Today – Activism, Meet Impact: Novel Hand.” Activism, Meet Impact | Novel Hand, 17 June 2020, novelhand.com/redlinings-effect-on-education-today/. “How I-65/70 Shattered Black Neighborhoods.” Indianapolis Recorder, 27 Dec. 2018, indianapolisrecorder.com/c57d7e9c-09e4-11e9-b276-83369364ae4e/. Krimmel, Jacob. “Persistence of Prejudice: Estimating the Long-Term Effects of Redlining.” SocArXiv, 2 Mar. 2018. Web. “New Deal Programs: Selected Library of Congress Resources.” Introduction: New Deal Web Guide (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress) “Racial Restriction and Housing Discrimination in the Chicagoland Area.” Omeka RSS, digitalchicagohistory.org/exhibits/show/restricted-chicago/other/redlining. Sherman, Bradford P., "Racial Bias and Interstate Highway Planning: A Mixed Methods Approach" 01 January 2014. CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal, University of Pennsylvania, http://repository.upenn.edu/curej/176. “The Ethnic Cleansing of Black Indianapolis.” New America, 4 Feb. 2020, www.newamerica.org/indianapolis/blog/indiana-avenue-ethnic-cleansing-blackindianapolis/. 102
Townsend, Andrew L. In the Crosshairs: How Systemic Racism Compelled Interstate Development Through Black Neighborhoods, 1 Dec. 2020, scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805/24749. Yun, Lawrence, and Nadia Evangelou. 2016, Social Benefits of Homeownership and Stable Housing.
103
MILITARY ISSUE(S)
Pearl Harbor from Afar by Anonymous
104
Military Suicide: Protecting Those Who Protect Us by Tiara Richardson It’s a normal Monday workday on the ship; but for me, it’s another day of struggle. I have to put a smile on my face even when I don’t want to. I have to greet everyone with respect because they told me to. I have to fix my uniform because they told me to. I’m just a last name and a position that can easily be replaced in a blink of an eye. No one cares about how my day is going. I’ve been stressed out since this deployment began, and I am on the verge of reaching my breaking point. Every day I wake up with anxiety and depression, but when I talk to someone about it they say things like “you’re lying” or “get over it.” Everyone is always against me, and no one cares. I don’t want to deal with this anymore. Maybe when I’m gone everyone will care about me. Suicide has become an increasing concern worldwide ranking as the 2nd leading cause of death, with approximately 800,000 deaths by suicide per year (Fox et al. 1). Within the military, suicide has become the leading cause of death, and numbers continue to increase as years go by. Active duty service members and veterans face risks of committing suicide every day, and those risks increase the likelihood of following through with the act if service members do not seek the mental help they need. It is important to protect those who fight to protect us. The military should not rely on psychiatric hospitals to help service members with mental health issues. The U.S. Military should implement a course that focuses on helping service members recover before and after combat to decrease the likelihood of suicide. Service members are viewed as tough and fearless heroes, but many fail to realize that they are humans with everyday battles as well. Being a United States Soldier, Sailor, Marine, or Airman, you’re held to a high standard, and you are deemed to be brave, but being brave can be exhausting. Many service members cry out for help every day, but they go unheard until it’s too late. Others cry in silence because they may be looked at as weak due to the decorum maintaining and selfreliant culture of the military. The stigma of seeking mental help has affected the military on a large scale, where service members rather commit suicide than seek help and be looked at as weak. As Hope Arvanitis mentions, “The impact of a suicide affects the entire military organization” as well as the civilian community (57). A total of 541 service members have committed suicide, while documents indicate that 1,219 service members attempted suicide in the year 2018 (Fox et al., 1). Evidence suggests, for every person who has committed suicide, at least 135 individuals know that person (Harrington-LaMorie et al. 143). When an active duty service member or veteran takes their life, their families, friends, co-workers, and others surrounding them experience devastating and drastic effects. The traumatic experience puts those closest to the suicide victim in a state of bereavement that has some ‘thematic issues’ (Harrington-LaMorie et al. 143). Along with shock and potential trauma, Harrington-LaMorie et al. touch on a great number of experiences of suicide loss: The common experiences of suicide loss survivors supported by existing research include feelings of abandonment and rejection; shame and stigma; concealment of the cause of death as suicide; blaming; and increase self-destructiveness or suicidality. Other shared reactions by survivors may include guilt; anger; search for explanation/desire to understand why; relief; shock and disbelief; the family system effects/social support issues/social 105
isolation; and activism, obsession with the phenomenon of suicide, and involvement with prevention efforts (144). Surviving family and friends experience a great number of feelings that they tend to question, whether it is their fault that this tragedy has happened. The guilt makes the survivors feel ashamed of themselves with the thought of “I could have done something to stop him/her” or “It’s my fault this happened.” With the inability to cope with grief issues, military suicide survivors are put in a state of distress that increases their vulnerability to having mental health issues, and possibly having suicidal thoughts or attempting suicide. Suicide loss survivors are continuously bombarded with additional challenges that make the grieving process harder to cope with and seem never-ending. When military death stories are published in the media or an investigation is taking place, it can take as long as a few months to a year, which will hinder the grieving process of the individual’s family and friends (Harrington-LaMorie et al. 146). The lengthy process could draw the suicide loss survivor into isolation, which is where they are vulnerable to having deep suicidal thoughts and potentially taking their own life. The effect of a military death by suicide has the capability to increase the suicide rate within the civilian side when mental health plays a part. Arvanitis mentions a comment by a military spouse stating, “back in 2006 when my husband was deployed to Afghanistan, a fellow Army wife, whose husband was also deployed, walked into her garage one day, put herself and two young children in the car, turned on the gas and killed them all” (58). Military suicide survivors, particularly a military spouse, may feel their life has been shattered to a million pieces while dealing with grief, and the inability to cope can damage their mental health increasing their vulnerability to suicidal ideation. The suffering from mental trauma and physical injuries are factors that increase the likelihood of suicidal ideation in which service members may feel as though they are a burden to those around them, and that suicide is the only solution. Many service members and veterans that think about suicide struggle to determine what’s stronger between reasons for living (RFL) and reasons for dying (RFD). As suicidal individuals connect to more RFL, their purpose in life becomes more meaningful reducing suicidal thoughts or behavior (Fox 2) and vice versa as the connection to more RFD increases. An assessment was conducted among a group of 167 service members where they were to write down 5 RFL and 5 RFD. The RFL category included family, friends, responsibility to others, specific plans and goals, future-vague, enjoyable things, religion, and self (Fox et al. 3). The RFD category included others/relationships, feeling alone, feeling hope, and religion (Fox et al. 3). This assessment helps to understand what the leading factors are of wanting to commit suicide and wanting to live. The results indicated that family (39.7%), enjoyable things (15.1%), and future-vague (11.0%) were the most common RFL, while general descriptors of self (26.9%), escape general (19.7%), and other/relationships (19.1%) were the most common RFD (Fox et al. 3-4). The mental toughness and self-reliant culture within the military prevent service members from seeking help. This fuels their depression making it more difficult to cope with additional stressors which increases the negative descriptors of self. Due to the nature of military service, combat tends to weaken the three protective factors against suicide: belongingness, usefulness, and aversion to pain and death (Harrell & Berglass 2). Research has found that there is a connection between deployment and risk factors for suicide 106
(Reger et al. 688). In addition to dealing with stressors such as difficult physical environments and significant language and cultural barriers, deployed service members experience uncertainty, isolation, danger, and fatigue while in a combat zone (Cunha et al. 63). The continuous exposure to death and violence has a strong effect to increase one’s pain tolerance and numb one’s fear of death which is a factor in multiple suicide attempts. As Cunha states, “those returning from OEF/OIF missions are 1.81 times more likely than those never deployed to die by suicide when they were still active duty, and the hazard increases to almost three times after they leave the military” (63). During deployment, service members are separated from any social support they may have and may feel useless due to the inability to tackle any conflict at home while they are away. The nature of combat is a traumatic experience, especially for those who have never experienced combat before, and it can have a great impact on the development of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder along with other mental health issues. A great number of service members develop severe PTSD months after combat deployment. Service members and veterans experience depression, isolation, and hopelessness while also having PTSD, traumatic brain injury, and other injuries during time of service and after serving (Arvanitis 57). It has been found that the desire for suicide consists of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness (Reger et al. 698), and service members with multiple combat deployments are at a higher risk of committing suicide (Arvanitis 56). Service members are regular humans and live their days as one until the uniform is put on. In addition to dealing with multiple stressors within the military, daily stressors separate from the uniform fuel a service member’s depression and anxiety. Active duty service members and veterans face obstacles leading to mental health issues that could potentially increase their likelihood of committing suicide. Many veteran suicides stem from becoming homeless sometimes after serving. Data shows that there is a high suicidality rate among veterans that have experienced homelessness versus those who have not (Tsai et al. 936). Suicide attempts among veterans who experienced homelessness were 5 times higher within a 2-year span (6.9% versus 1.2%), 2.5 times higher within a two weeks span (19.8% versus 7.4%), and 2 times higher within a lifetime (44.6% versus 17.0%) (Tsai et al. 936). Many veterans become homeless due to the suffering of mental illness and other factors, such as financial issues, substance abuse, and no social support. The military have implemented many programs that focus on helping service members when facing mental health challenges, but these programs are not doing enough to subside the issue we are facing. Suicide prevention hotlines have been implemented for service members and veterans and are available for friends and family members. Within six months of returning home from overseas, the prevention services administer a mental health screening by the Post Deployment Health Reassessment (“7 Counseling Options” 54). Many other counseling options available for active duty service members, veterans, and their families include Tricare, which provides therapy services, Department of Veterans Affairs, Family Advocacy Programs, and even an installation’s Chaplain. Family members are open to using these services without acknowledging the service member with which they have any relations (“7 Counseling Options”). These programs provide service members with the confidence that any information provided in a session is strictly confidential.
107
Although these programs, websites, and hotlines are available, they direct those who need help in many different directions rather than on-the-spot assistance. There are so many different varieties that it could possibly be overwhelming for a service member or veteran, which could result in them not wanting to seek the help they need. It may also be difficult for some veterans that are at risk of suicide to seek help because a percentage of veterans later become homeless after serving, which adds to the already existing mental issues or physical injuries. Many other programs claim confidentiality of personal sessions, but not all counseling services obeyed by an individual’s rights to privacy. Information can be provided to individuals that service members work with, and, once that information is known by that service member, they are discouraged and unwilling to proceed with counseling. Many may say psychiatric hospitals are available for suicidal patience, but not all service members and veterans seek help when they develop suicidal thoughts. When service members do seek the help they need, the obstacle of changing a permanent duty station could put a toll on the relationship between the service member and health care provider. Service members will become “reluctant” and unwilling to begin a new treatment or continue with the healing process they are currently in (Harrell and Berglass 4). It’s also a challenge for a service member’s new chain of command to know that their new personnel are suffering from mental health issues along with the complexity of the issue. Many psychiatric hospitals are also understaffed, which can hinder the outcome of a successful healing process. According to Sari Harrar, there are about 30,451 practicing psychiatrists within the US, making 9 psychiatrists per 100,000 people (2021). The low number of nurses and doctors could present poor patient outcomes and a danger to patient’s safety. Patients will develop the feeling that their doctor or nurse may not care about their situation when they are not being seen as much as they should. The shortage of psychiatrists makes it almost impossible to schedule a session in a timely manner. Furthermore, psychologists within the service are also decreasing in numbers and lack the necessary training needed to treat patients with mental health issues. According to military provider surveys, approximately 10 - 20 percent of military behavioral health professionals have been trained in any of four posttraumatic stress disorder treatments (“Staffing and Access”). Low numbers of any mental health professional interferes with the ability to provide care for patients and results in a great number of tired and burned-out employees. The psychiatric hospital is meant to treat patients with mental health issues; however, many patients with mental health issues who are emitted into a hospital continue with the act of committing suicide. Suicide has an effect on the hospital doctors and nurses due to the close relationship that develops between patient and resident. As Dr. Morgan Hardy mentions, having the desire to help a suicidal Army veteran, she states how much of an effect his death had on her when helping him for just three weeks. She reveals: Losing a patient to suicide felt very different from losing a patient to cancer or pneumonia. I did not find myself shielded from the full weight of the loss by a sense of professional distance. As his psychiatrist, it had been my job to get to know the life of my patient, and thus his death was deeply personal for me—akin to losing a friend. The sense of loss was compounded by a sense of duty I felt as a military officer to leave no man or woman behind.
108
I repeatedly asked myself, ‘What more could I have done? What might have prevented this?’ (Hardy 19) Dr. Hardy herself experienced guilt and self-doubt due to the loss of her veteran patient by suicide. However, Dr. Hardy used her patient’s death to mention how complex suicide prevention can be. In order to help tackle the issue of suicide in the military and among veterans, the U.S. military should implement a program that does two things: eliminate the stigma associated with seeking mental health and develop a course for service members that focus on the importance of mental health. Social and individual stigmatization has an impact on a service member’s willingness to seek help (Gibbons et al. 366). As Gibbons et al. state, “Military culture unintentionally perpetuates a mental health stigma through military leaders as well as other aspects of the health care and military environment” (366). By tackling the stigma of seeking mental health, it can help reassure service members that they are not alone and that seeking help does not make them weak but stronger for putting themselves out there and going through the healing process. It will give them a sense of comfort and relief. To also tackle the stigma, leadership should hold individuals who mock those that seek help accountable for their actions. “Leaders throughout the chain of command must actively promote a constructive command climate that fosters cohesion and encourages individuals to reach out for help when needed. Seeking help is a sign of strength" (Arvanitis 59). The implementation of a course that focuses on mental health should occur before service members deployed into combat and after returning home. The before-deployment course should illustrate what will be seen, what will take place, and how to cope while being in combat. This portion of the course is preparation for combat that can be provided by a mental health professional. The after-deployment course will discuss ways to heal and overcome what has occurred during combat by a mental health professional as well. This course will not only be available to those who developed mental health issues, but it is a requirement for the whole unit. Along with the before and after deployment mental health courses, service members will be able to have one-on-one sessions with a mental health professional if they feel they need or want it. This course could help tackle the development of mental health issues before escalating into suicidal thoughts. Those who have already developed any mental health issues will feel more comfortable when setting one on one sessions because they see others around them doing the same. It will cost little to nothing to have a mental health professional prepare service members for the mental hardships they will experience as they enter into combat. A simple conversation with just the right individual could help our service members on the right path to a healthier mental state of mind. Losing someone by suicide is a difficult obstacle to overcome. Military suicide is continuously increasing and affecting everything and everyone surrounding it. Family members and friends could become suicidal while dealing with the grief of losing a service member by suicide. With links between combat deployment and mental health issues, it is important to tackle this issue directly and immediately. With the potential of increase for the suicide rate on the civilian side, it is putting a burden on our nation. The implementation of a before and after combat deployment course by the United States Military could help decrease the likelihood of suicide. If we want to 109
see our service members come home, we must act to make this possible. The protection of our service members is in our hands, just as our protection is in theirs. WORKS CITED Arvanitis, Hope. "Eliminating military suicides: combating the stigma to seeking help." The Exceptional Parent, vol. 43, no. 5, May 2013, p. 56+. Gale OneFile: Psychology, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A351950540/PPPC?u=hono53192&sid=PPPC&xid=350b8b63. Cunha, Jesse M., et al. “Contrasting the Impacts of Combat and Humanitarian Assistance/Disaster Relief Missions on the Mental Health of Military Service Members.” Defence & Peace Economics, vol. 29, no. 1, Jan. 2018, pp. 62–77. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10242694.2017.1349365. Fox, Amber M., et al. “Evaluating Suicide Risk Using the Reasons for Dying-Reasons for Living (RFD-RFL) Index in a Military Psychiatric Inpatient Setting.” Psychiatry Research, vol. 295, Jan. 2021, p. N.PAG. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113 Gibbons, Susanne W, et al. “Military Mental Health Stigma Challenges: Policy and Practice Considerations.” The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, vol. 10, no. 6, 2014, pp. 365–372. Elsevier ScienceDirect Journals, doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2014.03.021. Hardy Morgan. “Coping with Combat Casualty: A Military Veteran's Suicide.” The American Journal of Psychiatry Residents' Journal, vol. 15, no. 4, 16, June 2020, p. 19, Psychiatry Online, https://doi-org.hpu.idm.oclc.org/10.1176/appi.ajp-rj.2020.150411 Harrar, Sari. “Inside America's Psychiatrist Shortage (Special Report).” Psycom.net - Mental Health Treatment Resource Since 1996, 12 Mar. 2021, www.psycom.net/insideamericas-psychiatrist-shortage#_ftn2. Harrell, Margaret C., and Nancy Berglass. “Losing the Battle: The Challenge of Military Suicide”. Center for a New American Security, 2011, www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06113. Harrington-LaMorie, Jill, et al. “Surviving Families of Military Suicide Loss: Exploring Postvention Peer Support.” Death Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, Mar. 2018, pp. 143–154. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/07481187.2017.1370789. Reger MA, et al. “Military Deployments and Suicide: A Critical Examination.” Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, vol. 13, no. 6, 2018, pp. 688–699., doi:10.1177/1745691618785366. "7 counseling options for service members and their families." The Exceptional Parent, vol. 45, no. 7, July 2015, p. 54+. Gale OneFile: Psychology, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A427665818/PPPC?u=hono53192&sid=PPPC&xid=ec6dd104.
110
"Staffing and access, suicide prevention, and spending are among leading concerns." Clinical Psychiatry News, vol. 35, no. 4, 2007, p. 8. Gale OneFile: Psychology, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A163337047/PPPC?u=hono53192&sid=PPPC&xid=fc97b785 Tsai J, et al. “Addressing Veteran Homelessness to Prevent Veteran Suicides.” Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.c.), vol. 69, no. 8, 2018, pp. 935–937., PsychiatryOnline Core, doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201700482.
111
Adolescent Dependents: Silent Soldiers in a Military Lifestyle By Cassandra Walti When it comes to the military community, a great deal of research has been done on the deployment life of the military members themselves without consideration of how their dependents have also been impacted. Some argue that being a military child sets that individual up for success, and thus it positively influences them; however, it is becoming more evident that there are also negative impacts on family relationships or dynamics, consequences from multiple school transitions, as well as the individuals having stress and anxiety, eating pathology, and identity issues. All of these topics are a reality to many military dependents and show how living a military lifestyle and having to relocate frequently can cause social and psychological issues for that individual through their prime developmental stages as an adolescent. These concepts will be explored using information from many articles, including first person perspectives, third parties looking in, example dialogues, family dynamic alterations, and even what happens after a service member retires. One particular, guaranteed aspect of military life is frequent relocation also known as “permanent change of station” (PCS) moves. For most active-duty members, these moves occur roughly every two to three years. This leads to “adolescent military-dependents changing schools 6–9 times between kindergarten and high school graduation, a rate 3× higher than their civilian peers” (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering & Medicine, 2019) which develops into a psychosocial stressor for dependents. How do these dependents deal with being relocated from their home every three years, being unable to decide where they will go and by what date they need to be there? What do they do, and how do they feel when they have to leave everything behind and try to start again, over and over and over? Military relocations cause a negative influence and a mindset that nothing is permanent, thus hindering dependents from getting too close to anyone or anything—as the lingering knowledge that they will have to soon leave again and go through the ritual of saying goodbye is always in the back of their mind. This ideology becomes a coping mechanism, as there is already loss and pain with having to leave so frequently, and having a detached mindset then restricts future grief from having to relocate once again. Adolescents in particular are in a time of prime development, not only physically, but mentally and emotionally as well. Two women, Norweeta G. Milburn and Marguerita Lightfoot, discuss this concept within their article “Adolescents in Wartime U.S. Military Families: A Developmental Perspective on Challenges and Resources” by stating that “adolescents’ social development is characterized by a shift in orientation to peer relationships…in order to establish independence and autonomy, this orientation toward peers is necessary.” They discuss how social networks greatly expand during this developmental period, which leads to more and different types of relationships. For military dependents who have a detached, “nothing is permanent” mindset, however, these relationships that can help emerge individuals’ own identities are often not made. The idea of social connectedness being a feeling of closeness, and “a perceived bond between others and a sense of belonging with one’s family members, peers, and community” (Barber & Schluterman, 2008), is limited. Brittany Sulc, in her article “What are military brats like when they grow up?”, states that military dependents “have the potential to become hyper-independent… because they can’t rely on many constants in their life, they may lose trust in others to provide stability and comfort” (Sulc, 2021), further limiting their feeling of social connectedness and negatively impacting military dependents. The military lifestyle is a very lonely, isolating way of 112
life, as a dependent is constantly making acquaintances but not true friends, as well as being separated from non-direct family members. There is no going to a grandparent’s house over the weekends or playing with cousins, and it can be years before the dependent is able to see them – something to which many nonmilitary peers cannot relate. Due to not having the big family gatherings for holidays and important dates, there develops a loss of connections and traditions. Loss of connection within one’s own bloodline leaves them feeling like strangers to one another, and therefore the dependent misses out on what would have been additional family support and care. Emotional development is another key aspect for adolescents to help them emerge with their own identity and personalities. Emotional maturity is demonstrated by “the ability to express emotional affect appropriately and demonstrate positive coping responses to stress” (Milburn & Lightfoot, 2013). Adolescents in military families have a hard time expressing their emotional issues. This is due to the “military culture of stoicism, where one is expected to deal with problems without complaint” (Hall, 2011). The military standards for the active-duty member creates authoritarian parenting styles. Achieving a realistic sense of identity is accomplished through adolescents experimenting with different ways of behaving, appearing, and expressing themselves. With their parents being a member of the military, however, everything that a dependent does reflects back upon their parents and their parent’s rank. Compared to their nonmilitary friends, military dependents do not have the typical teenager experience of going out and having more freedom, due to being held to a different standard of how to act and even dress. Thus, this leads to stress and causes apologetic and overly well-behaved tendencies, which restricts the growth of their own true identity and further negatively impacts them. This is especially evident in first-born children, as “these adolescents often take on more responsibilities at home and become ‘another parent’ for younger siblings” (Huebner & Mancini, 2005). They often seek approval and recognition from their parents. The idea of being another parent rather than identifying as a child fosters higher maturity levels than their nonmilitary peers, due to having to essentially “grow up” faster and at an earlier age. While certain perspectives view dependents maturing to a certain level as a positive influence that is preparing them for success, dependents often struggle with wondering whether they belong among their own age group. Even though dependents may recognize that it is a valuable attribute for themselves to show that high maturity level within the military community, they stick out from their peers who have had less responsibility and more leeway within their adolescent developmental stages. Maturity is then quickly seen as a negative attribute due to not being able to relate to others’ sense of humor, responsibility, personal drive, etc. Moreover, Christine Meyer, in an article for Arizona State University, demonstrates how former military dependents would answer the frequently asked question “Where are you from?”. Published in 1995, her article, “There's no place like... home? A communication of identity among former military dependents,” includes a dialogue where a military dependent tries to explain to a nonmilitary peer how difficult it can be for them to try and fit in after a relocation, as oftentimes there are no DODEA schools where they were sent. The character expresses that “the kids who lived in the same houses all of their lives also happened to know each other very well… we would have to learn the set of ‘rules’ that went on in the school to become accepted, if the rules were not understood, then we had a very tough time fitting in… we military dependents tended to stick together to avoid some of these problems” (Meyer, 1995). This confirms that a gap is built between 113
military and nonmilitary adolescents and illustrates how military dependents encounter challenges in forming and maintaining friendships and relationships. With one of the main PCS seasons being in winter, moving and starting a new school in the middle of the year is especially challenging, as friendships and “cliques” have already been made. Aside from peer friendships, another important aspect is the connection with teachers and coaches. Coming into a nonmilitary school in a town where everyone knows everyone already does not put the odds in favor of the dependent, as they have not had the same amount of time and experiences to connect with role models like teachers and coaches. Comparatively, this limits their opportunities and chances and is then a negative influence from being a military dependent. However, social interactions are not the only difficulty during school transitions. Nonmilitary and military schools can have different academic curriculums that often create issues, including not learning something as semesters did not line up or credits not transferring. In a final report for a study comparing the two types of schools, American Institutes for Research finds that “almost all of these [military-connected] districts provided information on programs for advanced coursework or options for gifted students (94.6 percent) and students in special education (98.6 percent)” (Kitmitto 5), making it hard to go either from nonmilitary to DODEA schools or vice versa. Both would present challenges for the individual, as it would be a struggle to try to play catchup being put in a more advanced coursework in DODEA and a challenge coming from one, but still now having to relearn things or be seen as a “nerd” in the nonmilitary school. The study also finds that “military-connected districts had… subpopulations associated with higher needs—English language learners, students with disabilities, students in poverty” (Kitmitto 4), elaborating on how the military lifestyle can negatively influence an adolescent’s academic years and career. Military dependents’ everyday lives look different than a traditional setting, as most military family dynamics tend to fall into what is called the “military family syndrome.” This term implies that there is an authoritarian active-duty father who left home regularly, a stay-at-home submissive mother, a third parent adolescent, and out-of-control younger children with rootless identities who display psychological problems (LaGrone, 1978). The younger children demonstrate the perception of invincibility, as discussed by Mary E. Wickman in her article of “The Adolescent Perception of Invincibility and Its Influence on Teen Acceptance of Health Promotion Strategies” in 2008 as a “phase of egocentrism… characterized by the belief that they are the focus of everyone's attention and are constantly being evaluated by others as if they are playing on stage to an imaginary audience,” tying into their fluctuating behavioral patterns built up from inconsistency in their lives due to relocations at a young age. As moving overseas is common in the military, an article titled “The Effects of a Multicultural Overseas Community on Military Adolescents,” by Nicole B. Hayes explores this concept further by explaining that children’s negative perceptions were due to the lack of being able to voice their thoughts, interests, concerns, and feedback regarding the transition to an overseas duty station (Hayes, 2018). Hayes states that “life domains such as standard of living, housing, and neighborhood/community are intertwined… and are factors that need consideration when transitioning” (Hayes, 2018), which leads to dependents feeling unacknowledged, aggrieved, and oppressed about the moving transition. Therefore, the children in the military family syndrome situation do not differentiate between recognition in a positive or negative manner, only that they were ultimately seen and heard at that moment in time.
114
Unfortunately, with the active-duty member being away and the mother then being forced to run the household and take on a very traditional way of life of cleaning, cooking, caring for the children, etc., that recognition of the child is often achieved from their poor-mannered behaviors – creating a cycle of ill-disciplined younger children due to those situations guaranteeing them recognition. This can become overwhelming for the mother, which becomes another driving force for the adolescent dependent to take on more responsibility and somewhat fill the void created due to their active-duty, absent parent. With the expectation to lead with example in attempt to influence their younger siblings, military adolescent dependents can become hyperfixated on academics and achievements – as that would grant positive recognition rather than negative. This expectation is also created by the idea that their active-duty parent works hard in the military, and thus their parent expects them to have the same attitude and drive towards their academics. While some argue this to be positive influence, this projection ends up leading to unrealistic and toxic expectations on military dependents from their parents and even from themselves. Furthermore, military dependents face being compared to the soldier stereotype. In addition to the expectations of academic achievements to resemble the military mission-success mentality, dependents also face the expectation of withholding physical ideals as well, which leads to negative weight concerns. A scientist at University of Maryland’s Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, M. K. Higgins Neyland performed a study in 2019 that is discussed in her article “Parental deployment and distress, and adolescent disordered eating in prevention-seeking military dependents.” Her study explored what impacts military adolescent disordered eating. She says that “the combination of number of deployments and parental distress may be associated with disordered eating among adolescent military dependents seeking prevention of binge-eating disorder and adult obesity” (Neyland, 2019), with the implication that the dependent felt concerned about the deployed service member’s safety and had an increased responsibility for those not deployed, thus leading to negative eating habits. Tying into the negative social development discussed earlier, eating pathology is greatly influenced by factors including poor social functioning, low self-esteem, and depression. Due to military dependents facing unique stressors from their parent’s service in the military, “military-dependent youth appear to be at greater risk for disordered-eating than their civilian counterparts” (Neyland, 2019), as the risk is heightened from the extremes of stress and anxiety military dependents face. Additionally, if you live in one place for your whole life, you will have the same family doctor as you grow up that would be able to see the signs of eating disorders due to knowing you more personally. However, when you are moving every three years, you are always starting from scratch – the new doctor might see problems as possible norms, whereas a lifelong family doctor would be able to see it as a red flag or sign. There is the argument that the military community has a naval or military hospital for all branches and their families. Although it might not be the same doctor, other base locations will have similar doctors, and they will keep documentation in the military hospital system to keep record of past visits in case of missed norms. This argument shows an idealized version, however, as unfortunately the reality is that some hospitals prioritize only the service member and the issues that they face. Additionally, while a diagnosis of an eating disorder or other issue might be in a file that a new doctor could read, a family doctor that has had a patient since they were little would be able to tell why and not just what – having the potential to be of more significance, as knowing why and knowing the individual on a more personal level would have more of a successful chance at helping the dependent in their recovery process.
115
Nevertheless, some argue that being a military child allows that individual to retain important characteristics that set them up for success and thus positively influence them. Sandra Grymonprez appeals to that audience within her article “Factors That Influence Military Brats and Contribute to Their Multicultural Leadership,” published in 2021. Grymonprez refers to military dependents as “military brats,” a slang word where “brat” is not derogatory but instead stands for “Born Raised And Trained.” She acknowledges that “military brats learned that change and sacrifice were part of their heritage” (Grymonprez, 2021). Grymonprez further drives this argument by declaring that “military brats gained personal growth through travel and became more observant and accepting of diversity,” and that “by learning at an early age there was more than one culture, belief, and country, military brats attained essential skills to organize and to lead multicultural entities” (Grymonprez, 2021), encouraging the idea that military dependents are positively influenced from having a military lifestyle. Even so, the article “Military Brats: Members of a Lost Tribe,” published in 2017 by Cynthia Geppert, explains that “a childhood in a military environment is often romanticized as shaping an adult who is worldly, cosmopolitan, resilient, and tolerant… although these are adaptive traits that children of military personnel develop, there also is a far darker side emerging in the research” (Geppert, 2017), illustrating how the previously stated optimistic ideology makes the individual look great superficially but also that in reality there is much more depth to that military dependent. Factors of family dynamics, multiple school transitions, stress and anxiety, eating pathology, and identity issues discussed above need additional recognition regarding how they continue to negatively influence the dependent past their adolescent years and further on into their adulthood, such that, even if there is an end of their military lifestyle, it does not mean an end of military influence. All these negative issues do not go away after their parent retires – some cases even show that no longer being surrounded by the military community, which understands and can relate to the military dependent, actually ends up bringing those issues up to the surface, such that the dependent now has to face negative issues that otherwise would have just been labeled as their normality. This eventually leads to more identity issues and the feeling of not belonging due to not having the ability to find themselves outside the military life. While being a military dependent enhances their skill of adaptability, there is no warning for the shock dependents feel when they are no longer within the familiarity of the military community and the military’s mentality of blindly following orders without any thought or hesitation. Grymonprez endorses the idea that “military family is family wherever you are, whenever you are together or not, no matter the age, the location, or the circumstance” (Grymonprez, 2021); however, what happens when that dependent no longer has that community surrounding and supporting them? While not being a common research topic to this day, two students with their bachelor’s degree from the University of Iowa College of Public Health dive into this dilemma. Kelsey Schertz and Cassidy Watson elaborate on what life after retirement holds for military dependents in their article “What Becomes of America’s Military Brats?” published in 2018. They coin the term “aged-out military brats,” which refers to mid-twenties individuals who share the same lifestyle background with many others from all branches of the military. Schertz and Watson describe “military brats” in more depth by explaining that it is “a label that transcends race, religion, age, military branch, and parental rank, one that silos military children into their own subculture marked by hardship
116
and patriotism” (Schertz & Watson, 2018), where individuals who hold that title grow up carrying those hardships and experiences with them even after their parent’s retirement. Whether the dependent likes it or not, growing up in a military family will influence their perceptions and mindsets that do not always agree with the nonmilitary majority. This arises issues as the nonmilitary society and the media are not always kind to the people who sacrifice their lives. There are politics playing in and people talking negatively about wars in a way that indicates they do not understand that the service members were just blindly following orders and did not have a choice. Additionally, coming from a military family creates this unseen pressure, especially for male dependents, to join the military themselves to continue the tradition and pride within the family – creating anxiety, fear of disappointment, and seeming ungratefulness if that is not the path that they want to take. There is also the familiarization of “the life they know” where female adolescents seek the military lifestyle by finding a partner in the military rather than joining themselves – coming from the uneasiness of settling down after their parents’ retirement and fear of trying to build a life of their own when all they know is constant moving and readjusting. As shown throughout this essay, dependents living a military lifestyle and having to relocate frequently leads to social and psychological issues through their prime developmental stages as an adolescent. These issues are only evident if one is looking, however, and unfortunately there is a great deal of research done on the service members, but not on their families. In the introduction of the first-person-perspective book Military Brats: Legacies of Childhood Inside the Fortress, Pat Conroy says, “I thought I was singular in all this, one of a kind… I discovered that I speak in the multi-tongued, deep-throated voice of my tribe. It’s a language I was not even aware I spoke…a secret family I did not know I had… Military brats, my lost tribe, spent their entire youth in service to this country, and no one even knew we were there,” suggesting that the dependents become this “silent soldier” who faces these issues with a small population being able to help and relate to them. Whenever you come across a service member or one of their dependents, your actions towards them should not reflect what your opinion of the military is or your political view. Even if they are unseen to the eye, the scars of the past are there, as dependents have been shaped into who they are today due to the struggles and challenges that they faced. Many of those struggles arose due to social and psychological issues that many outside the military community do not have to face; therefore, respect and compassion should be shown alongside with having an open mindset because military families did not have the choice of what their lifestyle was and how they were brought up. REFERENCES Burgin, Elizabeth E., Elizabeth A. Prosek, and Katherine M. Atkins. "Mental health and the US military: The need for counselor competencies." Journal of Military and Government Counseling 5.1 (2017): 2-19. “Educational options and performance of military.” (n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2021, from https://www.dodea.edu/partnership/upload/air-research-study-2011.pdf. “Factors that influence military brats.” (n.d.). https://www.proquest.com/openview/cae2e2121d405568f43b4a82cf4a2415/1?pqorigsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y. 117
Girard, Jessica Nichole. Any Base USA: The Significance of Military Culture in the Construction of Identity. Diss. 2014. Hall, Lynn K. "The importance of understanding military culture." Social work in health care 50.1 (2011): 4-18. “Life as a Military Child: Advantages and Disadvantages.” Www.army.mil, https://www.army.mil/article/37079/life_as_a_military_child_advantages_and_disadvant ages. McGuire AC, Kanesarajah J, Runge CE, Ireland R, and Waller M;Dobson AJ; (n.d.). “Effect of multiple deployments on military families: A cross-sectional study of health and wellbeing of partners and children.” Military Medicine. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27046177/. Meyer, Christine Marie. There's no place like... home? A communication of identity among former military dependents. Diss. Arizona State University, 1995. Neyland, M. K. H., Shank, L. M., Burke, N. L., Schvey, N. A., Pine, A., Quattlebaum, M., Leu, W., Gillmore, D., Morettini, A., Wilfley, D. E., Stephens, M., Sbrocco, T., Yanovski, J. A., Jorgensen, S., Klein, D. A., Olsen, C. H., Quinlan, J., & Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2019, October 8). “Parental deployment and distress, and adolescent disordered eating in prevention‐seeking military dependents.” Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eat.23180. Neyland, M. K. H., Shank, L. M., Lavender, J. M., Rice, A., Schindler, R., Hennigan, K., Solomon, S., Kroke, P., Schvey, N. A., Sbrocco, T., Wilfley, D. E., Jorgensen, S., Yanovski, J. A., Olsen, C. H., Haigney, M., Klein, D. A., Quinlan, J., & Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2020, December 26). “Permanent change of station moves and disordered-eating attitudes and behaviors in prevention-seeking adolescent military-dependents.” Eating Behaviors. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1471015320303895#bb0100. Schertz, K., & Watson, C. (2018, July). “What becomes of America's military brats?” American Journal of Public Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5993364/. Sciences, N. A. of, Engineering, and Medicine; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Board on Children, Youth, & and Families; Committee on the WellBeing of Military Families. (2019, July 19). “Military life opportunities and challenges”. Strengthening the Military Family Readiness System for a Changing American Society. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547604/. Sulc, B. (2021, March 23). “What are military brats like when they grow up?” We Are The Mighty. https://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty-milspouse/what-are-military-bratslike-when-they-grow-up/.
118
“Weight-based teasing and metabolic...”. (n.d.). https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/chi.2020.0256?rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org. Wertsch, Mary Edwards. Military brats: Legacies of childhood inside the fortress. Brightwell Publishing, 1991. Wickman, Mary E., Nancy Lois Ruth Anderson, and Cindy Smith Greenberg. "The adolescent perception of invincibility and its influence on teen acceptance of health promotion strategies." Journal of Pediatric Nursing 23.6 (2008): 460-468. Young, Kia. “5 Ways Being a Military Child Prepares You for Being an Adult.” Military.com, 9 Apr. 2019, https://www.military.com/spousebuzz/blog/2017/03/5-ways-military-childprepares-adult.html.
119
INVESTIGATING POPULAR CULTURE
Zoom by Rylea Bush
120
I’m Sorry Youtube By An Tran The age-old question: is it possible to separate the artist and their work? In other words, does the art someone makes have any connection to the artist? Today, many young people are having a hard time deciding whether or not they should separate their favorite influencers and the content they make. In more recent times, influencers have been accused of abusing their power by making racial insults, engaging in predatory behavior, and putting on a facade for their viewers. It’s hard for the viewer to understand when there is an authentic video or a staged video. In my essay, I want to discuss the negative effects of influencers' power over their audience, such as damaging behavior, racist comments, and a toxic work environment. By doing so I will dive into Youtube social media influencers James Charles, Shane Dawson, and David Dobrik and their abuse of power, along with criticizing the algorithm of Youtube. To support my claims, I’ve researched on topics about social media worshipping, social media influencers’ effects on children, and the differences between male and female Youtubers. Before I continue, here is the trigger warning for the rest of my paper: I will be talking about topics that are related to sexual assault, racism, and predatory behavior with minors. First, you might be wondering, what exactly is a social media influencer? Well, K. Freberg and K. Mcgaughey and L. Freberg specialize in business, communications, psychology, and children’s behavior. They wrote an article dedicated to social media influencers. They define a social media influencer (SMI) as a new type of endorser that can persuade their audiences attitudes and behaviors through blogs, posts, tweets, and other forms of social media. (Freberg, Mcgaughey, and Freberg). Social media influencers can be exclusive to one platform, while many SMIs cross over to other social media platforms. The more people they’re able to connect with, the more influence they have over people. In many cases, these influencers have a following of hundreds of thousands, even millions of followers, which creates a larger platform for influencing to happen on. But SMIs aren’t the same as they were when Youtube first started; they’re social-media-made celebrities. Now, let’s explain what YouTube is, why the platform is so successful, and how their content creators are able to rise to fame. Christopher McFadden, a graduate from Cardiff University with a master’s degree in Geology, conducted a study about the history of Youtube. McFadden states that “YouTube started as a platform for amateurs to showcase their videos to one that distributes original content” (Mcfadden, 2020). When Youtube started in 2005, people were uploading vlogs of their lives from their computer camera in their bedrooms. Now, YouTube is a place where people can upload tutorials, funny videos, and vlogs while making money. When people found out that you could make money from making videos at home, many were quick to hop on the YouTube train. Many people were able to gain an audience by singing, doing makeup tutorials, gaming, and even just recording their everyday lives. YouTube quickly became a job for many of its platform users, so, for those who depend on views and likes as an income, many are desperate to keep that amount of money in their pockets. The type of content they upload is what gets their viewers to grow, and, when YouTube sees a popular creator, they will boost their videos for others to watch. Youtube is a platform that will show off their more popular creators, placing them in the trending category on the website. In the beginning, the most liked videos were being pushed out; it didn’t matter about your pattern on social media. Now, YouTube features their most popular creators on 121
the trending category just because their numbers were already doing well. This can cause some serious problems in the algorithm; in some cases videos are popular for the wrong reasons. One situation that lit this controversy on fire was when Logan Paul, a vlogger on YouTuber, posted a video of a dead body in Japan’s famous “suicide forest.” Jon Russell, a writer and reporter for TechCrunch, who researches Asian countries and social media, reported on this situation. Logan Paul was a Viner who became a Youtuber with a large following, almost having 15 million subscribers. When he posted this video, YouTube placed this extremely inappropriate video on its trending page. After the video was taken down, Russell found that “not only passed YouTube’s moderation check, but also went on to rank among the site’s top ten trending videos thereby exposing the disturbing scenes to viewers beyond Paul’s already-popular channel. (Notably, many of Paul’s subscribers are children aged under 18).” Youtube is hand picking videos to go on their trending page and is allowing inappropriate content to be seen by millions of people, while at the same time making money from the views from these videos (Russell, 2018). You might be thinking that they’re just people online or that there’s no way a stranger on the internet is that influential on someone's life. I beg to differ. Almost anything can be influential, especially if you're exposed to something or someone for a long amount of time; you can slowly change. Today, people are on their phones more than ever. I found We Are Social, an online company and website that conducts meta-analysis on all things technology. They research data and insights on social, ecommerce, internet, and mobile usage around the world. According to a Global Consultant at We Are Social, Simon Kemp, he found that on average a person spends about three hours and forty minutes on their phones and fifty-two percent of that time is spent on social media. Over time the way a Youtuber talks or acts can change their viewers behaviors more effectively because viewers can watch videos of their favorite Youtubers over and over again. The more involved viewers are in creators' lives, they are more likely to build a relationship with the SMI, and many viewers strive to be as famous as their famous influencers. This can develop into “Celebrity Worship Syndrome,” where the viewer becomes attached and obsessed with the person they're looking up to. Agnes Zsila discusses the effects of this syndrome on human behavior in her research paper “The association of celebrity worship with problematic Internet use, maladaptive daydreaming, and desire for fame.” Zsila is based in Hungary and focuses her studies on psychology and human behavior. After she conducted her research on 437 Hungarians, she found that high levels of celebrity worship were associated with problematic Internet use (Zsila 654–664). This can be related to several different Youtubers due to the fact that many male Youtubers are famous for pulling pranks on their friends, making diss tracks, and faking drama to get views, and their viewers just eat it up. Creators push so many different types of videos in order to accumulate more viewers. Whether that be jumping off a cliff or pulling a cheating prank, these video ideas can be harmful especially if your content is based on the daily vlogs of your life. If viewers are unable to differentiate whether these videos are scripted or not, while having this Celebrity Worship Syndrome, their viewers are going to enact these harmful actions. Now that you have a better understanding of YouTube and its creators, we are able to dive deeper into the problem of social media influencers Shane Dawson, David Dobrik, and James Charles. All three men are YouTubers that focus on three different types of content. Celebrity and entertainment writer for Evening Standard, a UK based daily newspaper, George Fenwick, 122
published an article that looked into the timeline of Dawson’s YouTube career. Fenwick describes Dawson is a 32-year-old “Youtuber who was one of the first people to rise to fame on the platform”, joining the platform in 2008 (Fenwick, 2018). Shane’s content varied from comedy sketches, vlogs, challenges, but Dawson is mainly known for his popular conspiracy theory videos and his docu-series on “fallen Youtubers.” David Dobrik is a 24-year-old Youtuber star that first came famous on a short video app called Vine. When that app died, he moved his content over to Youtube, creating daily vlog type videos. Internet and entertainment writers, Florence O'Connor and Zoe Haylock wrote an article about the recent controversies surrounding Dobrik’s content. After joining Youtube in 2015, Dobrik’s channel rose to fame. O’Connor and Haylock say that his “charm and cheeky personality have quickly shot him to YouTube superstardom,” and that his content consisted of his four-minute-and-20-second weekly vlogs, which showcase him and his friends, also known as “the Vlog Squad,” famously known for giving money and cars away to his viewers. Lastly, James Charles is a 21-year-old beauty guru on YouTube. According to Influencer Marketing Hub, a marketing resource that keeps track of influencers and studies cases for social media influencers, Charles is a “social media star and make-up artist. (Influencer Marketing Hub, 2020) Charles’ content is mainly beauty-related and tutorial-style videos. You might be not be concerned about this at this point of my paper, but YouTube was just the launch of the fame for these Youtubers; they were able to become more famous and find more success. With that being said, you might still be wondering what could be so wrong with these Youtubers; they may seem harmless. Wrong. The loveable and funny Shane Dawson had hundreds of problematic videos; some of his content consisted of jokes that touched on pedophilia, racism, and animal abuse. Commentary Youtuber “deangelowallace” posted a very well researched one-hour video, “The exact moment Shane Dawson’s career ended: 12:37 PM, 06/30/20,” that breaks down horrifying acts of Shane Dawson over the years, and especially in his final YouTube scandal. Deangelo talks about Dawson getting pushed off the internet. Things and people are not what they seem on the internet; people are going to do anything to make ends meet, getting enough views and clicks for money. In the early years of Dawson’s Youtube career, his videos were raunchy and unconventional. In several of his videos, he would dress up in black face and act like the stereotypical “ghetto black girl,” and while saying the n-word; his young audience didn’t think anything of this. They thought it was just a character, but Dawson was making a profit off of racism and offensive jokes. Black face wasn’t the only thing that came up from Dawson's past videos; there were also videos and interviews where Dawson is sexualizing young celebrity star Willow Smith. Deangelo also brings up a video Dawson had made and posted where he was talking to his 12-year-old cousin, asking her questions about sex and to reenact sexual intercourse for him. In that video he was facing a poster of Willow Smith and was “touching” himself to that poster. Several years after these videos were posted, Dawson was finally called out by big name celebrities, like Jada Smith, other bigger YouTubers with millions of followers, like Tati Westbrook from GlamLifeGuru, and major news outlets were sharing this story of Shane Dawson. YouTube never stopped Dawson from posting these videos, nor did they demonetize his videos; Dawson took it into his own hands to leave YouTube (Deangelowallance). Let’s move on to David Dobrik’s videos and content. Similar to Dawson's videos, there was some planning for the skits and videos posted, and these videos were on the internet for years before, with several problems that came with Dobrik’s videos, like racism in the workplace, sexual assault, and non-consensual acts. Another commentary and drama channel, Smokey Glow, talks about these situations in the video “The Downfall of David Dobrik and The Vlog Squad.” One of the first 123
controversies that came out about David Dobrik was that he and former girlfriend, Liza Koshy, posted a video where they were mocking Japanese accents. After this controversy, Dobrik didn’t address the video and moved on with his career; he was left unscaved, and he unarguably became more famous after this. The next bigger controversy that put a dent in his career was when Seth, a member of his “Vlog Squad,” came out speaking out how David played a “prank” on Seth where he non-consensually kissed another male, when Seth was told he was going to kiss a woman blindfolded, but ended up kissing a male (Smokey Glow). Not only did this happen twice to Seth, but Dobrik also uploaded both videos and made money off of someone’s traumatic experience. The biggest and most recent controversy Dobrik was involved with was planning and posting a video skit where his friend “Dirty Dom'' invited girls under the age of 21 to drink and to have a foursome with Dom. In efforts to get the foursome from these girls, alcohol was introduced, and it led to sexual assault. In this video Dobrik and several other Vlog squad members allegedly peeped their heads into the room where the sexual assault was happening and made jokes about it. This video was still up and making money until the victim asked Youtube and Dobrik to take down the video. Can you see a trend happening with David Dobrik and Shane Dawson? Both Youtubers have posted content that show inappropriate behaviors being praised by the communities and platform they’re on, where the main audience is children. In most cases, the videos portrayed these situations as normal and funny, when in actuality they’re causing more harm than good. The praise got to their heads, making it seem like their actions were okay because people were liking the videos and laughing about it. YouTube could’ve done a better job at keeping content like this off of their platform, but they didn’t. They were promoting these creators to make more videos like the controversial ones by paying them, allowing ads to be put on the videos, and even going as far as putting these videos on their trending page. The constant fame and popularity Dobrik and Dawson got made them feel like they could do or post whatever they wanted and that there would be no consequences. It’s a good thing that other Youtubers and social media outlets have brought these videos and actions to light, to expose who and what they really are. If YouTube keeps promoting videos like this, then the viewers are going to see their favorite Youtubers do these “skits” and “jokes” and copy them, which will lead to a more corrupt future generation, one that will grow up thinking that racism, sexual assault, and pedophile-like actions are socially okay. As a child, I remember wanting to be like the celebrities I looked up to, whether it be acting like them or dressing like them; no matter how silly or stupid I looked, I just wanted to be just like my favorite celebrities. Imagine a child doing the same terrible acts that Dobrik, Dawson, and Charles have done to another child, and that child thinks it’s okay to do because their favorite influencer is doing it. Harriet Over and Melinda Carpenter are researchers that focus on developmental and comparative psychology, and they conduct research about children’s copying behavior. In their research paper, “Putting the Social into Social Learning: Explaining Both Selectivity and Fidelity in Children's Copying Behavior,” they wanted to understand what behaviors children copy and why they copy them. Researchers analyzed behavior copying in children and chimpanzees and found that there are three major reasons as to why behaviors are copied. They found that “an individual attempts to convey the message “I am like you” to a social partner,” (which supports the idea children are going to mimic people around them to be more relatable and likeable) (Over & Carpenter, 2012). When these YouTubers are making content that shows harmful and racist acts, their viewers are going to copy them to be more likeable. This doesn’t just go for children; 124
teens and adults are more likely to copy another person due to this “I am like you” complex because they understand more social cues than children. So, no matter the age, Youtubers can be a negative or positive influence on all ages depending on the content they post. Unlike Dobrik and Dawson, Charles’ content didn’t contain incriminating evidence. His actions outside of YouTube are what got him in trouble. Charles has been involved in many controversies related to alleged inappropriate conversations with minors. For Dawson and Dobrik, their viewers thought that these videos were jokes, but, as time went on, people close to these Youtube stars were coming out and telling their truth in those communities. Charles has been hit with serious allegations about sexting and messaging underage boys via social media. He uses his fame to talk to young boys on social media. Many young gay boys look up to him and are very eager to talk to their favorite influencers. Youtube drama and commentary channel InternetAjay talked about the allegations and controversies about Charles and these young boys in his video “The Exact Moment James Charles Failed to Stop His Own Downfall: 3/31/2021 12:54 AM.” InternetAjay mentions a video from a victim, where the victim didn’t want to stop talking to James because he is famous, and the victim did look up to him; the victim did anything that James said. After the victim stated his age, James still wanted to talk to him. This isn’t the first and only allegation that came out that he was sexting or grooming minors. James was still making money off his videos on Youtube, and, after the first time these allegations came out, he was left even more successful. He was able to star in a Youtube TV show, come out with his own makeup pallets, and still have Youtube as his income. Youtube was making money off a person who is a child predator and was boosting his career at the same time. This is nothing new to the social atmosphere; A-list celebrities are accused of doing things like this to young children, and it’s absolutely disgusting. After researching the actions and consequences of Charles, I found that men in the beauty industry are more likely to be forgiven and accepted back into society compared to women. In an industry primarily made up of women, men are still held in higher regard compared to their female counterparts. Authors Jessica Kennedy, Mary-Hunter McDonnell and Nicole Stephens came together to write a research paper titled “Does Gender Raise the Ethical Bar? Exploring the Punishment of Ethical Violations at Work'' in the College of Business at the University of Pennsylvania. They conducted several studies on social stereotypes placed on women in the workplace and compared their punishments compared to their male counterparts. In their research they were able to find that “women professionals are punished more for accidental mistakes or only for intentional ethical violations” (Kennedy, McDonnell, and Stephen 13). On Youtube, women are being canceled and pushed off the platform for not getting the right fish tank for their fish, expressing their emotions on social media and coming out as a victim about a situation. All of these “controversies” have resulted in these female Youtubers to leave the internet, losing subscribers and brand deals. But, the men on Youtube can literally commit crimes and escape unscaved? It shouldn’t be that way. In a place where millions of people can watch and become influenced by the content of the video, both genders should be held accountable for their actions and suffer the same consequences from the platform and from their subscribers. Power and fame should not be a reason for Youtubers to be able to do whatever they want. In conclusion, these Youtubers are making controversial and incriminating videos on Youtube that could influence viewers to think that these actions are okay. Youtube has given popularity and fame to Shane Dawson, David Dobrik, and James Charles. For a long time, Youtube has promoted 125
these actions with pride, when they shouldn’t. These Youtubers have people looking up to them, and those people are going to mimic what these Youtubers are doing just because they think it's cool. They are giving power to people who will abuse and take advantage of others, all under the YouTube name, and while abusing Youtube’s power. The constant abuse of power and fame has caused sexual assault allegations, racist jokes, pedophilia, and predatory behavior, and Youtube has been promoting these influencers to young children who will think that behaving like Dawson, Dobrik, and Charles is acceptable, along with the fact that both male and female social media influencers should be held to the same standard because they have so many people watching them and have an impact on social media now and in the future. Moving forward, Youtube needs to evaluate the people to which they give a platform, and they should be able to ban videos and actions like this from making it onto their website. WORKS CITED Fenwick, George. “Who Is Shane Dawson and What Has the YouTuber Been Accused of?” London Evening Standard | Evening Standard, Evening Standard, 30 June 2020, www.standard.co.uk/insider/celebrity/shane-dawson-youtuber-accusationsa4484551.html. Freberg, Karen & Graham, Kristin & Mcgaughey, Karen & Freberg, Laura. (2011). Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Fuel and Energy Abstracts. 37. 90-92. 10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.11.001. “James Charles Wiki, Biography, Age, Career - Influencer Profile.” Influencers Wiki, 9 Sept. 2020, influencermarketinghub.com/wiki/james-charles/. Kennedy, J., McDonnell, M., & Stephens, N. (2016). Does Gender Raise the Ethical Bar? Exploring the Punishment of Ethical Violations at Work. Academy of Management Proceedings, http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2016.11664abstract McFadden, Christopher. “YouTube's History and Its Impact on the Internet.” Interesting Engineering, Interesting Engineering, 3 July 2020, interestingengineering.com/youtubeshistory-and-its-impact-on-the-internet. O'Connor, Florence, and Zoe Haylock. “A Timeline of the David Dobrik Allegations and Controversies.” Vulture, Vulture, 26 Mar. 2021, www.vulture.com/2021/03/daviddobrik-allegations-controversies-timeline.html. Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2012). Putting the social into social learning: Explaining both selectivity and fidelity in children's copying behavior. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 126(2), 182-192. doi:10.1037/a0024555 Russell, Jon. “YouTube Is Equally to Blame for Logan Paul's Video.” TechCrunch, TechCrunch, 3 Jan. 2018, techcrunch.com/2018/01/03/youtube-is-equally-to-blame-for-logan-paulsvideo/. “The Downfall of David Dobrik and The Vlog Squad.” YouTube, YouTube, 21 Mar. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=-e5QrjcsKUQ&t=1726s. 126
“The Exact Moment James Charles Failed To Stop His Downfall: 3/31/21 12:54 AM.” YouTube, YouTube, 4 Apr. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=qluTaNQ-M qs. Tufekci, Zeynep. “YouTube's Recommendation Algorithm Has a Dark Side.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 1 Apr. 2019, www.scientificamerican.com/article/youtubes-recommendation-algorithm-has-a-darkside/. Zsila, Ágnes et al. “The association of celebrity worship with problematic Internet use, maladaptive daydreaming, and desire for fame.” Journal of behavioral addictions vol. 7,3 (2018): 654-664. doi:10.1556/2006.7.2018.76
127
Mukbang Unhinged By Lucia Stith Food has evolved consistently throughout the existence of humankind. We, as humans, have moved away from hunting and gathering and are now in a digital era where food is sexualized, heavily processed, a coping mechanism, an art form, and a killer. Now with social media, food is broadcasted over a large spectrum of networks and platforms to advertise, entice, or induce hunger and want. Either way, most of the food content streamed online is catered to the consumer or viewer. South Korea is a very advanced and prosperous country; however, they still have to deal with loneliness. The rise in single-person households in South Korea allowed loneliness to inhabit many individuals' lives. To cope with this emotion, South Koreans started to partake in online eating broadcasts to feel socially connected. This led to the eating sensation we now know as “mukbang.” This trend started in 2009 and has increasingly gained popularity ever since. But, what was once a genuine coping strategy for lonely eaters has now turned into a genre of entertainment that is primarily about engaging viewers. At first glance, the videos may seem completely innocent, but there are many potential consequences from mukbang that have continuously been swept under the carpet. Participants are willing to go to extreme measures to please their following. This online sensation predominately gets its popularity from gorging on food and broadcasting the video on platforms for millions of people to watch. As more people started to hear about this up-and-coming trend, people around the world started to partake in this eating frenzy, even if they were not necessarily lonely. On top of that, the number of viewers interacting with mukbangs increased to the point where broadcasters started making a wage just for posting. Mukbang has helped many people that are lonely, dieting, recovering from previous eating disorders, dealing with food guilt, searching for new relationships, or on the lookout for a well-paying job. Mukbang videos have also gratified viewers with autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) and mouth-watering platters of food all while creating an online space for mukbangers to fabricate and display their food art. On the other hand, mukbangers and their content have initiated a spectrum of negative effects that viewers and participants are vulnerable to. Mukbang videos have the potential to trigger relapses in disordered eating and mental health problems, increase obesity rates, and contaminate social and communicative skills. This is just the tip of the iceberg. There are countless problems that reside with mukbang that derive from a variety of sources. This topic is unequivocally a doublesided blade, and I am determined to understand specifically how viewers are affected and how immense the risks of watching these videos are. Interaction has been a consistent and reliable antidote for loneliness for centuries. However, living in the new modernized social era where most days are spent scrolling through social media, or surfing the internet, physical interaction diminishes between people, allowing loneliness to prevail in many individuals’ lives. Many people attempt to foster new online relationships to try and cope with their isolation even though it might not always be the safest choice. Many mukbang watchers make friends through the mukbang community. Although watching mukbang videos can spark new relationships and be of company to those that feel forsaken or isolated, the majority of these relationships solely remain online. Devoting large amounts of time to develop one-sided relationships with strangers online can not only be dangerous but can also damage one's social and communicative abilities in the physical world. Having access to outrageous amounts of 128
information and social media at our fingertips makes it easy for us to transport ourselves into our personal online dimension. The addictive algorithms used on social media platforms make it hard to look away. Loneliness comes in many shapes and forms. The emotion can hit you like a truck or sneak up on you when you least expect it. Either way, being in a state of loneliness usually goes hand and hand with sadness. The times are constantly changing, and more people are living on their own. However, not all individuals mentally rehearse probable symptoms of the single-household lifestyle before diving into it. Eating alone is one factor many do not think about. This overlooked activity erodes many people of the warmth and happiness they once got from family meals. Researcher and analyst, L. Yoon, in “South Korea: One-person Households’ number 2020,” reported that “In 2020, the number of one-person households in South Korea amounted to around 6.64 million, showing an increase from the previous year. The number of one-person households in South Korea has steadily increased in recent years.” These statistics show that the home of mukbang has a large population of people living by themselves. It can be assumed that the popularity of mukbang videos is related to the rise in single-person households because individuals are using these videos to cope with their loneliness. Author and psychologist Kagan Kircaburun researched the intimate activity of eating and how it corresponds with mental isolation. In Kircaburun’s article, “The Psychology of Mukbang Watching: A Scoping Review of the Academic and Non-Academic Literature,” he also made the realization that “As isolated eating was increasingly commonplace in many regions of the world as well as in South Korea, mukbang provided a sense of social unity for those physically eating alone.” Mukbang can be very beneficial towards viewers and participants that suffer from loneliness because mukbang videos and lives have become a social outlet where thousands of individuals are able to communicate from home while watching someone eat or eating simultaneously with them. Excessive use of social media can reduce the need for direct face-to-face contact which may indirectly result in social isolation. So, although people might be more connected through mukbang communities, it is without a doubt that they will end up lonelier in real life. According to the book, Social Media and Young People, edited by publisher and author Justin Healey, online platforms can make it “difficult to convey emotions” and hinder the “development of social skills such as listening, feeling, empathy [which] can be impaired on social media where there is no body language to interpret” (22). Therefore, overinvesting your time on social media platforms, like YouTube, can make it hard for people to portray emotions and develop key social skills. This is because of the heavy lack of time and effort being devoted to creating face-to-face relationships. Unfortunately, the dangers don’t end here. There are countless numbers of people who intend to economically, mentally, and psychologically harm others; people can be whoever they want online and portray whatever image they want others to perceive. In many cases, people use false identities to scam others. The risk of identity theft is high; trying to start new relationships online makes it easier for predators to prey on individuals. The mukbang community can be a great place to meet new people, however, they might not always be the best people to meet as it can put viewers’ mental health and safety at risk. Furthermore, if individuals spent more time trying to build their social skills by physically interacting with people instead of resorting to watching mukbang videos and connecting through a screen, it is more likely that their void of loneliness will be more permanently filled by a tangible companion.
129
Traditional mukbang was not about getting views by binge-eating foods. Mukbang was an online community where people could eat together through a live broadcast. These broadcasts rarely consisted of overeating. Beauty writer, Redzhanna Jazmin, proclaimed in her article “The Whitewashing of Mukbang: How America Corrupted the Genre” that “OG mukbang doesn’t necessarily constitute a gross-out binge-fest.” In fact, they have a set amount of food that they finish in a certain amount of time before logging off instead of overeating. So, where did the bingeeating aspect of mukbang come from? As the trend spread globally, America soon caught onto “The Mukbang Craze” (Jazmin). Although some American mukbangers participated in mukbang to cope with loneliness, many of them did it for attention and popularity. “What started as a sensory experience that allowed you to connect with others soon became a binging contest when America added a ‘food challenge’ element to the concept. Now, it’s just about how much food you can scoff down in one sitting” (Jazmin). In addition, the video aspect was changed as well. OG mukbangers ate their food on live broadcasts so they could converse with their viewers in real-time. Now that America has altered the key aspects of mukbang, most videos are prerecorded. This bottled form of mukbang has “Lost the feeling of connection, intimacy, and belonging, and in its place is something else” (Jazmin). This genre of entertainment has come a long way from interacting with viewers and has transformed into a competitive game about who can binge the most or “bring the biggest shock factor” (Jazmin). The metamorphosis of this online trend has culturally appropriated South Korean culture and cuisine. Not only has the purpose of mukbang changed, but the variety of food Americans use to portray the Korean factor of mukbang has simplified comestible traditions of Korea. There are many dangers of being online. There are unlimited risks that people need to be aware of. But, despite the fact that there are risks, mukbang can be used as a coping mechanism and a socially interactive environment where people are free to be themselves. Psychiatrist Mattias Strand and researcher Sanna Gustafsson elaborated on this topic through extensive research shown in “Mukbang and Disordered Eating: A Netnographic Analysis of Online Eating Broadcasts”: A number of comments relate to the idea of mukbang as being primarily a social phenomenon ... Here, users describe how watching and participating in mukbang reduces loneliness and makes them feel like they are having dinner with someone. Indeed, some individuals appear to develop a close online relationship to a certain mukbang host over time, praising their good-humored personality as a crucial factor in engaging in the mukbang eating community. To recap, mukbang has shown to be evidently constructive in helping viewers build relationships while reducing their loneliness. It is apparent that mukbangers, or broadcast jockeys, intentionally talk to their viewers to create relationships with their following. Although participants are essentially talking to their camera, through the viewers’ perspective, the participants are conversing with and relating to them. This bond may seem odd when looking through a wider lens, but nevertheless this type of modernized interaction has helped thousands of viewers along the rocky road to recovery from mental isolation and introspective entrapment.
130
Not only has mukbang encouraged individuals to create new relationships to deplete their loneliness, but mukbang videos have also been a helping hand to those who are burdened with anorexia, binge-eating, and food guilt. Many viewers have admitted to being affected in a positive way, and the videos have overall been a constructive tool that have helped them on the journey to eating in moderation. One mukbang commenter wrote, “It honestly might be kind of strange but watching them [mukbangers] eat it is kind of cathartic and calms the urge to eat myself. It does make me hungry but for some reason, it subdues the actual intention of going out and getting binge food” (Strand and Gustafsson). Another commenter mentioned, “I love watching mukbangs when I’m restricting. It brings me satisfaction that they’re inhaling the calories and I’m not but also extreme jealousy and my mouth literally waters when I watch them sometimes. The high cal mukbangs are the best lol” (Strand and Gustafsson). These comments show that, although mukbang is not always useful for everyone, it has been to many. These videos that may seem completely nugatory have helped individuals recover by preventing the urge to gorge on food and descend out of unhealthy dieting while growing into the shoes of moderate eating. Individuals that are overweight and are struggling with dieting can also benefit from watching these videos because it can help them limit their food intake. The article elaborates on how “Many users describe how watching mukbang makes them limit their own eating. Individuals who appear to be restricting their eating in an unhealthy way recurrently attest to ‘eating vicariously’ through the mukbang host” (Strand and Gustafsson). Cultivating a healthier lifestyle, as well as eating in moderation, is not easy to do, especially for individuals that have previously struggled with food or were deprived of the opportunity to learn how to cook or take care of their bodies at a young age. These specific individuals may receive the benefit of the doubt from mukbang; it is likely that their transition to a healthier diet will be smoother and quicker from watching these videos. Food guilt is an overlooked problem when it comes to mukbang. People are quick to assume that mukbang only benefits individuals who binge-eat or have anorexia. However, it's not entirely true. Research has shown that mukbang videos can help individuals overcome guilt revolving around eating. Food guilt is a problem that easily goes unnoticed, but the effects and overall experience can be very detrimental to one's mental and physical health. The article “Why you're experiencing food guilt and how to overcome it” written by dietician and educator McKel Kooienga, discloses: A study found that food guilt is caused primarily by the awareness of food being unhealthy. High sugar content and overeating were also found to be leading causes of feelings of guilt … Food guilt can be damaging to your mental and emotional wellbeing, and it can also lead to disordered eating habits, which are damaging to both your physical and mental health. Plus, experiencing food guilt takes away from experiencing your life and fully enjoying and appreciating your food and the many roles it has in your life. To rehash, food guilt is a very real and problematic matter that is important to address and conquer for the sake of individuals' health. Luckily, mukbang is often a reliable solution for overcoming troubling matters. It can teach its viewers a great deal about body positivity and can influence individuals to be more comfortable with eating. In agreement with the article “Mukbang and Disordered Eating: A Netnographic Analysis of Online Eating Broadcasts,” many commenters announced:
131
“I'd do this exact same thing while I was recovering from anorexia! I'd watch ‘10,000 cal challenges’ and other videos like this. They were my guilty pleasure while I was recovering. I think I watched them because I wasn't comfortable with eating that much food, so I'd just watch other people do it. I thought I was so weird for doing this, and I'd feel kinda ashamed afterward. But it would help satisfy an urge ig, and these videos kinda helped normalize eating for me” and “I watch these videos to feel better about the amount of food I eat.” This evidence proves that mukbang watchers that are recovering from disordered eating and that those that deal with food guilt can benefit from these videos. These viewers have a good chance at normalizing healthy and moderate eating habits, which will in effect strengthen their mental and physical health. Among other benefits, the world of mukbang has created countless opportunities for people. Individuals can now make a comfortable living from posting eating videos. Travel and food writer Dana Givens wrote in her article “American Mukbang: Why We Love to Watch People Eat” that this genre of entertainment has proven to be very lucrative for entertainers. In fact, “Korean mukbang hosts reportedly can earn up to $10,000 per month and that standard is quickly traveling to America, with brands like Doordash and Popeye’s Chicken sponsoring the most popular YouTubers. Kim Thai, for example, has been earning upwards of $100,000 a year.” This means that individuals that are struggling to find a job, whether it’s due to personal struggles or lack thereof, have the option to pursue mukbang and to make a comfortable salary. Popular mukbangers receive many paid promotions to advertise on their channel. Buzzfeed author, Cecilia Chang, argues in the article “Mukbang Youtuber: A Dream Job or A Nightmare?” that mukbangers accept many of these promotions, if not all of them. Not only does this support other businesses as well, but it also helps the entertainer accumulate an extensive amount of money. As you can tell, being a mukbanger gives many individuals the opportunity to achieve wealth and fame. Although many believe that mukbang is disgusting or gut-wrenching, it is important to keep in mind that others see mukbang as a form of art as it induces theory and emotion, which allows creators to express their cooking skills, presentation techniques, ideas, and themselves for their audience to witness. This may be confusing, but art is abstract. It can be beautiful, ugly, confusing, and simple. Cecilia Zhang et al. convey in the article “Understanding the Aesthetics of Food Porn in Today’s Media” that “Art is described as the expression of human creativity and imagination and often thought of as something appreciated for its uniqueness, aesthetic qualities, and identity. Food and food porn, more specifically, include many of these qualities and allow the photographer [or videographer] to express themselves.” The representation of food has evolved to be a form of art that has spread through many cultures and cuisines and is not definitive. Mukbang can be perceived to be a form of edible art. According to philosopher and chef Glenn Kuehn in his essay ‘How Can Food Be Art?”, “[T]he major function of art was the illumination of a community of shared experience, and the advantage of this contextualization is that the artistic awareness of food and cooking is understood as a classification-in-progress, that is, this context allows for not only the transiency of food but also for the intensity of the fads and innovations within contemporary life that involve food; it is an aesthetic awareness that brings with it an extended community.” Although Mukbang can be seen as messy or unclean in some cases, it is interesting because there are many videos that fit the expectations of what art is meant to do. Mukbang is a form of art and 132
should be respected and understood on the basis of that. Many of these videos include cooking strategies and a wide variety of foods from live seafood to exotic desserts. Whether individuals perceive this form of art as ugly or beautiful, it rarely fails to spark emotion. Mukbang videos have been shown to be pleasing and satisfying to many of its viewers; watching and creating mukbang can be a very fascinating experience to participate in and to feast one’s eyes on. Art can be beneficial to initiating cognitive processes, sparking creativity and motivation. A group blog by cognitive psychology students called “Talking about Thinking” discussed how “There are many benefits of art for the brain and cognition. The arts can influence many cognitive processes. An extensive amount of research has been done by several scientists teaming together, and there is a lot of evidence to support the idea that art and music really effectively help improve cognitive abilities such as learning, attention, motivation, and intelligence.” Although the concept of mukbang is a new and unique way of presenting and expressing art, it still exhibits the same elements as other forms. The videos created can inspire people to be imaginative, especially in the kitchen, as well as challenge individuals to try new foods or explore new cultures. There are many positive effects to partaking in mukbang either as a viewer or participant. However, many of these benefits have their consequences as well; it is crucial to understand both sides before diving into this genre of entertainment head-first. Specifically, there are countless health issues that can erupt and domino effect into a large spectrum of other negative effects. First and foremost, mukbang watchers are exposed to a type of food advertisement that is commonly sexualized to lure people in with a goal to leave viewers satisfied and pleasured. Mukbangers post clickbait that are usually composed of extreme images of food, and the video itself typically consists of a lot of lip-smacking, moaning, and eye-rolling to hyperbolize the flavor and aroma of the meal at hand. This may seem like an innocent gesture, but it can initiate and invigorate food addiction. The sexualization of mukbang takes place with the purpose to entice viewers and leave them wanting more. Psychologist Kagan Kircaburun and others theorize in the article “Compensatory usage of the internet: The case of mukbang watching on YouTube” that “it is possible that specific motives related to social bonds or sexual fantasy promote excessive involvement in watching mukbang.” In other words, mukbangers potentially intertwine eating food with sexual gestures to subconsciously lure more viewers in. As a result, viewers are more susceptible to retreat back to old eating disorders such as binge-eating due to the specific details in the audio and visualizations. Many mukbangers use ASMR to satisfy their viewers. The article, “The art of mukbang,” published by Red Summit Productions, declared that “ASMR is a ‘feelgood’, tingling sensation that people receive when watching or listening to certain satisfying sounds or actions.” Furthermore, the use of ASMR makes many viewers more intrigued when watching mukbang because of the satisfyingly addictive qualities it possesses. According to writer Cecilia Zhang and others in the article “Understanding the Aesthetics of Food Porn in Today’s Media,” food porn is relative to each individual, but generally it encompasses a picture or video of food that is appetizing to the consumer, usually making them salivate or hungry. Mukbang is a form of graphic video food porn. Researchers have studied mukbang and have realized that some viewers may be fetishizing female mukbangers who are eating. Senior lecturer in the School of Media and Communication at RMIT University, Glen Donar, pointed out in a 2017 study called “'Food Porn' or Intimate Sociality: Committed Celebrity and Cultural Performances of Overeating in Meokbang” that attractive women in a “private and vulnerable state” while eating get subjected 133
to the sexualized gaze of the viewers. This is sometimes purposely done by the mukbanger to gain more viewers. In other scenarios, women are sexualized by their viewers, which can potentially take a toll on their physical and mental well-being. Experimental psychologist Charles Spence says in his article “From Instagram to TV ads, what's The Science Behind Food Porn?” that “The first taste is always with the eyes.” Mukbang viewers are enticed by the visual concept of eating food, which in many cases leads to hunger. Furthermore, the article also discloses, “Viewing food porn can induce salivation, not to mention the release of digestive juices as the gut prepares for what is about to come.” To recapitulate, this is done by feasting your eyes on something that appears to be delicious. Your body is already preparing for a meal to be ingested. In turn, your stomach then releases a chemical called “ghrelin” that induces hunger. Repeatedly watching Mukbang videos can cause you to release this chemical more than normal; in effect, viewers are at a higher risk of triggering previous eating disorders like bingeeating. Food guilt is indeed a problem that needs to be addressed. Individuals who suffer from this form of guilt are usually adversely affected, but mukbang is not a comprehensive solution. Many of these specific individuals watch mukbang videos to help them feel comfortable when eating unhealthy food. However, this influence that mukbang has on individuals can persuade them into believing that eating junk food all the time does not come with any consequences. “Individuals with bulimia and/or binge-eating disorders might engage in mukbang watching to perceive bingeeating massive meals as a normal or even healthy behavior” (Kircaburun et al.). Although mukbang may help with overcoming guilt, it also may worsen the original problem. If individuals start perceiving absurd amounts of food as normal, their health can be at serious risk. Overcoming this guilt can lead people into dangerous health situations that may result in death, cancer, other eating disorders, or mental instability. Not to mention, food guilt typically derives from body insecurity and being overweight. If people believe that it's okay to eat large portions of unhealthy meals due to the influence of mukbang, they are likely to be more insecure about their bodies and gain more weight. Continuously increasing your weight in fat will lead to obesity. Obesity can cause hypertension (high blood pressure), high LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (dyslipidemia), type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, strokes, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint), and fatality according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Mukbangers and the mukbang culture indirectly promotes overeating and encourages atrocious eating behaviors. Ignoring the adverse effects of large, unhealthy foods can create more problems than the ones stemming directly from food guilt. Mukbangers may have good intentions by promoting body positivity. However, coming from a medical standpoint, it is more beneficial to face the problem at hand than to accept it. It is important to see food for what it is, healthy or unhealthy. Mukbangers often cloud the separation between the two, which hinders individuals’ ability to make the distinction. The viral mukbang trend has unequivocally created lots of job opportunities in the online community of eating. However, mukbang is more than just uploading an eating video and slapping a title on it; there is much more than what meets the eye, and not everyone has what it takes to pursue this career full-time. This job comes with lots of baggage. Individuals who choose to pursue this career path must be willing to face mental and physical side effects they will endure as well as influence onto their supporters while facing the tedious competition to gain followers and 134
viewers. Overeating is one of the basic concepts of mukbang. Most of the time when viewers search for mukbang videos to watch, they typically want something that blows their mind. In many cases, this includes watching entertainers gorge on large amounts of food. Whether the food is healthy or not, too much of anything can be unhealthy. According to Kellie Bramlet Blackburn in her article called “What happens when you overeat?”, overeating can not only impact the effectiveness of your organs but can also make it more difficult to sleep and can increase the risks of cancer. Blackburn states: Eating too much food requires your organs to work harder. They secrete extra hormones and enzymes to break the food down. To break down food, the stomach produces hydrochloric acid. If you overeat, this acid may back up into the esophagus resulting in heartburn. Consuming too much food that is high in fat, like pizza and cheeseburgers, may make you more susceptible to heartburn. In addition, her article also sheds light on the effects overeating has on metabolism. Increasing food consumption will force the body into speeding up one’s metabolism to burn off the extra calories. The symptoms of this reaction include being hot, sweaty, or dizzy. These are only a few of the short-term effects. Blackburn proceeds to investigate how overeating will impact your health over long periods of time. She concluded that the long-term effects of overeating vary from obesity, increasing the risk of different forms of cancer, or damaging your circadian clock. Your circadian clock controls your sleep and hunger hormone levels to rise and fall throughout each day; “overeating can upset this rhythm, making it hard to sleep through the night.” As you can see, Mukbang can be a very lucrative source of income. However, in order to pursue a career in this field, one has to deal with the dangerous side effects. Mukbangers make themselves responsible to keep their viewers happy and wanting more videos, even if it means their health will be a problem. It is also important for them to carefully monitor their relationship with food, so they prevent further health complications like heartburn, insomnia, and cancer. Not all mukbangers have trouble with food, but most of them struggle with eating. As a mukbanger, they can relate with many of their viewers on this topic. Although many of the viewers have had eating disorders in the past, mukbangers continue to influence unhealthy eating lifestyles regarding their following, and, whether they do it purposefully or not, the viewers have to figure out how to deal with the side effects on their own. These creators are burdened with the responsibility of their viewer’s eating behaviors, whether they care or not. Therefore, only the people that are willing to deal with the spectrum of complications that progress in mukbang are fit for the job. On a separate note, becoming a mukbanger is not worldwide. In countries, like China, mukbang is now outlawed as an aim to preserve food and minimize waste. BBC News released an article written by China media analyst Kerry Allen called, “China launches ‘Clean Plate’ campaign against food waste.” She reported that President Xi is releasing his “clean waste campaign” to account for the towering amounts of food waste produced by its 1.4 billion citizens. “The amount of food China wastes is enough to feed 30 to 50 million people annually. These types of aggressive tactics have been necessary to reshape the way people think about their consumption habits.” This includes fining TV stations and media houses (including mukbang) that produce videos where people overeat, up to $16,000 to prevent potential triggers and relapses individuals may experience relating to disordered eating.
135
Furthermore, many individuals genuinely believe mukbang is a form of art that should be recognized and respected, but the reality is “Not all food is great art,—not all food is great food— but all food has the potential to be art because of its production, presentation, and manner of appreciation (i.e., eating) necessarily involves one in an interactive engagement with the qualitative tensions that underlie experience” according to Kuehn. I can agree that some mukbang videos can be viewed as art, but not all. However, I don’t believe art should influence unhealthy eating habits or create mental and physical health hazards, which mukbang has done. There are plenty of ways people can learn to be more creative, get inspiration, and find motivation with fewer risks. For example, activities like painting, drawing, writing, and sculpting can help people focus and motivate them to try new activities and express their ideas or feelings. These forms of art have lower risks of developing mental and physical health problems, including eating disorders. Although any type of mukbang can be perceived as art, it is hard to tell how the individual will interpret it. Because art can have such a profound effect on individuals, it is dangerous to advertise mukbang as an innocent pastime because there are many people that are negatively impacted by its effects. Through extensive research specifically examining how mukbang affects its viewers, it can be concluded mukbang does more harm than good. Although many individuals’ lives have changed for the better due to these videos, there has been an equal number of viewers, if not more, who have been sent down a rabbit hole of consequences and despair. As we learned from “Mukbang and Disordered Eating: A Netnographic Analysis of Online Eating Broadcasts,” these videos not only damage one’s relationship with food, but they also put viewers at risk of corrupting their ability to socialize and skillfully communicate in person. Not to mention, the entire trend has been culturally appropriated to fit the requirements to achieve health and fame. These videos often create toxic relationships with food, and the risks outweigh the benefits. It is my understanding that mukbang is dangerous because there is almost no way of telling how these videos are going to impact viewers. Most viewers are not informed of the side effects of mukbang and have suffered profusely for it. Because mukbangs do help many people recovering from mental disorders and loneliness, I do not think it should be banned. Instead, mukbangers should warn their viewers and of the dangers of mukbang. However, they probably won’t do this in fear of losing their supporters. Viewers are not the only ones being affected by mukbang either; it also takes a toll on the participants’ health and mental stability. After all, these are people ingesting incomprehensible amounts of food in one sitting. To conclude, mukbang videos can be helpful and constructive for some while also being destructive and consequential for others. Nonetheless, it is important to take your time to understand the effects of mukbang before obliviously diving into this genre of entertainment because there is no telling how people will be affected. WORKS CITED Allen, Kerry. “China Launches 'Clean Plate' Campaign against Food Waste.” BBC News, BBC, 13 Aug. 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53761295.
136
Blackburn, Kellie Bramlet. “What Happens When You Overeat?” MD Anderson Cancer Center, MD Anderson Cancer Center, 25 Oct. 2019, https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/What-happens-when-youovereat.h23Z1592202.html#:~:text=When%20you%20eat%2C%20your%20body,and%2 0other%20chronic%20health%20problems Chang, Cecelia. “Mukbang Youtube: A Dream Job or a Nightmare?” WORLD OF BUZZ 21 Aug. 2020, https://worldofbuzz.com/mukbang-youtuber-a-dream-job-or-a-nightmare/. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, March 22). Adult obesity causes & consequences. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 9, 2021, from https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/causes.html. (academic) Donnar, Glen. “'Food Porn' or Intimate Sociality: Committed Celebrity and Cultural Performances of Overeating in Meokbang.” Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2017, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19392397.2016.1272857?scroll=top&need Access=true. Givens, Dana. “American Mukbang: Why We Love to Watch People Eat.” Thrillist, https://www.thrillist.com/eat/nation/what-is-mukbang. Healey, Justin, editor. Social Media and Young People. Spinney Press, 2017. https://hpu.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true& db=nlebk&AN=1505744&site=ehost-live&scope=site&ebv=EB&ppid=pp_Cover. Accessed 4 Nov. 2021 Jazmin, Redzhanna. “The Whitewashing of Mukbang: How America Corrupted the Genre.” BURO., 13 Dec. 2021, https://www.buro247.my/culture/insiders/the-whitewashing-ofmukbang.html. Kircaburun, Kagan, et al. “The Psychology of Mukbang Watching: A Scoping Review of the Academic and Non-Academic Literature.” International Journal of Mental Health & Addiction, vol. 19, no. 4, Aug. 2021, pp. 1190–1213. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s11469019-00211-0 Kircaburun, K., Balta, S., Emirtekin, E., Tosuntas, Ş. B., Demetrovics, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021, April). Compensatory usage of the internet: The case of mukbang watching on YouTube. Psychiatry investigation. Retrieved November 8, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8103015/. Kooienga, M. K. (2021, October 20). Why you're experiencing food guilt and how to overcome it. Nutrition Stripped®. Retrieved November 8, 2021, from https://nutritionstripped.com/food-guilt/. Red Summit Productions, The Art of the Mukbang. 20 Aug. 2020, https://redsummitproductions.medium.com/the-art-of-the-mukbang-449dcfbd2828. 137
Rmarcus, 22, rguenthe, 22, cbudd33, & 25, valvarez A. (2015, April 21). Talking about thinking. Retrieved November 11, 2021, from https://thinking.umwblogs.org/2015/04/21/can-art-improve-cognition/. Spence, C. (2017, March 19). From Instagram to TV ads, what's The Science Behind Food Porn? The Guardian. Retrieved November 5, 2021, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/mar/19/science-of-food-porngastrophysics-alluring-food-imagery-psychology. Strand, Mattias, and Sanna Aila Gustafsson. “Mukbang and Disordered Eating: A Netnographic Analysis of Online Eating Broadcasts.” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry: An International Journal of Cross-Cultural Health Research, vol. 44, no. 4, 2020, pp. 586– 609., doi:10.1007/s11013-020-09674-6. Yoon, L., & 18, A. (2021, August 18). “South Korea: One-person Households’ Number 2020.” Statista. Retrieved November 5, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/964526/south-korea-one-person-households-number/. Zhang, Cecilia, et al. “Understanding the Aesthetics of Food Porn in Today’s Media.” Phil 285, 11 May 2020, https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/philosophyoffood/2020/05/11/understanding-theaesthetics-of-food-porn-in-todays-media/.
138
Eating Your Own Words: The Analysis of Cannibalism in the Representation of Indigenous People By Ron Calimlim Cannibalism. It’s a weird concept to grasp when the first images that come into mind are of a ferocious person feeding on the flesh of a human being. You come to wonder: what do humans taste like, what part of the human body are consumable, and, most importantly, is cannibalism real? The answer to those questions is complicated. Often, the reaction of cannibalism is of surprise in the strangeness looming around the word, yet many do not know about the complicated history which still plays a part in modern society. Cannibalism as an act has been documented within few indigenous groups, and these seemingly vile acts are hidden from the rest of society because the practice has never been widely accepted as ethical. This is where the idea of cannibalism as a label comes into play, which is a bigger issue against indigenous people. Their cultures are perceived differently by the traditional Western bias because practices and values often conflict, yet the Western bias remains dominant while these indigenous values are oppressed. Society has implicitly embedded the culture of indigenous people into the concept of the cannibal—a strange community with abnormal standards of practice. However, it does not necessarily mean that their practices revolve around the act of consuming others. This is the cause of the complications in discovering the truthfulness of cannibalism, and unfolding this mystery will reveal many issues surrounding society that have negatively affected indigenous people. Although most think that the act of cannibalism is common, it is not, as there is more to this concept than just the consumption of humans. The bigger issue to consider is the oppression and deindividualization of indigenous cultures that are caused by cannibalism as a label rather than the physiological act. Throughout this essay, we will be examining the history of cannibalism and how it has shaped our perceptions of indigenous people today. First, we will discuss cannibalism from a surface level as explained from an article in Encyclopedia.com. Then we will begin to contrast the argument between William Aren’s “The Man-Eating Myth” and Brady’s response to Aren, which will reveal the striking importance of why anthropologists should study past accounts of cannibalism. The rest of the essay will dissect the historical aspect of cannibalism and analyze its importance in the connection to bigger issues for indigenous communities in the face of discrimination and oppression, concluding with an explanation regarding the importance of being an ally. Cannibalism is an important topic, regardless of the negative perception that drives people away from it. We must be able to change our behaviors and understandings regarding indigenous communities and understand the recklessness of “cannibal” labels to truly accept and advocate for mutual understanding of indigenous and new Western values alike. In order to understand the complexity of cannibalism, we must deconstruct the concept and its various aspects. In hindsight, cannibalism can be a straightforward concept to grasp. The image that pops into the mind is humans eating humans; there is a grave negative connotation to the word in most cases. The origin of the word, however, remains in ambiguity beyond initial perception. An article from Encyclopedia.com titled “Cannibalism” highlights this complexity of cannibalism by stating the following: “the many and varied examples of cannibalism are difficult to summarize, except in terms of the widespread idea of the human body as a powerful symbolic site for defining relations between oneself and others and marking the boundaries of a moral community” (Brown & Conklin, 2018, p.1). There are many caveats of cannibalism to consider, such as the diversity of 139
themes, which may connect to love, food, aggression, etc., and, because there are many ways to represent or symbolize cannibalism, determining the morals of the concept will be difficult to judge. Regardless, cannibalism has been depicted throughout history and around the world. The article further expands on this, stating that it is a common theme in mythology and folk tales and has been conceptualized as an act in Europe, Polynesia, Melanesia, and the Americas (Brown & Conklin, 2018, pp.1–2). This is where many problems start to occur because the origin of cannibalism is unknown. Cannibalism is perceived as a common tradition throughout history, without much support or evidence of the actual act of consuming human flesh, hence the underlying symbolization among myths and folk tales. Its horrific nature makes it one of the most glorified acts that human beings could possibly pursue on another, yet it is notoriously debated because not much is known about the history of consuming human flesh, regardless of our usage for describing other acts. This argument has plagued the anthropology community since the publication of William Arens’ “The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy” (1979). Arens’ book has been subjected to much academic scrutiny for its brash and bold claims regarding cannibalism, especially when considering cannibalism as the act of anthropophagy. Both are synonyms in which “anthropophagy” is also the consumption of human flesh. While it is conceptualized in many different areas around the world, Arens argues that cannibalism itself is not as common through history as it is used to describe things today. Ivan Brady, a professor at the State University of New York at Oswego who has a doctorate in anthropology, reviewed Arens’ work in 1982 in the article ironically titled “The Myth-Eating Man.” Brady cites Arens’ argument in questioning anthropophagy as ‘claims’ in anthropological work through a critical lens. He explains the problem of distinguishing “rumor and fact” about cannibalism and makes the following claim: Anthropology has not maintained the usual standards of documentation and intellectual rigor expected when other topics are being considered. Instead, it has chosen to lend its support to the collective representations and thinly disguised prejudice of western culture about others… we merely assume that people have eaten and continue to eat each other. If one of the primary tasks of anthropology is to uncover what is essential or common to humanity, then the existing state of affairs is astonishing. (Brady, 1982, p. 597; Arens, 1979, pp. 9–10) There are two main assumptions that Arens implicitly states: that most documentation of cannibalism from artifacts of the past are critically invalid, and that anthropologists openly accept anecdotes of such acts without fully evaluating validity. In an extreme sense, Arens frames anthropologists as gullible for believing said information. However, he believes cannibalism is still a phenomenon observable through direct observation, despite the disregard towards these accounts (Brady, 1982, p. 598). Arens’ overall argument and attitude towards the idea is that cannibalism is nothing but empty accounts of literature sparking major backlash within the anthropologist community, including Brady himself. When reviewing Arens’ “The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy,” Brady’s response to the argument made is an overall disagreement. Whether there is truth in literature that depicts the acts of cannibalism, it is difficult to justify judgment if the approach in finding 140
cannibalism must rely on direct observation (Brady, 1982, p. 606). Through this lens, Brady criticizes Arens’ unfairness and strict guidelines of valid evidence for cannibalism, especially with the difficulty to objectively witness the act. Difficulty increases when the evidence is predated centuries ago, therefore anthropologists encounter two problems: that witness accounts upon initial discovery of indigenous cultures are the only documentation of ‘cannibalism,’ and that these accounts are merely “unsubstantiated impressions, rumors, innuendo, ethnocentrism, plagiarism, and so forth” (Brady, 1982, p. 601). Regardless, the view of cannibalism upon the initial observation of indigenous cultural traditions must still be accounted for, as these perceptions are still made today. Brady emphasizes this point specifically: “unless we are prepared to search for the casual cannibal in this quest, and perhaps to view such a creature as typical, we must admit that self-consciousness in cannibalism of any type might push it underground to some extent when put under outside scrutiny” (Brady, 1982, p. 599). This illustrates the reality of which the act of anthropophagy is viewed negatively. It was especially a condition applicable during the age of colonialism and the discovery of the Americas where many suspicions can be raised regarding the interpretations of those travelers, who are the main sources of contact for newly discovered civilizations (Brady, 1982, pp. 600–601). While the practice of cannibalism is not as common, it is still used as a form of representation that carries the negative connotations perceived by the act to describe indigenous communities that live in traditions outside the Western norm. Indigenous people around the world still struggle to fully embrace their identity because of the misrepresentation of their culture and their false label as “cannibals.” Whether in fictional media or in policy, and since their initial discovery by Western colonizers, they are alienated as the weird, the abnormal, and the cannibal. Before investigating the representation of cannibalism in modern times, we must briefly discuss documentation of cannibalism from the past. When looking at cannibalism as the simple act of devouring human flesh, it is just a concept that was shaped in mythology across the world, especially in Europe; it was not meant to be a label used against other groups. It wasn’t until the discovery of these civilizations beyond the Western world that cannibalism’s vile definition was manifested against them in the conflict of cultural values. This trend sparked a great level of oppression on indigenous practices in favor of this Western bias; and, while in today’s society it is not as rampant, the superiority of modern culture still outcasts the values of these communities. José María Hernández Gutiérrez, an independent scholar, explains such behavior in the discovery of new civilizations and its influence on modern ideology. His article “Traveling Anthropophagy: The Depiction of Cannibalism in Modern Travel Writing, Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries,” published in the Journal of World History, defines “travel writing” as “the complex exercise that attempts to portray the unknown to the reader as convincingly as possible” (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 396), a key factor in perpetuating a prejudicial attitude against indigenous people. It was a common form of documentation for travelers like Christopher Columbus for illustrating the world around him, including the discovery of the Carib tribe and anecdotes of their shrouded ‘ferocious’ nature. In analyzing the tone of his entry about the tribe, Gutiérrez says the following: The approach taken here by Columbus places the discursive narrative of cannibals within the field of hearsay and myth, philosophical speculation about something that has been known but never seen. At the same time however, the sense of fear and suspicion also echoed the uncertainties of the Spanish towards the alien people they have just encountered. (Gutiérrez, 2019, pp. 399–400) 141
Subsequently, this would turn from fearful curiosity to the establishment of us-and-them. The initial perception Columbus had about the Caribs was as nothing but “strangers” whom other tribes were “very much afraid” of because of anecdotes of cannibalistic practices for territorial dominance. (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 399). While the connection between unknown cultures and cannibalism practices had not yet been concrete in this entry, soon it would contrast with the establishment of the relationship between the Christian Western travelers – Columbus – and the Other (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 400). Columbus’ conquest across the Americas set precedence for the treatment of indigenous cultures for the unforeseeable future. While the Native Americans’ anecdotes are not more than just words, Columbus’ assumed these as true, depicting their rival’s supposed ravenous human-hungry nature among later entries in his initial voyage (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 401). This instance is the pivotal point in our preconception with cannibalism; what was once only rogue speculation in mythology across Europe and the ‘known world’ became a prejudicial label given to indigenous cultures to assume their barbaric and savage nature. Furthermore, Gutiérrez expands this progression in separation between Europeans and the Other. He states, “the practice [was] not limited to America but was expected of any group not living according to European ‘civilized standards” (p. 404). As Christian values became more recognized in contrast against the assumed cannibalistic nature of indigenous people, all because “anthropophagy became all but imbedded within the concept of primitivism” (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 417), many travelers started to dominate these newfound civilizations in favor of these Christian values to ‘purify’ indigenous individuals. Even as the time passed in the 18th and 19th centuries, such images have “all but disappeared and become imbued with a sense of danger that once again made it synonymous with the concept of savagery” (Gutiérrez, 2019, p. 412). As we come to realize the importance of preserving indigenous cultures, we must also recognize where and how these issues against these people were formed. Though the age of exploration has long since passed, those attitudes are still present to a lesser degree; regardless of whether assumptions about practiced anthropophagy in indigenous cultures are true or not and whether cannibal labels against indigenous cultures still exist, indigenous people are generalized among the forefront of minorities who are used against their will to produce a fabricated reality of their true traditions. Cannibalism happens to be one of those fabrications that symbolizes more than savagery. With this knowledge, it should be unsurprising that cannibalism is used as a common theme in many works. Cannibalism itself may not be practiced as often as we think, but symbolization that underlines attitudes of the past is still used in context to the relationship between indigenous cultures and the average viewer – someone oblivious to indigenous values – which demonstrates the bigger issue about the concept of cannibalism. These themes may vary in message, but given the historical aspect of this word, it puts indigenous people in a status of inferiority if not exoticized for their abnormal social values. Debbie Barnard, an associate professor in Tennessee Tech University, published in 2005 the article “Serving the Master: Cannibalism and Transoceanic Representation of Cultural Identity,” which discusses the relevancy of these issues through fictional content, establishing the divide between indigenous people and the rest of society by analyzing the symbolization of the colonizer-colonized relationship. For both works reviewed, “Histoire de la Femme Cannibale” by Maryse Conde and “les Confidence d’un Cannibale” by Paul Bloc, they may set themselves in different time periods, but both represent exactly how 142
superiority of Western values oppresses those of indigenous ones by this cannibal label. For Conde’s work, Barnard exemplifies one character’s Western dominance over another’s minority status to demoralize them and “consume [their] identity” in order to transplant their own Western values because of their “guilt of being a ‘cannibal’” (Barnard, 2005, p. 331). For Bloc’s work, it’s the literal distinction of this separation, which Barnard states “Bloc appropriates the power to assign identity to his own ethnic group – the European colonizers – and to deny identity to the colonized – the autochthon and [their] ‘race’” (Barnard, 2005, p. 333). In hindsight, indigenous people through these stories are forced into deindividualization to fit the Western European mold. Though this demonstrates the abuse of the cannibal label, Barnard argues that the character’s attitudes portraying the colonizer is strikingly comparable to the practice of cannibalism itself, thus establishing one of two things: the double standard in which acts associated with the unusual nature of anthropophagy is considered dutiful in European culture but barbaric in others, and the normalization of cannibalism as a neutral act. Barnard expands on this point: Each novel shows how European cannibalism surpasses corporeal limits, extending to the consumption of identity, territory and personal freedom. The colonizer-colonized dialectic - Stephen-Rosélie and the colon-Tiangou - within each work experiences a shift in power that ultimately puts each set of characters on equal terms, stripping the term ‘cannibal’ of its accusatory and divisive qualities and transforming it into a term of communion and unification. (Barnard, 2005, p. 338) The concept of cannibalism is thoroughly complex. While we have the literal definition of consuming human flesh, cannibalism is not only a label stamped on other people against their will; it was a way to close the gap between two groups by normalizing the act of cannibal identification and embracing these values. Seemingly profound, it is still problematic for how it normalizes these labels – prejudicial assumptions to distinguish Western norms from the abnormalities of indigenous tradition. Understanding the historical aspect of how these groups were treated not only reveals the truth behind cannibalism, but it also discloses the bigger issues indigenous people face constantly: their constant oppression by conflicting values that prevent them from true freedom to express themselves. The tumultuous history of cannibalism has altered this ‘man-eating myth’ into a glorified, sensationalized stereotype against indigenous people. Even as today’s values for social justice encompass the importance of preserving traditional culture, their treatment in the past resulted in many losing their native identity in conformity. In the book Eating Their Words: Cannibalism and the Boundaries of Cultural Identity, a compilation of works by multiple scholars, the editor Kristen Guest explains the dissonance between one’s true ethnic identity and one acceptable in the supposed modern world: “unlike the more visually coded relationships between ideology and biology that govern distinctions based on race and gender, ‘savagery’ is a problematic point of reference that draws our attention to the difficulties of dividing self from other by calling traditional boundaries of identity into question” (Guest, 2001, p. 4). The origin and history of this more-than century old label revealed how indigenous people around the world are perpetually misunderstood. Despite the harmful nature of cannibalism—a big proponent of a continuous ethnic identity crisis—we must also recognize the bigger issue that cannibalism has created: the perpetual problem of which indigenous people may never be understood if they are constantly deindividualized to fit a fabricated version of their own culture. Regardless of the cannibal label, 143
many generalize about indigenous cultures and claim themselves as experts. In reality, it is ignorance in the face of implicit and confirmation bias – acting upon stereotypes and seeking to only satisfy the shallow image of indigenous cultures. In the article “How Museums Define Other Cultures,” Ivan Karp, a philosopher of aesthetics, defines “exoticizing” – highlighting the “absence of qualities” from the ‘other’ to the dominant, “often colonizing,” group – as influential in depicting our perceived familiarity with the culture itself. Karp puts this into perspective by stating the following: “If the other is different from us, one feature of that difference is his identification with social groups that claim his loyalties in ways that impede rational calculations” (Karp, 1991, p. 10). Arguably, this plays a huge role in the current circumstances against indigenous cultures. Society continuously discriminates against communities whose values conflict with modern Western norms in the reflection of cannibalism attitudes, and, in making these assumptions, we generalize their culture to fit the perfectly simplified image of indigenous people, which further oppresses their right to truly represent themselves. That is the real issue, stemming from the roots of cannibalism, which is the major cause of both misrepresentation and lack of representation in the first place for indigenous people. In fact, it is an issue many minorities face and suffer in oppression. “We live in polarizing times, characterized by rising racial tensions and political divides” (Fish et al., 2021, p.18). This statement in the article “When the Personal Is Political: Ethnic Identity, Ally Identity, and Political Engagement Among Indigenous People and People of Color” summarizes the continuous struggle against minorities within the United States and around the world. Indigenous people, especially, are ridiculed for their culture because of practices outside the social norm. They are often distanced from the rest into one group that society generalizes by prejudicial assumptions of their identity as the abnormal savages. This is a greater issue within context of the political divide when diversity is important in policymaking; continuing to generalize the cultural identity of indigenous groups as a cannibal widens this divide and disregards the discrimination caused by this and other perpetuated stereotypes. Fish and her colleagues defined “allyship,” not only for one’s own ethnic identity, but for other minority groups like people of color who share similar experiences of oppression and discrimination as Indigenous People and People of Color (IPPOC). To further explain, Fish et al. conclude this: It is possible that part of the process of individuals solidifying their ethnic identity is figuring out how they relate to other IPPOC. Whether IPPOC believe in or perceive shared oppression and an unjust system likely influence the extent to which they see themselves in the same boat and affects the development of a politicized collective identity. (Fish et al., 2021, p.32) Even with the period of colonialism sometimes seeming long behind modern society, indigenous people as well as people of color continue to endure oppression that both parties share. Both work collectively together to fight against the profiling of their own identity while also trying to find their own sense of individualization that fully represents themselves in the face of discrimination and oppression. IPPOC may share different experiences of the past, but, because of this shared oppression, they are much obliged to advocate for one another. Afterall, what it means to be an ally requires a great understanding of “self-awareness” regarding the way IPPOC are treated in this sociopolitical context, of which they should be represented holistically among our population in the United States. 144
So, what about our allyship for minority groups in society? When judging the identity of indigenous people, cannibalism is not exactly used to describe this community; ironically, however, we must realize our own act of cannibalism. Despite their efforts to be as truthful to themselves as possible, structures of society select traits to simplify and fabricate their ethnic identity for easier digestion, as Ivan Karp explains. This behavior is historically synonymous with colonizers as it was considered acceptable to eradicate indigenous civilizations in favor of this Western bias because of the accused savagery linked to the assumption of the cannibal. If we were to assume that they are simply fragments of the past, then we must question why society still struggles to cater to the authentic representation of indigenous people. Beyond that, other minority groups are oppressed and discriminated against just as much because of the generalization of these issues society will never understand if they continue to simplify and consume. Clifford Geertz, an anthropologist, summarized this conflict in his book Work and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (1988) by stating: “The gap between engaging others where they are and representing them where they aren’t always immense but not much noticed, has suddenly become extremely visible. What once seemed only technically difficult, getting “their” lives into “our” works, has turned morally, politically, even epistemologically, delicate” (p. 130). Continuing to compromise the identity of indigenous people for our own perceptions will only amplify the oppression they endure. The age of colonialism may have been long ago, but cannibalism still exists, not through anthropophagy, but via society’s consumption of ethnic identity and lack of willingness to fully understand their perspective. So, for what it means to have “allyship,” do not simplify or assume peoples’ identity. Remove everything we assume to know about indigenous people and approach with the intent to learn about their culture just by how they see it. You may not agree with it, but, ironically, it does simply take understanding the culture as it is to accept them as part of our weird society. The main goal of this essay is to connect cannibalism to the broader issue of discrimination and oppression against indigenous communities. In support of the notion that cannibalism is not common, I defined the concept as both an act and a label, and I analyzed the debate between Arens and Brady. I concluded that, despite the argument over whether acts of cannibalism are real based on witness accounts of the past, both highlight the significance in the attitude and tones of these observations. This is where many of the discriminatory stances began based on the assumption of the indigenous cannibal. Through the travel literature of Christopher Columbus and other travelers during the age of exploration, Gutierrez and Barnard emphasized the prevalence of these attitudes as displayed through continuous misrepresentation of ethnic identities, which is still continuing today. The age of exploration has long since passed, but the emphasis of the Other as cannibals still remains today through the degree of generalizing and simplifying indigenous cultures. The past has been an influence on the attitudes of modern society, regardless of whether people think it is true or not. Yet, the unfortunate reality is of our power to change the past; it is nonexistent regardless of how much the past hurts the present. The age of exploration may have paved the way for the rest of the world, but it will forever be cemented in the controversy against the domination of the Western world over indigenous civilizations. However, life is always an on-going journey, and sometimes the past can be the catalyst for change. Cannibalism may seem to be a weird concept to many, but it is crucial to learn the history of how it harmed the image of indigenous people who were forced into social hierarchy as outcasts, making people aware of a greater, more holistic perspective regarding its horrible complexity, one that has catalyzed many near-deaths of 145
indigenous civilizations. Today, indigenous people around the world still fight for their freedom to represent themselves truthfully and authentically. If you want to support indigenous cultures, be an ally advocating for their rights; and, regardless of your stance, it only takes the simple act of letting them embrace their truthful identities. REFERENCES Arens, W. (1979). The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy. Oxford University Press. Barnard, D. (2005). Serving the master: Cannibalism and transoceanic representations of cultural identity. International Journal of Francophone Studies, 8(3), 321–339. https://doi.org/10.1386/ijfs.8.3.321/1 Brady, I. (1982). The myth-eating man: The man-eating myth: Anthropology and anthropophagy. W. Arens. American Anthropologist, 84(3), 595–611. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1982.84.3.02a00050 Brown, P., & Conklin, B. (2018, May 17). Cannibalism. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved October 28, 2021, from https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropologyand-archaeology/customs-and-artifacts/cannibalism. Fish, J., Aguilera, R., Ogbeide, I. E., Ruzzicone, D. J., & Syed, M. (2020). When the personal is political: Ethnic identity, Ally Identity, and political engagement among indigenous people and people of color. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000341 Geertz, C. (1988). Work and Lives: the Anthropologist As Author. Stanford University Press. Guest, K. (2001). Eating their words: Cannibalism and the boundaries of Cultural Identity. State University of New York Press. Gutiérrez, J. M. (2019). Traveling anthropophagy: The depiction of cannibalism in modern travel writing, sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Journal of World History, 30(3), 393–414. https://doi.org/10.1353/jwh.2019.0060 Karp, I. (1991). How Museums Define Other Cultures. American Art, 5(1/2), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1086/424103
146
Soccer Career Comparison and Contrast of Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo By Oliver Enevoldsen The biggest sport in Europe is soccer. In Denmark, where I come from, most guys like to watch or play soccer and usually represent one of the local clubs. When talking about the greatest players of all time in soccer, most people are actually talking about players who are currently playing. Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo have been absolutely outstanding for more than a decade, breaking all-time records like it is nothing special. It is breathtaking to see what they can do with a soccer ball and how they manage to dribble between players in even the tightest spaces. They are both my childhood heroes. Most people in the soccer world are admiring how amazing they are, but people want to find out who is the better player. This leads to heated discussions and rivalry. Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo played for two of the best teams in the world, FC Barcelona and Real Madrid. Both of the clubs happened to be located in Spain, which meant they played against each other multiple times a season, creating excitement for millions of people across Europe and the rest of the world. One way to find out who is the superior player is by looking at the statistics to see how many goals they scored, how many assists they have made, how many trophies they won, and a few other key factors. Lionel Messi is 33 years old, and Cristiano Ronaldo is 36 years old at the time of the writing of this essay. Messi is from Argentina in South America, and Ronaldo is from Portugal in Europe. Messi has played 911 games in 17 seasons, and Ronaldo has played 1058 games in 19 seasons. Ronaldo scored an amazing 772 goals in those games (All-time top scorer in soccer), which beats Messi’s 734 career goals. Cristiano Ronaldo has played 147 games more than Leo Messi in his entire career and has scored only 38 goals more than the Argentinian. That means Messi has 0.81 goals per game, whereas Ronaldo only has a 0.73 goal to game ratio. Ronaldo is often being seen as and talked about as the better goal scorer, although the statistics clearly shows otherwise. Messi has way more assist,, with an astonishing 309 assists, comfortably beating Ronaldo’s 224. When it comes to tournaments, Messi has participated in 80, whereas Ronaldo has participated in 84. Messi won 35 titles in his tournaments, and Ronaldo is lacking a little bit behind with his 33 titles. Every year there is a big show in France called “Ballon d’Or” where coaches, players, and presidents vote on who they think is the best player in the world in each position. Messi has won the best soccer player in the world award six times (Ballon d’Or), and, although Cristiano Ronaldo won it last year (2020), he is still behind Lionel Messi by five of those beautiful golden soccer ball statues. Another award that is given out yearly is the European Golden Shoe award, which is simply awarded to the player in the world with the most goals within that calendar year. This is yet again a category where Messi is superior with six awards against Ronaldo’s four (Madison). If we calculate a statistical projection, taking into account the scoring average in the entire career of Lionel Messi, where the Argentinian has played 1058 games (those played by Cristiano), he would have scored 852 goals (80 more than Cristiano has currently scored). If we use the same method to approximate the number of assists that Messi would have given in 1058 games in his entire career, we get that Messi will have 359 assists when he reaches the number of games Cristiano Ronaldo has played in his entire career (135 more than Cristiano has currently given). Knowing these data, we can conclude that when Lionel Messi has played 1058 games in his entire 147
career he will have generated 1211 goals, 215 more than Cristiano Ronaldo has generated in that same number of games in his entire career. Of course, we know that soccer is not linear and that you cannot guess what will happen in the future, where there may be injuries, performance drops, bad patches, etc., but this calculation helps us to get a bit of an idea on the different performance that both players have had to date, since we are talking about averages calculated over many games, which makes them quite reliable. As a contrasting method, we can calculate backwards how many goals and assists Cristiano Ronaldo should have had when he had played 911 games in his entire career, according to his current average goals and assists. According to these data, with an average of 0.73 goals and 0.21 assists per game, Cristiano Ronaldo should have scored 665 goals and 191 assists in his game number 911 in his entire career. The reality is that after playing his game number 911 in his entire career, Cristiano Ronaldo had scored 654 goals and given 204 assists. This gives a 1.65% lack in goals and 6.81% in assists. Considering that we could also commit a 1.65% error in the estimation of Messi's goals, and applying that correction factor to the goals we have calculated previously, we could infer that after Messi’s match number 1058 in his entire career, Messi will have scored between 838 and 866 goals, which is still much more than Cristiano Ronaldo’s current 772 goals (Acosta). The Ronaldo-Messi rivalry is a soccer rivalry between fans of Argentina’s attacker Lionel Messi and Portugal’s winger Cristiano Ronaldo as well as between the players themselves. Having won a combined eleven Ballon d'Or awards (six for Messi and five for Ronaldo) and ten European Golden Shoe awards (six for Messi and four for Ronaldo), both are widely regarded not only as the two best players of their generation, but also, by most people in the sport, including players, writers, and fans, as two of the greatest of all time. They are two of the most winning soccer players ever, having won a combined 68 trophies (Ronaldo 33, Messi 35) during their senior careers thus far, and having regularly broken the 50-goal barrier in a single season and calendar year. They are both amongst the 51 players in the history of the sport to score over 500 career goals, with both having scored over 700 goals each in their careers for club and country. Ronaldo currently holds the world record for most official goals in a career, while Messi holds the world record for most goals in a calendar year set in 2012 at FC Barcelona with an absolutely unbelievable 91 goals (Premiére). Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo have been head-to-head 36 times. Messi has always played for FC Barcelona, whereas Ronaldo has faced Messi with Manchester United, Real Madrid, and Juventus. Their respective countries of Argentina and Portugal have also faced each other a couple of times. Messi has won 16 of the games, Ronaldo has won 11, and the remaining 9 games were draws. In those 36 games Messi has scored 22 goals, just beating Ronaldo’s 21 goals head-to-head (Mazariegos). In conclusion, when looking at how many goals they have scored, how many assists have they made, how many trophies they won, and a few other key factors, Cristiano Ronaldo has scored more goals in his career than Lionel Messi (in more matches), whereas Messi has more assists, trophies, awards, and has been better in head-to-head matches. However, soccer is not all about statistics; the performance of the players over a decade showcases a pretty clear picture of who is the better player. Looking at metrics, such as trophies and awards, Lionel Messi outclasses and 148
outshines Cristiano Ronaldo. With that being said, they are both amazing soccer players, and we are very blessed to have grown up watching these legendary athletes that have forever changed the sport for the better. WORKS CITED Acosta, Michel. “Lionel Messi vs Cristiano Ronaldo”, Michael Acosta Soccer Statistics. https://michelacosta.com/en/, Last updated April 5, 2021. Web. Premiére, Équipe. “Messi ends 2012 with 91 goals”, FC Barcelona website. https://www.fcbarcelona.fr/fr/actualites/1146881/messi-ends-2012-with-91-goals, Published December 22, 2012. Web. Madison, Luca. “List of European Golden Boot winners from 2001 to 2020”, We Futbol Fans. https://wefutbolfans.com/list-of-european-golden-shoe-winners-from-2001-to-2020/, Last updated January 16, 2021. Web. Mazariegos, Luis. “STATS: Lionel Messi vs. Cristiano Ronaldo, head-to-head”, Barca Blaugranes. https://www.barcablaugranes.com/2020/12/8/22163710/stats-lionel-messivs-cristiano-ronaldo-head-to-head, Published December 8, 2020. Web.
149
LIVING ENVIRONMENT
Napali Mana by Heidi Roach
150
Changing the Current Reputation of Sharks By Taylor Lagorio Various forms of media, whether it be the news, magazines, or books, vastly influence the opinion of humans. The news and other media industries often aim to persuade people into believing a notion of some sort, whether it be a bad or good opinion to hold. A massive issue the world is currently facing is the nearing extinction of sharks because of an ever-continuing negative portrayal of sharks in media productions. As a result of this misleading media coverage throughout the last century, the general population has been led to believe that sharks are deadly animals to humans; however, this statement is inaccurate and will be proved otherwise as this research paper describes the lack of conservation information that is available in the news, explicates how little education about sharks can determine people’s negative perception, provides insightful information frequent ocean users have on sharks, and explains new ways shark conservation practices are being integrated into society. This research paper evaluates the negative reputation sharks currently possess as a result of poor coverage throughout the media, by attempting to educate readers of sharks’ true intentions. The goal is to help readers better understand that sharks are vital species to the oceans that cannot be eradicated because of media induced human fear. United States and Australian media outputs will be the target groups in this paper of poor media coverage that has caused humans to react so negatively to sharks. Research into people’s perception of sharks has presented two key issues that have caused humans to feel a certain distaste toward sharks and two possible solutions to this negative perception. Panoch explained in an academic article that a staggering amount of news reports are of shark attacks rather than shark conservation practices, furthering the distrust of sharks in humans. Gross and Dudley have discovered that a lack of education about sharks in general has led most of the population to hold such a negative attitude toward sharks. Concurrently, Gibbs explained that knowledge of sharks from frequent ocean users can help people build a more positive attitude toward sharks through their insightful takes. A fourth way people are attempting to fix humans' perception of sharks, which has so far yielded positive results, is through research experiments conducted by Panoch that are attempting to educate adolescents. The final research that will be used is a comprehensive guide that reveals the current issue sharks are facing and that teaches people how to coexist with sharks in a peaceful manner that benefits both humans and sharks. When information about sharks is presented in the news, a common theme found throughout many media reports is that more reports about shark attacks are presented than conservation effort practices. With so many shark attacks being prioritized and exaggerated in the media, sharks hardly have a chance to be seen as anything else but deadly. From the academic article, “Humans and Sharks,” by Rainer Panoch, it was discovered that “articles reporting ‘attacks’ were five times more common than articles discussing conservation,” leading civilians to become more educated about the accidents sharks have committed, rather than educating them about any of the strategies people can take to coexist with sharks. When the media constantly taints sharks’ reputation, it is hard for the species to be seen as the vital creatures they are; ones that help sustain ocean environments. Aside from the fact that shark attacks are the story most often reported, a recent discovery in worldwide shark news coverage found that “sharks were portrayed negatively in nearly 60% of the coverage” (“Sharks: An Unfair Reputation?” 20). Not only does the media just focus on the accidental attacks, but it puts sharks in a very dark light each time. The news seldom mentions any information about the state of certain shark species that are endangered, the fight 151
against shark finning, or biological discoveries about sharks. A better understanding of sharks can help humans learn how to lessen contact with the mere four shark species that are considered dangerous. Yet, the media continues to broadcast the few shark attacks that happen each year and ignore any conservation effort reports. A major cause of sharks’ frequent negative portrayal in the news comes specifically from the hit summer movie of 75’, Jaws. This movie is a horror film that portrayed a great white shark as the antagonist predator of the movie. The film was directed by Steven Spielberg who has since become notorious for horror films in Hollywood. Exaggerated attacks and slaughtering of people in the film created a fear of sharks so massive that it still looms over society today. With so many people convinced that sharks wanted to eat humans, the news and other media industries honed down on any type of scary shark stories, which is clearly still occurring today. Shark reports were reported in the news more frequently than ever after Jaws was released, convincing people even further that sharks were going to eat them. As more people heard of shark attack stories, the notion that sharks were killing humans in large numbers got out to the general population, and thus began the largescale killing of sharks by humans (Allan). Shark hunting contests became a weekend event in coastal towns across America, and fishermen began slaughtering sharks by the thousands. All these events that led humans to kill sharks in droves was the result of a fictional movie, filled with myths about sharks attacking humans. Humongous efforts have been made over the past thirty years to reverse the untrue myths so many people believe to be true. Re-education about sharks is moving slowly because not too many people are interested in watching a boring documentary about sharks. Jaws is so well known by many people in the world because it is a captivating film that people watch for pleasure. Not too many people watch documentaries for enjoyment, making the reeducation process difficult for conservationists. Encouraging news reports about shark conservation efforts is the best bet for the reputation of sharks to turn around. The effects of Jaws must begin to fade away as shark populations as a whole are nearing extinction. Fear has driven humans too far, and it is time for the news to shed a brighter light on sharks. As mentioned earlier, in actuality there are only four shark species that are considered dangerous to humans, yet the human population as a whole largely fears all sharks. The great white, tiger, bull, and hammerhead sharks are the only four species that are listed as dangerous to humans, with the other hundreds of shark species offering no threat to humans (Gross 2). A lack of education about different shark species can easily be tied to humans’ reaction to sharks. When we as humans fear something, we often want what scares us to disappear. This fear has led the human population to largely believe that all sharks are dangerous to humans and must be eradicated. From a survey put on by the National Aquarium in Baltimore, it was discovered that “72 percent (of Americans) believed shark populations were adequate or too high,” meaning that more than half of the Americans surveyed feel that more sharks should be killed than the hundred million that are already killed a year (Dudley). Obviously, a large amount of the people surveyed probably do not know how many sharks are already killed a year, showing the lack of education the population has about sharks. People are so influenced by the media that their own perceptions of sharks are completely skewed. They are uneducated about the harm currently being committed to so many sharks; they just believe that not enough are being killed. Every time a shark attack is reported people immediately want more sharks killed out of fear, rather than even considering that a hundred million die each year already. People are simply scared of the word “shark” because that is what the media has taught them. They do not know any better because they have not been given 152
the ability to understand more. If more people had the knowledge that so few sharks are considered dangerous, the species could be seen in a new light. That is why it is important that shark conservation organizations need to be given more opportunities to be seen in the news. Organizations such as Oceana, WildAid, and Shark Stewards are great NGOs that are working to better the life of sharks. Sharks could potentially be seen as the crucial part they are to the food web of the ocean if more people understood the nature of sharks. The lack of education about sharks is present in the practice of finning sharks for shark fin soup. For centuries China has been consuming what is known as shark fin soup, which is essentially the cartilage of shark fins mixed in with broth. The soup is believed to have medicinal properties that help enable a longer and healthier life. Serving shark fin soup as well is believed to hold values of hospitality, good fortune, and a class ranking (Smith). Though culture plays a major role in the popularity of shark fin soup, the two notions stated above are untrue and show a direct lack of education. Shark fin soup does not hold any known medicinal properties. If anything, it is actually dangerous to consume because sharks are key predators that intake a large amount of mercury. Sharks hold a large amount of mercury because they are at the top of the food chain and consume lots of other prey (fish) that have mercury inside them. The level of mercury that sharks have in them is getting higher these days because of the increased fossil fuel pollution that is entering the ocean. Eating sharks is not exactly safe for humans right now and is only going to get worse as pollution factors start to take effect. Concerning the respected values that shark fin soup is supposed to represent shows a lack of understanding as well, because people do not understand what cost the soup is coming at. The soup is so desired in China that about half of the sharks that are killed worldwide each year are killed for shark fin soup alone. The worst part of all about shark finning is the way in which hunting shark fins goes down. The sharks are caught, their fins cut off, and what is left of the remaining still alive shark is thrown overboard. From there the shark will struggle to swim with no fins and suffer from extreme blood loss. The shark will either die from all the blood loss, suffocate, or be eaten easily by another predator. Anyone who believes that the way in which the shark fins were obtained is bad, understands that there is nothing respectable about this process. Serving a soup which came at the expense of an innocent animal losing its fins and experiencing a cruel death is not a soup that represents hospitality. The soup is rather one that represents a sick practice that millions in China either do not understand or do not think is an issue. Educating the Chinese population, and all countries that participate in shark finning, can help reduce the consumption of shark fin soup. Efforts have already been made to reduce the consumption of shark fin soup by famous Chinese celebrities such as Yao Ming, which has had a positive effect. Sales of shark fins dropped by 70% after Yao Ming was featured in a WildAid commercial in China that encouraged people to stop eating shark fin soup (WildAid). The fight to reduce shark fin soup consumption is far from over, but steps have been taken in the right direction. Through continued efforts of education people can begin to understand how unhumanitarian consuming shark fin soup is and the actual dangers they are facing by consuming the soup. A group with a great perspective on sharks is that of frequent ocean users. Divers, surfers, and swimmers are people that more commonly come into contact with sharks. A yearlong research survey was conducted in Western Australia back in 2013 to determine the contact frequency between sharks and ocean users. By the end of the survey researchers had determined that 69% of people had encountered a shark within their lifetime, and 61% had encountered a shark within that year (Gibbs). This data showed that people who spend a lot of time in the ocean often come into 153
contact with sharks and come out unscathed. Other data from the Florida Museum has as well proved that shark attacks are not as frequent as people perceive them to be. Data has proved that humans are thirty times more likely to be struck by lightning than attacked by a shark in a year, while also suggesting to people that the possibility of drowning holds a far higher chance of killing you while in the ocean than sharks do (Allan). This data from the Florida Museum and experiment in Western Australia helps to further show that humans can coexist with sharks. When the frequent ocean users were questioned even further about what strategies are best for shark management, the most popular answer was to “improve public education about sharks” (Gibbs). The general population can learn a good deal from frequent ocean users. These are the people that enter the ocean almost daily and hold a huge respect for the ocean environment. They understand that they are entering a different environment in which different species, such as the shark, dominate the water. This survey of frequent ocean users very clearly suggests that those who are more educated about sharks do not condone killing on a large scale as a mitigation practice. They rather stress the importance of educating people about sharks and ways to avoid potentially dangerous encounters. An obvious theme throughout shark conservation education is to teach people about sharks, their role in the ecosystem, and how we can protect them. An interesting approach to educating people better about sharks was conducted in a study at the high school level as a way of showing how early education can improve people’s perception of sharks. This research experiment actually took place at high schools around Oahu, back in 2010. Student’s attitudes toward sharks were measured before and after attending a series of classes. Over the course of a semester students learned more in depth about the nature of sharks and the issues the species is currently facing. By the end of the series of classes “negative attitudes significantly decreased, while positive attitudes and the scientific content of attitudes both significantly increased,” indicating that intervention at the high school level is effective (Panoch 62). Seeing that students’ opinions can change after only a semester of learning proves that people are a direct product of their environment. These students have been led to believe most of their life that sharks are dangerous because that is what society has been telling them. Through just a short re-education period to a small group of students, sharks were given a greater chance at survival. Most of the education strategies for better understanding of sharks comes from NGOs or scientific articles. Higher knowledge of sharks is not currently taught in American high schools. An important insight gained from this experiment was that many of the students stated they were surprised “at learning of the fragility of sharks” and “were unaware of the diversity of shark species” (Panoch 62). This experiment has taught researchers that education at the grade-school level is a viable and a considerable approach to changing the population’s perception of sharks. If the perception of sharks can be changed at the school level, hopefully one day the better understanding of sharks will infiltrate its way into the government’s understanding. With better informed leaders, better shark mitigation efforts can begin to be implemented, vastly improving the life of sharks. Most of the people who believe sharks to be dangerous condemn the protection of sharks and encourage the culling of sharks near shore. Because of increased pressure from a large number of citizens of Western Australia who wanted sharks killed, the government implemented a shark mitigation strategy back in 2013 that backfired horribly. The aim of the mitigation strategy was to kill potentially dangerous sharks of about three meters in size or over that came within a single kilometer from shore. Already endangered sharks, such as the hammerhead and great white, were included in the kill list. The government thought that if they killed sharks around the shore then 154
no shark attacks would happen at some of the more popular beaches in Australia. This, however, was a “knee jerk” response rather than an educated decision. As a result, droves of informed citizens and scientists gave their opinion on the ill-informed shark mitigation strategy. Protests by the millions occurred and petitions were created to stop the killing of innocent sharks. After about a year of increased pressure to stop the mitigation practice, the Western Australian (WA) government renounced the program. The sheer fact that WA tried a shark culling program even after one had already occurred and failed in Hawai'i shows how uneducated government leaders are about sharks. Back in the 1960s Hawai'i attempted a shark culling program as well with the aim to reduce shark attacks. This program did not prove successful and concluded that “they (culling) do not appear to have measurable effects on the rate of shark attacks,” showing that the practice is ill-informed (Gibbs). Correlation does not mean causation, and this obviously holds true in this case. Just because there are less sharks in an area because of culling, does not mean any less people will be attacked. There are millions of sharks in the world, humans cannot expect to get rid of the few shark attacks that occur a year by killing all shark species in existence. Killing sharks off from the planet would have drastic effects on the food web. Sharks are such an apex predator that if they disappeared the effects would surely be devastating. Whether people are afraid of sharks or not, they simply cannot be eradicated from this world. Sharks have long since survived before humans and helped to shape the environment of the ocean. All the wonders that the ocean is filled with would look much different if sharks were not alive. The activity of coral reefs would look different, seagrass beds would be significantly altered as well, and most importantly the balance of prey would be thrown out of balance. Believing that sharks are the threat to humans is a completely uninformed statement to make. Humans are the real threat to sharks; there is no denying that much. Ultimately sharks need to be better understood across the worldwide population if their reputation is ever going to truly change. False fictional movies must be myth-busted, and educational series need to be presented more often in the media. The more people who understand the crucial role sharks play in the environment, the closer sharks can be properly mitigated. Frequent ocean users hold the understanding of respect between nature and man in the ocean. Most of the population does not hold the same understanding due to media outputs most often focusing on shark attacks, rather than conservation efforts. Through more positive coverage in the media, knowledge of ways to coexist, and possibly educating children early on in school, sharks can be seen as the important creatures they are. Sharks keep the ocean ecosystem in check, which is important for many people in the world. From the people who fish from it to the people who use it for amusement activities, sharks are a key predator that control almost every trophic level. There would be no coral reefs without sharks, meaning there would be no fish, no food, and most importantly no humans. Sharks will be gone very soon if humans do not take action to improve the strained relationship that currently exists. The time is now because there simply is no more time to ignore the problem. WORKS CITED Allan, Laura. “'Jaws' Made Us Believe Some Ludicrous Shark Myths-And It Had Devastating Real-World Effects.” Ranker, Vote on Interesting, 2020, www.ranker.com/list/how-jawsaffected-sharks/laura-allan. Gross, Michael. “Learning to Live with Sharks.” Current Biology, vol. 24, no. 9, 2014, p. 344., doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.04.025 155
Gibbs, Leah, and Andrew Warren “Killing Sharks: cultures and politics of encounter and the sea,” Australian Geographer, 45:2, 101-107, DOI: 10.1080/00049182.2014.89902 Panoch, Rainer, and Elissa L. Pearson. “Humans and Sharks.” Society & Animals, vol. 25, no. 1, Jan. 2017, pp. 57–76. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1163/15685306-12341441 “Preface to 'How Do the Media Affect Society?'.” Mass Media, edited by Margaret Haerens and Lynn M. Zott, Greenhaven Press, 2014. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale In Context: OpposingViewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ3010152195/OVIC?u=hono53192&sid=OVIC&xid=479d2aba. “Sharks: An Unfair Reputation?” The Science Teacher, vol. 80, no. 1, 2013, pp. 20–20. Smith, Lauren. “Shark Fin Soup: A Dangerous Delicacy for Humans and Sharks Alike.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 10 Mar. 2016, www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2016/mar/10/shark-fin-soup-a-dangerous-delicacyfor-humans-and-sharks-alike. WildAid. “Yao Ming's Dedication to Wildlife Is a Slam Dunk.” WildAid, 23 Jan. 2019, wildaid.org/yao-mings-dedication-to-wildlife-is-a-slam-dunk/.
156
Baleen vs. Toothed Whales By Theresa Marzano-Furuly When we see whales, most of us will refer to the mammals as just that, whales. Whales are in the classification Mammalia, in the order Cetaceans (Castro & Huber, 2015). The whales are divided into two suborders, Mysticeti and Odontoceti, where each suborder contains multiple families (Theodoraleehuiyian, 2015). In less scientific names, the Mysticeti whale is called a “baleen” whale, while the Odontoceti whale is called a “toothed” whale. Although they are in the same species, they have about as many differences as similarities. These differences and similarities can be seen in their looks, what they are eating, their characteristics, and their structure. The easiest way to differentiate between the baleen and toothed whale is to observe their looks. The most obvious difference is the size of the whales. Baleen whales tend to be much bigger than toothed whales, excluding some exceptions like the Sperm whale and the Baird's beaked whale (Kennedy, 2018). The sperm whale is the biggest toothed whale, which can reach up to 60ft, and the Blue whale is the largest baleen whale, which can reach up to 95 ft in length (WDC, 2021). At the bottom of the scale, the smallest baleen whale is the Pygmy Right whale, which can be about 21ft long. On the other side of the suborder, the smallest toothed whale is the Hector’s dolphin, which can grow to 4-5ft in length (Modreski, 2019). As you can tell from the listed whales with measurements, the baleen whales are on average very huge animals, while toothed whales can be significantly smaller. Another difference between the two whales is their blowholes, although this can be challenging to see from afar. The baleen whales have two blowholes, while toothed whales have one. If you still have trouble identifying a whale as a baleen or toothed whale, you can look at their teeth. As you can already tell by their names, they have very different teeth. Baleen whales have baleen plates made of keratin, which is also what our fingernails are made of (Kennedy, 2018). Toothed whales, on the other hand, have teeth. From this knowledge, it should be easy to identify the whale as a baleen or toothed. We can see from the baleen and toothed whales’ different teeth that they have a very different menu. The baleen whales are filter-feeders. This means that they filter out food from the water, with the use of their baleen teeth. The main organisms baleen whales eat are large zooplanktons, but other organisms like different fishes can also be found on their menu. There are three different eating techniques the baleen whales can use, depending on the kind of baleen whale. The Right whales use a method called “skim-feeding.” The way this works is that they swim to the surface, and, while swimming on the surface, they have their mouth open. Another feeding method is called “gulping” and is used by rorqual whales. The way they do this is to make bubble nets, which are created by the whale releasing air-bubbles in circles. When their food is captured inside the nets, the whales are free to swim into the nets from underneath and eat them. The last method, used by the gray whales, is called “bottom feeding.” This involves that the whale takes a huge bite of the sea floor and filters out the food by using their baleen teeth. In comparison, toothed whales have teeth that make it easier for them to eat bigger prey. These can be prey like squid, fish, some sharks, crustaceans, etc. The teeth are not generally used for chewing but to capture and hold their prey. Even though the baleen and toothed whales might end up eating the same fish one or more times, they still have very different menus based on their teeth. (Castro & Huber, 2015).
157
Even though they have many differences, they have several common characteristics that are also shared with other mammals. First of all, they have the ability to breathe air through their lungs, like us humans. Since they live in the water, they have to swim up to the surface to get air through their blowholes. Their blowholes can also be closed, which makes it possible for them to hold their breath underwater (Jonsgård & Frafjord, 2021). Another characteristic is that they are endotherms, which means that they are warm blooded. Whales’ body temperatures are around 97 Fahrenheit, which is a lot higher than the different water temperatures they dive in (Jonsgård & Frafjord, 2021). Whales migrate from cold oceans to tropical oceans, so they need equipment to help them regulate their body temperatures. To keep their normal body temperature, they have a blubber layer to keep them warm, in addition to adaptations of the vascular system (Jonsgård & Frafjord, 2021). This way, the whales are able to swim through high changes in water temperatures without any trouble. Just like us humans, both the baleen and toothed whale have a viviparous birth (Castro & Huber, 2015). This means that the calf is inside the mother’s uterus. Through the placenta, the calf receives air and food, so it is well developed enough when it is ready to get birthed. Once it is out, the mom will nurse her calf with milk through her mammary glands. This milk is very nutritious, with more than 30% fat, which makes the calf grow quickly (Jonsgård & Frafjord, 2021). The gestation period is about 10-15 months and requires a lot of energy from the mother (Jonsgård & Frafjord, 2021). This is why baleen and toothed whales for the most part give single births. As you can see, baleen and toothed whales have much in common, but the fact that they are both under the category “whale” speaks for itself. They have a structure which is unique only to these two groups. The way their bodies work is almost the same. They have a fusiform body, and they have blowholes. Even though baleen whales have two and toothed whales have one, they still use them for the same reason. They need them to exhale and inhale air, and to blow out water which comes with the food. They both have a dorsal fin, a fluke, and flippers. The dorsal fin is the fin on their back, and is called a dorsal fin in mammals, fishes and vertebrates. When we are talking about sharks or fish, we say that the fin in the end of their tale is called a “caudal fin”; in whales this fin is called a “fluke.” Instead of moving it side-to-side, the whales move it up and down. The other fins whales have are called “flippers.” These can be compared to what we call arms, or what is called the “pectoral fins” in sharks. There are some other common body parts that the baleen and toothed whale have in common. Because whales are born viviparous, they have navels, just like us humans. This is what they were fed through when they were in the mother’s placenta. Even though their looks vary from the kinds of baleen and toothed whales, they both have all the listed characteristics, which helps to identify them as whales. (Castro & Huber, 2015). We’ve seen many differences and similarities between the two orders of whales. They have differences in their looks, which makes it possible for us to differentiate them if we see them in the ocean. By looking at their teeth, we are able to see whether it is a baleen or a toothed whale and what they eat. Even though they are in the same category, they still have some very clear distinctive features that make them unique. Despite their differences, they have much in common. They are both mammals who share the same characteristics, like reproduction for instance. In addition, they are under the same category of “whales,” which makes them share a body structure and other characteristics that define a whale. If you pay close attention to these differences and similarities, you might be able to identify the next whale you see as either a baleen or toothed whale.
158
REFERENCES Castro, P. & Huber, M. E. (2015). Marine Biology. (10 ed.) McGraw-Hill Education th
Jonsgård, Å., & Frafjord, K. (2021, January 13). Hvaler. Store Norske Leksikon. https://snl.no/hvaler Kennedy, J. (2018, April 11). Baleen and Toothed Whales: What’s the Difference? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/baleen-vs-toothed-whales-3876141 Modreski, V. A. (2019, November 22). Small Whale Species. Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/small-whale-species-8655015.html Theodoraleehuiyian. (2015, August 26). Knowing Your Cetaceans – Odontoceti and Mysticeti. CetaceansWhalesandDolphins. https://cetaceanswhalesanddolphins.wordpress.com/2015/08/26/knowing-your-cetaceansodontoceti-and-mysticeti/ Whale and Dolphin Conservation (WDC). (2021, January 26). Record-breakers - Whale and Dolphin Conservation. Whale & Dolphin Conservation UK. https://uk.whales.org/whales-dolphins/record-breakers/
159
Are Electric Cars Better for the Environment than a Petrol or Diesel Car? By Oliver Enevoldsen Technology, like the rest of the world, is constantly shifting and expanding. An electric car is the latest trend to get in order to save the planet from "climate change" and in order to be considered as “living green”. Tesla is leading the force right now when it comes to evolving the technology of electric cars and making them go faster, last longer, be more durable, have smarter systems, make less noise, and just optimize every compartment of them in general. Tesla and Elon Musk are having a great deal of success with not only their series of electric cars, but also with new technology projects like SpaceX, which is very exciting to hear about for many people. I actually believe that to be one of the biggest reasons as to why Tesla cars have become so popular in no time. Despite the fact that there are many major obstacles to overcome, the government should begin taking measures to enable the automobile industry to produce and manufacture affordable electric vehicles for the American consumer. The monetary and environmental benefits will easily cover the cost of the effort and might even pay dividends. With electric vehicles becoming more common and being marketed as "the future" and "good for the environment," research has begun. People are contrasting the environmental impact of gas to the manufacture and disposal of electric batteries and parts. Since there is so much interest in electric vehicles, there are also concerns about how green and clean they really are. We can argue whether electric vehicles are safer for the atmosphere because of manufacturing issues and the way power is provided. Electric vehicles are becoming more attractive in an environment where many people are concerned with reducing fossil emissions and pollution. Electric vehicles have been found to be safer for the atmosphere in studies. Over the course of their lives, they emit less greenhouse emissions and air pollution than a petrol or diesel vehicle. This is also after the vehicle is built and the energy used to run it is produced (Hall). The most significant advantage of electric vehicles is the commitment they can provide to improving air quality in cities. Pure electric vehicles emit no carbon dioxide emissions when driving because they do not have a tailpipe. This significantly decreases air pollution. Simply put, electric vehicles have healthier highways, make our cities and towns safer for pedestrians and cyclists. In only one year, one electric vehicle on the road will save 1.5 million grams of CO2. That is the equivalent of four London-Barcelona round-trip planes (Moses). Electric vehicles can also help to reduce noise emissions, particularly in areas with lower speed limits. Since electric cars are much quieter than conventional vehicles, we all benefit from a more peaceful atmosphere. The production of electric cars necessitates a large amount of energy. The emissions generated during the construction of an electric vehicle are normally higher than those generated during the construction of a conventional vehicle. This is because lithium-ion batteries, which are an essential part in electric cars, are being manufactured (Garza). The energy used to produce an electric vehicle accounts for more than a third of the car's cumulative CO2 emissions over its lifetime, according to studies conducted by The International Council on Clean Transportation. However, this will become better over time as technology becomes more advanced. Also, if more efficient production techniques are introduced, the number of emissions generated during the manufacturing of batteries will decrease. Even after factoring in 160
the cost of battery production, electric vehicles are still the most environmentally sustainable choice. This is due to the fact that the engine emits fewer pollutants over its lifetime (Hall). Many citizens are concerned about the environmental impact of the electricity used to power an electric car. According to research undertaken by the European Environment Agency, even with gasoline, the carbon emissions of an electric vehicle are 17–30% smaller than those of a petrol or diesel car. Electricity supply emissions are significantly minimized as low carbon fuel is used (European Environment Agency). When will American cars go all-electric according to ChargePoint CEO Pasquale Romano? ChargePoint is a California-based organization that operates one of the world's biggest electricvehicle charging networks, with over 130,000 stations deployed throughout North America and Europe. Each parking spot is a potential home for a charger in Romano's company. There are eight parking spaces for every vehicle in the United States, giving ChargePoint a potential addressable market of 2 billion spots. Even before President Biden's inauguration, which is expected to accelerate the adoption of electric cars in the United States, Romano maintains that demand in electric vehicles was higher than ever. According to him, the main impediment to adoption so far has been the auto industry's small range of electric vehicle makes and models. Consumers will be reluctant to switch until there is a wide variety of versions of all shapes, proportions, colors, and costs. Despite the fact that adoption is expected to increase, ChargePoint estimates that replacing the 250 million cars and light trucks already on the road with electric vehicles would take around 20 years (Shapiro). The biggest distinction between electric, petrol, and diesel cars is the process of transforming potential (stored) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. In petrol vehicles, this energy gets stored in a chemical form and released by a chemical reaction within the vehicle. Electric cars, despite having chemically stored energy, release it electrochemically without igniting it due to its lithiumion batteries. This ensures that no gasoline is consumed, and therefore no CO2 is released into the atmosphere when moving. They are even more fuel efficient than traditional automobiles. However, if these vehicles do not get their electricity from wind turbines, solar panels, hydroelectric, or atomic plants, the amount of CO2 emissions would simply skyrocket. If the energy used to charge vehicles comes from the combustion of fossil fuels, it does not matter if the cars do not pollute when driving because the waste has already emitted at a remote power station. This assumes that driving an electric car in the United States, where fossil fuels accounted for 62.7 percent of total power generation in 2017, would likely produce more CO2 into the atmosphere than driving one in Finland, where wind, geothermal, and solar energy account for almost all of the country's energy supply. Nonetheless, projections suggest that power generation is improving, and that more renewable energies are joining the grid, which will help reduce the environmental impact of the batteries' construction (Silverstein). What comes next, though? When the lithiumion batteries are not of use to the electric vehicles, what happens and in what way will they be handled? According to the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), 99 percent of lead-acid batteries (the ones used in fossil fuel fueled cars) are recycled in the traditional vehicle industry in the United States. Lithium-ion batteries, on the other hand, have a very complex combination of chemical ingredients and very small amounts of lithium, making them an unappealing commercial prospect. In the European market, for example, just 5% of lithium was obtained in 2011, and the 161
remainder was either burned or buried in disposable areas (which would not make electric vehicles any greener), since hydrometallurgical procedures were not justified by price or regulations (Goncalves). My conclusion is that, although many significant challenges must be dealt with, and regardless of the fact that there is pros and cons to switching to electric cars from petrol and diesel cars, the government should begin taking steps to encourage the automobile industry to develop and build affordable electric cars for the American consumer. The payoff in monetary and environmental impact could very well pay for the effort and might even pay dividends. Although banning petrol and diesel vehicles is not an alternative, making electric cars more accessible will allow middleclass people to make the transition when their existing vehicle no longer meets safety standards. WORKS CITED “Electric Vehicles from life cycle and circular economy perspectives”, European Environment Agency. https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/electric-vehicles-from-life-cycle, Published November 22, 2018. Web. Hall, Dale, and Nic Lutsey. “Effect of battery manufacturing on electric vehicle life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions”, The International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/EV-life-cycle-GHG_ICCTBriefing_09022018_vF.pdf, Published February 2018. Web. Garza, Alejandro De La. “Electric Cars Can Sound Like Anything. That’s a Huge Opportunity to Craft the Soundscape of the Future”, Time – Business and Innovation. https://time.com/5951773/electric-car-sound-future/, Published April 6, 2021. Web. Goncalves, Andre. “Are Electric Cars Really Greener?”, You Matter World. https://youmatter.world/en/are-electric-cars-eco-friendly-and-zero-emission-vehicles26440/, Published September 25, 2018. Web. Moses, Marta. “Benefits of electric cars on the environment”, EDF Energy. https://www.edfenergy.com/for-home/energywise/electric-cars-and-environment, Published February 15, 2020. Web. Shapiro, Eben. “ChargePoint CEO Pasquale Romano on When American Cars Will Go AllElectric”, Time – Business and The Leadership Brief. https://time.com/5942317/electriccars-chargepoint-ceo-pasquale-romano/, Published February 28, 2021. Web. Silverstein, Ken. “Arguments Against Electric Vehicles Are Running on Empty”, Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kensilverstein/2019/12/18/the-arguments-against-electricvehicles-are-running-on-empty-especially-as-coal-fades-and-renewablesadvance/?sh=340657a54d2e, Published December 18, 2019. Web.
162
Fast Fashion: Unethical Consumption and its Negative Impact on People and the Planet by Estela Mariel Evangelista It was in 2013 when a Bangladeshi garment factory in Rana Plaza collapsed, injuring and killing 1,127 children and adults that worked there (Taplin, 2014, p. 72). This event is one of the consequences of the unethical practices of fast fashion companies, exposing the harmful and extremely dangerous work environments in which many young laborers work. Fast fashion companies rely on outsourced foreign labor as their human capital as well as a production chain that is shown to negatively affect the environment with increased carbon emissions and excessive amounts of wasted natural resources. Like every other business, they want to maximize profits and minimize costs. It is unlikely that changes will be made to their treatment of workers and their unsustainable production chain if that decision is to be made by the companies themselves. As long as consumers continue to support these fast fashion corporations by purchasing their products, this injustice will not change. Although it is true that corporations are to blame for the adverse environmental effects of fast fashion, consumers are not innocent and should be held just as accountable, as their continuous overconsumption of fast fashion goods enables corporations to continue their unethical practices. Consumers must vote with their wallet, limiting their shopping habits and making ethical purchases in an effort to pressure businesses into making their production chain more sustainable and their treatment of workers more ethical. With just one step into a shopping mall, you are met with dozens of fast fashion stores enticing your eyes and your wallet with their trendy pieces worn by mannequins with the word “SALE” in big, bold letters. Like any young teenager, you are lured inside, eager to find some new, trendy clothes to wear to school — like the ones you saw on your Instagram feed. While you were only planning on buying two pieces of clothing, you found more clothes, claiming that there were good deals and ended up leaving with 3 new outfits — 6 pieces of clothing. And, just like that, a fast fashion company has succeeded in their calculative plan in luring you into buying more clothing than you had initially planned with their cheap and trendy pieces. A big issue surrounding this inexpensive consumption is the amount and speed in which these pieces of clothing are hitting the stores, encouraging consumers to shop more, for less. Fast fashion is defined as “cheap fashionable clothes, made on the basis of design taken over from fashion designers or celebrities, and sold in the shops for mass consumers” (Knošková & Garasová, 2019, pg. 58). Consumers can now wear clothing seen on celebrities and models without having to pay the same high-end price. Ľubica Knošková and Petra Garasová (2019), a professor and a PhD student, respectively, at the University of Economics in Bratislava, identify that the entire business model of fast fashion is to encourage its consumers to buy more and pay less (p. 59). This is where the problem lies. Although this inexpensive consumption may sound desirable through a surfacelevel analysis, the reality of the cost of fast fashion is much more profound. Less money may be coming out of the wallets of consumers, but the money saved has a significant cost on the environment as well as to the adults and children in garment factories working in awful conditions for an unlivable wage. Despite the issues associated with it, the fast fashion industry has been continuously growing in revenue for the past few years and is predicted to continue to do so at an alarming rate. This is 163
because shopping for clothes has taken on a new meaning; what was once seen as a necessity is now a hobby. Gone are the days when clothes are made by designers with original ideas and lots of thought and care is put into a piece. Gone are the days when consumers would only shop for clothes once they have outworn their clothing or if they go out of season. Consumers now shop for clothes at every visit to the mall or even through online shops at their convenience. “Retail therapy” is defined as shopping in order to make oneself feel happier — a testament to how society has evolved into justifying excessive shopping behavior with the intention of feeling happiness. Consumers shop when they are stressed out, sad, or in need of support, temporarily filling a void that will never be satisfied with material things. The industry is constantly creating new trends, influencing consumers into excessively buying clothing. “The average time for introducing new collections for traditional brands is 12 weeks. Fast fashion brands shorten this time from 50% to 8.3% of the time” (Knošková & Garasová, 2019, pg. 68). By cutting down production time, fast fashion brands are easily able to cater to trends that come and go quickly in the span of 4-6 weeks. This is also apparent in the changes made to the traditional “Spring/Summer” and “Fall/Winter” collections of fashion brands in the past. Nikolay Anguelov (2015), a professor of economic development at the University of Massachusetts in Dartmouth, reveals in his book that there are now 24 of these seasons (p. 2), accounting for the increased production of clothing. From spring and winter to prom, holiday, and back-to-school, there are now endless seasons for which brands feel the need to add to their inventory. Anguelov also argues that the fashion industry is retailer-driven, “but the truth is that customers are told what to demand. In addition, they are also told how to consume” (p. 5). This is the core of corporate brainwashing. An impressionable younger audience of teenagers are exposed to excessive consumerism through its normalization on the internet. Hauls on YouTube with influencers sharing boxes worth of new, trendy clothing to their audience is an easy way of promoting excessive consumption in order to keep up with the quick-changing trends and styles, exploiting young consumers’ need to fit in. The buy more, pay less business model encourages consumers, especially young men and women to buy more clothing than they need, turning what was once an occasional treat into a habit. The low quality of fast fashion goods not only encourages consumers to buy more clothing with its cheap prices, but it also encourages them to see clothing as disposable and replaceable. This increase in both production and consumption of fast fashion has lasting detrimental environmental effects in every step of its production chain. Graduate students Rachel Bick and Erika Halsey along with Assistant Professor of Public Health Christine Ekenga (2018) at the Washington University in St. Louis argue in their journal article that from production to consumption, every step in the path that each piece of fast fashion clothing takes in the entirety of its life cycle is harmful to both the environment and the workers in developing countries that have to make them (para. 4). This claim is reflected in the journal article written by Kirsi Niinimäki et al. (2020), professors in the departments of design, sustainability, materials, and social sciences in their own respective universities, stating that all stages in the fast fashion supply chain come with environmental impacts spanning from energy consumption and water use to chemical use and waste production (p. 191). With just one step into the production process, there are already detrimental effects to the environment present. Bick et al. (2018)’s research shows that polyester and cotton account for 164
“90% of clothing sold in the United States,” which require the use of raw materials in large amounts. Not only that, but textile dyeing alone presents itself as another issue extremely harmful for the environment as unsanitary wastewater contaminated with dyes can get “discharged into local water systems, releasing heavy metals and other toxicants” into the surrounding areas, hazardous to any living thing in its proximity (para. 5). According to The World Bank’s (2014) study, textile production and dyeing “is responsible for up to one fifth of industrial water pollution globally” (Hays, 2020, p. 15). This means that what was once a fresh body of water is now contaminated by dyes from fast fashion factories. After textile manufacturing and dying, clothing and trims are assembled (Niinimäki et al., 2020, p. 191), and this is where cheap labor from foreign countries are utilized and workers are being forced to work in unsafe and unsanitary conditions. Not only are there ethical implications with this stage, but environmental consequences as well. Niinimäki et al. (2020) note that at this step of the supply chain, a lot of textiles are wasted because of the lack of quality in production (p. 195). Rather than taking time to expertly craft a piece of clothing, fast fashion goods are made in a haste, where workers scramble to get to as many clothes as possible—a stark contrast to the amount of time it took to expertly create a quality piece of clothing by seamstresses in the past. Following this step is consumption, and according to Niinimäki et al., the US and the UK “waste an average of 30 kg of textiles per person annually” (p. 195). This is equivalent to 66 pounds, and, though this may seem like a small amount, the average t-shirt weighs in at about 0.138 kg. This would mean that the average person wastes around 217 t-shirts every year through textile waste and disposing of clothing. The environmental effects continue long after the piece of clothing has been purchased and used by consumers. The Environmental Protection Agency (2015) revealed that Americans disposed of “16 million tons of textiles that year and only 15% was recycled” (Hays, 2020, p. 15). The other 85% of clothing can either be stuck in landfills or brought into the second-hand trade. Bick et al. (2018) state that the second-hand trade brings many clothes purchased in countries like the U.S. right back to where they were produced — the developing countries. If a garment does not end up in a landfill, they are instead exported to other countries, and it was reported that “in 2015, the United States exported more than $700 million worth of used clothing” (para. 7). That means not only are countries in the Global North like the United States exploiting the developing countries for their cheap labor, but they are also taking the issue of landfill waste from worn out and damaged fashion goods and dumping it back onto the countries that made these clothes — the exact same countries with environments that are already affected by the production of goods. Bick et al. (2018) add on that the environmental health hazards present in countries that produce fast fashion goods are negatively impacted by the second-hand trade, especially detrimental to the already less sophisticated waste systems, since the clothes that don’t get repurchased are very likely to end up in rivers or parks, clogging and polluting the public spaces they occupy (para. 7). During production and even after consumption, there are a multitude of environmental consequences associated with every stage a piece of fast fashion clothing goes through. Workers in fast fashion factories are put in extremely harmful conditions, in which the factories were not subjected to frequent safety checks. In fashion journalist Dana Thomas’ (2019) book, Fashionopolis: The Price of Fast Fashion and the Future of Clothes, she reveals that fast fashion factories, specifically in Bangladesh, lacked any of the basic safety measures of the structural integrity of any establishment, with the absence of something as simple as a fire exit (p. 53). The blatant disregard for workers’ safety in these factories points to a systematic issue that needs to be 165
solved through policy changes, but the lack of awareness of these issues makes it difficult for these policies to be enforced. In the documentary The True Cost, director Andrew Morgan (2015) narrates in the background as various photographs of the disasters of fast fashion factories are shown, “As the death toll rose, so did the profits generated. The year following the disaster at Rana Plaza was the industry’s most profitable of all time” (00:11:46). Despite the skyrocketing profits made off of the fast fashion industry, factory buildings were not properly maintained causing an entire building to collapse onto thousands of people at the Rana Plaza disaster in 2013. Cracks on the walls had been reported by the workers to supervisors at the factory, but to no avail (Morgan, 2015, 00:10:48). There is no excuse for the lives taken that day, and fast fashion corporations have a responsibility to ensure that the producers of their clothing are put in safe and sanitary conditions — it is a part of their costs as a properly functioning business. Rana Plaza was not the only case, as many more disasters in fast fashion factories have been reported, killing the lives of many. Shima Akhter, a garment worker in Bangladesh encourages viewers of the documentary to stop buying fast fashion clothing in her interview with Morgan (2015): People have no idea how difficult it is for us to make the clothing. They only buy it and wear it. I believe these clothes are produced by our blood. A lot of garment workers die in different incidents…. It’s very painful for us. I don’t want anyone wearing anything which is produced by our blood. We want better working conditions…. I don’t want another owner…to take such a risk and force the workers to work in such conditions. So that no more workers die like that. So that no more mothers lose their child like this (Morgan, 2015, 00:32:28). Akhter’s plea is just one out of the many factory workers in developing countries that have to wake up every day and work in unsafe conditions just to make a living for themselves and their families. No one should ever have to fear going to work with the worry of the entire building collapsing in the back of their minds. No one should ever have to fear going to work knowing that their superiors will not listen to any of their pleas for a better place to work. The unsafe work environment of fast fashion labor needs to be addressed by the corporations that deliberately subject their workers to such conditions. Corporations are not taking any action to make changes to the working environment of their foreign workers, which is why public attention and action play a viable part in enforcing change in the industry. Kali Hays (2020), a senior journalist at the well-respected fashion magazine WWD, argues that “the onus for change is mainly on brands and corporations which are designing, manufacturing and marketing products” (p. 15). It is the corporations that have lackluster policies in place to protect their workers in foreign countries and do not take enough strides to reduce their environmental impact. Corporations will be the last piece of the puzzle to make a big impact on the unethical practices associated with the industry, since they are the ones in charge of implementing changes into their own business models. However, this does not mean that consumers should do nothing and stand still. It is the consumers that will essentially push these brands to become more sustainable in their production through boycotts or variations of it.
166
Despite the clear negative effects of unethical fast fashion corporations, many shoppers continue to consume clothing from fast fashion brands, turning a blind eye on their unethical practices despite being a big part of the problem and the solution. According to a study done by Marylyn Carrigan, a professor of marketing and sustainability at the Edinburgh Business school in HeriotWatt University in the UK, and Ahmad Attalla (2001), while there are many consumers that gather information on unethical businesses and their practices to consider what brands to shop with, there are still many consumers that have the same amount of knowledge and information available to them that do not actively go against unethical companies and support companies that are ethical (p. 563). Consumers are also known to ignore sources providing information about businesses and their practices, seeing it as an inconvenience and information that brings them discomfort (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001, p. 573). People do not want to be making these conversations about the malpractices associated with fast fashion, and it is clear that for many, continuing to shop with these brands can make one feel guilty. Despite this, consumers choose to shop with fast fashion brands by choice, deliberately ignoring the harmful environmental effects and unethical practices that large fast fashion corporations take part in. There are many consumers that cite the systematic ethical issues of fast fashion and feel as though they are completely separate from the problem because of the corporations’ lack of transparency. This sentiment is echoed by a study done by Catrin Joergens (2006), who at the time was an Assistant Product Manager at Adidas Originals, with one of the respondents expressing that they cannot shop ethically when “almost everything is produced in Asia. [They] cannot buy a product which doesn’t include any ethical issues” (p. 362). Another respondent from Joergens’ study voiced that they care most about the cost of a piece of clothing and wearing different, newer clothes every season, and, if they had to choose between one that was made ethically and another that was made unethically, they would have no hesitation to buy the cheaper, outsourced one regardless of the unethical implications associated with it (p. 364). This was a study done in 2006, and 15 years later this exact problem still exists today — consumers are continuing to not take responsibility for their purchases. The recurring factor that seems to be preventing people from making more sustainable choices is convenience. Economist and professor at Yale University, Ravi Dhar, contends that although it is true that some consumers intend to be more socially responsible and that they have a tendency of not keeping their word, it does not mean that consumers do not care about the issues associated with fast fashion; there are many factors that affect this — one being convenience (as cited in Hays, 2020, p. 14). The “attitude-behavior gap” and priorities that consumers have when shopping for clothes is another testament to their choice of ignoring and avoiding accountability for the environmental effects of fast fashion. Carrigan & Attalla recognize that “the depressing reality is that many ethical abuses can still continue to be carried out by companies without any negative impact on consumer buyer behaviour” (p. 571). Buying even one piece of clothing from a fast fashion brand equates to supporting a system of unethical behavior. And although systemic change and government regulation should be the main goal, change needs to happen sooner rather than later. Consumer demand drives the fast fashion industry and avoiding fast fashion would show corporations that customers are no longer tolerating their unethical practices. The corporations that partake in unethical production practices should take most of the blame for the environmental effects of fast fashion. However, the consumers’ role in the cycle of fast fashion 167
clothing should not be disregarded. While systemic change in the fashion industry can only happen through government intervention and policy changes among the corporations — which could take years to be enforced — consumers can begin to play a significant role in that change by buying less and better pieces of clothing and keeping it for a long time. Meanwhile, corporations continue to be wasteful of the planet’s natural resources and exploit developing countries for cheap labor and export waste. It is important to recognize the power that consumers have in taking a stand for the environmental injustices that are associated with fast fashion. Consumers must take action and change the way they view fashion as a whole. One way in which consumers have the power to spark change in the unethical fast fashion industry is to vote with their wallets. By choosing to limit purchases from fast fashion stores and shopping with ethical, sustainable brands, consumers can participate in a movement that can better the lives of many. Niinimäki et al. (2020) argue that all stakeholders associated with fast fashion must take responsibility and be involved in the fight to end its injustices, and part of it is for consumers to change their consumption habits (p. 195). If consumers choose to at least reduce their purchases from fast fashion brands, then they could be a part of a solution to a problem that has plagued our world for so long. From simply limiting purchases and second-hand shopping to purchasing from ethical brands, there are many options available to make better choices and avoid fast fashion. Boycotts are defined by Wendy Wiedenhoft Murphy, a professor of sociology at the John Carroll University, as the encouragement for one’s self and others to refuse to buy certain products in order to push for a cause (p. 31-32). These are the most efficient and effective way to spark change against corporations, as they can affect a brand’s image and put a significant dent on their revenue. There have been many instances where boycotts have proved effective. Professors in the Department of Economics at UC Irvine and the University of Helsinki, respectively Amihai Glazer, Vesa Kanniainen, and Panu Poutvaara (2010), bring up a few of these examples in their journal article about boycotts. They discuss the damage to the reputation of corporations like Shell Oil, for its unethical practices and the Nigerian government’s aggressive disruption of a protest to protect a river, and Nestlé for their infant formula that continued to get sold despite the health hazards associated with it (p. 340). Boycotts can be extremely useful for consumers that want to make a big change, however, the biggest issue surrounding this method is affordability. Consumers who can afford to purchase more ethically sourced and sustainable alternatives to fast fashion should do so, and they should actively boycott fast fashion brands. However, that does not mean that only the privileged few can make ethical choices with their clothing. Sustainability does not need to be expensive. The most important solution to fast fashion is limiting purchases. Not only will consumers be making good ethical choices by not buying any new clothing, but they will also be saving a lot of money. Instead of shopping for new clothes, consumers should take a look at clothes they already have and find creative ways to make new outfits. As stated earlier, 85% of disposed clothing ends up in a landfill (Hays, 2020, p. 15), and if millions of shoppers choose to significantly reduce the amount of clothing they buy, then there will be a lot less clothing filling up landfills. By limiting one’s purchases, consumers will not take part in the textile-filled landfills. Great strides have been made for the ability to utilize the internet and do some research on sustainable and unsustainable brands. In 2021, there have been several apps and websites that 168
allow consumers to view which brands are beginning to adopt more sustainable policies, and which ones are not. One example is the app Good on You that gives various brands a rating on how sustainable and ethical they are. With a rating of 1 to 5 and detailed descriptions on a brand’s effect on “people, planet, and animals,” the app allows consumers to see how different brands use their influence to create social and environmental change. However, this information must be taken as a starting point, and further research should be done on one’s own behalf. It is just a matter of finding good, credible sources — something many people have learned and can learn in this day and age. Many articles on credible, trusted news websites point to ethical fashion brands, making it much easier to find brands to support and brands to avoid. As a matter of fact, there has been an increase in ethical fashion, second-hand shopping and selling old clothes amongst the younger consumers, or the gen z. buy less, buy better. The younger generation have been promoting ethical, sustainable brands while avoiding fast fashion brands. According to an article in Forbes written by Greg Petro (2020), a frequent guest lecturer at the Columbia Graduate School of Business, Gen Z is willing to pay more for sustainable, ethically sourced clothing (para. 3). Through online selling and buying, shops like Depop, Poshmark, and even on Instagram, many teenagers are making responsible and ethical purchases by selling their own clothing and buying used clothing from people they know or from sellers online. This creates a sustainable cycle of clothes where they can find a second home — and any step taken to avoid having more clothes in landfills is beneficial to the environment. Consumers voting with their dollars not only has a beneficial impact on society and the environment, but also on oneself. At the end of the day, it is the consumers’ clothes that are filling up the landfills; as long as consumers continue to buy clothing from fast fashion companies, those companies will continue making it. This cycle will never end until they choose to be responsible for their shopping choices and habits. The fast fashion industry operates in a capitalistic society, in which a company’s main goal is to maximize profit by minimizing costs. Until consumers decide to send a message to these fast fashion brands by voting with their wallet, change will not happen. REFERENCES Anguelov, N. (2015). The dirty side of the garment industry: fast fashion and its negative impact on environment and society (1st ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18902 Bick, R., Halsey, E., & Ekenga, C. C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of fast fashion. Environmental Health, 17(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 Carrigan, M. & Attalla, A. (2001). The myth of the ethical consumer – do ethics matter in purchase behaviour? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 12(7), 560-578. https://doiorg.hpu.idm.oclc.org/10.1108/07363760110410263 Environmental Audit Committee. (2019). Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability. UK Parliament. Retrieved May 1, 2021, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/reportsummary.html#content
169
Glazer, A., Kanniainen, V., & Poutvaara, P. (2010). Firms' ethics, consumer boycotts, and signalling. European Journal of Political Economy, 26(3), 340–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2009.12.002 Joergens, Catrin. (2006). Ethical fashion: myth or future trend? Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 10(3), 360-371. Retrieved February 10, 2021, from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/hpu-ebooks/detail.action?docID=275492 Knošková, Ľ., & Garasová, P. (2019). The economic impact of consumer purchases in fast fashion stores. Studia Commercialia Bratislavensia, 12(41), 58–70. https://doiorg.hpu.idm.oclc.org/10.2478/stcb-2019-0006 Morgan, A. (Director). (2015). The True Cost. [Film]. Life Is My Movie Entertainment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-0zHqYGnlo Murphy, W. (2017). Boycotts, buycotts, and legislation: tactical lessons from workers and consumers during the progressive era. In Hyman L. & Tohill J. (Eds.), Shopping for Change: Consumer Activism and the Possibilities of Purchasing Power (pp. 29-40). Cornell University Press. Retrieved April 30, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1x76d81.6 Niinimäki Kirsi, Peters, G., Dahlbo, H., Perry, P., Rissanen, T., & Gwilt, A. (2020). The environmental price of fast fashion. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 1(4), 189– 200. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 Petro, G. (2020). Sustainable Retail: How Gen Z Is Leading the Pack. Forbes. Retrieved May 5, 2021, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregpetro/2020/01/31/sustainable-retail-howgen-z-is-leading-the-pack/?sh=2f340de92ca3. Taplin, I. M. (2014). Who is to blame? A re-examination of fast fashion after the 2013 factory disaster in Bangladesh. critical perspectives on international business, 10(1/2), 72-83. https://doi-org.hpu.idm.oclc.org/10.1108/cpoib-09-2013-0035 Thomas, D. (2019). Fashionopolis: the price of fast fashion and the future of clothes. Penguin Press.
170
The End of the Vaquita By Carli Furmanski The same story is told over and over again. There is a species on the brink of extinction whose only hope is human intervention. The most ironic part is that humans are the ones who endangered them. This is not a story of hope or survival, but rather one of failure and sadness. Many people have never even heard of the vaquita marina before, let alone the horrible fate they face. The vaquita is a small porpoise located only within the Sea of Cortez off of Baja, California. It may seem easy to prevent extinction by cutting off all human interaction within the section of the sea, but that would be too easy. The Sea of Cortez is home to black-market fishermen. The blackmarket industry in the sea is worth millions. It is because of this illegal industry that the vaquita now faces extinction. It is time that the truth of the vaquita is shared and brought to attention. This story starts in the early 1900s when the fishing industry within the Gulf of California found gold in the ocean. A local fish known as the totoaba (pronounced toe-twa-ba) became a prized delicacy in China. A Chinese market at the time sold the swim bladders by claiming that they had medicinal properties, but that has not been scientifically proven to this day (Alberts 2). The swim bladder is an organ found in bony fish. The organ allows them to regulate the fish's buoyancy so it can remain at a constant depth without having to swim. While not scientifically true, it is believed that the swim bladder of the totoaba can strengthen the immune system. This initially fueled the fifty-plus year hunt for the totoaba. By the time the 1970s came around, the totoaba was already endangered, and Mexico put a ban on fishing for this species. The ban put in place skyrocketed the price for the totoaba swim bladder, which further motivated black-market fishermen. Unbeknownst to the world during this time, the tiny vaquita porpoise was also facing endangerment. Even though the fishing for totoaba was now illegal, many continued to hunt for this prized fish. With it now being illegal, the price soared. In China in 2011 the demand for the swim bladder increased significantly; the price rose up to $8,500 for one kilogram of totoaba swim bladder (Fisheries, N.O.A.A. 1). This was no longer a small industry; even drug cartels began illegally fishing to make a quick fortune. A truly booming industry had been created. An industry that still continues to this day. It was not the major population decrease of the totoaba that endangered the vaquita, but rather how the totoaba was caught. During the same time that all this was going on, the vaquita population was decreasing fast. A full-grown vaquita can grow up to about 5 feet in size, and the totoaba can reach almost 7 feet. In order to catch the totoaba, fishermen use something known as a gillnet. A gillnet, as explained by N.O.A.A. (2021) is described as: “A mesh net that is dropped down vertically within the water column and is anchored to the bottom at both ends. It is also held up by two buoys. The net works by allowing fish to get their heads through the opening but not their bodies, thus rendering them stuck around the gills. The nets can range in sizes and lengths” (Fisheries 1). The nets used to catch the totoaba are the perfect size to catch the vaquita. This is a major issue because the vaquita is a mammal, so once it is caught in the net the porpoise is unable to surface for air, causing it to drown. These nets are the most efficient way to catch larger fish. The use of 171
gillnets within the Sea of Cortez has been banned, but the law is ignored due to the profit from catching the totoaba. Since the start of the fishing, the vaquita has been suffering in the shadows. In 1997, there were roughly 567 recorded vaquitas within the Gulf of California, and now there are an estimated 6 remaining (Ivanyi). Unfortunately, this is not an issue that can be fixed. In order to save the remaining population, every population involved would need to band together, but the probability of this happening in time is impossible. Micheal Stachowitsch, author of the article, “Vaquita: Science, Politics, and Crime in the Sea of Cortez,” states, “I accuse: China (and do not forget the baiji) of being unwilling to halt the totoaba trade, the US as a major trafficking route for the swim bladders, and above all Mexico, which nigh‐too unbelievably failed to effectively protect the vaquita in what should have been a no‐brainer: a single, clearly defined species, in a single, small, clearly defined protected zone, with one clearly recognizable threat emanating from only 2–3 villages. A disgrace.” This was an issue that could have been solved years ago if some of the world's most powerful countries intervened. In the referenced excerpt above, Stachowitsch mentions the “baiji,” also known as the Chinese river dolphin, which was a species found in the rivers of China that suffered the same fate as the vaquita. Due to heavy fishing within the rivers in China, the baiji ended up being caught as bycatch and went extinct in 2006. Now the vaquitas are facing the same scenario over ten years later. While it may be too late to save the vaquita from the illegal black-market industry, there are plenty of other species that can still be spared from a similar fate. There are some people that are not so quick to blame Mexico for not saving the vaquita. Some perceive it as a waste of time and money to save a tiny porpoise. Why go out of the way to spend time and money to save the vaquita when it is already on its way to extinction? It is just another marine mammal that only lives in a very small portion of the world. Is it even possible that such a tiny creature, in a very specific part of the world, could have an effect on the global community? While there may not be an immediate ecological factor, there is a societal issue. A very bad precedent is being made if the global community continues to allow these marine species to be driven to extinction. This is the second marine mammal to go extinct within the last 20 years and the fourth within the last century. The baiji was a dolphin that lived within China’s rivers and suffered a very similar fate to the vaquita. It was also a victim of illegal fishing practices and was declared extinct in 2006. If the issue of endangered marine mammals and marine life as a whole continues to be ignored, then nothing and no one can help these animals. Hawai'i also faces a problem similar to that within the Sea of Cortez. The Hawaiian monk seal is a critically endangered marine mammal found around the Hawaiian Islands. Like the vaquita, they are also not found anywhere else in the world. The reasons for their possible extinction are different than the vaquita. The major cause is “toxoplasmosis,” which a disease found in cat feces that ends up in the ocean through run-off. This disease, as of now, is incurable and kills Hawaiian monk seals. If the Hawaiian monk seal reaches the same level of emergency as the vaquita, is the world going to stand by and watch the same way they did with the vaquita? If enough of these species go extinct our oceans and world will suffer.
172
Some may think that Mexico tried everything it could to put a stop to this crisis, a crisis caused by one very specific type of fishing. Even if the black-market fishing of the totoaba continued, the vaquita could have been saved by just replacing the gill nets with vaquita-safe fishing equipment. In a 2019 article posted by New York Times, Parker explains that: Last April, Mexican authorities stopped a Chinese man at the Mexico City International Airport with 355 totoaba swim bladders. Three days later, another Chinese man bound for China had 417 swim bladders in two suitcases. And in December, Chinese officials confiscated 980 pounds of swim bladders, estimated to be worth $26 million. Sixteen people were arrested. Over a thousand totoaba were killed by just 3 men. For every totoaba killed, many vaquitas were killed as well. Mexico is stopping the fishermen after the crime has already been committed. This is not saving the species. If Mexico wanted to save the vaquita, they could have removed the illegal gill nets within the Sea of Cortez. They chose the option to not do this. The world may never know truly why the vaquita was left to suffer at the hand of black-market fishing. There may not be time left to save the vaquita, but there is time to stop other marine life from suffering a similar fate. The black-market industry does not stop for marine life. The black rhinos in Africa, the pangolin in Asia and Africa, and the addax in Niger share similar stories (Hall). Species like the vaquita, that are native to one very specific region, are driven to extinction for human luxury. The black market for animals needs to be held accountable, and the precedent for leaving these issues unchecked must be broken. Countries should protect the species that call that land or sea home. The vaquita did not need to go extinct, nor does any other animal. WORKS CITED Alberts, E. (2021, February 18). In the fight to save the vaquita, conservationists take on cartels. Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://news.mongabay.com/2021/02/in-the-fight-to-save-the-vaquita-conservationiststake-on-cartels/. Fisheries, N. O. A. A. (2021). Vaquita. NOAA. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/vaquita. Fisheries, N. O. A. A. (2021, February 22). Fishing Gear: Gillnets. NOAA. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/bycatch/fishing-gear-gillnets. Hall, J. (2021, May 3). Poaching may drive these 7 species to extinction. Animals. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/160520poachers-endangered-species-extinction?loggedin=true. Ivanyi, R. (2020, July 22). A history entwined: Vaquita, Totoaba, fishermen. A History Entwined: Vaquita, Totoaba, Fishermen. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/marine-mammals/history-entwined-vaquita-totoabafishermen.
173
Parker, R. (2019, March 19). Will Mexico save its vanishing vaquita? The New York Times. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/19/opinion/mexico-porpoise-extinction.html. Stachowitsch, M. (2020). Vaquita: Science, Politics, and Crime in the Sea of Cortez. Marine Ecology, 41(2), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1111/maec.12576
174
CULTURE CONCERNS IN DEPTH
Endless Flow by Anonymous
175
The Societal Impact of Colonialism on Native Hawaiians By Nicole Query “O kākou o nā kanaka Hawai'i a pau, ua pau ke kūlana Hawai'i a ua loli aʻe nei a he kūlana Amerika ma waho.” (“All of the people of Hawai'i lost the Hawaiian status and changed to a foreign American status.” – “Mōʻī Wahine Liliʻuokalani”). This was the case for all Native Hawaiians when Americans traveled to Hawai'i and eventually seized the islands for themselves. Americans first came in contact with Hawai'i in 1778, when Captain Cook set out on a voyage and stumbled upon the “Sandwich Islands” (Trask 6). After Cook, many missionaries came to Hawai'i for humanitarian purposes and to spread the Christian faith. Additionally, businessmen arrived on the islands to dominate the vigorous demand for ʻilahi (sandalwood), fur, and whaling (Trask 6). Slowly but surely, Hawai'i was introduced to “an entirely foreign system into the lives of [the] ancestors, a system based on a view of the world that could not coexist with that of Hawaiians.” (Trask 5). Foreigners did not originally come to the archipelago to immediately take control; Hawai'i succumbed to the Americans over a lengthy and complicated battle for power. However, through this long and convoluted process, Native Hawaiian culture was slowly stripped away with each move the foreigners made. While their intentions seemed innocent enough, many began to take advantage of Hawai'i in every way possible. Overall, Western colonization has significantly impacted Native Hawaiians for the worse. Missionaries and explorers were the first amongst Americans to discover Hawai'i. Missionaries imposed traditional Native Hawaiian teachings and diminished their population. Many of the explorers came to research Native Hawaiian culture, including ʻŌlelo Hawai'i (Hawaiian Language). These explorers compiled collections of the Hawaiian language and analyzed the unique lexicon. As missionaries began to implement the Christian faith in Hawai'i, the religion was slowly accepted throughout Native Hawaiian society. In fact, many aliʻi (chiefs) began to adopt the faith. Christianity became a source of inspiration for many aliʻi, like Queen Liliʻuokalani. Famous for her music, Queen Liliʻuokalani incorporated Christian themes to express her devotion (Liliʻuokalani 289). Despite their initial goals, the foreigners eventually believed that bringing change to Native Hawaiian customs was necessary. Subsequently, settlers began to see the Hawaiian language as undeveloped. Schütz states, “The writers had preconceived notions about what a ‘primitive’ language should look like (In spite of the fact that the adjective is meaningless).” These explorers were not accustomed to ʻŌlelo Hawai'i, as English was their primary language. Therefore, Hawaiian was seen as undeveloped. In their eyes, Native Hawaiians needed to be properly educated with a more sophisticated language. Missionaries stumbled upon a language barrier in spreading Christianity throughout Hawai'i. Working with the explorers, missionaries utilized their collection of ʻŌlelo Hawai'i words and phrases to teach Native Hawaiians English. Schütz explains, “Missionaries had a legitimate reason for doing so: they were less concerned about the nature of Hawaiian phonology than about the problem of devising a practical orthography.” Their intentions were to teach English to Native Hawaiians to help spread the faith. However, the missionaries’ motives began to shift to replace ʻŌlelo Hawai'i entirely. Missionaries became strict in forcing the English language onto Native Hawaiians. Hawaiian children were now sent to school, learning in Western customs via teachers lecturing their students 176
to keep children from speaking their native tongue. These teachers used physical punishment. Ultimately, Hawaiian was officially banned in 1896 from being spoken, which heavily impacted the survival of the language (Trask 16). Traditionally, the Hawaiian language is taught orally instead of using textbooks and writings. Because ‘Ōlelo Hawai'i was outlawed and there was not any written Hawaiian, a generation of people missed out on learning it. Eventually, Hawaiian became endangered, bringing ʻŌlelo Hawai'i to near extinction. Although their purpose to spread the Christian faith was innocent, Missionaries changed their objective and immorally stripped ʻŌlelo Hawai'i from Native Hawaiians. There was a recent spark in ʻŌlelo Hawai'i as people began to revitalize the language. While ʻŌlelo Hawai'i has made a comeback, the language is not the same. The Kānaka Maoli, or native people, wanted to adapt to the Western education system to attract the younger generation. As a result, written Hawaiian materials were made for schools. Although these materials assisted individuals in learning Hawaiian, there is a concern regarding authentic Hawaiian. Laiana explains, “Such a refocusing does not come without cost, which is evidenced by the ever-increasing gap that separates what is contemporarily from being labeled ‘Hawaiian,’ particularly in the arena of formal education.” While ʻAha Pūnana Leo, an organization that runs Hawaiian immersion schools, are out and thriving, many mākua (parents) are hesitant to enroll their children. The concern of whether or not their children would measure with others academically haunts many mākua (Hale). It is crucial to revitalize the Hawaiian language because of the ban on ʻŌlelo Hawai'i. Despite these attempts, most of the new generation Hawaiian speakers will lack the immersion necessary to speak authentically. Language is a significant part of the culture. By taking away the language, a vast part of Hawaiian culture was lost because of foreigners. Not only was the Hawaiian language affected because of these settlers, but they had also brought medical issues. When settlers arrived on the islands, they had transported diseases; The foreigners’ immune systems were used to the exposure, and they had a more advanced healthcare system. This was not the case for Native Hawaiians; such diseases, like syphilis and leprosy, began to, “Gnaw [their] way down the island chain” (Herman 319). Native Hawaiians had no natural immunity to these diseases, to which many eventually succumbed. Herman concludes, “The outbreak of leprosy in the late nineteenth century represents both an embodiment of and a metaphor for racial discourses that served the colonization of the Hawaiian Islands.” Because of these diseases, the Hawaiian population drastically decreased, and foreigners began to take control of the archipelago. Native Hawaiians were not aware of these diseases before coming in contact with foreigners. Herman explains, “Sickness and depopulation facilitated these changes by providing the substance for a racial discourse distinguishing Hawaiians as biologically as well as psychologically and morally inferior to the growing white (haole) presence in the islands.” Due to the declining population of Native Hawaiians, it had created a racial split. Native Hawaiians were seen as inferior by the foreigners because of their lack of knowledge about these diseases. On account of Western settlers moving to Hawai'i, the Native Hawaiian population took a huge toll. Many Kānaka Maoli died from these diseases, while the majority of the foreign population was stable. According to Linnekin, “more than one half of the population of [Molokaʻi] was swept away within a period of thirty years.” These diseases claimed many lives and swept the Native Hawaiian population. In fact, “out of the population of about two thousand eight hundred, more and twelve 177
hundred are known to have died; and it is not to be supposed that all the cases of mortality are reported” (Linnekin 321). Ultimately, the population of Native Hawaiians depleted, and in turn the numbers were replaced with foreigners. Furthermore, Native Hawaiians were given such degrading labels simply because their population was dying out more compared to the Westerners. Additionally, the Great Māhele cheated Native Hawaiians out of their land and permanently altered their concept of land ownership. Before foreigners had made contact with Hawai'i, the land was not owned by an individual. Relationships between land-givers and tenants were established, as land-givers were approved by the monarchy (Linnekin 15). Higher-ranking chiefs would give lower-ranking chiefs the power to appoint land supervisors. These supervisors would then dish out land usage amongst makaʻāinana (commoners). Native Hawaiians relied on a subsistence economy prior to contact with foreigners. While one plot of land would be cared for by one ʻohana (family), the goods produced within their lands would help feed the community. According to Linnekin, the Great Māhele was designed to “Replace the indigenous system of land tenure with private ownership along Western lines.” Through this economic transition from subsistence to capitalistic, the concept of land ownership changed. Now, foreign businessmen were buying up lands and selling them back to other foreigners. With little to no land titles left for Native Hawaiians to buy, foreigners ultimately owned the majority of Hawai'i. By enacting land claims, it left Native Hawaiians at a disadvantage. The Great Māhele made it mandatory for everyone, from makaʻāinana to King Kamehameha III, to file claims for their titles (Linnekin 16). As stated by Linnekin, “By law, all claims had to be registered by 14 February 1848.” Officially registering and filing a claim was a lengthy process. The Māhele Land Commission looked for testimonies in each individual filing for any claim (Linnekin 16). The claimant had to provide: the date the land was issued to them, the person who granted their right to their land, the location and border of their land, and a witness to testify for the individual. The Māhele Land Commission traveled around the islands from 1848 to 1855 to collect these testimonies. However, because of the vast amount of land bought up by white businessmen, the majority of makaʻāinana were not able to meet the deadline. Because of this, many claims became void. Although the makaʻāinana were denied any extension, konohiki (land supervisors) were granted an extension from 1865 to 1895. The businessmen would hand off land to missionary families, which in turn created plantation enterprises. With the Native Hawaiian population dying out, there was a lack of laborers. As a result, Chinese and other immigrants migrated to Hawai'i for job offers (Herman 323). Herman states, “The privatization of land and the growth of the plantation industry changed the staging on which missionary discourse has been erected.” Due to the drastic spike of the plantation industry and the private ownership of land, missionaries began to change their methods of teaching to change traditional Native Hawaiian methods by erasing traditional Native Hawaiian ways and replacing them with American standards. White entrepreneurs were able to implement private land ownership and control businesses in Hawai'i. While it is true that King Kamehameha III created the Great Māhele with the goal of Native Hawaiians claiming their rights to their land, it did not stop businessmen from abusing the system (“Ceded Lands''). By the time the Great Māhele was enacted, a vast amount of land was already under foreign names. Native Hawaiians were put at a disadvantage, while foreigners took the opportunity to dish out land to more Western settlers. Soon, Native Hawaiians were left with a small percentage of land ownership.
178
Before any Western settlers arrived, Hawai'i was under a monarchy. Queen Liliʻuokalani was forced to abdicate by white businessmen thus marking the end of the beloved Hawaiian monarchy. The aliʻi were treated like royalty and were responsible for taking care of their people. Because of their devotion, the Native Hawaiians adored the aliʻi. Once White businessmen arrived, they moved to take down the monarchy. The Bayonet Constitution further restricted Queen Liliʻuokalani and Native Hawaiian voices. As of 1864, under the 1864 Constitution, King Kalākaua was elected king (Herman 331). King Kalākaua attempted to revitalize Hawaiian culture by promoting Hawaiian sciences, religion, hula, and arts. The newly implemented oligarchy did not approve of these movements. In 1887, haole (foreign) leaders, along with militia, stormed King Kalākaua’s residence and forced him to sign the Bayonet Constitution. With this new constitution enacted, there were now financial income and property requirements for voting. Because of the Great Māhele, the majority of Native Hawaiians did not fulfill these requirements. As a result, the majority of voters were foreigners, all in support of the oligarchy. Queen Liliʻuokalani attempted to forego the Bayonet Constitution but ultimately failed. A group of thirteen businessmen who shared the same goal of bringing down the Hawaiian monarchy created the Committee of Safety. On January 17, 1893, these businessmen, and with the support of the U.S. troops, stormed her house and forced Queen Liliʻuokalani to resign. Herman says, “These two acts – the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and the 1893 overthrow– were legitimized substantially by amplifying the discourse of Hawaiian unfitness: to survive, let alone to rule a nation.” Through these two significant events, the Native Hawaiian people were not represented in politics. Their beloved aliʻi were put through such immoral situations. Many Native Hawaiians were outraged by the news of their beloved Queen Liliʻuokalani resigning. Tired of the mistreatment of their aliʻi and their people, petitions were made to save Queen Liliʻuokalani. Some were so passionate about the news of their beloved Queen Liliʻuokalani that revolutions began to take place. Despite the people’s attempts to reestablish Queen Liliʻiuokalani, it was futile. On January 16, 1895, the Queen was charged with treason as she was thought to be behind these revolutions (Liliʻuokalani 267). Queen Liliʻuokalani was imprisoned in her palace and abdicated on January 24, 1895 (Liliʻuokalani 273). Although Queen Liliʻuokalani peacefully submitted to these arbitrary propositions, it was not without resentment. When the Committee of Safety approached Queen Liliʻuokalani regarding these matters, they had forced their way into her palace with an armed militia at hand. With rifles pointed at her, objecting was not an option. Queen Liliʻuokalani, however, was more concerned about the wellbeing of her people. Queen Liliʻuokalani declared, “To prevent the shedding of the blood of my people, native and foreigners alike, I opposed armed interference, and quietly yielded to the armed forces brought against my throne, and submitted to the arbitrament of the government of the United States the decision of my rights and those of the Hawaiian people.” Queen Liliʻuokalani cared deeply for her people and did not want to see them hurt because of her. Native Hawaiians recognized the loyalty and sacrifices she made, giving them a valid reason to adore her. This is evident in “Mōʻī Wahine Liliʻuokalani,” as they express how they, “Could not hold back their tears as we listened to [Liliʻuokalani’s] words.” Foreign businessmen treating her in such a fashion continues to anger the people today. Not long after, Hawai'i was annexed in 1898, officially becoming U.S. territory (“Ceded Lands”). Because of the annexation, Native Hawaiians had lost more of their land to foreigners. Crown 179
Lands and Government Lands consisted of vast acres of land across each island that served the Native Hawaiians and the King’s responsibilities to help his people (“Ceded Lands”). These lands were not allowed to be sold and were strictly for the public. However, after the annexation occurred, Stanford B. Dole and other leaders of the Republic of Hawai'i broke up and sold these lands to small farmers. According to Civil Beat, 46,594 acres of Crown and Government Lands were sold by the Republic between 1895 and 1898. This act was deemed highly controversial, as Native Hawaiians did not have a say. Instead, more native land was stripped from the native people. Queen Liliʻuokalani fought endlessly for her people, including fighting for her people’s rights to land ownership. With Queen Liliʻuokalani deprived of her political powers, there were no political heads to stop these businessmen from controlling their ʻāina (land). Furthermore, no political figure could help preserve Native Hawaiian culture and language. In conclusion, Western imperialism heavily devastated Native Hawaiians. Not only did these foreign settlers strip them from their land and diminish the Hawaiian population, but they also deprived them of their culture. Even in the present, Native Hawaiians continue to face displacement. Trask explains that because of the switch from a subsistence to capitalistic economy, Hawai'i became heavily dependent on the tourist industry. Due to the high demand, Hawai'i is forced to fit the stereotypes to attract tourists and make a living. One such example is hula, as the cultural significance has dwindled in many places to being a mere attraction to tourists. ‘Ōlelo Hawai'i has additionally been used as a money maker for tourists. Trask elaborates how phrases like “aloha (love)” and “mālama ʻāina (take care of the land)” are exploited for tourists. Many hotels and merchandise use such words and phrases with the ultimate goal of increasing the number of tourists coming into their businesses. Businesses capitalize on ʻŌlelo Hawai'i to seem more local and exploit the culture, but the integrity of these words are lost and the sacred meaning behind these phrases are covered over. To this day, Native Hawaiians continue to band together to criticize and correct the Western portrayal of Hawai'i. A prime example is the Mauna Kea movement. A thirty-meter telescope has been proposed to be built on Mauna Kea, a mountain located on the island of Hawai'i. Because of the isolated area and lack of streetlights, scientists deemed this area fit for astronomy purposes. However, this proposal was deemed immoral to many. In Native Hawaiian religion, Mauna Kea is seen as a very sacred site. Papa (Earth Mother) and Wākea (Sky Father) are two akua (gods) that were born from Mauna Kea. Building a telescope on top of Mauna Kea is seen as building one on top of a church. To prevent the telescope from being built, a movement was created called Kū Kiaʻi Mauna (Stand Guard Over the Mountain). Many supporters took it upon themselves to move to Mauna Kea and peacefully protest. Many continue to reestablish Native Hawaiian culture in Hawai'i and fight for their rights. Each generation of the Kanaka Maoli continue to fight to regenerate their culture and acknowledge the sacrifices made by the aliʻi and their kūpuna (ancestors). WORKS CITED Hale, Constance. “Is the Hawaiian Language Dead or Alive?” Honolulu Magazine, 13 Oct. 2020, https://www.honolulumagazine.com/is-the-hawaiian-language-dead-or-alive/. Accessed 2 Dec. 2021.
180
Herman, RDK. “Out of Sight, Out of Mind, Out of Power: Leprosy, Race and Colonization in Hawai'i.” Journal of Historical Geography, vol. 27, no. 3, 2001, p. 319. Accessed 2 Nov. 2021. “Ka Haʻi ʻŌlelo a ka Mōʻīwahine Liliʻuokalani.” Ka Mālamalama. Translated by Nicole Query, 1 Aug. 1898. Liliʻuokalani. Liliʻuokalani: Hawai'i’s Story by Hawai'i’s Queen. C.E. Tuttle, 1964. Linnekin, Jocelyn. “Statistical Analysis of the Great Māhele: Some Preliminary Findings.” The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 22, no. 1, 1987, pp. 15–33. Accessed 2 Nov. 2021. Schütz Albert J. The Voices of Eden: A History of Hawaiian Language Studies. University of Hawai'i Press, 1994. Accessed 2 Nov. 2021. Trask, Haunani-Kay. From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawaiʻi. Rev. ed., Rev. ed., University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. Accessed 30 Nov. 2021. “What Are the 'Ceded Lands' of Hawai'i?” Honolulu Civil Beat, 8 Nov. 2010, https://www.civilbeat.org/2010/10/5914-what-are-the-ceded-lands-of-hawaii/. Accessed 2 Nov. 2021. Wong, Laiana. “Authenticity and the Revitalization of Hawaiian.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 1, 1999, pp. 94–115. Accessed 2 Nov. 2021.
181
A Different Perspective of Facial Plastic Surgery in Korea By Janaira Cabias Everyone at one point has thought about at least one part of themselves that they would like to change, and some may even consider plastic surgery. Appearance can be used to one’s advantage in their life for marriage or their career, but some people may not be satisfied with their appearance. Makeup is often used to temporarily change or enhance one’s appearance but is only a short-term solution and takes time to do. There is, however, a long-term fix that is becoming more and more popular in the present world, plastic surgery. Makeup only gives off the illusion of a fix compared to plastic surgery that helps to physically improve the body part. Plastic surgery, also known as “cosmetic surgery” or “aesthetic surgery,” is the process of reconstructing or fixing a body part and is usually done for injury or cosmetic purposes. Eyelid surgery (blepharoplasty), nose surgery (rhinoplasty), liposuction, and breast augmentation are examples of different types of plastic surgery procedures. Blepharoplasties, rhinoplasties, and jaw surgeries are included in a specific category of surgery called “facial plastic surgery,” or FPS. Plastic surgery is a trend that continues to grow as beauty standards continue to evolve as the generations go on. Plastic surgery has been looked down upon because it can be seen as being dissatisfied with oneself and not loving oneself, and it gets misinterpreted as sending a negative message to young people, changing how they perceive their bodies. Although cosmetic surgery is not always supported, people still choose to get the procedures done. Many American celebrities, like the Kardashians, are widely known for having plastic surgery done and are often displayed in social media and Hollywood. The United States is not the only place known for the growth of plastic surgery procedures, but the east is also expanding in the plastic surgery industry. Korea is actually known to be a place of plastic surgery, and the practice is continuing to grow in the nation. Facial plastic surgery is shown in Korea through entertainment like Korean dramas and K-Pop idols and is becoming a trend among many young adults. It is notable to mention that females are not the only people seeking plastic surgery but males as well, which can be seen especially with Korean male idols and actors. Although plastic surgery can be a controversial topic, facial plastic surgery has a positive impact on the Korean lifestyle psychologically by bringing forth a new sense of self socially, like social compatibility and beauty standards, and economically by providing money to the people and nation. This paper will explore the positive effects of facial plastic surgery in Korea and all sources are used to support the positive effects, with the exception of one. Eduardo Zachary Albrecht, Ruth Holiday, and Joanna Elfving-Hwang help support that facial plastic surgery has positive effects in the psychological and social aspects of the Korean lifestyle. They explain a gain in self-identity and advantages in social compatibility. Albrecht also touches on a person’s economic advantage from FPS. Young A. Kim and Hyang-In Cho Chung discuss negative side effects but support psychological improvement through self-acceptance. Hannah Amaris Roh and So Yeon Leem support economic improvement through the explanation of ‘medical tourism’ in Seoul, Gangnam, South Korea. Of the sources, Leem has another article that opposes the previous view and discusses the role of Westernization in the facial plastic surgery industry. All of the sources, nonetheless, are used to help show the effects that facial plastic surgery has on the Korean lifestyle.
182
Facial plastic surgery is usually assumed to deteriorate one’s mental health after undergoing the procedure, but that is not always the case. In a study done by Eduardo Zachary Albrecht, he conducts interviews with 30 Korean individuals who have undergone facial plastic surgery. The interviewees consisted of 7 males and 13 females with the age range between twenty to thirties. Upon interviewing the 30 individuals he noticed a common theme that surfaced after the interviewees received plastic surgery; Albrecht found that a big result from plastic surgery is an increase in self-confidence. One of his interviewees claimed that the reason why they got the procedures done was to “develop” and better themselves (Albrecht 41). An interviewee elaborates that, even before actually receiving surgery, the process of plastic surgery was enough to build their courage and confidence within them and was seen as a step into improving themselves. Albrecht explains that “the new physical appearance should be experienced not as an alien facade superimposed upon an old, original self but as an authentic and genuine self, liberated through the agency of surgery—just as genuine, if not more so, than the original” (41). Rather than creating “new” identities, the interviewees felt that they gained their true self that was hidden underneath from undergoing surgery. The plastic surgery being done is not to mask their old identity with a new face, but the procedure is helping to open the beauty and confidence that was trapped underneath. Even in cases that were not so ideal and did not go according to plan, self-acceptance was still present. In Young A Kim and Hyang-In Cho Chungs’ interview study, participants described the aftermath of plastic surgery. Kim and Chung gathered that “Although they suffered from side effects, they said that they did not want to return to the state of appearance prior to the surgery” (312). Despite the side effects of FPS, such as scarring or discoloration, the participants were accepting of their new appearance and those that did do a reoperation were also accepting of their new look. Kim and Chung also note that in their interview study of 7 participants, “all participants stated that they would not seek plastic surgery anymore” (313). After plastic surgery, all participants were now satisfied with how they looked and accepted who they were. A person’s confidence greatly contributes to their social interactions. When one becomes selfassured and believes in their own abilities, they tend to be more outgoing. An outgoing characteristic plays to one’s advantage when in search of a partner or friends. A person’s social compatibility can be increased by such changes and procedures. Ruth Holliday and Joanna Elfving-Hwang use the term “right face.” As for dating and marriage, the “right face” can be crucial in “marrying well” (Holliday and Elfving-Hwang). Albrecht also adds that the participants in his study have mentioned dating as a benefit from plastic surgery, although dating was not a major variable in their decision for cosmetic surgery (43). Romantic relationships and marriage are not the ultimate goal for a person to undergo cosmetic surgery but an advantage to these relationships may increase as a result from the procedures. Although a person should not be judged and assumed upon just from appearance, certain looks can represent different statuses which play into social compatibility. Beauty trends and standards evolve and change as generations pass by, and there are different fixes for different parts of the body. Beauty standards differ based on location; no beauty standard is exactly the same in one place as it is in another. In the west, beauty standards are typically curvier as opposed to the east where body types are usually slimmer. Aesthetic surgery is just an option for those that want to participate in their society’s concept of beauty. Blepharoplasties are a 183
common procedure done in Korea that involves surgery on the eyelid to create the double-eyelid look on patients with mono-lid eyes. Many people in Korea seek this procedure due to the results of a brighter look. But, cosmetic surgery is not only used to conform to these standards; the surgery can also be used to break masculine stereotypes. Beauty, self-care, and cosmetics in men can be seen as damaging their masculinity. There is a stereotype that men who are interested in looks and cosmetics are homosexual, which is very common in the United States. In Korea, however, women are not the only ones getting cosmetic surgery. A growing number of men are thinking about and seeking plastic surgery, which challenges masculine norms. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang bring to light that the Korean Association for Plastic Surgeons reported that the number of plastic surgeries done in Korea was “15 percent of men in 2010, and a recent survey conducted by a Korean employment website found that 44 percent of male college students were contemplating some form of aesthetic surgery” (59). In the newer generations of Korea, and East Asia, younger men are looking for “softer images,” which are usually depicted in Korean Dramas or Japanese manga/comics (Holliday and Elfving-Hwang 60). These changes defeat and challenge the norm that men have to look and be strong to be considered masculine. Male cosmetic surgery also allows the individual to embrace a feminine side. Appearance and selfcare are allowed in all people and should not only be associated with females and homosexuality. This masculine stereotype is challenged by popular Korean media through the K-pop industry where many, but not all, entertainers and idols undergo some form of plastic surgery while also wearing makeup and feminine attire. This may even send out a positive message to young adults that are exposed to the media, inspiring them to express themselves and to eradicate toxic masculinity. So, while aesthetic surgery can help a person transform into new beauty standards, plastic surgery also helps people to break old masculine and feminine stereotypes. While cosmetics are helping people grow within themselves and grow in society, plastic surgery is also helping the nation grow. Plastic surgery helps to bring income to homes and in the nation as a whole. In Albrecht’s study, the majority of the interviewees claimed that their main reason for plastic surgery was for the workforce and was actually brought up more than dating or marriage (43). The workforce is very competitive in Korea, so many people will seek plastic surgery to gain an advantage. Hannah Amaris Roh backs up Albrecht’s study and explains that “appearance determines one’s access to socioeconomic opportunity, it’s commonly required to submit a headshot along with job applications” (49). A headshot allows the employer to see a candidate’s face before even interviewing them. When going through job applications, one’s chances of being called in for an interview increases if the employers see that they have the “right face.” If two candidates have similar skills, employers will usually opt for the person with the more ideal face. After all, the face of the worker is the face of the company. Having the ideal appearance is important when working in business or department stores, where face-to-face contact with a customer or client will occur. Cosmetic surgery helps to increase a person’s chances at landing a job, which then helps them bring income to their home and families. Income does not only reach the individual's house, but money also goes to the Korean nation. Korean facial plastic surgery is very popular in Seoul, more specifically a district in Seoul called Gangnam. So Yeon Leem highlights how “more than half of the nation’s 671 plastic surgery clinics 184
were located in Seoul; of these, 74.8 percent were located in Gangnam” (“Gangnam” 658). Due to the large quantity of plastic surgery clinics in Gangnam, it is deemed as the plastic surgery center and also gives Korea the title as “plastic surgery nation” (Leem, “Gangnam” 658). South Korea has the highest number of plastic surgery procedures per capita in the world with around 1 million of their 50 million population undergoing plastic surgery compared to the United States who has a population of 328 million but only four million people get some form of surgery done (Roh 49). Roh also emphasizes Korea’s “medical tourism” (49). Millions of people from around the world travel to Korea to get cosmetic surgery, rhinoplasties being one of the most procedures done. These groups of people help to bring money into the nation just like how vocational tourism helps bring money into Hawai'i. The Korean government also plays a part in the growth of the industry and even puts “aside as much as $4 million per year to promote the medical-tourism industry” (Roh 49). This money is used to place plastic surgery advertisements for clinics all around Seoul and even in subway stations. Many usually display before and after pictures to motivate and convince possible clients. Media also plays a big role in influencing many people from around the world. Korean entertainment is growing popular globally, which also helps to promote its medical tourism and bring in the flow of people to Korea for vacation purposes or procedure purposes. Plastic surgery helps bring money into the pockets of the nation and its workers. Plastic surgery and facial plastic surgery are often associated with sending the wrong message, especially to young adults. Modern society is all about self-love, and people believe that an individual should learn to love themselves and their bodies instead of seeking surgeries that change them. People may misinterpret the purpose of these surgeries as wanting to change an individual into something that they are not. Facial plastic surgery on Asian faces are also seen as deracializing since many of the Asian features are being replaced with westernized or ‘white’ features. Leem mentions that Oprah Winfrey stated, “Korean women were the world’s most likely plastic surgery customers, seeking to change their bodies that resemble those of white women” (“The Anxious” 43). When seen from outside of Korea, facial plastic surgery on Asian faces is interpreted as wanting Caucasian features that are not typically found on Asians. People may argue that facial plastic surgery has only negative intentions for the people and their mental health. Although facial plastic surgery is often associated with promoting westernized features, plastic surgery does not have that intention. When looked at from a different perspective, many of these procedures result in a more youthful appearance, which is a reason why people get the surgery done. Blepharoplasties are a good example of how an individual can achieve a brighter appearance through wide eyes. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang clarifies the misunderstanding by explaining that “wider eyes have local significations such as youthfulness and active desire” (75). It should also be known that Asians are not the only ones undergoing blepharoplasties, but Western people also get similar procedures done as well. Ideal facial features do not originate from one location on its own, but rather from different cultures from around the world, as “norms of beauty are made through practice” (Leem, “The Anxious” 43). The ideal features are not directly taken from a certain ethnic group but are rather decided on based on what ‘fits’ best on a person’s face. FPS is not a clear promoter in Westernized beauty even though many perceive FPS as having a negative underlying intention. A person’s ideal face can be achieved through these procedures, which help a person learn to love themselves and their bodies as surgery gives a person a chance to express themselves. For example, 185
in the case of a person being transgender, facial plastic surgery can help give them the features that they associate themselves with and help them to feel like they are displaying their “right face.” Their true self is more likely to be shown and expressed now through their new face. Self-love and body positivity is encouraged by many, and those that do encourage it often disagree with FPS, but with this mentality they disregard those that can gain self-love and acceptance through these surgeries. The results of plastic surgery do not only improve physical appearance but are also beneficial in other ways, such achieving better mental health, improving social compatibility, opening selfexpression opportunities, and bringing income to Korea and its people. A new appearance is an outcome of the surgery, but with it is so much more. A person struggling with self-love may find that all they needed was a little change. A change on the outside can also be a change from within. A newfound love and confidence can be a result from aesthetic surgery. A new appearance may even introduce them to a new viewpoint regarding society. Cosmetic surgery can help a person feel like a part of society and its beauty standards, which helps to improve their chances at other relationships. Joining new beauty trends may lead to breaking old ones and challenging traditional toxic norms. Self-expression and self-care defeat the masculine stereotypes to which men have been tied, and aesthetic surgery can help cut those ties. No longer will beauty be associated with weak masculinity and homosexuality. Plastic surgery helps the survival of a person and the survival of a nation. Money is an important factor in survival in modern days, and plastic surgery ensures that income is available to the nation and its people in Korea. Plastic surgery is not just a physical change but also a psychological, social, and economical change as well, and looking at FPS from a different perspective may help shed some light onto the positive effects. WORKS CITED Albrecht, Eduardo Zachary. “Embodying Progress: Aesthetic Surgery and Socioeconomic Change in South Korea.” East Asian Science, Technology & Society, vol. 10, no. 1, Mar. 2016, pp. 29–49. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1215/18752160-3141411. Holliday, Ruth, and Joanna Elfving-Hwang. “Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea.” Body & Society, vol. 18, no. 2, June 2012, pp. 58–81. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1177/1357034X12440828. Kim, Young A., and Hyang-In Cho Chung. “Side Effect Experiences of South Korean Women in Their Twenties and Thirties after Facial Plastic Surgery.” International Journal of Women’s Health, vol. 10, June 2018, pp. 309–316. EBSCOhost, doi:10.2147/IJWH.S163991. Leem, So Yeon. “Gangnam-Style Plastic Surgery: The Science of Westernized Beauty in South Korea.” Medical Anthropology, vol. 36, no. 7, Dec. 2017, pp. 657–671. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/01459740.2017.1345904. Leem, So Yeon. “The Anxious Production of Beauty: Unruly Bodies, Surgical Anxiety and Invisible Care.” Social Studies of Science, vol. 46, no. 1, 2016, pp. 34–55. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43829068. Accessed 30 Apr. 2021. 186
Roh, Hannah Amaris. “Phantom Pain.” Bitch Magazine: Feminist Response to Pop Culture, no. 89, Winter 2021, pp. 48–51. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=147493869&site=ehostlive&scope=site.
187
Exploring Hayao Miyazaki’s Animated Worlds Through the Perspective of Shinto By Saige Ranon The first time I watched My Neighbor Totoro, produced by Studio Ghibli, was in elementary school during after-school care. About 20 or so kids were all squished together in a small, dimly lit classroom on the cold floor waiting for the films to start. Back then, after school was extremely boring, so anything was better than sitting in a hot cafeteria doing homework. But, this film was different from any other old PG movie (although many Studio Ghibli films are for all ages) that my school would play. From cute little forest creatures to vibrant settings to glorious adventures, Totoro gave me a warm and child-like feeling inside. It wasn’t until 12 years later when I watched the movie again that I felt that same warm feeling, but this time I had aged and carried with me different perspectives. So, even though this wasn’t the first time I had watched Totoro, it felt like I was watching a new movie with a much deeper meaning than my younger self could have understood. Studio Ghibli is famous for having timeless films that are enjoyed from ages young to old. Cofounder of the Japanese animation film studio and famous Japanese writer and producer, Hayao Miyazaki is to thank for many films that have become a staple in people’s childhoods. Not only does Miyazaki provide entertainment for people all over the world, but he also uses his movies to discuss ecological issues that he feels can no longer be ignored. Miyazaki is also very spiritual and practices Japanese traditions, like following the “religion” Shinto, which finds its way into his body of work. Miyazaki implements elements of Shinto into his films Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke, and My Neighbor Totoro to deepen the narrative and respective ecological issues, which the films explore through the themes of human action, reflection of human society and history, and unity between humans and the natural world. Being aware of Miyazaki’s use of Shinto helps his non-Japanese audience members to understand his films and messages from a cultural standpoint. Miyazaki’s success has also prompted film critics to critique Miyazaki’s use of elements from Shinto in his films. Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Pennsylvania Jolyon Thomas criticizes other bodies of work on Miyazaki’s films that proclaim that his films are religious. Thomas (2012) states that, because Miyazaki portrays religion in a romanticized and inaccurate state, his films “can hardly be said to be depicting “Shinto,” “Buddhism,” or any religion other than his idiosyncratic vision of an idealized spiritual world and the fictional deities that populate it” (p. 122). Although this is true, in this essay Shinto is presented as something that has influenced and strengthened Miyazaki’s films (in the form of characters, subtle elements, etc.) instead of as a depiction of religion. Miyazaki himself has stated that he has not made any films intending to be religious, but his “spirituality is very important to [him]. Obviously, it’s an essential value that cannot help but manifest itself in [his] films” (qtd. in Morgan, 2015). So, yes, Miyazaki tries to stay as secular as possible when it comes to creating his work, but fortunately the manifestation of his spirituality works in the best interest of his films and his messages within them. Shinto has been described as Japan’s “traditional religion”; however, most scholars tend to frown upon that term. Professors Kuroda Toshio, James Doblins, and Suzanne Gay (1981) introduce that the general assumption that Shinto is a “religion” that is deeply rooted in nature preservation and 188
purity, but it has no written system of beliefs or set of beliefs held and taught, such as the Bible or Qur’an, which people follow. It promotes “folk belief,” but has aspects that reflect other established religions, like rituals and shrines (p. 1). According to Japanologist Mark Teeuwen and Bernhard Scheid (2002), during the Heian and Kamakura period of Japan, kami worshiped in Shinto were honored in Buddhist temples alongside the buddhas. These two seemingly different religions combined to create the acting religion of that period (p. 196). Teeuwen and Scheid go on to illustrate that Shinto only started to become independent from the Buddhist church for those who did not want to follow Buddhist doctrine, which resulted in Shinto relinquishing any valid title as a religion (p. 196-197). Today, Shinto is much more a cultural practice where people visit shrines to pray for good fortunes or, on New Years’, to ask for a prosperous year. More people attend shrines and Shinto festivities than those who identify as Shinto, as Buddhism is much more prominent in Japan. Despite not being considered an established religion, Shinto shrines are all around Japan where people pray and celebrate kami. Kami is not interchangeable with “god” or “deity.” Neither term encompasses all that is kami. Translator and Japanese citizen David Chart gives two definitions that people will generally accept for “kami.” Chart illustrates that the first perspective or definition labeled “kami” as physical, natural (yet still out of the ordinary) phenomena (for example, mountains, animals, plants, birds, seas). The second perspective describes kami as “a feature that things of many kinds can have, rather than a kind of thing” (qtd. in Lam, 2019). Chart puts this into play when explaining an onsen (hot spring); onsen is a phenomenon because the water comes out of the ground hot naturally, and from the first definition the kami would be the spring itself, while from the second definition there would be some spirit of the spring (qtd. in Lam, 2019). Scholar of religious studies and YouTube content creator Andrew M. Henry (2020) builds on Chart’s definitions by explaining the relationship between kami and humans, where in Shinto both entities (kami and humans) co-exist in the same reality, but kami live in the yukai (invisible realm). Henry takes things further by introducing the primary virtues of Shinto: purity, harmony, and gratitude (2020). Perhaps one of the most important takeaways about Shinto, that both Henry and Chart mention, is the emphasis on the importance of what one does, rather than what one believes. Anyone is welcome to visit shrines for prayer or other activities, and no one is expected to identify as Shinto, which is normal in Japan. There are three main films by Miyazaki that have prominently implemented elements of Shinto to help deepen the narrative and respective ecological issues. The first is Spirited Away, which is still one of Miyazaki’s most successful films. The story begins with a young girl, named Chihiro, and her family on the way to their new home. The family gets lost and stumbles upon an abandoned theme park, which, unbeknownst to them, was a world that after sunset is filled with spirits of all varieties. Due to Chihiro’s parents gorging themselves on the spirit’s food, they were turned into pigs and captured while Chihiro was helped by a boy named “Haku” to escape. Haku tells Chihiro the only way to save her parents is to find a job at the Bathhouse (which she does), run by the mean witch named “Yubäba,” where kami come to cleanse and rejuvenate themselves. While working at the Bathhouse, she is constantly tested by Yubäba, another spirit named “No Face,” and the other kami that work in the Bathhouse who only think of humans as a nuisance. The film ends with Chihiro passing one final test by Yubäba, and she is told she can meet her parents back at the entrance of the “amusement park” where everything started.
189
The second film, Princess Mononoke, was released in 1997 and is another fan-favorite by Miyazaki which takes place amidst a war between the natural world and humans. The audience is thrown right into the conflict, as a prince named Ashitaka is forced to defend his village against a boar spirit named Nago. Ashitaka was wounded by the demonic entity that overtook Nago’s body, so he set out for a cure, which leads him to meet Lady Eboshi. She is a general who helped women escape from brothels and gave them good jobs and ways to defend themselves, but it came at the cost of deforestation and the mining of iron that fueled more tension between the natural world (e.g wolves, boars, and gorillas) and humans. Ashitaka soon meets Princess Mononoke, or San, where he builds a bond and learns more about the natural side of the war. Lady Eboshi, along with other humans, hunt for the Forest God’s head for a large amount of money and are successful, but this unleashes an apocalyptic force that destroys all in its wake. Ashitaka and San were able to retrieve the head and return it to the god, saving the forest and the humans from their end. The third movie is My Neighbor Totoro, released in 1988, which is still one of the most wellknown and easily accessible films by Miyazaki. The narrative follows two young girls, named “Mei” and “Satsuki,” who move to a rural community with their father to be closer to their mother who is sick and stuck in the hospital. The first appearance of mythical creatures appears when Mei and Satsuki are exploring their new house and spot little black figures moving around, which they later find out are susuwatari, or soot sprites. One morning, Mei decides to follow the spirits and stumbles upon a sleeping Totoro and befriends it. Mei and Satsuki end up going on adventures with Totoro. These include singing and dancing over the girl’s garden to help it grow, soaring through the sky with Totoro, and Satsuki riding in a Catbus with Totoro to find Mei when she goes missing for a second time. The movie ends with Totoro and the other forest spirits watching over the two girls as they are reunited with their family. While all three films were created to promote action and awareness of ecological issues, the three major themes prevalent across these films take the topic of ecology in different directions. Miyazaki then uses Shinto to build on his narratives and themes. In the film Spirited Away, the theme of contemporary human action is explored and weaves in Shinto to illustrate how the choices humanity makes directly affect the natural world. The first poor choice made revolves around human greed. Greed is first seen when Chihiro’s parents are unable to stop themselves from eating and get turned into pigs. Greed is seen again in the spirit No Face, who tries to buy people’s friendship with gold and gorges on food in the Bathhouse. Michael Lucken (2016), a professor at the National Institute of Oriental Languages and Civilizations in Paris, believes that the world of verticality, displayed through the Bathhouse, is one of desire and that the people in the Bathhouse want the following: To stand out by virtue of – [their] possessions (the servants throwing themselves on the money) or consumption (monsters who pay the most are treated with the most respect), but since standing out is what everyone hopes to do, in the end truly standing out is not possible. (p. 184) Scenes, like No Face gorging and even Yubäba constantly seen counting and hiding her money, further solidify Lucken’s claim and offer a new perspective on the character’s greed. From the perspective of verticality that Lucken mentions, those who work in or visit the Bathhouse reflect human greed for money (besides Chihiro and Haku). Just like No Face and Chihiro’s parents, humans relentlessly take more than needed for the benefit of themselves. 190
However, Chihiro is a light in the avaricious Bathhouse, and her generosity shines brighter when taking into account a Shinto perspective. Gratuity is important in Shinto, but even more important is what someone does rather than what they believe, or anything else. This is at the core of who Chihiro is; she rebels against her parents when they tell her to eat food grotesquely and when her co-workers tell her to take the money from No Face. Instead of taking No Face’s money, Chihiro instead decides to do something for No Face and shows him kindness, which results in the spirit returning to his natural form. Another poor choice by humans reflected in Spirited Away deals with pollution. During Chihiro’s time at the Bathhouse, an extremely filthy and stinky spirit comes to the Bathhouse to be cleansed. While preparing the bath for the visitor, Chihiro feels something on the spirit’s side. After she and many other Bathhouse workers pull the foreign object out of the spirit, it turns out to be a bicycle. With it flows out a mountain of trash, debris, and gunk, revealing the true identity of a river kami. Miyazaki is drawing parallels between the pollution of the one river spirit and the pollution of countless bodies of water all around the world. However, Miyazaki also possibly offers a solution, which can be seen through Shinto. Henry unfolds teachings of purification where tsumi (harmful actions) will pollute a person, but the pollution can be washed away as many times as the person wants through a process called oharai or misogi (purification) (Henry, 2020). While the stink spirit was illustrating being polluted by the actions of other people, this still alludes to the teaching that a person’s negative actions do cause pollution. The pollution that degraded the river spirit was successfully cleansed through misogi thanks to Chihiro. When looking at this specific scene from the perspective of Shinto, the solution Miyazaki could be advocating for is the total cleansing, misogi (purification), of rivers and other bodies of water from the pollution put there by humans' wrong actions. Although it is not possible to pull one thing out of a river or body of water and have it fully clean, like what was done for the “stink spirit,” Shinto teaches that cleaning can and should be done multiple times and as many times as needed. A second way ecological issues with ties to Shinto are explored is in the film Princess Mononoke, which focuses on reflecting on past events in human history that have wounded the relationship between humanity and nature. Professor Chris Hall summarizes that in Princess Mononoke Miyazaki focuses on real-life, but not so straightforward, issues, such as advancements in technology, deforestation, and the conflict of dominance for control (war). In the film, on one side, there are the creatures and spirits of the forest and one human (San). On the other side, there are the humans of Princess Mononoke’s world. Miyazaki does stay true to showing the relationship humans share with nature by including mediators between the two sides, those being humans and spirits alike (Hall, 2015, p 160). In this narrative, Miyazaki does not shy away from showing the casualties on both sides and how much death and violence war carries in its wake. The animal characters and nature itself are the ones seen being killed the most and by the hundreds. This is no mistake by Miyazaki. The use of kami and mystical creatures is first used as an entertainment tool to keep the audience engaged with the film. The kami also serve as an easier way for younger people to digest the complexities that come with discussing such an complicated issue as war. Also, when considering how sacred kami are in Shinto, the loss of these animal and spirit lives seems to hold more weight with those who identify as Shinto or appreciate the perspective of kami having the ability to be any entity (from spirits to mountains) and should thus always be respected and cared for.
191
Princess Mononoke is also able to show the pros and cons of technological advances, but it also reinforces that the positives do not outweigh the negatives. Hall (2015) observes that the main problem of the film revolves around the mining of iron, which came about through industrialization. However, as seen from multiple perspectives, iron has caused a rift between humans and nature, but they will always be interconnected. Hall continues by explaining that the connection can be seen most clearly between Ashitaka (a human) and Nago (Boar God or Tatari Gami). Ashitaka is cursed by a wound he received when fighting Nago in a form that is caused by being defiled by the iron stuck in his body and that is fueled by his anger for the loss of his home due to deforestation. The encounter between these two characters embodies the problem with the mining of iron. Ashitaka (human perspective) was wounded by corrupted Nago (natural perspective) because of the off-balance between their (human and nature) relationship caused by iron (p. 161). The conflict with iron began mostly with Lady Eboshi, who sees her advancements in iron mining as a good thing that opened up jobs for the women of Iron Town. The people of Iron Town are happy to have jobs, and mining iron has given them a way to protect themselves from animals and humans alike. Iron mining is either good or bad, depending on which way it is looked at, but Miyazaki makes it clear that its effects are detrimental to both sides and something needs to change. When considering the ideology Shinto perpetuates, advancements are not the real problem; the real problem is the disregard that people like Lady Eboshi and those of Iron Town have when it comes to the natural world. Professor Gwendolyn Morgan (2015) emphasizes that, when humanity tries to become dependent and distant from nature, ultimately both will end in destruction. She explains that nature and humanity share a bond and failure to recognize and respect that bond will affect everything in the environmental chain (p. 179-180). As Henry shared, it is believed in Shinto humans and kami exist in one reality (2020) and therefore have the bond Morgan explained. However, recognition from both sides is lost in Princess Mononoke, and it takes the brink of extinction for humans and the natural world to realize their erroneous actions. During the final moments of the film, Lady Eboshi and Iron Town citizens decide to change their ways, and, while San states she cannot forgive the humans, they do not retaliate and return to their home in the forest. Ashitaka remains an intermediary by promising to visit San while also helping rebuild Iron Town. These last scenes show that, if the characters in the films, as well as humans in real life, were to recognize and respect the connection they have to the natural world, advancements can be obtainable without damaging both sides. My Neighbor Totoro does an excellent job at intertwining Shinto and the theme of unity between two seemingly different worlds: humans and the natural world. The film's narrative contrasts to Princess Mononoke’s by focusing completely on the relationship between humans and nature that was ignored. A PhD candidate in film studies at King’s College London, Kosuke Fujiki (2015) notes that the most important component of the film “is that the characters gain spiritual comfort and healing through their encounters with nature and its nonhuman inhabitants” (p. 153). Fujiki provides an example from the beginning of the movie when the girls are first anxious about moving into their new home, but when they encounter the soot spirits their anxiety melts away and they are now excited to be exploring their new “haunted house” (p. 154). Another scene to be noted is when Mei gets lost for a second time in the film and as time passes, Satsuki becomes increasingly worried. Totoro then comes to the rescue and helps Satsuki find Mei quickly by using the Catbus. Totoro and the Catbus bring them to their mother and father where the girl’s stress they felt just moments ago vanished as soon as they saw their parents. There are more scenes where Totoro 192
comforts the girls and acts as a sort of parental figure in their mother’s and father’s absence. It is clear from the scenes that Miyazaki has conceptualized Shinto belief of coexistence between the natural world and humans in My Neighbor Totoro. Mei and Satsuki have fun and gain the comfort needed during hard times with the move to a new place, their mother being in the hospital, and their father constantly working. Totoro and the spirits also seem to enjoy the company of Mei and Satsuki and gain friendship and happiness from their connection. Miyazaki communicates with his audience through these scenes that there can be a working relationship between man and nature without the expense of either. Many non-Japanese viewers may not be aware of the complexity of Miyazaki’s films, but understanding this is useful insight for application in classrooms and can impact people’s lives beyond simply being a part of their childhood. Charles Newell is a teacher at Notre Dame High School in Tennessee who uses Miyazaki’s films, specifically Princess Mononoke and Spirited Away, to teach Shinto. Newell (2013) emphasizes that Miyazaki’s films are a better tool than oldfashioned handouts and readings for introducing Shinto due to Miyazaki’s ability to “draw students into a deeper understanding of abstract concepts” (p. 82). Newell (2013) also reveals a possibility and hope he has, where because of Miyazaki’s films students in his class, and possible other classes that use Miyazaki’s films as a learning tool, will become motivated to learn more about other aspects of Asian cultures and lead class discussions with their peers (p. 83). At home in Japan, My Neighbor Totoro shows a reality before the recent times of growing industrialization, which was “nostalgic or even utopia for many people who were no longer in contact with natural landscapes in everyday life” (Fujiki, 2015, p. 156). From Japan to Tennessee to all corners of the world, Miyazaki’s use of Shinto has become useful and comforting to some people in ways other films cannot. Hayao Miyazaki’s implementations of beliefs and the kami of Shinto into Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke, and My Neighbor Totoro positively strengthen and bring a more meaningful understanding to the themes in these films: the significance of human action, reflection on relations between humans and nature, and unity with the natural world. Spirited Away shows the wrong choices humans make every day, but Chihiro contracts humanity by embodying Shinto beliefs and acts as a template for others to follow when it comes to greed and pollution. Princess Mononoke forces its audiences to reflect on past choices, like going to war and mining the earth, which are more easily seen through the use of kami. My Neighbor Totoro is Miyazaki’s message to the world that the relationship between humans and nature, upheld in Shinto, ignored in Mononoke, is not only possible but beneficial for both parties. Miyazaki tackles these complex themes and turns them into a form for all ages to understand, which in turn impacts his audience in ways that are unimaginable. REFERENCES Chris G. Hall. (2015). Totoros, Boar Gods, and River Spirits: Nature Spirits as Intermediaries in the Animation of Hayao Miyazaki. Resilience: A Journal of the Environmental Humanities, 2(3), 158-165. Fujiki, K. (2015). My Neighbor Totoro: The Healing of Nature, the Nature of Healing. Resilience: A Journal of the Environmental Humanities, 2(3), 152-157.
193
Henry, A. (2020). What is Shinto? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qlKeVY_FsVg&t=378s Lam, G. (2019). Japan: Where Gods Aren't Gods and Worshipers Aren't Religious (Shinto Explained) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htxVoNBd5do&t=226s Lucken, M. (2016). Miyazaki Hayao’s Spirited Away, or, the Adventure of the Obliques. In Imitation and Creativity in Japanese Arts: From Kishida Ryusei to Miyazaki Hayao, (pp. 175-200). Miyazaki, H. (Director). (1988). My Neighbor Totoro [Film]. Studio Ghibli. Miyazaki, H. (Director). (1997). Princess Mononoke [Film]. Studio Ghibli. Miyazaki, H. (Director). (2001). Spirited Away [Film]. Studio Ghibli. Morgan, G. (2015). Creatures in Crisis: Apocalyptic Environmental Visions in Miyazaki’s Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Princess Mononoke. Resilience. A Journal of the Environmental Humanities, 2(3), 172-183. Newell, C. (2013). The Films of Hayao Miyazaki: Shinto, Nature, and the Environment. Education About Asia, 18(3). Teeuwen, M., & Scheid, B. (2002). Tracing Shinto in the History of Kami Worship: Editors' Introduction. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 29(3/4), 195-207. Thomas, J. (2012). Entertaining Religious Ideas. In Drawing on Tradition: Manga, and Religion in Contemporary Japan (pp. 103-124).
Anime,
Toshio, K., Dobbins, J., & Gay, S. (1981). Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion. Journal of Japanese Studies, 7(1), 1-21.
194
Hikikomori: The Silent Rebellion By Kalli Sunahara With the recent COVID-19 pandemic, we all know how it feels to be isolated in our homes. Everything we knew changed in just a few months—no longer could we visit loved ones or eat out with friends. A majority of people were confined to small apartments, busy households, or cramped rooms. Now imagine if we instead chose to live away from society, hidden in a small room away from others, rather than being forced to for our own safety. This is the reality of hikikomori [hereafter not italicized], better known to the western world as social recluses. The number of hikikomori in Japan has been growing at an exponential rate, with psychologist Saito Tamaki predicting an upwards of 10 million in the upcoming years. However, despite being portrayed in a negative way by the media and the general public, most people who have been diagnosed with the condition are not violent or lazy; rather, they are tortured by their past and present traumas. Undiagnosed mental illnesses combined with societal pressures lead young men and women to withdraw as a defense mechanism, choosing to hide rather than to face the society that scorns their very existence. They should not be seen as a danger to the Japanese way of life; rather, they should be offered support from family, friends, neighbors, and medical professionals to help them overcome their seclusion and treat their mental illnesses. To understand this arising issue, we must first understand what hikikomori is. “Hikikomori” is a term created by the previously mentioned Japanese psychologist Saito Tamaki in his book Adolescence Without End and is used to describe those who have isolated themselves from society for an extended period of time. By the original definition, it is “a state that has become a problem by the late twenties, that involves cooping oneself up in one’s own home and not participating in society for six months or longer, but that does not seem to have another psychological problem as its principal source” (Tamaki 24). Its full meaning “shakaiteki hikikomori,” roughly translates to “withdrawing oneself from society,” or simply social withdrawal (Takahiro Kato et. al, par. 1). Throughout the years, the term has become a label for any person who has begun showing signs of acute to severe self-isolation. While hikikomori was first acknowledged in 1998—the year the book was originally published—the steadily increasing number has only recently been recognized as a problem. It is referenced by Asuka Koyama et. al in the book Japanese Psychological Research that in 2010 232,000 families reported having a hikikomori in their household (qtd. in Nonaka et al., par. 1). In just 6 years, a government survey suggested that there were about 541,000 hikikomori in Japan’s population of 127 million (Kato et al. par. 2). Due to the nature of hikikomori, it is impossible to obtain a completely accurate number because “it can take years before they seek help” (Gent par. 3). If it is difficult for even family members to remain in contact with them, it is nearly impossible for the government to get an absolute count; and even if the family keeps in contact, shame prevents them from admitting the truth. What is known is that the number has been following an upward trend. The data suggests upwards of 300,000 new hikikomori within a period of less than a decade. Growing numbers of hikikomori threaten the very structure of Japanese society, but not in the way many would think. While they do cause a strain on their families, the main issue of hikikomori stems from the fact that Japan—like many other Asian countries—has a large demographic of older, retired citizens, which means as the population ages, the work pool must be replaced by young, able-bodied adults. Kathleen Hunter Lea Todd from Mary Baldwin College agrees, adding 195
that eventually foreign workers will be a necessity as the amount of young Japanese integrating into the workforce begins to dwindle (par. 37). Yukiko Uchida and Vinai Norasakkunkit, from the University of Kyoto and Gonzaga University in Washington respectively, claim that the growing number of hikikomori threatens the balance of Japanese society because many are considered ‘Not Educated, Employed, or in Training’ (NEET) , therefore not having the qualifications for jobs even if they were to decide to reintegrate (par. 1). It is due to this that a large number of hikikomori are considered financially unstable and are notoriously known to mainly rely on parents for food and shelter. This raises more questions regarding what the government is to do with the citizens who refuse to leave their homes. With the information given, it is easy to assume that hikikomori are simply lazy young adults who refuse to enter the world of work and responsibilities, preferring to seek out pleasure rather than responsibilities, or that they are lifelong mentally unstable individuals who frequently act violently—but this is not the case. In fact, many hikikomori show little to no signs of withdrawal in their early lives, only later suddenly succumbing to the condition. Saito Tamaki cites four case studies that observe individuals who hail from different backgrounds. In each, the story begins with a “normal” young adult or student and ends with a complete withdrawal from those around them. In a majority of the cases, a bad experience with school, peers, the workplace, or a family member triggered the ultimate isolation. Tamaki later adds that “[hikikomori are] often the types who are considered ‘good’ boys and girls who ‘don’t require much looking after’… [and] there is not one fixed personality trait that manifests itself in every single case” (Tamaki 22). Even those who behave well, get good grades, easily interact with classmates, and even excel at sports have become hikikomori during the transition to adulthood where pressure to succeed is the highest. Scott Wilson, author of “Braindance of the Hikikomori: Towards a Return to Speculative Psychoanalysis,” disagrees with this statement, arguing that “enabled by the proliferation of new media entertainments, particularly video games and online pornography, the hikikomori becomes the concrete realization… [that lives by the concept of] maximum pleasure” (398). While there may be a few who simply do not wish to grow up, the majority are too scared to take part in societal functions such as work, family life, and interactions with peers. Shunsuke Nonaka from Tokyo Future University, Hinori Shimada from Waseda University, and Motohiro Sakai from the University of Miyazaki disagree with Wilson in their essay “Hikikomania: Existential Horror or National Malaise,” claiming that “[hikikomori are] canaries in a coalmine: sensitive individuals searching for identity in a society that frowns on deviations from the norm” (par. 4). It is agreed upon by many mental health professionals that they are not withdrawing for the sake of seeking pleasure. Young children are expected to succeed and struggle to find their place in a society that despises deviations from the norm. In Japanese culture, which puts emphasis on the group and fitting in, finding a place walks a thin line between being a puppet and becoming the black sheep in the flock. In this confusing state, young adults eventually give up, choosing to neither fit in nor stand out, electing to become a hikikomori instead. A popular Japanese idiom states that “the protruding nail shall be hammered down,” perfectly explaining their views of differences. Of course, not all hikikomori are simply hiding from the outside world that seeks to judge them. It is also mentioned by Alexander Krieg, a PhD candidate in clinical psychology at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, that within a sample of 337 hikikomori, 99.7% displayed symptoms of other psychiatric disorders (5). That indicates that out of a large sample, a single subject did not show indicators for other 196
mental illnesses. The continual blind diagnosis of socially withdrawn people leads to further complications and problems in the future, in essence delaying or even denying proper treatment to those suffering from mental disorders. The isolation of the individual itself is even recognized as “[a] psychopathological mechanism…regardless of the psychiatric diagnosis” and should be treated as such (Kato et al. par. 6). Rather than being a diagnosis, the term “hikikomori” instead acts as an umbrella term for other mental illnesses and psychological conditions that cause withdrawal, while each case should instead be treated as mental disorders. A majority of the hikikomori need professional help but are often too afraid or do not have readily available services to seek assistance from. From bullying in school and workplaces to unacknowledged mental illness and even family enablement, many problems accumulate and lead to social withdrawal, none of which are caused directly by the internet. In an article by Ante Silić, Jakša Vukojević, Ilaria Čulo, and Hrvoje Falak, all from departments of psychiatric studies in hospitals in Zagreb, the case of a 24-year-old male is brought to attention. He lived a normal life with two parents and two siblings. He had friends and no traumatizing memories of elementary school. However, after developing a stutter in high school, he was bullied by his peers. This continued, and eventually, he began to isolate himself, refusing to attend college, instead choosing to stay home and play videogames for upwards of 20 hours per day, engaging in random, usually violent outbursts at his family (Silić et al. par. 5). The bullying the patient faced in high school had a lifelong effect on his mental state, leading to his prolonged isolation with the intention of hiding from society and his electing to spend time in a virtual world. It is important to note that the patient is not introduced as someone addicted to the internet; rather, he is first bullied and ostracized at school, leading him to stay home and find other distractions. This scenario is not uncommon, especially in Japanese society. It is even mentioned that “[bullying] is not particularly discouraged by [Japanese] teachers or parents, as it promotes ‘behavior modification’ that will help students fit into the groups and prepares them for real life by developing skills to form and operate within the ‘cohesive social units and hierarchical relationships’” (Todd 13). The group mentality, which is mentioned earlier, is instilled in even young children and can lead to later alienation as youth attempt to interact with their peers. When unable to conform, even in later stages of life, many withdraw and refuse to interact with peers, which in many cases develops into mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and many others (Saito 52). When unable or unwilling to seek help for these conditions, young adults spiral further into an ever-worsening mental state. Parents and family members are a large part of the enablement of hikikomori. Whether that be to support their seclusive behavior through financial means, or even ignoring the violent or unhealthy behaviors expressed by these individuals, such 20 hours of screen time, never leaving the house, etc., family becomes the ultimate permitting factor. In contrast to Western/American culture, Japanese society values interdependency under the term “amae” (Todd par. 17). Tamaki supports this by describing amae as an affection one might feel as unconditional in a relationship, most notably between a child and their parents (183). Japanese parents feel an obligation to assist their child, even as they reach working age, no matter what they choose to do. Yet, even if the parent knows there is an issue present, a majority of the time they would rather turn a blind eye, too embarrassed or ashamed to seek help or guidance from professionals (Kato et. al par. 4). To admit something is wrong with the child is a direct reflection of the parent. Out of shame, parents would rather provide all the child needs to hide them from the public in order to protect themselves from 197
the judgement of others. Once parents decide to seek help, it is usually months, if not years, after the condition first began, and it is usually triggered by an incident involving physical violence (Martyn-Hemphill, 6:15-6:48). It is no secret that they are seen as dangerous. Throughout the years, the media itself has placed a great stress on crimes committed by hikikomori, ensuring that a line is drawn between “normal” people and those who are “different.” It is their own way of calming those who fear the violence by claiming that the ‘bad apples of the bunch’ are the ones causing problems, not those from welladjusted households with good childhoods. Recently, in 2019, there was a crime involving a hikikomori who had stabbed 17 schoolgirls and 2 adults at a bus stop in Japan (Rich par. 1). Yet, while this is an extremely rare occurrence, it has raised concerns from parents who have kept their reclusive child hidden. There was even an incident later during the following weekend here the father of a hikikomori fatally stabbed his child, who was living in seclusion (3). Due to his previously aggressive behavior towards his mother, his 76-year-old father believed that he would commit a violent crime similar to the mass stabbing. It has been stated that the correlation between crimes that involve such vulgar actions and hikikomori is low to nonexistent, the figure standing at about less than 10 over the past 20 years (qtd. in Rich par. 9-10). The issue also lies in the fact that parents do not understand how to deal with their reclusive children yet refuse to seek outside help from places such as mental health facilities, psychologists, or hospitals. Japanese culture dictates that issues in the family must be solved within the household. When unable to reach a viable solution, the next best option is to hide the problem completely. This, however, leads to further complications, fear, and even violent outbursts by both parents and children alike. Incidents such as these two that are so heavily covered by varying media instill fear into the public, especially those who have family or neighbors who exhibit similar behaviors, with a negative light cast upon those who already feel rejected from society. Technology plays a large part in the lifestyle of hikikomori yet is not the cause of the condition. If a Japanese person were to be asked about their image of a social recluse, they would respond with something along the lines of an otaku (someone who likes anime and manga) who spends all day playing video games. This is partially true. While not every hikikomori avidly browses the internet in their free time, many do experience a level of internet addiction, which stems from an addiction to video games or social media. However, this is during their isolation, and it was found in a study of Korean shut-ins that more than 50% of the 43 subjects were at risk or addicted to the internet (Gent par. 20). This is not 100% of the patients, and, most importantly, it is only those who are already classified as hikikomori. It is unknown whether they had shown signs of internet addiction prior to diagnosis or isolation. There are valid reasons as to why hikikomori are prolific users of the internet. One patient interviewed by Edd Gent referred to the anonymity of online interactions that provide a comfort, often allowing free communication without the fear of being judged. Another patient calls the nature of online relations superficial as it is a space where one may avoid all conflict by choosing to interact with those who hold the same views and ideals (par. 26-28). These harm young adults as they attempt to integrate into society, only to be faced with arguments and opposing views. Many people turn to the internet to find a place where they belong; however, when that place does not translate into real life, it becomes extremely difficult for the individual to fit in. Unable to cope with that, they withdraw and seclude themselves, retreating to their ‘happy place’ with their artificial, conflict-less relationships. Japanese society is one that enforces harmony; Norasakkunkit and Uchida claim that everyone must agree with each other for society 198
to function properly, which is why hikikomori is seen in such a negative light, as it is the rejection of said harmony (qtd. in Berman and Rizzo par. 15). Conflicts and differences in ideals and beliefs are stressful for those who only have interactions online. A boss, classmate, or even superior cannot simply be blocked as they would be in chat rooms. The issue must be dealt with in a confrontational manner, which is something that video games and social media do not require, leading to those platforms becoming the hikikomori’s safe space; however, this can be used to rehabilitate those struggling to return to society. There is no simple way to assimilate hikikomori into everyday life, especially with the pre-existing stigma and misconceptions surrounding them. However, with proper support, it is possible to help a hikikomori readjust, positive psychology being one of the best techniques for this. Shinichiro Matsuguma, a doctor at Keio University’s Department of Neuropsychiatry, suggests the use of positive psychology to help young adults return to societal norms. As previously mentioned, a notable feature of Japanese recluses is their proficiency regarding video games. Matsuguma feels that, by taking from the teamwork aspect of video games, the transition into a job would become easier. By integrating positive feelings tied to online activities to everyday occurrences, hikikomori would be able to freely adjust and grow into their societal roles (1-3). In his article “Hikikomori from the Perspective of Overuse, Optimal Use of Character Strengths: Case Reports,” Matsuguma mentions a patient who had come to the realization that living as a hikikomori prevented him from using his strengths, therefore leading to his feeling lost and alienated, both from himself and others (7). The focus of positive psychology is to form a purpose in life using natural strengths and developed skill while maintaining a balance, as an overuse of said features is noted to cause mental breakdowns or panic attacks. Using the unique and learned characteristics promotes growth in the suffering person, especially if they have become hikikomori due to feeling lost in life. Another reintegration technique deals less with direct intervention and more on utilizing the internet, which is effective on those who already seek to rejoin society. In July of 2016, the popular augmented reality mobile game Pokémon GO was released on Android and iPhone. The objective of the game is to walk around with the app open and search for either Pokémon or visit locations that give special rewards. In an article published in the US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, it was found that “there have been youth with hikikomori now able to leave their homes apparently as a result of playing Pokémon Go” (Tateno par. 5). The article credits the change to the sense of satisfaction that the player is rewarded with while playing the game. Augmented reality games and technology provide a bridge between the hikikomori’s comfort zone and the real world, with games like Pokémon Go being both popular and simple. There have also been suggestions by psychologists to add facilities that offer hikikomori help, as PokéStops is a means of convincing them to seek psychological assistance (Gent par. 24). This idea could also be implemented into other games. A reward system could be created that involves visiting help centers or getting a mental health evaluation. In the past, video game stores in America would hold events where the player visits the shop and gets rare items. Using a similar method to coax hikikomori out of their homes may lead to them becoming comfortable, perhaps even choosing to go outside for recreational activities, or could lead them to seek help by placing facilities willing to offer assistance within their reach. It is, however, my opinion that positive psychology would be a more concrete way to communicate effectively to hikikomori by utilizing the games they are found to be fond of.
199
In Japan, a unique solution to hikikomori has begun to grow in popularity, and rightfully so; New Start’s rental sisters, which was explored on a BBC News video Rent-a-sister: Coaxing Japan’s hikikomori men out of their bedrooms. A rental sister is introduced as a woman who is hired by Japanese families to help rehabilitate their hikikomori child in hopes of easing them into the real world and the demand has been rising. The woman is tasked with visiting the house weekly and simply talking to them. They are not mental health consultants with expertise in the subject, rather they are simply women willing to talk to socially withdrawn young adults with the hopes of helping them. In some cases, the rental sister is even able to convince the hikikomori to go out to lunch or for a drink, as shown in the video published on BBC News. While it seems to be an unorthodox solution, it has proven itself effective. A prime example shown by the program would be Kenta, the hikikomori Ayako had been rehabilitating. He is shown talking calmly to her, later walking to a café and sharing a drink. In the interview, he admits to having violent tendencies in the past, to the point that his parents had to call the police. Ayako admits that she does not fake anything while talking to her clients. Her claim is that they would not open up if they knew she was lying or pretending while around them. Of course, this is not to say that rental sisters being honest and personable are the cure to all hikikomori. Atsuko, another rental sister in the New Start program, mentions times in the past where her clients have attacked her and outright refused to communicate (Martyn-Hemphill). While the rental sisters do everything they can to the best of their abilities, the levels of trauma or severity of mental illness varies from person to person. The utilization of familial bonds without the ties of being related allows for free communication between the rental sister and the client, proving to be effective in comforting and coaxing the hikikomori. This method is by far the easiest as it does not require any formal education and relies on human interaction above all. Knowing about hikikomori is important, especially in the current era. While I only mentioned Japan, there are more across the world than ever before. Eventually, we will even find them perhaps in our own families. To destigmatize and dissolve fear surrounding the condition, we must educate ourselves on the matter and find solutions before we too end up in the same situation as Japan, struggling with an aging society with no one to sustain it. Parents must be aware of their children and must be willing to speak about mental health. In extreme cases, parents have to find psychological help to prevent the cycle of seclusion from prevailing. Hikikomori is nothing to be afraid of. My hope is that, by understanding this phenomenon, there will be more willingness to offer assistance rather than a cold shoulder. More than anything, the hikikomori need to be accepted and supported by family members as they seek recovery because mental illnesses are not to be ignored and are by no means easy to deal with. WORKS CITED Berman, Naomi, and Flavio Rizzo. “Unlocking Hikikomori: An Interdisciplinary Approach.” Journal of Youth Studies, vol. 22, no. 6, Aug. 2019, pp. 791–806. Gent, Edd. “The Plight of Japan's Modern Hermits.” BBC Future, BBC, 29 Jan. 2019, www.bbc.com/future/article/20190129-the-plight-of-japans-modern-hermits. Accessed 10 February 2021.
200
“Japan's ‘Hikikomori’ Population Could Top 10 Million.” Nippon.com, 30 May 2020, www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c05008/japan%E2%80%99s-hikikomori-populationcould-top-10-million.html. Accessed 19 May 2021. Kato, T.A., Kanba, S. and Teo, A.R. (2018), Hikikomori: experience in Japan and international relevance. World Psychiatry, 17: 105-106. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20497. Accessed 3 May 2021. Krieg, Alexander. “Reclusive Shut-Ins.” Eye Magazine, no. 5, Fall 2014. EBSCOhost. search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=99265680&site=ehostlive&scope=site. Accessed 2 February 2021. Martyn-Hemphill, Amelia, director. Rent-a-Sister: Coaxing Japan's Hikikomori out of Their Rooms. BBC News, BBC, 18 Jan. 2019, www.bbc.com/news/av/stories-46885707. Matsuguma, Shinichiro, and Ryan M. Niemiec. “Hikikomori from the Perspective of Overuse, Underuse, and Optimal Use of Character Strengths: Case Reports.” Research Gate, Nov. 2020, www.researchgate.net/publication/346534156_Hikikomori_from_the_Perspective_of_Ov eruse_Underuse_and_Optimal_Use_of_Character_Strengths_Case_Reports. Accessed 1 May 2021. Nonaka, Shunsuke, et al. “Behavioral Repertoire of Families for Coping with Individuals with Hikikomori (Prolonged Social Withdrawal) in Japan1.” Japanese Psychological Research, vol. 63, no. 1, Jan. 2021. Rich, Motoko. “Japan's Recluses Face Increased Stigma after Attack on Schoolgirls.” The Irish Times, The Irish Times, 7 June 2019, www.irishtimes.com/news/world/asiapacific/japan-s-recluses-face-increased-stigma-after-attack-on-schoolgirls-1.3918044. Accessed 29 April 2021. Saitō Tamaki, et al. Hikikomori: Adolescence Without End. University of Minnesota Press, 1998. Accessed 27 April 2021. Silić A, Vukojević J, Čulo I, Falak H. Hikikomori silent epidemic: a case study. Research in Psychotherapy (Milano). 2019 Aug; http://europepmc.org/article/MED/32913802?singleResult=true. Accessed 3 May 2021. Tateno, Masaru, et al. “New Game Software (Pokémon Go) May Help Youth with Severe Social Withdrawal, Hikikomori.” Psychiatry Research, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 30 Dec. 2016, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5573581/. Accessed 3 May 2021. Todd, Kathleen Hunter Lea. “Hikikomania: Existential Horror or National Malaise?” Southeast Review of Asian Studies, vol. 33, Nov. 2011, pp. 135–147. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=82914733&site=ehostlive&scope=site. Accessed 29 April 2021. 201
Uchida, Yukiko, and Vinai Norasakkunkit. “The NEET and Hikikomori Spectrum: Assessing the Risks and Consequences of Becoming Culturally Marginalized.” Frontiers in Psychology, 18 Aug. 2015, doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01117. 19 May 2021. Wilson, Scott. “Braindance of the Hikikomori: Towards a Return to Speculative Psychoanalysis.” Paragraph, vol. 33, no. 3, 2010, pp. 392–409. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43151858. Accessed 5 May 2021.
202
Adults Still Play with Dolls By Sydney Fourby To the passing tourist, the Island of Dolls may seem like a weird large-scale, doll-themed art installation that has been specifically formed in a remote area of Mexico merely to attract people to visit the island. The Island of Dolls, referred to in Spanish as “La Isla de las Munecas,” has terrified and confused passers-by for years. The most important sources for explaining the history of the Island of Dolls will come from articles including, but not limited to, Discovery, a multinational media company, in order to correctly explain and analyze the legend and why people believe it to be false. I will also make use of an article in the Journal of Heritage Tourism that will give an overview and background of the Village of Dolls in order to examine how it came to be and why it was necessary in the first place. Although many people see dolls for their very basic meaning, childhood objects that are meant to serve as our friends when we wish to escape from the boring depths of reality, dolls can have a much deeper meaning, serving as a vessel to communicate new perspectives and ways of thinking about and viewing life, such as in the examples of the Island of the Dolls in Mexico City, Mexico and the Village of Dolls in Nagoro, Japan. According to a report published by All That’s Interesting, “27 Photos of Mexico’s ‘Island of The Dolls’ That Will Haunt Your Dreams,” by Marco Margaritoff, a writer for various outlets including People, Vice, and Complex with works on a variety of topics, the area is inhabited by not one, but hundreds of dolls (Margaritoff 1). The placement of the dolls originated with one man, Don Julian Santara Barrera. Barrera was said to be the caretaker of the area in Mexico City. Around the middle of the 1900s, a young girl was said to have drowned in the nearby canal, and Barrera was said to have discovered a doll supposedly belonging to the girl floating in the same canal not long after. He took the doll and hung it in the tree as a way of honoring and appeasing the spirit of the young child (Magaritoff 3). He continued hanging dolls as a symbol of respect towards the child who had passed. Over half a century later, Santana Barrera drowned in the same place as he claimed the girl had drowned over fifty years prior. Coincidence? Maybe. But, how do you explain the hanging of the dolls if the story is just that, a story? Many people hold faith that the legend of the young girl that brought about the hanging of many dolls is wholeheartedly and entirely true. Others are skeptical of the unique and strange circumstances that seem to be truly too unbelievable to even discuss, as if there is even the slightest chance that they could be proven as true. Another incredible city of dolls is found in Nagoro, Japan, a village of dolls created by Ayano Tsukimi. She created dolls that now reside in the city of Nagoro and fills its population that has steadily been decreasing in recent years. She started off with a few, very lifelike dolls and grew her collection to be what it is today, a city inhabited by thousands of life-sized dolls that inhabit an otherwise very lonely and deserted city. The dolls are often created to look like friends or relatives that have moved or passed away. This caused the village to be brought to life by the dolls and be seen as a way to give company to the few residents of the city. The Island of the Dolls, found in Mexico City, Mexico, is an extraordinary example of a strange and bone chilling site with an almost reasonable backstory. Paula Froelich, a journalist for the New York Post, published an article that was rightfully named “The Real Story Behind ‘Haunted’ Island of the Dolls in Mexico.” There has been much speculation surrounding the truth of its origin story. 203
If you look at the history of the region, the story seems to come together a little more seamlessly. For example, the area that included the canal where the young girl had passed was previously an area “used as shelter for Mexican revolutionaries and religious practitioners who may have fallen out of favor; some of them ended up killed or drowned in these canals” (Froelich 7). Since there were other deaths in the same canals, we now have reason to believe that another death is not that out-of-the-blue. It is difficult to determine whether this knowledge makes the story more believable or more deceitful. If the narrative was truly false, Barrera would do well to make up a believable tale to explain the death of the youthful individual, as it likely would have not been from natural causes. The idea of the girl’s death being tied to the presence of other spirits may be hard for some people to wrap their heads around, but the logic of there being a terrain that easily creates these accidental deaths is a pill that is a little easier to swallow. However, some people cannot come to terms with the idea that the story of the Island of Dolls is true. One reason that the legend of the island is believed to be untrue is that the story is almost too perfectly established. Reuben Westmaas uses his article in Discovery to give extensive detail about the island in his article “The Island of the Dolls Has a Murky and Terrifying History.” Many skeptics, “including Don Julian's own family, didn't believe that he ever found the girl, although whether they believe he made it up, imagined the experience, or was somehow mistaken is unclear” (Westmaas 4). It seems like a logical process of questioning the narrative to stop and ask if this really seems like the truth of the matter. The story fails to give details about the little girl herself. Amongst the many articles written about the island, there is no information given regarding the young child’s name, family, or reason as to why she was on the island in the first place. Due to the lack of details, it does not seem likely that this girl, who lacks a backstory or any credibility, may have even been alive in the first place. It could be that Barrera was just a weird guy who picked up an unusual hobby in a remote area that just so happened to have been discovered by the public. However, it seems far-fetched that “Don Julian devoted the rest of his life to her” (Westmaas 4); it is questionable as to why Barrera would continue to spend over a decade devoting his life to the girl by continuing to hang dolls on the island. If the girl had never existed in the first place, why would an individual dedicate fifty years of their life to please her? The attraction of the strange, doll-infested island did not need to be a continuous project after it had already been established. Barrera continued to add dolls even after the discovery that the island was becoming an attraction for tourists who were intrigued by the mystery of the unusual circumstances. Another reason that the island’s story is seen as a hoax is the view of the island as a tourist attraction. It is recorded that, after Barrera had hung numerous dolls from trees and placed many more on different places on the island, “he realized that visitors were willing to pay a fee for a guided tour” (Margaritoff 15). It seems reasonable to think that, if he was making money off of his newfound attraction, of course he would continue adding dolls and drawing in more people to visit. There is one flaw in this narrative; under curious circumstances, we cannot ignore the fact that Barrera died after drowning in the same spot that the little girl was said to have passed (Margaritoff 10). While seeming to be a very odd coincidence, what would Barrera have achieved by staging his own death in order to complete his narrative to make it more believable? It does not seem rational for someone to abruptly end the life of their attraction and the flow of cash knowing that was their entire purpose to begin with. If he was only in it for the money that the tourists brought when they visited the island, why would he cut off his successes and take his own life?
204
On the other side of the world is Ayano Tsukimi, a current resident of Nagoro, Japan who has also created a Village of Dolls. Atsuko Hashimoto, David J. Telfer, and Sakura Telfer, specialists in tourism studies, including Green, heritage, and social justice tourism, at Brock University and Ridley College, go into detail on the background of the doll city in Nagoro in their article in the Journal of Heritage Tourism called “Life beyond Growth? Rural Depopulation Becoming the Attraction in Nagoro, Japan’s Scarecrow Village.” Tsukimi began to start creating the scarecrows with the purpose of “scar[ing] away birds” (Hashimoto et al. 9). Their sole purpose stood the same as any other scarecrow that would be used in a field today to keep pesky birds away from a farmer’s crops. Over time, the few scarecrows that had been scattered across the town to ward off birds got more and more common to the point where they grew to have a deeper meaning. Despite the logical beginning to the formation of this scarecrow city, the dolls began to serve a greater purpose other than scaring away the birds. With this village also being seen as a common stop for curious tourists, it cannot be overlooked that Tsukimi was not looking for profit when creating her doll-filled village. She produced the dolls not “as a touristic endeavor, but to memorialize departed friends and relatives,” including Tsukimi’s own parents (Hashimoto et al. 2). She intended to fill the place of neighbors, relatives, and other acquaintances who had passed on or left for other reasons. Tsukimi focused on her vision of replacing prior members of the population after shifting from only scaring birds away. These former scarecrows can now be seen as a sort of effigy. Margaret J. M. Ezell, of Texas A&M University, wrote an article for Duke University Press named “Lively Effigies: Memorial Ephemera” that goes into detail on the use and meaning of effigies. An effigy refers to “both a representation of a specific deceased individual as a celebratory memorial marker, and as a hated figure intended to be destroyed” (Ezell 1). However, in this case, it is more likely that Tsukimi used the lifelike dolls as positive effigies that would memorialize and keep alive the spirit of friends and neighbors who no longer inhabited Nagoro. The harmless idea of a doll city that represents the spirit of old friends was not accepted by everyone though. Many people tend to look down on Tsukimi’s actions, no matter the reason for the origin of the intriguing Valley of Dolls. They view her as abnormal; some people of the neighboring cities see her as a crazy cat lady that lives around the corner. People tend to think of these dolls as the friends and company of their creator Tsukimi. However, the scarecrows were not necessarily created as a placeholder for friends of the woman behind them. The formation of the doll-invested city is heavily tied with the increasing depopulation of rural cities in Japan. The decrease in population “has been the most prominent in rural areas, leaving rapidly aging and declining communities” (Hashimoto et al. 3), which has led to negative side effects amongst many small communities, including a significant decline in the economy as well as in industrial progress. The scarecrow village serves as a way to almost symbolically combat the dwindling rural populations in Japan, despite the lack of actual resources and methods necessary to solve the issue in its entirety. When looking into its true origin story, it is difficult not to see how the village of Nagoro “attempt[s] to preserve village life and identity through the scarecrow displays” in response to the increasing depopulation in many cities (Hashimoto et al. 2). In other words, Nagoro was created as a method of protecting the existing culture in Japan in a way that allowed it to remain openly accessible to locals and tourists. This is just one of the solutions that has been put into place in an attempt to stop the decay of numerous Japanese towns.
205
For both of these doll-infested cities, the backgrounds and motivations behind their creation are very different; yet, the towns can be linked to one perspective on the term “play.” Hans-Georg Gadamer, a German Philosopher, argues that the concepts of “game [and] artwork cannot be reduced to intention, material or convention” (Gadamer 16). The idea of play is seen as actions that are done without needing a purpose, which can then lead to the creation of art. In Mexico, Barrera once hung dolls to please the spirit of a child that was not in a commonly toured and photographed location. Visitors of the island can appreciate the landscape and what has been created with the dolls without needing the dolls to serve a purpose in their current state. Similarly, in Japan, Tsukimi can be viewed as an adult that has also been playing with dolls for years but has now created an art form that people can appreciate without knowing or understanding its original purpose. From Mexico City, Mexico to Nagoro, Japan, these cities filled with dolls are much more than what meets the eye of any passing tourist or city goer. Starting with the Island of Dolls in Mexico, Don Julian Santana Barrera may have appeared to be the crazy caretaker of a remote island who was looking for a quick cash grab that would be brought in by tours of the strange attraction. However, Barrera’s lifelong devotion until his unusual death should be proof enough that there was truth in his story of the young, doll-possessing girl. Moving on to the Valley of Dolls in Japan, Ayano Tsukimi can be viewed as the lonely woman who wished for friends to keep her company through the use of effigies across her city, but it must also be taken into consideration that the citywide project started with a very reasonable and literal meaning, the creation and installment of scarecrows to keep birds away. These are just two weird sites that, at quick glance, you may not think twice about when judging their creators for their waste of time and effort in order to make an abnormal tourist attraction. The most important sources used to come to this conclusion are the articles by Westmaas detailing the history of the Island of Dolls in Mexico City and by Hashimoto, Telfer, and Telfer describing the origin of the Valley of Dolls in Nagoro. Both articles were filled with the explanations of the narratives and backgrounds of each place to better explain to the audience how and why the formation of each was reasonable and justified. So, next time you judge a book by its cover, make sure to take a look at the deeper meanings. Put yourself in someone else’s shoes before you criticize another for their actions. As you can see, in both the Island of Dolls in Mexico and also the Village of Dolls in Japan, dolls are not just the toys that are played with in order for children to create intriguing narratives; they are also used by everyone to convey values and viewpoints that cannot be established through easily understandable and depictable methods. WORKS CITED Atsuko Hashimoto, David J. Telfer & Sakura Telfer (2021) Life beyond growth? Rural depopulation becoming the attraction in Nagoro, Japan’s scarecrow village, Journal of Heritage Tourism, 16:5, 493-512, DOI: 10.1080/1743873X.2020.1807556 Davey, Nicholas. “Gadamer's Aesthetics.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 20 Dec. 2016, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/gadamer-aesthetics/#Play. Ezell, Margaret J. M. “Lively Effigies: Memorial Ephemera.” Eighteenth-Century Life, vol. 44, no. 2, 2020, pp. 136–157., doi:10.1215/00982601-8218635.
206
Froelich, Paula. “Real Story behind 'Haunted' Island of the Dolls in Mexico.” New York Post, New York Post, 30 Oct. 2021, https://nypost.com/2021/10/30/real-story-behind-hauntedisland-of-the-dolls-in-mexico/. Margaritoff, Marco. “27 Creepy Photos of the Haunted Mexican Island That's Covered with Dolls.” All That's Interesting, All That's Interesting, 17 Nov. 2020, https://allthatsinteresting.com/island-of-the-dolls. Westmaas, Reuben. “The Island of the Dolls Has a Murky and Terrifying History.” Discovery, 31 Oct. 2019, https://www.discovery.com/exploration/the-island-of-the-dolls-has-amurky-and-terrifying-history.
207
The Truth of the American Dream By Micaela Diaz Paez The United States of America has been built from immigrants ever since the Europeans first landed on our shores. The idea of the “American Dream” was created in 1931 by historian James Truslow Adams, in his book, Epic of America. However, the dream can be traced back to when our founding fathers left England to start a better life in America. According to Adams, the American dream can be described as “that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement” (Adams 16). It can be argued that the American Dream has been under fire with the recent restrictions and discrimination against immigrants. Aside from facts and statistics found in research, I will describe personal experiences from my immigrant parents who immigrated to the United States from Peru and Chile in 2005. I will also be using quotes from Gabriel “Gabo” Gutierrez, a college student, who attends the University of Piura in Peru, and a close friend of mine. Although most believe the American Dream is a “hail mary” for immigrants searching for a better life, I believe it is false advertising because immigrants face discrimination, stereotypes, bigotry, and a costly life for a system which refuses to help them. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the American Dream is “a happy way of living that is thought of by many Americans as something that can be achieved by anyone in the U.S. especially by working hard and becoming successful.” Let us keep in mind that how hard someone works and the idea of success are both subjective to the immigrant. Either way, how hard someone works will be reflected in what they define as success. When asked about his personal definition of the American Dream, Gabo believes that it is “the idea that every American has the same opportunities to achieve success based on the amount of effort put in.” These two definitions along with the definition of James Truslow Adams sparks the same message that America is the land of opportunity. Arguably, the United States is one of the world's most powerful countries. The dominance of our country keeps people attracted to the American dream. But, do they get what they come here for? One reason immigrants come here is for a better life for their family. The “Status Attainment Model,” created by Blau and Duncan, described by Oxford Reference, suggests that the achievements of our parents are directly correlated with the achievements of their children. The first level to attain is the education of the parent and child. How far the child goes in their education should, at most times, be related to how far their parents went in education and their current job. The child’s future job is correlated with their parent’s occupation. The upward mobility of this model shows how immigrants would want a better life for themselves which in turn, means a better life for their children. But, is the life that they work so hard for always fair? Immigrants will often face discrimination while trying to achieve success. Discrimination in the workplace is a significant issue with immigrants trying to find jobs to support themselves. The discrimination can range from being declined promotions, unequal distribution of pay, and not being hired because of your race instead of your qualifications. In the article “Workplace Discrimination: Predicting Racial/Ethnic Socialization Across African American, Latino, and Chinese Families” by Carolin Hagelskamp and Diane L. Hughes, they discuss how people of color and women face discrimination when working or trying to get a job. According to their article, 208
“audit studies have shown that sending equally qualified White and racial/ethnic minority candidates for job interviews, the former are more likely to be called back and to be hired than the latter” (Hagelskamp and Hughes 551). Not only is this type of racial discrimination illegal under Title 7 of the Civil Rights Act, it is also unethical and ignorant. Hagelskamp and Hughes further states that 33,512 allegations of racial discrimination and 10,883 allegations of national origin discrimination were filed in 2012 (Hagelskamp and Hughes 551). These numbers may seem small compared to the number of workers we have in the United States, but they should be much lower. Being discriminated against because of race is something immigrants have no control over. Denying them a job over their heritage and skin color belittles immigrants who should be proud of their nationality. According to these authors, being exposed to this type of immigration is also correlated with negative outcomes, such as decreased job satisfaction and mental or physical health problems. These problems put immigrants further behind by making it harder to achieve their American Dream. Stereotypes also play an important role when it comes to employers looking to hire immigrants. Just from a simple job application, employers can make assumptions of the prospective applicant being warm or competent based on their answers. The article “Multiple-group membership: warmth and competence perceptions in the workplace” by Andrea Strinić, Magnus Carlsson, and Jens Agerström explores this phenomenon. The “stereotype content model” places groups of people in either low or high warmth and competence levels. The article states that “the ethnicprominence hypothesis predicts that discrimination will be driven more by race than by gender. This is the case because this category is more salient and more strongly associated with conflict and threat than gender” (Strinić et al. 905). In other words, though gender can also be discriminatory, it is more likely for an employer to stereotype an applicant based on their race. Figure 1 (below) shows examples on how groups of people can vary warmth and competence. Many employers will hire employees based on their perceptive measures of their warmth and competence levels, instead of examining their qualifications for the job. Though this is important in jobs like customer service, this can be a disadvantage for immigrants who are often low on the competence and warmth scale. Immigrants usually have specific stereotypes that people unknowingly use to belittle them. Slurs and names like “Gator bait,” “Aunt Jemima,” and “Wetbacks” have been used to insult people of color for generations. Immigrants are seen as job stealers, criminals, and terrorists who refuse to learn English. These insults are used by people who do not understand the meaning behind them and who let the stereotypes make assumptions for them.
209
Fig. 1 (Wikipedia: Stereotype content model)
210
Another reason why immigrants would want to come here is because the United States is often safer than some immigrants' home countries. We devote a large percentage of our economy towards our military, resulting in the United States spending “more on national defense than China, India, Russia, United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Germany, France, Japan, South Korea, Italy, and Australia—combined” (“U.S. Defense Spending” par 1).
Fig. 2 (Peter G Peterson Foundation: Military Spending Data) Our strong military is set to protect the freedom and rights of Americans, which makes it attractive to those who live in countries with heavy government control. The United States is also wealthy enough to keep the health of its citizens. Many developing countries struggle with environmental factors that are “a root cause of a significant burden of death, disease and disability” (“Environment and Health” par 1). These factors include poor quality and availability of water, vector borne disease (such as malaria), and pollution with lack of sanitation. The citizens of developing countries are never at fault for these factors; they are simply victims to the disadvantages of their country. But, what does a better job, better home, and better school even mean when you are a person of color in the United States? You do not have to be an immigrant to experience racial profiling in our country. In the article “The Flag Is Down, the Fight Goes On” by South Carolina writer and activist Kevin Alexander Gray, he discusses our country’s bigoted and racist actions towards 211
people of color. One example used is Dylann Roof, the shooter of the Charleston Church, who murdered nine innocent black people. Roof, a white man, was taken by his arresting officers for burgers after the fact, proving how “skin privilege” is not only real, but also the reality for thousands of people in the United States (Gray 49). We can see a lack of “skin privilege” with the 2020 murder case of George Floyd, whose arresting officers used excessive force against an unarmed Floyd. These examples illustrate two ends of the spectrum in which “skin privilege” is a real, recurring problem for immigrants and people of color. It is important to note that this can exclude immigrants who are White or “White-passing,” like immigrants from Europe. Immigrants come here for a safe environment, but are met with bigoted, racist Americans who make this a dangerous place to live because they are not white. The economy in the United States is stable and reliant because of its higher income earning opportunities, The United States is considered high income by the World Bank with a national income of $18.196 trillion (GDP [Current US$] - High Income). The average minimum wage in the United States is $7.25. Countries like Mexico ($1.05), Turkey ($1.93), and Brazil ($2.18) have much lower minimum wages making it easy to live in poverty (“Minimum Wage by Country 2021” par 5). Living in poverty means having less access to necessities of life which can result in declining health. The United States also provides health benefits to workers like paid sick leave, health insurance, and retirement plans for full time workers. These, alongside a reliable income, are extremely appealing to those who come from countries where the majority of the population lives in poverty. The United States also has government benefits for those who live under the poverty line. Americans have romanticized the American Dream to seem doable by anyone; however, to do it legally, you first need to get a visa. The process of getting an American visa or green card is definitely not easy or cheap. There are many steps required to be approved; “and, even if you do everything right, you can still be rejected,” says my mom. The biggest obstacle to overcome is gathering enough money to prove you wouldn’t be a “public charge”. The article “Public Charge: A Threat to Public Health and the American Dream” by Nusheen Ameenuddin, a master in public administration student at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, talks about “the term ‘public charge,’ [which has] historically referred to individuals in the United States who relied predominantly on cash-based government assistance, such as Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)” (Ameenuddin 1). If our system sees you as a public charge, there is a good chance that your visa, green card, or citizenship will not be granted. A proposed expansion rule suggests that, if legal and previously approved immigrants were to use any government benefits as mentioned above, then it would show as a negative factor towards their application for a green card. In other words, immigrants on a visa would not be able to use benefits provided for them if they want to one day become residents. The article also states that “cutting off access to necessary benefits by forcing families to choose between feeding their children and pursuing a path to citizenship is cruel, stigmatizing, and counterproductive” (par 7). Though it has not been signed into effect, the fact that it was even proposed shows that the American dream is not attainable if you are poor. This is a big reason why I believe many immigrants decide to cross our borders illegally or let their visas expire without renewal. The immigration system has complicated the process of gaining legal admittance, restricting it to only those with the money to obtain it, thus going against the idea of the American Dream. The ignorance of the immigration system has most likely diverted prospective immigrants from achieving their American Dream. 212
By having tax-paying immigrants choose between using benefits meant to support them and obtaining their green card, immigrants are being denied their unalienable right to life. This is unAmerican and goes against our Declaration of Independence. Even after gaining legal status, maintaining a livable wage is not easy. Immigrants, who are often minorities, deal with unequal pay in the workplace. Ruqaijah Yearby discusses in their article “When Equal Pay Is Not Enough: The Influence of Employment Discrimination on Health Disparities” about the issue of discrimination and unequal pay in America. The United States is no stranger to the pay gap as women have been receiving less pay since they were allowed to work. The pay gap between people of color and White people was made evident during the 1960s. In 1964, Title 7 of the Civil Rights Act was passed, where it was illegal to discriminate based of race or sex. In 1963, the Equal Pay Act was passed which prohibited the unequal pay based gender for men and women who work in the same establishment. Yet, “when comparing wages by education, women of color earn less than men with the same or less education” (Yearby par 6). So, why is this still happening? These large wage gaps are illegal but still common knowledge amongst workers. Holes in the civil rights laws allow employers to continue this discrimination. In order for a woman to state her case to the law, she must show proof of unequal pay. Many employers prohibit employees from discussing wages, making this almost impossible to prove. Though the pay gap has been a long-time problem, particularly for women of color, there is evidence that it is improving. Rakesh Kochhar from the Pew Research Center noted “in 1980, the average hourly wage of women was 67% of the average hourly wage of men, $15 vs. $23. By 2018, women earned 85% as much as men, $22 vs. $26, on average” (Kochhar par 14). The increasing demand for jobs with greater skill has prompted more and more women to continue with higher education. This has shrunk the pay gap, but there is still plenty of room for improvement. It seems that discrimination and stereotypes together are one of the biggest (if not the biggest) obstacles for immigrants aiming to fully achieve the American Dream. So, where is it coming from? Why is there such a large percentage of people experiencing the same discrimination against immigrants? In the article “The Influence of Media Portrayals of Immigration and Refugees on Consumer Attitudes: An Experimental Design” by Chrysalis L. Wright, Taylor DeFrancesco, Carissa Hamilton, and Lygia Machado, it is argued that certain demographics are more susceptible to the negative media. Immigrants in the media are often portrayed as job stealers, criminals and a threat to our country’s modernity. These portrayals only got worse during the 2016 presidential campaign, when exaggerations about Mexicans made former president Donald Trump promise America a separating wall. The experiment conducted in the article proved that viewing negative connotated videos towards immigrants made participants feel negatively towards immigrants and vice versa. They also proved that “being male, White, Christian, and Republican was associated with reporting more negative attitudes regarding immigrants, immigration policy, and Islamophobia after being primed with negative media portrayals of immigrants and refugees compared to other participants” (Wright et al., 402). Fake news in the media can be dangerous because it can damage an immigrants’ image, resulting in harsher discrimination. Many of the problems regarding immigration in the United States, like possibly being unable to use benefits, would be unknown for prospective immigrants. The United States has romanticized the American Dream to be doable for anyone with no added consequences. For more personal
213
testimony, I asked Gabo how young adults in Peru saw the idea of moving to the United States. This was his answer: Most young Peruvians see the idea of migrating to the United States as an opportunity to improve their lifestyle and this is because that country has greater opportunities, especially in terms of education. Young people are attracted to a greater extent by the opportunities offered by American universities since they ensure a good educational level and even a more promising future. It should be noted that in the United States, they have other aspects in which they are superior than Peru, for example, the stability of its currency attracts immigrants, including young people. As noted above, another attractive aspect of the United States is the schooling, particularly higher education. While I personally believe that high quality universities exist in Peru and other countries, their degrees could be more promising if obtained in the United States where they could complete their degree and access better job opportunities upon graduation. In “Recovery-Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020” by a Georgetown University team (Anthony P Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl), they found that “it is estimated that by 2020, 65% of jobs will require postsecondary education compared to 28% (Carnevale et al. 15). This demand for degrees will inspire graduates from other countries to move to the United States for work. If they stay, they risk working minimum wage jobs in exchange for the years they spent at university. As Gabo said, their futures are more promising in a country like the United States. Again, to be able to attend any university, especially an American one, you have to have money. American students pay an enormous price to be able to gain a degree, and it would cost even more for an international student. Immigrating to the United States and attending university here would have an huge price tag for more immigrants, making it very difficult for many to enroll. My parent’s story started in 1999 when they met in Chile. My mom is from Lima, Peru, and my dad is from the rural city of Carahue, Chile. They met while my mom was still studying in college while my dad was in the workforce. The idea of moving to the United States was encouraged by my mom, who wanted to continue her doctorate degree in the states. It was a far-fetched idea until my mom received a full ride scholarship from Texas A&M to get her PhD. My mom received an F1 student visa while my dad, sister, and I got an F2 dependent visa. After graduation, my mom graduated to an H1 work visa while the rest of us got H2 dependent visas. This meant that we, primarily my dad, would be unable to legally work until we received our green cards. Our family moved to the United States when I was two years old, and we received our green cards when I was 13 years old. The 11-year waiting period was 11 years where my father was unable to work and my mom was the sole provider for our family. We are still awaiting citizenship. Though our experience with the immigration system seems really long, I would consider our family one of the lucky ones. The system not only easily rejects viable applicants but also makes it difficult to maintain a life here. A green card is only available to the ones with money or prestige (like having a high paying job), which goes wildly against what the American Dream stands for. The United States is definitely appealing to immigrants who otherwise do not know the difficulty it takes to achieve the American Dream. The United States advertises and romanticizes the American Dream like it is promised to everyone who comes here with solely an intent to work hard. But, I do not believe that is the case. In this essay I used articles like “Public Charge: A 214
Threat to Public Health and the American Dream,” “When Equal Pay Is Not Enough: The Influence of Employment Discrimination on Health Disparities,” and “The Influence of Media Portrayals of Immigration and Refugees on Consumer Attitudes: A Experimental Design” to prove that falsity of the American Dream. The reality of the American Dream is riddled with discrimination, bigotry, and high costs for those who just want a better life. The American Dream is real only for the immigrants who have the money and prestige to obtain it. WORK CITED Ameenuddin, Nusheen. “Public Charge: A Threat to Public Health and the American Dream.” KENNEDY SCHOOL REVIEW, 7 Oct. 2019, https://ksr.hkspublications.org/2019/10/29/public-charge-a-threat-to-public-health-andthe-american-dream/. Carnevale, Anthony P, et al. “Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020.” Georgetown Public Policy Institute, June 2013, pp. 1–111. Chrysalis L. Wright, Taylor DeFrancesco, Carissa Hamilton & Lygia Machado (2020) The Influence of Media Portrayals of Immigration and Refugees on Consumer Attitudes: A Experimental Design, Howard Journal of Communications, 31:4, 388-410, DOI: 10.1080/10646175.2019.1649762 “Environment and Health in Developing Countries.” Health and Environment Linkages Initiative , World Health Organization, 6 Dec. 2010, https://www.who.int/heli/risks/ehindevcoun/en/. Gray, Kevin Alexander. “The Flag Is Down, the Fight Goes On.” The Progressive, n.d., Accessed 10 Jan. 2022. “GDP (Current US$) - High Income.” The World Bank, The World Bank Group, 2022, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=XD. Hagelskamp, Carolin, and Diane L. Hughes. “Workplace Discrimination Predicting Racial/Ethnic Socialization across African American, Latino, and Chinese Families.” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, vol. 20, no. 4, 2014, pp. 550–560., https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035321. Kochhar, Rakesh. “Women Are Narrowing the Gender Wage Gap.” Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project, Pew Research Center, 14 Aug. 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/01/30/womens-lead-in-skills-andeducation-is-helping-narrow-the-gender-wage-gap/. “Minimum Wage by Country 2021.” World Population Review, 2021, https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/minimum-wage-by-country. “Status Attainment.” Oxford Reference, Oxford University Press, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100529523. 215
Strinić, Andrea, et al. “Multiple-Group Membership: Warmth and Competence Perceptions in the Workplace.” Journal of Business and Psychology, vol. 36, no. 5, 15 Aug. 2020, pp. 903–920., https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-020-09713-4. Truslow Adams, J., & Schneiderman, H. (1931). The Epic of America (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351304122 “U.S. Defense Spending Compared to Other Countries.” Peter G. Peterson Foundation, 9 July 2021, https://www.pgpf.org/chart-archive/0053_defense-comparison. Yearby R. When Equal Pay Is Not Enough: The Influence of Employment Discrimination on Health Disparities. Public Health Reports (Washington, D.C.: 1974). 2019 Jul/Aug;134(4):447-450. DOI: 10.1177/0033354919847743. PMID: 31112455; PMCID: PMC6598139.
216
The Importance of Sex Ed: Philippines By Valentina Diaz Paez All around the world, schools include sex education into students’ learning curriculum. On one hand, sex education may benefit students and give them useful knowledge for life. On the other hand, some people believe that sex education will encourage students to have sex. Planned Parenthood defines sex education as “high-quality teaching and learning about a broad variety of topics related to sex and sexuality, exploring values and beliefs about those topics and gaining the skills that are needed to navigate relationships and manage one’s own sexual health.” Sex education is mandatory in several countries, but the Philippines is having trouble embracing it. Chloe DeGuzman and her peers, along with her course advisor, Dr. Julie Fagan from Rutgers University, wrote an article on sex education in the Philippines as part of a community service project. Up until recently, “sex education” in schools consisted of the anatomy of the reproductive system, pregnancy, and birth (DeGuzman et al). They go on to report that the country has had issues promoting sex education, believing that it will increase sexual promiscuity in teens. However, receiving this limited information is not enough to keep the young Filipino generations from experiencing the consequences of the lack of accurate and helpful materials. To support my argument, I will be using reports that go over surveys conducted in the Philippines about the consequences in question. I chose to use surveys that provide quantitative data that was retrieved from surveying Filipino young adults. I also include information from informative videos about related topics that highlight personal stories showing the effects of lack of education. How can we protect the youth if we are not giving them the skills they need to live the healthy and happy lives they deserve? The Philippines is putting its youth in danger by not providing them with the proper sex education, and so, therefore, providing a comprehensive sexual education system in schools is crucial to their health and well-being. Teen pregnancy is very common in the Philippines, and the Catholic Church is a big contributor to this. The Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality study is a series of national surveys conducted by the University of the Philippines Population Institute (UPPI) and the Demographic Research and Development Foundation. Researchers Josefina N. Natividad & Maria Paz N. Marquez conducted a 2013 study where they found that 1 in 10 girls ages 15-19 were pregnant or already had their first child in the Philippines (109). While there are many factors contributing to teenage pregnancy, a big part of it is teens being unaware of how pregnancy can happen or how to prevent it. Sex education can teach students about contraceptives and ways to prevent pregnancy. With 80% of the population being Catholic, the Catholic Church has a large influence on sexual and reproductive rights and care. However, Catholicism should not have a larger influence than the actual science surrounding a proper sexual health and reproduction curriculum. The Guttmacher Institute, a pro-choice research organization, released a summary report on unintended pregnancies in the Philippines in 2013. This report was written by Lawrence B. Finer, director of domestic research at the Guttmacher Institute, and Rubina Hussain, a senior research associate. According to their report, the Catholic church favors natural methods of contraception like basal body temperature and ovulation tracking, instead of modern “artificial” contraception like birth control pills, IUDs, and condoms (Finer and Hussain par. 2). According to Planned Parenthood, using basal body temperature and ovulation tracking (also called fertility awareness) 217
is 76%-88% effective in preventing pregnancies only if it is done correctly. An IUD is 99% effective and no sort of maintenance is needed. Women should not be expected to know how to track fertility signs, especially if they are not being educated about the process of fertilization, which is necessary to know for fertility awareness. Having an IUD would also be a good option for young women who are not planning on having children any time soon, as it lasts for several years. The Catholic church’s suggested methods are not helpful because young people are not being fully educated on how to take proper sexual and reproductive measures. One would hope that, with a strict ban on contraception for minors, young people would have other options, but that is not the case with abortion being banned under all circumstances and emergency contraception simply not being an option (Finer and Hussain par. 4). This complete ban leads to unsafe abortions and leaves girls and women feeling hopeless. A researcher from the 2013 Young Adult Sexuality and Fertility study, Maria Midea M. Kabamalan explains that another belief that the church has is that children should receive sex education from their parents (Kabamalan 149). However, most parents are often unequipped with that information or feel uncomfortable having that conversation with their children. Al Jazeera, an international news channel broadcasts a program called "101 East.'' This award-winning program features bold, untold stories across Asia and the Pacific. One of the episodes, called "Philippines' Baby Factory," features the Province of Palawan in the Philippines, which has one of the highest rates of teenage pregnancy in the country. The documentary features young girls who have already become mothers. Teril, a 15-year-old girl, explains that she became pregnant after meeting her boyfriend. She said that she knew little about sex and knew nothing about contraceptives because her mother never talked to her about it. When asked about this, the mother stated, “I felt awkward giving her advice about contraceptives because she was too young, I also wasn’t sure if she was allowed to use contraceptives at her age” (Al Jazeera, 00:04:49-00:05:00). If no one is willing to teach the youth about sex and contraception, they are left to fend for themselves. The Young adult Fertility and Sexuality Study 2013 found that “only 10 percent reported that sex was ever discussed at home while they were growing up” (149). This percentage is very small for a country that relies on parents to teach their children the majority of information on sex education. Parents are not equipped to educate their children just because they are parents. The country should take more responsibility for this task because the current situation is not working. The Filipino government knows that parents should not be solely responsible for the task of educating their kids, so they passed the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 to assist with this dilemma. This act promised sex education in public schools, safe postabortive care, and universal access to free contraceptives. However, most of the Philippines has not seen any of this care due to it being stalled by the Supreme Court, pro-life groups, budget cuts, and the Catholic Church (Finer and Hussain par. 2). It is illegal for minors to purchase contraception. This means that, if you are underage, it is almost impossible to get access to contraception unless a parent gets it for you. Even if they had access, a large group of the population would be unwilling or afraid to try it. Having access to contraception is life-changing to women all around the world with its many benefits. The Guardian, which started out as a British daily newspaper, is a news source that now covers American and international news for a global audience. The reporter and women’s health advocate, Sarah Jane, visited Fabella Hospital, which specializes in maternal and newborns, where over 50 babies are born every day. The ward is packed with hospital beds that lay side by side, filled with dozens of moms with their newborn babies. She 218
interviews several mothers, from a young 16-year-old with her first baby, to an older mom having her 11th child. Time after time, the mothers respond hesitantly when asked about contraception. One teen had never heard of it, and adults never considered it. A common response shows the women’s fears of side effects. Around 65% of women do not use contraception, and the fear of side effects is a big barrier to that (The Guardian 00:01:12-00:01:13). Providing the Philippines youth, especially young women, with education about contraception means providing them with power. The power to choose when they want to have children and the power to choose when they want to stop having children. Young adolescent girls are vulnerable to unplanned teen pregnancies because they lack access to sex education, and the government makes it hard for them to have access to contraception. Sex education can help youth enhance and improve the quality of their relationships and their ability to make informed decisions. According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in the Philippines, the current age of consent in the Philippines is 12 years old, one of the lowest in the world. In September 2021, the Senate voted to increase the age to 16, however, it has not yet been signed into law (UNICEF). This means a 12-year-old can legally consent to have sex with an adult of any age with no consequences. At 12, children are not mentally, emotionally, or physically mature enough to consent to sex at this age. This can leave children vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. It is highly immoral to allow children to be in relationships with adults. This law is contributing to the exploitation and abuse that children experience in relationships because it prevents children from realizing that sexual relationships with adults are inappropriate. A study conducted by Laurie Serquina-Ramiro, an associate professor of the Department of Behavioral Sciences at the University of the Philippines, Manila, defines sexual coercion as the “act of forcing (or attempting to force) another individual through violence, threats, verbal insistence, deception, cultural expectations, or economic circumstance to engage in sexual behavior against the will” (Serquina-Ramiro 478). Knowing this, they did a study on 600 adolescents in the Philippines which yielded interesting results. 64.6% of the 302 females and 42.3% of the 298 males claimed to have been victimized by their partners (448), and 17% of the victims claimed to have forgiven and continued to love their partners afterward (491). While the problem lies with the perpetrator, a comprehensive sexual education program could help youths learn about what an unhealthy or dangerous relationship can look like, and how to leave that relationship safely. Sex education should build girls’ self-image and give them the tools to be able to say “no.” Females specifically can be in danger for unhealthy relationships, as girls in a relationship with older men are more likely to engage in sexual activity and experience sexual coercion (Serquina-Ramiro 477). Teril, the 15-year-old mom, is one example of this. She says, “At first, I didn’t want to do it. I was scared. But after a week, I agreed” (Al Jazeera 00:04:32-00:04:38). The father of her baby claims to be 28, but local health officials believe he is at least 10 years older than that. Teril moved in with him as his wife because he was afraid of being charged with coercion. Girls need to be taught that “love” is not always love. After watching personal stories of young Filipino mothers, I also noticed that it is not uncommon for men to leave the relationship after impregnating their girlfriends. When asked about her first sexual experience at 14, Angela, a 23-year-old mother of 4, said, “I wanted to cry. I was pushing him away, but he said he would take responsibility and that he loved me” (Al Jazeera, 00:08:06-00:08:14). Her boyfriend ended up leaving her after she 219
had her 2nd child and took the two kids with him. These situations happen all too often. What happened to Angela could have been prevented through education on consent, what it is, and why it is important. Being able to recognize what coercion can look like can be the fine line between living with an abusive partner or not. Most importantly, men and boys should be taught what is right and what is not. Choosing to not provide comprehensive sexual education for youth is choosing personal beliefs over the safety of women and girls. Lastly, sex education can help educate students about HIV and AIDS and can slow the spread of the virus. The first recorded case of HIV in the Philippines was in 1984. Anna C. Farr & David P. Wilson, members of the National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research in Australia, wrote an article on the rising HIV epidemic in the Philippines. One of the reasons they think contributed to the slow start of HIV was the country's geography, which consists of 700+ islands and separated from mainland Asia (Farr and Wilson 2). But, in the last 8 years, it has risen by 203% and is spreading faster than anywhere else in the world (VICE Asia, 00:00:25-00:00:33). One factor in this drastic spread is a variable that has appeared in this essay already: the lack of condom use. The Philippines has the lowest rate of condom use in Asia, at 20 - 30% among groups with the highest risk of HIV. This includes sex workers, young adults, and men who have sex with men (2). Again, the Catholic Church discourages the use of condoms (2). Condoms do a better job at protecting against HIV, more than any God. The Church is obliquely promoting the spread of the virus in the Philippines. Another factor is the lack of knowledge about HIV. A study mentioned by Farr and Wilson found that in a survey of 1200 males, a large majority believe that prayer, antibiotics, and staying fit and healthy can protect against HIV and AIDS (Farr and Wilson 3). This further reinforces the control that the church has on the population. HIV is a terrible disease that has taken the lives of millions. Making sure that people know how to prevent it should be the top priority of the country. While the circumstances of the men are not mentioned, it is safe to say that they went through the required Filipino sex education course if they attended school. Sex education failed students so badly that they were not provided with basic knowledge of how to prevent contracting one of the deadliest virus of the modern world. The article “Are Young People in the Philippines Taking Chances with HIV/AIDS?”, which was published by Balk et al. for the policy brief “Asia-Pacific Population & Policy” at The East-West Center, goes into further detail on statistics. A household survey of 10,879 men and women ages 15-24 found that 95% of respondents have heard of HIV/AIDS, but less knew about how it was transmitted (2). 85% correctly identified one mode of transmission, 26% gave at least one incorrect mode of transmission (using public toilets, kissing, touching an infected person’s belongings), and 12% could not identify one correct mode of transmission (2). Youth are not going to change their behaviors if they do not believe that they are at risk for contracting HIV. They should be getting regular HIV and STD testing in order to be safe. HIV has taken too many lives of people who found out too late. “When you have HIV even the people you trust start avoiding you. I feel like everyone distanced themselves [from me]” (VICE Asia, 00:05:34-00:05:44). “Poy” is an individual who turned to sex work to support his family and ended up contracting HIV. He claims he did not know about HIV before he started working and did not use a condom because he was paid more. Misconceptions and myths about HIV can be harmful to many people. People who are HIV positive may feel discriminated against or left out. Why should “Poy” or any other HIV+ person be treated any less 220
than human? Having awareness and education is essential to not only preventing HIV, but also to protecting those who have it. One should not have to suffer from the ignorance of others, which could have been fixed with a simple lesson. VICE Asia, a news media source, did a video on having HIV in the Philippines. The video introduces Dr. Vinn Pagtaktan, an educator who founded “LoveYourselfPH,” a program that helps empower and educate young people about sexual and LGBTQ health. Pagtaktan mentions that he has seen an increase in heterosexual individuals contracting HIV. With nearly 100,000 cases of HIV in the country, it was mainly seen in males who have sex with males. With the limited sex education taught in schools and cultural stigma, youth, particularly LGBTQ youth, are not properly educated on HIV. The LGBTQ community has always been disproportionately affected by HIV, and the current sexual education system has shown its incapability to educate the community. Now, HIV in the Philippines is spreading beyond that community. Pagtaktan says, “It will be harder to fix this epidemic because it will no longer be a localized epidemic anymore.” (VICE Asia, 00:09:49-00:09:54). HIV is 100% preventable if you take the right precautions, yet the Philippines is one of a few countries in the Asian region where HIV is increasing (Farr and Wilson 2). If youth were provided with proper education, the Philippines would not have blood on their hands. The Bible teaches that all choices come with consequences. If someone did not know how to successfully protect themselves against HIV and then contracts it, is that still a choice? The Philippines has let down its youth by valuing personal and religious beliefs over the safety of their youth. Their current sexual education system is not sufficient enough to provide useful information, and it shows in the country’s statistics. A comprehensive sexual education program can provide information on how to engage in safer sex, prevent pregnancies and STDS, and enhance their relationships, which overall increases the quality and safety of life. This would include medically accurate lessons about relationships, violence and staying safe, skills for health and well-being, and sexual and reproductive health. The Catholic Church’s’ disapproval towards contraceptives has resulted in more teens becoming pregnant due to unfamiliarity and fear towards them. HIV rates have increased dramatically partly due to misinformation about its spread and the low rate of condom use. Young teens, especially girls, are at an increased rate of domestic abuse and being taken advantage of because boys are not taught about consent. Additionally, the country's shamefully low age of consent puts girls at risk of unhealthy relationships and becoming pregnant at a young age. One key source in this essay is the 2013 Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study in the Philippines, which had eye-opening statistics on the state of teens in the Philippines with regards to teen pregnancy and motherhood. In addition, the survey done by Laurie Serquina-Ramiro clearly portrays sexual coercion in the Philippines and how many teens have been victimized by it. Sex education in the Philippines needs to go the beyond basic biology of the reproductive system in order to equip students with knowledge about their bodies, relationships, and their right to health. WORKS CITED Balk D, Brown T, Cruz G, Domingo L. Are young people in the Philippines taking chances with HIV / AIDS? Asia Pac Pop Policy. 1997 Jan;(40):1-4. PMID: 12292304.
221
“Birth Control Methods & Options: Types of Birth Control.” Planned Parenthood, Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc., https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/birthcontrol. Debuque, Teresa. “UN Philippines' Statement on Increasing the Age to Determine Statutory Rape.” UNICEF, UNICEF, 21 July 2021, https://www.unicef.org/philippines/pressreleases/un-philippines-statement-increasing-age-determine-statutory-rape. Deguzman, Chloe & Krychiw, Jason & Victorino, Justin & Fagan, Julie M.. Sex Education in the City. Retrieved from https://doi.org/doi:10.7282/T3TQ6093 Kabamalan, Maria Midea, Marquez, Maria Paz, Natividad, Josephina et al. Demographic Research and Development Foundation, Inc., Quezon City, The 2013 Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study in the Philippines. Farr and Wilson, An HIV epidemic is ready to emerge in the Philippines Journal of the International AIDS Society 2010, 13:16 Hussain R and Finer LB, Unintended pregnancy and unsafe abortion in the Philippines: context and consequences, In Brief, New York: Guttmacher Institute, 2013, No. 3. <http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/IB-unintended-pregnancy-philippines.pdf Serquina-Ramiro, Laurie. “Physical Intimacy and Sexual Coercion among Adolescent Intimate Partners in the Philippines.” Journal of Adolescent Research, vol. 20, no. 4, 2005, pp. 476–496. “The Philippines’ Baby Factory,” YouTube, uploaded by Al Jazeera English, 17 Jan 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ipzwxXjAcA “They’re Pregnant at 11 years old’: The women smashing Catholic Taboos in the Philippines.” YouTube, uploaded by The Guardian, 9 Jul 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBjgP541BIY “What Is Sex Education?: Sex Ed Definition and Qa.” Planned Parenthood, Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc., https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/foreducators/what-sex-education. “Why the Philippines Has the Fastest Rising HIV Rate in Asia.” YouTube, uploaded by VICE Asia, 10 Sep 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvcXSHXnvNQ
222
Tipping in Food Service: Cultural and Social Differences By Allyza Marie Pineda The restaurant industry is one of the many accommodating businesses out there. It provides people an opportunity for jobs, gives customers an opportunity to try new things, and promotes doing what you love and making a living out of it. Most people who work in that industry understand enough about tips and how they operate. But, should the practice of tipping in restaurants be abolished in the United States? Tipping culture is a very widely practiced social norm in the United States. Although most people think that the abolishment of tipping could cause the employers of restaurants to stop relying on customers to feel the emotional, moral, and financial burden to help the employees with their wages, I think they are wrong as tipping promotes consistent good service being rewarded, it helps regularly tipped workers pay rent, and “back-of-the-house” workers potentially receive some of it through tip-pooling. There are multiple sources used in this essay that are centrally important for supporting my thesis. The academic article “Increasing Servers’ Tips” by Michael Lynn specifically mentions that managers can monitor tips to measure server performance or to assess customer satisfaction. Not only are these servers able to help maintain regulars for the restaurant, but the restaurant itself is able to see who is doing much better than others. This ultimately lets them see progress for the restaurant and their employees. “Etiquette Differences Between Japan and US” by Kristie Kam shows how, in most restaurants in the US, servers and bartenders rely on tips to make a living. As tipped workers, they usually get paid less than minimum wage. Their current wage would not be enough for rent. Realistically, they need their tips, as it usually triples the amount they receive each paycheck. “The Effect of the Tipped Minimum Wage on Employees in the U.S. Restaurant Industry” by William E. Even and David A. Macpherson discusses how tip-pooling would increase employment for both servers and the kitchen staff, which benefits the restaurant. This would mean that “back-of-the-staff” workers would receive a portion of the tips that the servers get, as they still contribute to everything that makes the restaurant function. Historically, “tipping” means to ensure promptness. This started back in England where visitors would pay servants more for their extra effort. This continued to spread as it did all over Europe (Wang 4). Tipping became a norm. As employers realized that their servers were making more in tips, they decreased the amount they were making in wages. This resulted in tipping becoming necessary for the customers’ part, which provided for the people that work in that industry. Tipping was originally just for incentives; it was not intended to be the way that it is now. It happened to be that way because there are just that many people who focused on taking care of themselves, making sure they get the most money even if it resulted in the cost of other people’s livelihoods and income. It started from people with status giving more for the people that present good service, later leading to it becoming an incentive, to eventually becoming a norm. Most of the time, businesses like hotels would charge a tip already, as it is not just restaurants that do this. Large corporations like these take advantage of the fact that tipping became a social norm that they would take away from people just so they can obtain more money for themselves. While it is legally acceptable not to tip, it is looked down upon. “It is approximated that out of the 21 million people in the U.S. who eat out daily at full-service restaurants, 98% leave a tip” (Council of Economic Advisors, 2002). This shows that people understand the situation. There would be instances where some people would need to be educated on that; however, it is so talked about that, unless you 223
grew up with parents that do not tip, you most likely have dealt with that situation. If willing enough, it can also be taught no matter what age a child may be. A rule was eventually implemented, among certain restaurants to help increase sales, that benefits the customers and the employees called “Mega Tips.” “Increasing Servers’ Tips” by Michael Lynn encourages a way for the servers to acquire the tip income they need. It lists 14 things that a server must do by default, such as smiling to the customers, giving a little tap on the shoulder whenever they would order something, introducing oneself to the customers, and asking them for their name. The objective of this was to improve customer satisfaction resulting in greater tips. “Researchers have estimated the total costs of losing a room service waiter in a hotel at $1,332.05 and it seems likely that the costs of losing a restaurant server are similar. Thus, reducing turnover is a major factor in controlling labor costs” (Lynn 10). Servers need the tip income. The abolishment of tipping would cause the industry to decrease in employment as the servers lose the incentive they have working there. There is a possible solution of the owners slightly increasing the wage to lure the people back into the job; however, these companies are greedy. Not only do some of them take a percentage of the tips, but they also do the most just to lower the wage as much as they can. The law caters towards the people that own the place, rather than the people that work there to live. Realistically, the employers need the servers as much as the servers need the tips, which is why Lynn focuses on placing the pressure of gaining better tips partially on the owners instead of just the front house people. Tipping is not for the benefit of the employer, rather for the people who work to provide service. Historically, owners would most often do whatever it took to make the most money. This is still happening to this day. There is an ongoing practice that has been implemented by some businesses where, instead of tipping, they would have a compulsory service charge (Azar 11). This negatively impacts the customer experience as it puts pressure on them to provide for the employees. That was already the case for tipping; however, the majority of the customers would want to control how much they tip depending on the service. If there is already a set service charge, then how would the restaurant properly monitor the quality of the service being provided? On top of that, would the workers be properly compensated for the work they do on a certain shift? Some people making less in tips would mean that they make more in wages. The main idea of owners doing this is so that the wait-staff would gather a set number of tips consistently, which means that owners can take a certain amount off their wage. Most tourists in the United States find it surprising that 20 percent is the suggested tipping standard despite the servers often working for a multi-million-dollar franchise. A great example of this surprise comes from Japan. “Japanese people don’t see tipping as necessary for standard services. Instead of leaving money on the table, they may show their appreciation in a creative way, like folding chopstick sleeves into origami” (Kam). Certain services in Japan, such as working at a 5star hotel or being a chauffeur, may involve tipping being acceptable; however, most who work as wait-staff for restaurants do not accept tips as they see good service as a standard. Their focus lies on maintaining quality of service for the sake of their establishment, rather than extending themselves for a personal bonus. Sharing their culture with others is what they find most important, and, as a visitor, it is essential to respect that and vice versa. Considering that tipping in the US is so common, it has become part of the culture. The people that come to visit the US should apply
224
the same principle. Since the people that work in this industry do not make enough wages, which also includes countries that do not highly encourage tipping, it is reasonable to rely on tips. Japan historically disciplines children in a certain way that contributes to how they think as they grow older. A study conducted by George Bear, a professor of education, entitled “Children’s Reasoning About Aggression: Differences Between Japan and the United States and Implications for School Discipline” focuses on interviewing young students attending Japanese public elementary schools. This study lasted for over a year, and what they found was that Japanese children are taught to follow certain rules without questioning them. Because kids are easier to teach, they simply take in what is given to them and eventually apply it to their daily adult lives. Here is an example from Bear’s study: Japanese students also spend much more time than American students in cooperative learning activities (Hoffman, 2000; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). In these and similar group activities, students are often given responsibility to manage not only their own behavior but also that of others in their group (Lewis, 1989). Participation in such activities provides ample opportunities for Japanese children to develop self-discipline and cooperation. While Bear was doing the interviews, a few common things were mentioned by the elementary students. One of the questions was “Why shouldn’t kids hit others?”. Their answers catered towards understanding the needs of others, being empathetic, group relationships, and feeling shame and guilt (Bear 7). This all ties into one thing: caring about others more than you do yourself. Most of the time in the United States businesses make too much money because of the people running it. They take advantage of other people and do whatever it takes to reach a quota or obtain the most money. A good percentage operates otherwise, as they only want to make enough to survive. This is like the servers who just need enough to make ends meet. It is understandable that both cultures are very different when it comes to this industry. It is likely that Japanese people would feel shameful for demanding tips from people despite the scenario of not making enough in wages. It is still vital that we understand that people need money to survive. Mandating tip-pooling is beneficial as there is a fair contribution of tips with the wait-staff and the back-of-the-house workers. “The Effect of the Tipped Minimum Wage on Employees in the U.S. Restaurant Industry” mentions that there would be an increase of employment in full-service restaurant jobs that perform non-tipped work, such as cooks and janitors, if servers were required to perform more jobs that do not just involve the front-of-the-house (Even and Macpherson 5), which means they have to hold “dual jobs.” While it may seem like it is a lot, it promotes cooperation among the servers. There is a possibility that some workers would do way less than others who work harder, which would mean that they would get the same number of tips despite working less. A solution to that would be to have the servers make it known to everyone working in the restaurant how much they have earned in tips (Azar 7). It would not just be the managers being able to screen the improvement of the restaurant through tips, but the servers could also observe and encourage each other to work towards the same goal. A counterargument towards tip-pooling could be that not everyone who works in the same industry necessarily gets a cut from this practice. A common example would be cooks or dishwashers. An article by Ofer H. Azar titled “Business strategy and the social norm of tipping” mentions that “In 225
the United States, however, the Fair Labor Standards Act states that tipped employees cannot be forced by employers to share tips with employees who do not ordinarily participate in tip pooling arrangements (such as janitors and dishwashers). Moreover, if a pooling agreement goes above 15 percent of the tips, the Department of Labor will investigate to assure that the pooling agreement is ‘customary and reasonable.’” (Azar 9). Without a percentage of tips that the cooks and dishwashers are getting, they are only most likely getting paid minimum wage or a little over minimum wage. Abolishment of tips would mean that the only thing they would ever get is their current income, which is not that much to live on. Practically speaking, it is not doable, which could result in these people looking at other jobs in a different industry for better pay. This would mean less employment in that area of the restaurant business. Ultimately, the business would suffer from it, not just the people working, unless they increase the wage, which even then might not be enough if the difference is not as impactful. An important thing to notice is that peers greatly influence how much you tip. In “Peer effects on restaurant tipping in Norway: An experimental approach,” Christer Thrane and Erik Haugom attempted to find out whether a person would likely tip depending on what their peers tipped. The study was specifically in Norway, and the results were similar to their hypothesis, We found that a tip by a peer (i.e., tip > zero) increased restaurant patrons’ tipping probability as opposed to stiffing. Similarly, we found that the larger the tip of a peer, the larger the restaurant patrons’ tip amounts. In short, the results supported our main hypothesis, and they imply that the tipping behavior of restaurant patron A influences the tipping behavior of restaurant patron B. This means that it is not just the United States where tipping is practiced. As other countries who find tipping to be rude would find the custom to be odd, there are more countries that do the same thing as our country does. Considering the experiment that was conducted, people who do not grow up with that principle will most likely ignore tipping when they eat alone. It is not just influencing the other person when eating together and tipping, but it is also realizing the social norm of the country. It is looked down upon to not tip because, fundamentally, servers live off tips. So, by not tipping and ignoring it while someone is there witnessing you, it makes you feel like a bad person. In order to not feel that, you would be obligated to tip. Especially nowadays, it is without question that it is an unwritten rule that the 20 percent tip would be part of your bill. Some people do not tip, and it is not because they choose not to, but it is because that is what they are taught from a young age. “The image of restaurant and hospitality jobs as being dead-end careers has contributed to the way people think about those who choose to work in the hospitality industry” (Fernandez 2). There are different factors that go into the reasons as to why, but the main point would be that most of the time it is not their intention. Most kids dream about becoming a doctor, a firefighter, or a teacher because it is what is most often introduced in school. It is so common that it seems as if those are their only choices as children. The hospitality industry is only ever an option when people grow older, or if they “do not have any other choice.” This idea could affect the way people view the people that work in that industry. This could result in no tips at all, and they most likely would pass the idea onto their kids. Manual labor, on top of that, has also been seen as a very unfortunate job to have. It is seen to be not a very optimal job to dream about, which is why we have less people working there willingly, as opposed to the kids being curious 226
and asking questions about the career, making them more knowledgeable about the industry. You could not be interested in making something a career of yours if you do not know enough about it. Most people in their lives visit restaurants, eat there, talk there, and everyone has at least experienced being in one. Instead of the idea being looked down upon, there should be more light that is pointed towards the industry. Another obvious reason for people not tipping would be poor guest service; not only does it negatively impact the restaurant by losing potential regulars, but it also affects the tips received. First impressions also play a big role. If a customer were to have had a long day at work, and they come to their favorite restaurant. They most likely expect at least a friendlier environment so that they are able to de-stress from what happened that day (Wang 10). They expect smiles from whoever is serving them at the very least, but sometimes the servers could be going through the same thing. It is still important to remain professional when it comes on the job, since the job still heavily relies on tips. If the organization of the restaurant incoporated tip-pooling, then it would mean that everyone that works there gets affected and potentially will go through financial issues. Race is also sometimes a huge factor when it comes to understanding tipping practices. Another potential factor would be credit cards. “Studies have shown that customers who pay their bills via credit card tend to leave larger tips. In one study, ‘diners who charged their lunch’ were leaving ‘substantially larger tips’ of 22.6%, versus the 15.9% rate of those who paid cash” (Wang 10). This means that people who have the capability to give more in tips will most likely contribute more with tips. The people who tip in lower percentages most likely did not have enough that day or month. It is the effort that people put in that is more valuable and respectable. Wang mentions that black people would often not be willing to tip white servers because of the history of slavery, and, at times, many current situations also put black people at a disadvantage. In a way, it is their means to retaliate for how they have been treated and the things that they have experienced as a group of people. It could seem unreasonable, and perhaps it is, but with tipping it is unavoidable that people will often tip based on their feelings. A good amount of control is put in the hands of the customers, and they sometimes may take advantage of that. It could be for the good or the bad. Realistically, not all people are like that. Some people, no matter what, will tip even at a low percentage because they empathize. It is not to say that the people that do not tip for whatever reason do not empathize; they could have their own reasons. It cannot be put into a straight-forward answer because everyone feels different. What is important is that we realize why tipping has come to be this way. At the end of the day, the control that customers have does not make as much effect as the people that run the industry. Overall, tipping should not be abolished in the United States. It helps restaurants monitor how their employees are doing, and by continuing to do so it improves the service being provided for the customers. Tipping practices result in the employees obtaining higher tips because of their good service, which would mean that they would get their rent or other expenses paid more easily, and, ultimately, they would more likely make ends meet. Additionally, the people that work at the back of the house can potentially get more than their current wage. They may still be able to benefit from tipping in contrast to not getting tips at all. Other cultures may disagree with the way we have grown as a society, but, all in all, they should be able to understand and at least respect the idea that the principles and morals that we have grown to know are different from theirs. Japan may find tipping to be rude because they are disciplined from a young age to follow rules. It may be 227
the standard that they have created for themselves, but we are able to understand and respect that. The United States, Japan, and any other country will always have a custom or a social norm that is completely different from other countries. It is important that we are able to accept that. While some people may not tip, the majority of people in the United States do. The reasons for that could be simply because of ignorance, but fundamentally it is all up to the customers to decide. The majority of people think and understand in a similar way that ultimately benefits the workers working for the industry. The idea that customers have to feel the burden of having to be the ones to provide livable income to these workers is not optimal at all; however, we cannot take back what has happened. This is what our society has come to be. Just like with everything in life, this is what we deal with. At times, we feel shame for not being able to tip as much as we should. The fact that we are able to empathize with the people that do these jobs means that not everyone is greedy. The nature of all of this, and the fact that we had to resort to this, is because some people wanted more and decided to take from others. Some people unfortunately have had to experience the consequences despite those consequences not being necessary. WORKS CITED Azar, Ofer H. Business strategy and the social norm of tipping, Journal of Economic Psychology, Volume 32, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 515-525, ISSN 01674870,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.03.018. Bear, George & Manning, Maureen & Shiomi, Kunio. (2006). Children’s Reasoning About Aggression: Differences Between Japan and the United States and Implications for School Discipline. School Psychology Review. 35. 6277.10.1080/02796015.2006.12088002. Christer Thrane, Erik Haugom, Peer effects on restaurant tipping in Norway: An experimental approach. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Volume 176, 2020, Pages 244252, ISSN 0167-2681, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.04.010. Even, William E., and David A. Macpherson. “The Effect of the Tipped Minimum Wage on Employees in the U.S. Restaurant Industry.” Southern Economic Journal, vol. 80, no. 3, Southern Economic Association, 2014, pp. 633–55, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23809644. Fernandez, Gerald A. “The Tipping Pont – Gratuities, Culture, and Politics.” SAGE Journals, Volume 45, Issue 1, Cornell University, 2004, pp 45-51, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010880403260106. Kam, Kristie. “5 Surprising Etiquette Differences between the US and Japan.” Business Insider, Business Insider, 28 June 2018, https://www.businessinsider.com/etiquette-differences between-japan-and-us-2018-6.
228
Lynn, Michael (2005). Increasing Servers' Tips. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 8:4, 87-96, DOI: 10.1300/J369v08n04_07 Wang, Lei, An Investigation and analysis of U.S. restaurant tipping practices and the relationship to service quality with recommendations for field application (2010). UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. 659. http://dx.doi.org/10.34917/1758116
229