English Language
SECTION A
Audience Key aspects that would have been chosen to appeal to the target market: • Presentation: colour, pictures, diagrams, front style and size • Language: level of difficulty, variety of vocabulary, sentence structure • Content and style • Target audiences can be characterized by: - Age - Background - Gender - Interests - Location - Beliefs
Purposes By identifying the purpose and audience, it will be easier to understand why certain language or presentational features have been used. Purposes of texts include: Inform Explain Describe Argue Entertains Advise Persuade Review
Reading between the lines • You need to not only analyse the words on the page but the: - Use of colour, fonts and images - Position or layout of particular features or information - Headlines, sub-headings, pull quotes
Selecting and using information • To support points made in your answers, you need to refer directly to the text • Any ideas you put forward must come from the text itself (interpret the meaning of the text) • Avoid long quotes. Use short, snappy and purposeful evidence.
How to quote • Quotations that are fluently ‘embedded’ into sentences are more stylish and sophisticated. • For longer quotes, place a colon at the end of your comment. Then start a new line and indent the quotation.
Perspective • Perspective means ‘attitude’ or ‘standpoint’.You can establish the view point of a wellwritten text by reading the first and last paragraphs and the topic sentence of each paragraph. • They should guide the reader through their argument through the careful structure of their writing. What to look for: - Emotive language - Strong first sentence clearly portraying view point - Sarcasm - Criticism - Presenting other view point (to disprove) - Sentence structure/length for effect
Reports • A report is usually written for a specific audience • The purpose of a report is to pass on specific information about a particular issue or investigation, so that others may take action using the findings of the report. • A newspaper report gives information
Formal reports • Formal reports follow a clear structure: Introduction -> explanation of the research undertaken-> summary of findings-> conclusions or points for action What to look for: - Percentages used to emphasize strength of feelings - Result summaries for readers - Solutions
Newspaper reports • Newspaper reports are normally written in an impersonal style • The writer will provide facts- opinions will often come from ‘sources’ or people whose words are being reported through direct quotation What to look for: - Emotive language which engages the reader - Quotes in headlines which can indicate bias - Summing up in last paragraph - Quotations from ‘the other side’ to balance argument
Feature articles • Feature articles provide more of a considered view or interpretation of an event or issue What to look for: - Pronouns ‘we’, ‘our’ - Strong opening sentence- shows view - Emotive language - Concluding sentence
Advertisements- presentation • If the form of the advert is an advert, the purpose will be clearly to persuade, however the target audience will need to be considered Presentational features to look for: - Use of images - Use of colour - Font style, size and colour - Use of text- layout, organisation and language - Logos , slogans, shapes • You need to show you are able to evaluate the presentational features
Advertisements Structuring your answer 1. Links purpose to presentation 2. Analyse features and their effects 3. Explain effect of reader 4. Show connection between presentational features and written text/ purpose
Leaflets • Presentational features such as sub-headings and bullet point lists are often used to break the information down into short pieces of text. The use of images and colour also helps to convey the message • Leaflets use presentational features in order to allow the information to be read very quickly • Commenting on the effect of individual language choices and layout features is necessary but it if you can demonstrate how elements of the text, use colour and image, etc. connect and work together, you will gain more marks.
Leaflets • Start by analysing the leaflet’s purpose and audience. What to look for: - Images- What do they show, how does it connect to the subject of the leaflet, does the size of the image have any significance? - Information- What information is given, where is it displayed, how is it displayed, does the font have an impact on the reader, are capital letters used for emphasis? - Colours- How does this appeal to the target market, does it help enforce the message of the leaflet, does it reinforce the company’s purpose, does it help the leaflet to achieve its purpose?
Diaries • Personal diaries are written in the first person and are informal in style. They include personal recollections. • Diaries written for publication, record events of public interest and can be more formal in style but are usually in the first person. What to look for: - Purpose to the diary entry - Opinions - Emotive language - Exaggeration
Blogs • Unlike diaries, blogs can have more colloquial language and the writer has a sense of the wider audience and the content and tone of the blog matches this, rather than being more personal and private
Biographies and autobiographies • A biography will be written in third person and an autobiography will be written in first person and organisation is normally chronological. • Biographies contain events from the person’s past • The purpose of biographical writing is usually a mixture of entertaining and informing the reader. What to look for - Imagery - Sentence structure/length for effect - Dramatic language - Language style (formal/informal)- Why e.g. colloquial language to remind the reader that it is a childhood anecdote
Travel writing • Travel writing can be factual but can also give individual interpretations of the experience • Travel writing entertains and informs the reader • Although factual in content, there will be an element of bias in travel writing What to look for: - Different language techniques that the travel writer uses to convey information to the reader - Be aware of the attitudes or feelings that the travel experience causes in the writer. - The first sentence- it usually sets the tone of the writing and can be quite dramatic.
Reading reviews • The first thing to look for in a reviews is at whether it is biased or unbiased • A review provides a description and an evaluation of an event, an object or publication. • The purpose of a review is to provide a clear overview and an evaluative judgement or recommendation. • They are written for a clear audience. What to look at: - Language and structure and how they are used to present a particular point of view
Web Page • A web page uses particular layout conventions and presentational features to help you skim and scan the page for specific information • A webpage has to be immediately appealing and accessible otherwise the reader will just skip to another site What to look for: - Images - Colours- bright colour used to highlight offers? - Live links to help find information faster - Contact details- Where are they placed, how are they presented? - Logos - Use of celebrities
Information texts • Often use sub-headings or other organisational features to guide the reader easily through the material • Its main purpose is to provide information. The language is usually impersonal, quite direct and clearly organised. • They will have a target audience
Analysing presentational features • When commenting on presentational features, you need to explain how they work with each other to create an overall effect, not just what effect they have individually. Headline
The main heading in a newspaper story, designed to draw the reader’s attention
Strapline
A second, introductory headline, below the main one, adds more information to the headline
Subheading
Often used to summarise sections of the text or break it up into smaller sections, allowing the reader to skim over the text and see the overall point
Font
Style and colour can vary throughout a text. Often it us possible to draw conclusions from the choice of colour-scheme or font style
Capitals
Capitals are often used to stress and reinforce particular words or phrases
Caption
The text under a photograph or diagram which explains it
Standfirst
The introductory in an article or report, which could be in bold print or with the first word capitalised
Pull-quote
A quotation which is lifted from the article and set apart, in larger or bold type
Bold, italics, underline
Different ways of making certain words stand out
Slogan
A memorable word or phrase, designed to create interest
Logo
Emblem to represent a product or company
Photographs and graphics
Used to add depth to the story or more information
Inference • There are a variety of ways in which language can be used to infer meaning other than the surface meaning. One technique to look for is IRONY. Irony can be created through: - Rhetorical techniques - Exaggeration and understatement - Quotations
Inference • Another technique to look for is HUMOUR. Ways to infer meaning: - Language - Structure and organisation of text - Pictures and other presentational features. • Pictures and the layout of text can imply meaning the same way that language does
Analysing language- Key features Language features to analyse - Sentence and paragraph types - Significant vocabulary - Punctuation - Imagery - Imagery and other linguistic devices - Style of language
Analysing language- Sentences • Short sentences can suggest speed or excitement e.g. He ran forward. The ball fell at his feet. He shot. • They can also indicate surprise or despair e.g. Her inspiration stopped. Her career ended. • Long sentences can indicate calm e.g. The sergeant reported that right along the river, teams of men and women were at last preparing to return to their headquarters for a much needed break. • Or they can build to a climax e.g. The crowds gasped as the top of the mountain blew away, clouds of ash shot hundred of feet into the sky and rivers of lava, terrifying in the early daw, shot upwards, then cascaded down into the valley.
Analysing language- Paragraphs • Very short paragraphs can be used to attract the reader’s attention, to attract the reader’s attention, to pick out the main details in an article or to offer a ‘punchy’ idea. Popular newspaper articles often have short paragraphs so that they can be read more easily. • Longer paragraphs provide more detail and analysis. Articles in more serious newspapers often have longer paragraphs.
Analysing language- Significant vocabulary • The kind of vocabulary can tell you about the purpose of the text - Imperative verbs such as ‘follow’ and ‘begin’ suggest instructional or advisory writing - Connectives like ‘since’ and ‘because’ are typical of explanatory writing because these connectives link ideas together - Connectives such as ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’ and ‘indeed’ tend to be used in persuasive or argumentative writing where are point of view is being expressed • The kind of vocabulary can also tell you about the audience for the text. - More complex language indicates that the text is aimed at a more intelligent readership - A text containing specialist vocabulary will be aimed at those with a special interest in that area - Slang and colloquialisms could indicate a teenage target audience.
Punctuation TEENAGER ‘TORTURED TO DEATH’ The inverted commas indicate it may not have happened, but show that someone has offered that opinion
Lets focus on… improving your home Ellipsis indicates that there are many things we could do. An ellipsis can also end a sentence leaving the conclusion to our imagination.
HOLLY HITS OUT!! The double exclamation mark is to attract attention and suggest excitement, humour or even surprise.
Similes, metaphors, linguistic techniques and style • Look for similes, metaphors, alliteration and onomatopoeia. • Text can have a formal or informal style Stylistic techniques - Rhetoric - Emotive language - Irony (subtle mockery) - Exaggeration - Contrast - Colloquial language - Ambiguity - Examples, anecdotes or quotations - Humour - Lists
Comparing language • When comparing language, consider: - Levels of difficulty - The different tones - The different kinds of language features required for different purposes • Decide how the writer has used language to meet the needs of the form, purpose and audience. Look at: - Sentences and paragraphs - Significant vocabulary - Punctuation - Imagery and linguistic features
Comparative response- paragraph structure Compare the purposes (and audiences) of each text
Identify a technique used in both texts
Analyse the use of the technique in Text 1
Explain the effect on the reader in Text 1
Use of comparative connective
Analyse the use of the technique in text 2
Explain the effect of the reader in text 2
- The conclusion should NOT be long and should sum up your ideas whilst still focusing on the question
Connectives Comparative connectives Similarly
In contrast
While the first text
Just as
Whereas
The second text
Likewise
On the other hand
When we turn to
Also
But
In comparison
So
However
The second text, though
Alternatively
Because So emphasising Therefore Cause, effect, and Thus illustrating Consequently
For example
Such as
For instance
As revealed by
In the case of
Above all
In particular
Especially
Significantly
Indeed
Notably
connectives
What to expect • The whole paper is 2 hours 15 minutes long. • It is divided into 2 sections • Section A is the reading section • You will be given 3 sources in an extract book and asked to answer 4 questions using the source material • Questions 1-3 are worth 8 marks and focus on 1 f the source texts. You should spend 12 minutes answering each of these questions • Question 4 is worth 16 marks and will ask you to compare 2 of the source texts.You should spend 24 minutes answering this question
Types of questions • The questions will usually test your ability to: - Find information (Information retrieval) 8 marks - Write about presentational features 8 marks - Analyse what is being suggested or inferred 8 marks - Compare how language is used in two texts 16 marks
APPLE- General analysis of non-fiction texts
A audience- who is it for? How do you know P purpose- Why has is been created? What message(s) is given? Features, images, layout. How do they P presentationrelate/ support the text? Consider vocabulary, tone, stylistic devices, L languagephrasing used and structure of sentences. on audience- Has the writing achieved its purpose E effect for the audience?
A FOREST- Language Devices to look for:
A F acts O pinions R repetition E exaggeration and Emotive language statistics S T triples alliteration
CODFISH- Presentational features to look at:
C colours O organisation D data/ diagrams F font/ Italics/ Bold I images/ Pictures S slogans/ catchphrases headings/sub-headings H
FIFAT- How reliable and authoritative is the text Very
F I F A T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Factual
Opinionated
Impersonal (Unbiased)
Personal (Biased)
Formal
Informal
Authoritative
Unreliable
Trustworthy
Untrustworthy
Find non-fiction texts such as articles, adverts, flyers, leaflets etc. and practice using this grid to find how reliable and authoritative the text is.
SECTION B
What to expect • You will be asked to complete 2 non-fiction writing tasks; the first worth 16 marks and the second 24 marks • Aim to spend 25 minutes on the shorter writing task and 35 minutes on the longer task. • A clear purpose, form and audience will be given in each task, however if no audience is mentioned, then use the examiner as your audience (formal writing)
Structure and paragraphs • Start each new paragraph with a topic sentence. • The remaining sentences in the paragraph should develop the idea in more detail • Link your paragraphs using connectives to make the shift from one idea to the next smoother • Start by introducing what you intend to discuss in tour writing in a way which engages the reader. • Develop your response in the next 3 or 4 paragraphs, expanding your ideas • Sustain your view point • Keep the same style throughout • End by emphasising your view point.
Sentences • Use a mixture of sentence structures; simple, compound, complex, questions and exclamations Simple sentences - Can be used one after another to add excitement - Can be used to build tension - Can also relieve tension - A simple sentence after a series of longer sentences can pull the reader up short and make a quick but powerful point
Compound sentences Compound sentences - A compound sentence is 2 simple sentences joined together with either a semi-colon or a conjunction. Each part of the sentence could stand on its own. - The second part of a compound sentence is linked to the first part by the subject matter as well. It is used to add extra information about the first part of the sentence.
Complex Sentences Complex sentences - A complex sentence has one main clause, which contains the main point of the sentence, and at least one subordinate clause. A subordinate clause links to the main clause but cannot stand on its own as a sentence. It often starts with ‘who’ or ‘which’ e.g. The boy, who was alone at last, walked across the field that led to the farm.
Questions, commands and exclamations • Questions, commands and exclamations should be used sparingly, so that they have an impact. • They can be used very effectively in writing to argue, persuade or advice. • In a piece of writing to argue, persuade or advice, you should try to open or end the piece with a rhetorical question. • Commands are a good way of addressing the reader directly. • Exclamations show strong emotional reactions
Punctuation Commas - Used to separate a list - To add clauses or phrases - To separate a phrase that adds extra information or detail. Speech marks - Punctuation at the end of speech is placed before the final speech mark - There should be only one speaker for each paragraph
Punctuation Apostrophes - Used to show possession - To show a contraction (can’t) Colons - Used to introduce a list - Introduce an explanation e.g. “I’m sorry I didn’t show up: I had a heavy cold and my head hurt.” Semi colons - Used to indicate a short pause between 2 clauses or simple sentences that are equally important. - To separate phrases in a complicated list
Punctuation Ellipses - Used to create an idea that a situation will continue forever. e.g. It seems that tis cycle of bullying will continue forever‌ - To allow the reader to decide what might fill the space
Language to engage reader • Select vocabulary that is appropriate to the form, the purpose and the audience. • Use a wide range of vocabulary • Use a range of connectives • Use adverbs to provide more information • Try to avoid nouns and verbs that sound very general
Using language creatively Imagery - Similes make a comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’ - Metaphors state things that are not literally true, but the comparison has a strong effect - Personification is a particular type of metaphor, giving inanimate objects ‘life’, often human characteristics Clichés - Avoid clichés. A cliché is an over-used phrase and this makes them less effective. Stylistic techniques - Onomatopoeia is a way of capturing sounds in words. It is the term we use when a word sounds like the sound it is describing - Alliteration is when words begin with the same letter or sound Irony - It can be used in a humorous way - It can be used for serious effect
Evidence, statistics and quotations, Rhetoric and humour • Using material which seems factual and the result of research really makes your writing sound powerful Rhetoric and humour - Using humour engages your reader and is very effective in writing to argue and persuade as it helps to ‘break down’ any barriers between you and the reader Rhetoric is used to engage and persuade.
Rhetorical devices • Rhetorical questions • Lists of 3(sometimes adjectives for powerful effect) • Direct address with use of the inclusive pronoun ‘we’ and ‘us’ • Assuming your audience’s agreement • Appearing to agree with, or flatter, your opposition to help win them the round • Repetition of key words or phrases • Exaggeration to make your point more strongly
The opening and ending • Try to open your writing with: - A short piece of conversation - An anecdote - A description - A rhetorical question • Your final paragraph should always leave your reader with a clear impression of your ideas and your point of view. It should link back to the introduction to round off your writing.
Writing letters • Put your address at the top right hand side • Put their address on the top left hand side Signing off - If you are writing to someone you don’t know, you should use ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ and end with ‘yours faithfully’ - If you are writing to a named person or someone you know formally you should use Dear Mrs Jones or Dear Customer Services Manager and end with yours sincerely.
Writing reports • A report is usually a mainly factual account of a recent event or set of circumstances • It should be a mixture of facts and opinions
Writing articles • An article has a clear purpose: to discuss or express ideas, usually from a particular point of view • You should also consider layout and presentational features such as a headline, strapline and subheading
Writing to argue Introduction
Development
• Where the writer states what their view point is
Development
• Where anecdotes or experiences are used as evidence
Counterargument rebuttal • Where the other side of the argument is mentioned, only to be dismissed or disproved
• Where statistics and ‘expert’ witnesses are used as evidence
Conclusion • Where the writer ends the argument with a ‘punch’
Writing to persuade • Use techniques such as: - Effective structuring of ideas - Emotive language - Examples and anecdotes - Rhetoric devices
Writing to persuade Introduction • Catch your readers attention straight away • State why you are writing in an interesting and friendly way • Involve the reader and make sure that what you say is relevant to them • Show that you have the authority to write on this topic (sound reasonable and trustworthy) • Uses rhetorical question • Choose your vocab with precision and care
4/5 Body paragraphs • Introduce each paragraph with a clear and interesting topic sentence • Think of using one further rhetorical question but make it subtle • Discuss only ONE point per paragraph • In one paragraph use an anecdote • Be personal • Link your points and develop them fully • Acknowledge the main opposing view but with care, subtlety and tact- counter it • Add authority- quote an expert, a survey or something to prove it works Conclusion • Use vivid description • Add power by adding a few rhetoric devices
Writing to persuade
Conclusion • Re-emphasize the common ground and why your review is worthy of consideration • Make sure your reader knows precisely what you would like to happen next • Only if appropriate to your audience and for your purpose, end with an emotional plea
Writing to inform • You should concentrate on: - Choosing information to suit your purpose - Organising your ideas into clear - Writing an effective opening and ending - Including facts and opinions - Creating the right tone for your audience and purpose What is the examiner looking for? - Have you provided your audience with what it needs, wants, or might like to know and nothing more? - Have you given relevant details that are clear, fair and balanced – whether as facts or opinions? - Are the details given in a straightforward and unambiguous manner? - Language that informs should rely on its denotation for meaning, i.e. its literal meaning, rather than - connotation, i.e. suggested meaning. - Are the relevant '5W+H' questions being answered, i.e. who, what, why, where, when and how? - Is the writing engaging and interesting to its audience, i.e. is its style lively? - Is the detail given sufficient (i.e. not too much or too little).
Writing to inform • CREATE A STRONG OPENING - Begin with humour to engage your audience - Or an account from personal experience which gives a context for your writing
Writing to explain • Give reasons for what happened, or how you feel, or why something is important. Present a situation
Explain the cause
Explain the effect it had.
As a result of this might be • You need to use casualItconnectives such as: This meant that
The reason could have been
This is because
It may be that
As a consequence
Perhaps
Therefore
Possibly
Writing to review First part Explains the topic for review in a short summary or synopsis
Second part Goes into more detail giving some examples that provide more information about your topic and why you liked or didn’t like it. You might also like to compare the topic with others
Final part Give your overall recommendation- your view on whether or not your reader will appreciate the item you are reviewing.
Writing to review Positive
General
Negative
Irresistible
Plot
Bewildering
Hilarious
Type
Disappointing
Classic
Form
Superb
Hype
Unbelievable
Effects
Imitation
Suspense
Mood
Captivating
Typical
ClichĂŠd
Impressive
Scenes
Excessive
Writing to advise Present the subject clearly
Offer advice which is logical and convincing
Demonstrate benefits of following your advice
• Your tone needs to fit your purpose and audience.YOU ARE ADDRESSING YOUR READER DIRECTLY Language Features you can use - Commands e.g. Make sure you add… Don’t forget to visit… - Verbs like must and should which encourage the reader to act - Softer verbs like can and may or could and might which give suggestions - If…. (then)… sentences shows what would happen if you follow the advice.
RHETORIC- Used to engage and persuade
R Rhetorical questions HHyperbole E Emotive Language T Triples O Opinion as fact R Repetition I Involve the audience C Comments from experts
A COAST MAP- Used for writing and analysing a piece to describe
A Alliteration C Colours Onomatopoeia O A Assonance S Similes T Triples
M A Adjectives Personification P Metaphors