mats, moirĂŠs, and super maps
Heather Priscilla Luna
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If there is to be a ‘new urbanism’ it will not be based on the twin fantasies of order and omnipotence; it will be the staging of uncertainty; it will not longer be concerned with the arrangement of more or less permanent objects but with the irrigation of territories with potential; it will no longer aim for stable configurations but for the creation of enabling fields that accommodate processes that refuse to be crystallized into definitive form; it will no longer be about meticulous definition, the imposition of limits, but about expanding notions, denying boundaries, not about separating and identifying entities, but about discovering unnamable hybrids; it will no longer be obsessed with the city but with the manipulation of infrastructure for endless intensifications and diversifications, shortcuts and redistributions – the reinvention of psychological space. Since the urban is now pervasive, urbanism will never again be about ‘new,’ only about the ‘more’ and the ‘modified.’ Rem Koolhaas
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Within the systems and details of the modern metropolis, design is called upon to resolve the lingering shortcomings of Modernism and the destructive desires of Suburbia. Rethinking the city through an analysis of its pieces, the timeless principles of the map must be appropriated to explain the mechanisms of urban life, and how the future may be altered. Overloaded with infrastructure and built environments, contemporary cities do not lack the hardware necessary to satisfy their citizens, but require fresh understandings to maximize potential. Through a delamination of the urban landscape, the architect here reinvents the map to reveal the city as a collection of disparate elements, while not losing sight of the superimpositions and intensities that collaborate as a combined whole.
Evolving Mat-Building In her 1974 article, “How to Recognize and Read Mat-Building,” Alison Smithson introduces Mat-Building to describe a low-rise and high density building type with uniform layouts of systematically repetitive simple elements, which become the framework for everchanging possibilities of inhabitation. The framework of Mat-Building, though specific in its repetition, does not interfere with flexible programmatic usage within an open plan. Overall the idea behind Mat-Building, according to Smithson, was “to epitomize the anonymous collective; where the functions come to enrich the fabric, and the individual gains new freedoms of action through a new and shuffled order, based on interconnection, close-knit patterns of association, and possibilities of growth, diminution, and change.”1 Pixels Smithson’s article chronicles the development of Mat-Building with the completion of the Berlin Free University by Candilis, Josic, Woods and Schiedhelm. Stylistically, Mat-Building in Smithson’s time was defined by pixilated plans and spaces carried out in Brutalist forms. The intentions of Mat-Building have since expanded to respond and connect to existing mats in the urban landscape.2 Through this approach, Mat-Building has evolved to focus and respond to specific conditions produced by environments of greater scales and complexity, increasingly relevant to the comprehension of continuously changing cities. Bands In their 1982 entry to the Parc de la Villette competition, Rem Koolhaas and OMA proposed to create bands of program overlapping layers of objects, surfaces and fields,
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with the intention to produce a dense landscape of structured moments and unforeseen adjacencies. Their initial hypothesis states that through use, the park will undergo continuous mutations. Koolhaas states, “its ‘design’ should therefore be the proposition of a ‘method’ that combines architectural specificity with programmatic indeterminacy.”3 The design of the park thus allows for the coexistence of stable structures and unstable moments, which through interaction continually generate unexpected events without hindering the initial framework of the design. This project widens the discussion to larger areas capable of dictating and altering even more expansive urban mats.
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Surfaces The Yokohama Port Terminal by Foreign Office Architects conceives mats as interweaving, tangled layers by creating a continually undulating surface of landscape and built form. The constant surface serves as a framework for disparate program with varying intensities of occupation, to promote a sense of circulatory movement throughout the whole. Movement, along with the lack of formal distinction between program, event, or exchange allows for novel events and interaction to arise. Frameworks Barcelona’s Santa Caterina Market establishes Mat-Building as an organizational process rather than a stylistic or formal apparatus, conceiving of built contexts through structured systems of programmatic interchangeability. The design by Enric Miralles and Benedetta Tagliabue reacts to layers and networks within Barcelona’s urban mat while accommodating the site’s specific and disparate activities through the addition of new program. The framework does not adhere to the typical Mat-Building style illustrated 10 by Smithson, but instead is defined by its tangled and lateral offshoots, stemming from the superimposition of new and existing programmatic organizations. Represented architecturally by an undulating roof system, the conceptual basis for this project asserts that mats operate based on interactive relationships, denying a formally structured system to maintain individual complexities and irregularities. Though the typology is still difficult to qualify (Smithson herself admitted that Mat-Building was still developing and had barely become recognizable at the time she wrote her 1974 article), specific elements may be taken from these precedents to inform a more complete understanding of our city and its extended global connections. This approach will aid in planning for a world in flux. The conceptual evolution of Mat-Building moves beyond the rigid two-dimensional planning in order to realize mats as a three-dimensional layering operating at multiple scales locally and globally. Utilizing these conceptual tools, one may apply the procedures of Mat-Building to understand the city and extended urban landscape in analogous terms.
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I n t e r n a l l y, n e a r l y a l l e x h i b i t a p o r o u s i n t e r c o n n e c t i v i t y, i n w h i c h t ra n s i t i o n a l s p a c e s a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e n o d e s t h e y c o n n e c t . E x t e r n a l l y, t h e y a r e l o o s e l y b o u n d e d . T h e i r fo r m is governed more by the internal connection of part to part t h a n b y a n y o v e ra l l g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e . T h e y o p e ra t e a s f i e l d l i ke a s s e m b l a g e s , c o n d e n s i n g a n d r e d i r e c t i n g t h e p a t t e r n s o f u r b a n l i fe , a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g e x t e n d e d w e b s o f c o n n e c t i v i t y b o t h i n t e r n a l l y a n d e x t e r n a l l y.
Stan Allen
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Mat Urbanism The new institutions of the city will perhaps have moments of intensity, linked to the wider network of the urban field, and marked not by demarcating lines but by thickened surfaces. Stan Allen What are mats? Mats are everything and anything. Walking paths, traffic patterns, bus routes, economic and global influences, politics, zoning, vegetation, geology, environments, gas stations, grocery stores, communities, city centers, civic spaces, plazas and museums, ranging from local pedestrian scales to urban and global views. With Mat Urbanism, Stan Allen re-appropriates Smithson’s thoughts to understand the many pieces and networks that make up the contemporary city so as to better explain a continuously evolving urbanism. Nodes, Knots and Tangles Mat Urbanism expands upon the concept of Mat-Buildings to explain how cities function and organize. Smithson’s terms, stem and cluster, illustrate the shift from architectural to urban scales of organization. Translated to the scale of urbanism, these tree-like forms 13 spread out laterally to inform our understanding of how urban mats are interconnected. This idea will later reemerge with complexity science and urban theory discussions, but under the heading of the rhizome.4 Ultimately, the concepts behind Mat-Building are more effective when viewed through an urban model because they elucidate the component parts of the cities network.
T h e u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t u a l f ra m e w o r k o f m y p a i n t i n g s l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y, t h e w h o l e . E a c h m a r k r e p r e s e n t s i n d i v i d u a l a g e n c y, a n a c t i v e s o c i a l c h a ra c t e r. M y a i m i s t o h a v e a p i c t u r e t h a t a p p e a r s o n e w a y f r o m a d i s t a n c e – a l m o s t l i ke l o o k i n g a t a c o s m o l o g y, c i t y, o r u n i v e r s e f r o m a f a r – b u t t h e n w h e n y o u a p p r o a c h t h e w o r k , t h e o v e ra l l i m a g e s h a t t e r s i n t o n u m e r o u s o t h e r p i c t u r e s , s t o r i e s , a n d e v e n t s . T h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a ra c t e r s , t h e m a r k s a n d t h e i r b e h a v i o r, a r e a m a j o r d e t e rmining force in the construction and representation of the complete work.
Julie Mehretu
The Rhizomatic Map Cartography provides a means for communicating our surroundings and understanding our place in the world. It is the precise and topological documentation of our existing condition. Maps may become misleading when viewed as indisputable, fixed representations of our physical existence and must be understood more figuratively as abstract tracings. This is because map-making is the direct result of the cartographer’s judgment as well as the techniques employed to obtain and diagram data, including the selection and omission of particular elements, symbolic codes, and the very tools used to obtain geographic data. To let map-making’s abstracted constructions guide the design of the architect, seems to hinder an understanding of complex and dynamic urbanisms and prevents opportunities for constructive experimentation in future planning. The production of a map should be re-imagined as layering of surfaces, networks, elements and objects that interrelate and combine to activate the urban landscape. The map will now claim its place as an integral step in the design and planning process, and should 14 behave like the complex systems it represents; a map must be a rhizome! In biology, a rhizome is the horizontal stem of certain plants that typically shoots out laterally, but also manifests in forms ranging from surface extensions to underground masses of bulbs or tubers, each sending out new shoots giving rise to new plants. In terms of cities, the rhizome is interpretable as a mutating organism made up of differentiated parts and motions. First equating the map with the rhizome, philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari present an understanding of the map that “is entirely oriented toward an experimentation in contact with the real.”5 The idea of the map assembles the unconscious of the city rather than reproduces it, in contrast to conventional maps that the philosophers termed as mere “tracings”.6 They continue: The map is open and connectable in all of its dimensions; it is detachable, reversible, susceptible to constant modification… it is composed not of units but of dimensions, or rather directions in motion. It has neither a beginning nor end, but always a middle (milieu) from which it grows and which it overspills… when a multiplicity of this kind changes dimension, it necessarily changes in nature as well, undergoes a metamorphosis.7 By understanding the map as a rhizome, we understand the city as a non-hierarchical
nexus, mutating in reaction to changes in any one of its many parts. The map should be all-inclusive, unlike the selective process of tracing, to uncover “realities previously unseen or unimagined, even across seemingly exhausted grounds.�8 The first step is reformulating a representation of the existing world as an organization of layers, which not only shows the physical and quantitative attributes of a given terrain, but also qualitative and invisible forces, as well as lines of flight formed in the urban landscape. Ultimately, multiple and disparate field conditions reveal the terrain simply as the surface manifestation of a dense and dynamic mat. The second step toward rethinking how the city is mapped, is to revise map-making tools so as to embrace a rhizomatic representation of multiple layers and how they operate. Currently, tools such as CAD or GIS routinize map design, making it difficult to capture the fluctuations of the city and allow one to operate within it. New tools ought to measure qualitative elements, handle large quantities of modifiable information, and represent data in multiple dimensions. 15
The preliminary tracings produced during the planning of a singular project marks the beginning of the design process, although it is often written off as analysis. The procedures of selection, schematization and synthesis, combined with measuring devices and mapmaking techniques, are a critical step in dictating the final design. Landscape architect James Corner echoes this view, writing, “this is why mapping is never neutral, passive or without consequence; on the contrary, mapping is perhaps the most formative and creative act of any design process, first disclosing and then staging the conditions for the emergence of new realities.�9 Finally, the map must be reconceived as a rhizomatic layering process from which a thick mat-like system reveals the inner workings of the city.
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Layering The rhizome is made only of lines: lines of segmentarity and stratification as its dimensions Deleuze and Guattari In order to understand the gestalt of the city, a method for extracting and interpreting individual parts is necessary in order to approach even a portion of the whole. To achieve this, parts should be dissected as systems and represented as layers to be separated and investigated independently, hierarchically categorized, and assembled to present intensities, intersections and voids. Although the rhizome is non-hierarchical, intrinsic natural orders appear within the system and are echoed in how cities organize. Through the separation of parts, intrinsic orders emerge to produce intensive and thicker layers, which may be analyzed and grouped into organized sets and viewed through a top-down lens.10 These new understandings should next be paired with a bottom-up synthesis of matted superimposition, in order to capture the emergent properties arising from the interactions between parts.11 Since the resulting effect is ‘multiplicative and not just additive;’ mutually enhancing each other and giving rise to developable potential.12 18 The new map should contain four layers: surfaces, networks, elements and objects. The layers display fractal properties ranging from local to global conditions, creating an image reflecting the Deleuzian concept of the rhizome map; an exposing of intensive mats and moirĂŠs. Surfaces Consisting of nonlinear, extensive areas of geographies, ecologies, neighborhoods, districts, programmatic patches, matrices, demographics, landscapes and zones, surfaces are irregular in size and shape. They can cover whole areas, forming agglomerated masses or scattered splotches across the urban landscape, activated in real time through long-term interaction with surroundings and forcing sporadic expansion and contraction. Historically, surfaces expose their process of mutation and specific relationships to other parts, giving clues to how future evolution may occur. They can run either smoothly across the mat, or loop and weave through it. Networks
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Networks manifest as both physical and abstracted lines of connection. Physically, they may be defined as movement systems, infrastructures and paths. Transportation routes, associative connections, virtual landscapes and other transient forces make up the city’s invisible networks. Open-ended and flowing through many systems at once, networks link disparate programs to one another, and rhizomatically make connections between any point in the city. Although they may terminate, contact to other layers allow networks to be continually connected and extend to even larger systems. A network may join major points of intensity and create nodal points within the system and whether they move fast or slow through time, networks are the flux, flow and movement through a seemingly heterogeneous system. Elements Describable as a series of repetitive moments to be expressed by point grids, intervals and sprinkled pieces, elements are programmatic pieces or distributed institutions such as gas stations, grocery stores, bus stops, interest points and unique zones of use. While they vary in organizational type, such as regulated or random fields and array, elements are 20 usually complex in order and occur with assorted frequency across the map. Objects Finally, objects are singularly understandable occurrences with the city, such as particular buildings, parks, institutions and other uniquely recognizable moments. They are the most durable and longest lasting parts of the urban landscape, changing with less frequency and often becoming nodal points that attract other layers.
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The Moiré Exposing emergent properties within the map, a moiré is a figural effect presented by the superimposition of two regular fields.13 The combination of repetitive and regular elements produces complex and irregular behaviors within an emergent figure, exposing hidden intensities and voids. Moiré effects, however, are not random and are to be examined to determine their formation and how they may be altered. A slight change in any one of their component layers will force haphazard and unexpected shape shifting. By studying these fields, the map begins to elucidate “systems of organization capable of producing vortexes, peaks and protuberances out of individual elements that are themselves regular or repetitive.”14 The moiré is highly visible in the plan dimension, but should also be explored sectionally though mats, expressing layers as a woven and tangled density containing knotted intensive nodes. The aforementioned characteristics identify “active interstitial spaces, where matter shapes and channels the space between things, leaving room for the 22 unanticipated.”15 Transitional spaces are not just seen as neutral space between defined nodes, but are actively working with nodes to form a “continuous fabric of internally differentiated space,” conveying the porosity of the city.16 By investigating the moiré, innovative programs and institutions will develop and join the existing collection of parts, interacting with them and maybe one day even creating the conditions for the latter’s disappearance for another novel creation.17
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Reinvent the Map! In the city, time becomes visible. Lewis Mumford Time As the catalyst for change, time is the most important aspect of the city. Therefore it is vital that the map consider the city as a fluid form, constantly changing by hour, year or century. Categorizing time in a manner similar to layering distinguishes fast and slow changing mats and allows for appropriate intervention, which anticipates new organizations and yet to be realized relationships. The city is devoured by time. Architects must realize that they are designing within a complex system of interwoven decision makers, forces and systems active over an extended period of time. Therefore, one insertion, or even many, may never be great enough to alter the entire city. By studying and creating maps, architects should aspire to charge voids and connect intense moments 24
by inserting infrastructure to guide change without limiting it. Bottom-Up Design today must find ways to approximate these ecological forces and structures to tap, approximate, borrow, and transform morphogenetic processes from all aspects of wild nature, to invent artificial means of creating living artificial environments. We must learn to see design algorithms everywhere we look. In time, we will earn the right to call ourselves urbanists again. Sanford Kwinter
Over the last twenty years, urban theory has radically transformed from a top-
down to a bottom-up approach as a result of rapid advances in high-speed computing and complexity science. In The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane Jacobs first challenged top-down approaches of Modernist urban planners by suggesting that urban design be driven by bottom-up activities, calling on planners to focus their designs on local level individual decision-makers, and not on large-scale Modernist schemes. Although written in 1961, her bottom-up theories have only recently been reaffirmed by the current state of urbanism and the rise of complexity science. Only with the discovery that complex adaptive systems– whether physical, biological, or social – have significant amounts of similarity in their underlying principles, structures and dynamics, has complexity science
been applicable to urban theory.18 Contemporary theory views cities as complex adaptive systems, shifting planners away from traditional linear systems to nonlinear dynamic systems based on evolutionary development and large populations.
The city is a wild, densely layered system made up of an increasing number of
independent variables, all interacting in interdependent and unpredictable ways. Similar to a complex adaptive system, cities are also the product of millions of local decisions selforganizing into a whole.19 The simple rules, motivations, and goals at the local level propel upward to create even greater self-organizing global behaviors.20 Although many of these systems follow simple rules, their extreme intricacies makes them difficult to understand analytically, forcing the use of algorithms and computer computation to handle such detailed numerical simulations.
It is important that the shift to nonlinear systems continues to retain aspects
of top-down techniques used in linear systems such as the concepts of hierarchy and superimposition. Furthermore, rather than focusing on one finished and perfect assembly, it should be built up messily, in steps and layers incrementally over time.21 Indirectness is necessary.
The limitations of our current analytical tools for studying nonlinear dynamic are
even less equipped in the case of nonlinear combinatorics, which involves the display of certain emergent properties, “that is, properties of the combination as a whole which are more than the sum of its individual parts.�22 Processing, an open-source programming language created by Casey Reas and Ben Fry, is an integrated development environment that may aid in the making of a new kind of map. The application allows the computation
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of complex systems containing large populations of data using scripted combinatorics and presenting a graphic representation of the combined elements, starting to represent the new map. Processing gives the architect an opportunity to test simple design rules in order to predict the effect on the whole, allowing one to freely experiment into the wild systems of the city. Through computer tools, designers are given the opportunity to put forth a more experimental attitude towards the city, thoughts can be tested and conclusions can be drawn.
The remaking of the map is ultimately a process of understanding the supermatted
city, and through rethinking the urban landscape and coming to accept its inherent intricacies, a novel and unexpected future may be just within our reach.
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Notes Alison Smithson, “How to Recognise and Read Mat-Building: Mainstream Architecture as It Has Developed towards the Mat-Building,” CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival, eds. Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde (New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001) 91. 1
Timothy Hyde, “How to Construct an Architectural Genealogy,” CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival, ed. Hashim Sarkis (New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001) 106. 2
Jacques Lucan, OMA - Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991) 86. 3
Gilles Delueze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987) . 4
Delueze and Guattari, 12.
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Delueze and Guattari, 12.
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Delueze and Guattari, 21.
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James Corner, “The Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique, Intervention,” Center: A Journal for Architecture in America. 14 (2007) 149. 8
Corner, 150.
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Stan Allen, Points + Lines 92.
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Manuel De Landa, A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History, 18.
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Manuel De Landa, A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History, 17-18.
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Stan Allen, Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999) 98. 13
Allen, 99.
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Stan Allen, “Mat Urbanism: The Thick 2-D,” CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival, ed. Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde (New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001) 122. 15
Allen, “Mat Urbanism: The Thick 2-D,” 122.
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De Landa, 271.
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Irene T. Sanders, “Complex Systems Thinking and New Urbanism,” New Urbanism and Beyond: Designing Cities for the Future. ed. Tigran Haas (New York: Rizzoli, 2008) 275. 18
Michael Batty, “Hierarchy, Scale, and Complexity in Urban Design,” New Urbanism and Beyond: Designing Cities for the Future. ed. Tigran Haas (New York: Rizzoli, 2008) 258. 19
Sanders, 278.
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Sanford Kwinter, Far From Equilibrium: Essays on Technology and Design Culture, (New York: Actar, 2008) 188-189. 21
De Landa, 273.
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Bibliography Allen, Peter M. Cities and Regions as Self-Organizing Systems: Models of Complexity. Amsterdam: OPA, 1997. Allen, Stan. Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. - - -. “Mat Urbanism: The Thick 2-D”. CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival. Eds. Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde. New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001. Banham, Reyner. Los Angeles the Architecture of Four Ecologies. Berkeley: University of California, 2001. Batty, Michael. “Hierarchy, Scale, and Complexity in Urban Design,”. New Urbanism and Beyond: Designing Cities for the Future. Ed. Tigran Haas. New York: Rizzoli, 2008.
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Corner, James. “The Agency of Mapping: Speculation, Critique, Intervention,” Center: A Journal for Architecture in America. 14 (2007): 148-173. Print. Dear, Michael. “In the City, Time Becomes Visible: Intentionality and Urbanism in Los Angeles, 1781-1991,” The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century. Ed. Allen J. Scott and Edward W. Soja. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996. DeLanda, Manuel. A Thousand Years of Nonlinear History. New York: Zone Books, 2000. Deleuze, Gilles and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987. Fogelson, Robert M. The Fragmented Metropolis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967. Hyde, Timothy. “How to Construct an Architectural Genealogy,” CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival. Eds. Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde. New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.
Lucan, Jacques. OMA - Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. Kwinter, Sanford. Far From Equilibrium: Essays on Technology and Design Culture. Ed. Cynthia Davidson. New York: Actar, 2008. Marshall, Stephen. Cities, Design and Evolution. New York: Routledge, 2009. Reas, Casey and Ben Fry. Processing: A Programming Handbook For Visual Designers and Artists. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007. Sanders, T. Irene. “Complex Systems Thinking and New Urbanism,” New Urbanism and Beyond: Designing Cities for the Future. Ed. Tigran Haas. New York: Rizzoli, 2008. Smithson, Alison. “How to Recognise and Read Mat-Building: Mainstream Architecture as It Has Developed towards the Mat-Building,” CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival. Eds. Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde. New York: Prestel Verleg, 2001. 31
Image Credits Page 2 + 3: Dispersion, Julie Mehretu 2002. From: Fogle, Douglas and Olukemi Ilesnmi, eds. Julie Mehretu: Drawing into Painting. Minneapolis: Diversified Graphics, 2003. Page 6: The Berlin Free University, Architects: Candilis, Josic, Woods and Schiedhelm. From: Shadrach. Candilis - Josic - Woods: Buildings For People. Frederick A. Praeger, 1968. Page 8 + 9: Competition Entry for Parc de la Villette. Architect: OMA. From: Lucan, Jacques. OMA - Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. Page 11: Yokohama Port Terminal, Architect: Foreign Office Architects. From: Sakamoto, Tomoko, Albert Ferre, and Michael Kubo, eds. The Yokohama Project. Actar, 2003.
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Page 12: (Close-up) Dispersion, Julie Mehretu 2002. Fogle, Douglas and Olukemi Ilesnmi, eds. Julie Mehretu: Drawing into Painting. Minneapolis: Diversified Graphics, 2003. Page 15: Illustration of a Rhizome. Page 19: Example of superimposed layers over the Los Angeles River, Heather Luna. Page 21: Example of a MoirĂŠ, Heather Luna. Page 23: Image of Fractals created in Processing. From: Reas, Casey and Ben Fry. Processing: A Programming Handbook For Visual Designers and Artists. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007.