The Maya, Death of a Culture
CONTENTS Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
A History of the Maya The Mayan Civilisation
4–5
Mayan Landscape
6–7
Mayan Inventions
10–11
Mayan Achievements
12–13
The Maya and Death Mayan Glyphs
16–17
Codices
18–19
Sacrifice
20–21
The Mayan Calendar
22–25
The Ball Game
28–31
Mayan Pyramids
34–35
Teothuacan
36–37
Maya Architecture
38–39
The Maya Queens
40–41
The Fall of the Empire The Mayan Collapse
44–45
Drought
46–47
The Spanish Conquest
50–53
Deforestation
54–55
Image References
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1
ULT E
HISTORY OF THE MAYA
The Undiscovered Country
THE MAYA A GREAT CULTURE The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization developed by the Maya peoples, noted for the Maya hieroglyphic script, the only known fully developed writing system of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. This region consists of the northern lowlands encompassing the Yucatán Peninsula, and the highlands of the Sierra Madre, running from the Mexican state of Chiapas, across southern Guatemala and onwards into El Salvador, and the southern lowlands of the Pacific littoral plain.
The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture and the earliest villages. The Preclassic period (c. 2000 BC to 250 AD) saw the establishment of the first complex societies in the Maya region, and the cultivation of the staple crops of the Maya diet, including maize, beans, squashes, and chili peppers. The first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC. In the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is largely defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a large number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful. The Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a widespread political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities, and a northward shift of population.
The Maya thrived for nearly 2,000 years. Without the use of the cartwheel or metal tools, they built massive stone structures. They were accomplished scientists.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archaeological site is located in TinĂşm Municipality, YucatĂĄn State, Mexico.
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Mayan Landscape The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, and the expansion of the aggressive K’iche’ kingdom in the Guatemalan Highlands. In the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonised the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred around the concept of the “divine king”, who acted as a mediator between mortals and the supernatural realm. Kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was also expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a closed system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the corresponding reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. The Maya civilization developed highly sophisticated artforms, and the Maya created art using both perishable and non-perishable materials, including wood, jade, obsidian, ceramics, sculpted stone monuments, stucco, and finely painted murals.
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Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by commercial and administrative complexes, surrounded by an irregular sprawl of residential districts. Different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, and structures aligned for astronomical observation. The Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, of which only three uncontested examples remain, the rest having been destroyed by the Spanish. There are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a highly complex series of interlocking ritual calendars, and employed mathematics that included one of the earliest instances of the explicit zero in the world. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice.
The Maya, Death of a Culture
DZIBILCHALTUN
OXKINTOK
CHICHEN ITZA
MAYAPAN
COBA
UXMAL
GULF OF MEXICO
TULUM
NORTHERN LOWLANDS
EDZNA
SANTA RITA KOHUNLICH
BECAN XICALANGO
COMALCALCO
RIO BEC NOHMUL CALAKMUL
ITZAMKANAC
SOUTHERN LOWLANDS
UAXACTUN
PIEDRAS NEGRAS TONINA ZINACANTAN
TIKAL
YAXHA
YAXCHILAN
ALTER DE SACRIFICIOUS DOS PILAS
NARANJO XUNANTUNICH TIPU
GULF OF HONDURAS
CARACOL
BONAMPAK
CHIAPA DE CORZO
CERROS
LAMANIA
MIRADOR PALENQUE
ALTUN HA
SEIBAL
AGUATEGA
HIGHLANDS TRAVESIA NACO
ZACULEU UTATLAN IZAPA
IXMINCHE ABAL TAKALIK
QUIRIGUA MIXCO VIEJO
CERRO PALENQUE
LOS NARANJOS COPAN
KAMINALJUYU EL BAUL MONTE ALTO CHALCHUAPA
CIHUATAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
A map of the Yucatan Peninsula and all of the cities that were built.
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Lay u antac Y okol cab U chamaci h tz’utz’il He uac bin The Undiscovered Country
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christoil bob lae. U il cahob. U l otzil mas ni to kuch The Maya, Death of a Culture
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Other Mesoamerican civilizations excitedly used the wheel and found it miraculous, but the Mayans decided that the wheel was no use to them.
Mayan Inventions Until recently, people believed that vulcanization– combining rubber with other materials to make it more durable–was discovered by the American (from Connecticut) Charles Goodyear in the 19th century. However, historians now think that the Maya were producing rubber products about 3,000 years before Goodyear received his patent in 1843. How did they do it? Researchers believe that the Maya discovered this process accidentally, during a religious ritual in which they combined the rubber tree and the morning-glory plant. Once they realized how strong and versatile this new material was, the Maya began to use it in a variety of ways: to make water-resistant cloth, glue, bindings for books, figurines and the large rubber balls used in the ritual game known as pokatok.
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Around the Mayan time, the wheel was found and was becoming famous everywhere. Other Mesoamerican civilizations excitedly used the wheel and found it miraculous, but the Mayans decided that the wheel was no use to them, because they did not domesticate animals, unlike other Mesoamerican civilizations, and what was the use of the wheel with no tamed animals? The Mayans firmly thought that it would be more efficient to use people to transport materials, and not use a cart. The Mayans developed a very important transport device, a device that is still used now. It was called a tumpline or a mecapal. It allowed the Mayans to carry 125 pounds on their backs with ease and comfort. There was a strap around the shoulders that was connected to a frame or to other straps to support heavy loads. The tumpline is still used today, even if we changed it a little.
The Mayan ruins of Tikal are hidden deep in the rainforests of Guatemala. From the air, only a handful of temples and palaces peek through the canopy. The stone carvings are weatherbeaten. Huge plazas are covered in moss and giant reservoirs are engulfed by jungle. The only inhabitants are wild animals and birds. 11
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Mayan society was vibrant, but it could also be brutal. It was strictly hierarchical and deeply spiritual.
Mayan Achievements The Maya thrived for nearly 2,000 years. Without the use of the cartwheel or metal tools, they built massive stone structures. They were accomplished scientists. They tracked a solar year of 365 days and one of the few surviving ancient Maya books contains tables of eclipses. From observatories, like the one at Chichen Itza, they tracked the progress of the war star, Venus. They developed their own mathematics, using a base number of 20, and had a concept of zero. They also had their own system of writing. Their civilisation was so stable and established, they even had a word for a 400-year time period. Humans were sacrificed to appease the gods. The elite also tortured themselves - male Maya rulers perforated the foreskins of their penises and the women their tongues, apparently in the hope of providing nourishment for the gods who required human blood. In the ninth century, the Maya world was turned upside down. Many of the great centres like Tikal were deserted. The sacred temples and palaces briefly became home to a few squatters, who left household rubbish in the
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once pristine buildings. When they too left, Tikal was abandoned forever, and the Mayan civilisation never recovered. Only a fraction of the Maya people survived to face the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. For decades, archaeologists have been searching for an explanation of the Maya collapse. Many theories have been put forward, ranging from warfare and invasion to migration, disease and over-farming. Many think the truth may lie with a combination of these and other factors. But none of the conventional theories were good enough for Dick Gill. He believed that what had devastated the Maya was drought. However, drought as the only explanation of the Maya collapse was highly controversial.
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EAT
THE MAYA AND DEATH
The Undiscovered Country
MAYAN GLYPHS A DEAD LANGUAGE
The Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom. Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food. Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery.
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The unit of the Maya writing system is the glyphic cartouche, which is equivalent to the words and sentences of a modern language. Maya cartouches included at least three or four glyphs and as many as fifty. Each cartouche contained various glyphs, as well as prefixes and suffixes. There is no Maya alphabet. Maya writing is difficult to interpret for a number of reasons. First, glyphs do not represent just sounds or ideas, they can represent both, making it difficult to know how each glyph or cartouche should be read. In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can be written in more than one way. Numbers, for example, can be written with Maya numerical symbols or with the picture of a god associated with that number, or a combination of the two. Some glyphs represent more than one phonetic sound, while also representing an idea. This means that a single idea can be written in many different ways. For example, the name of the Palenque ruler, Pacal, whose name literally means “Hand-shield�, appears sometimes as a picture of a hand-shield, sometimes phonetically as pa-cal-la, and at other times as a combination of picture symbols and phonetics.
The Maya, Death of a Culture
An example of ancient Mayan glyphs chiselled into a wall. The Maya had a complex writing style that allowed them to create any word they needed using symblos that represent individual syllables, unlike the english language that uses individual letters to for sounds and syllables.
The Maya considered writing to be a sacred gift from the gods.
The Mayan Language Deciphering Maya texts has become easier with the aid of computers, drawings and the knowledge accumulated over a century of scientific investigation. The hieroglyphic writing of the Maya has not been completely deciphered, however, and can still only be interpreted, rather than read. To date nearly 85 percent of known Maya hieroglyphics have been decoded. The Maya considered writing to be a sacred gift from the gods. Most ancient Maya could not read, because the knowledge of reading and writing was jealously guarded by a small elite class, who believed that they alone could interact directly with the gods and mediate between the gods and the common people. From the very beginning, the Maya used writing as a propaganda tool, rather than as a means of recording accurate details of history.
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The Spanish thought the mayan codices were the work of the devil.
Mayan Codices In a hierarchical society where the elite competed for prestige and leadership positions, writing was used to reinforce a ruler’s military power and to legitimize his descent from noble ancestors and the gods. Writings on stone monuments were designed to place rulers in the most favourable light possible, and ancient sculptural inscriptions deal primarily with historical events, marriages, births, military campaigns and victories, rulers and other dynastic affairs. Maya glyphs were also painted on codices made of either deer hide or bleached fig-tree paper that was then covered with a thin layer of plaster and folded accordion-style. The inscriptions in the codices were painted by highly trained scribes, and record rituals, chronologies and important events.
Most of the Maya codices were burned by the Spanish during the sixteenth century when they tried to convert the Maya to Christianity. The few codices which have survived, however, are a valuable source of information about the religious beliefs of the Maya and their ritual cycle, and record information about the gods associated with each day in the Maya calendar as well as astronomical tables outlining the cycles of Venus and other celestial bodies. Of the thousands of codices created, only four remain today. That’s because during the Spanish conquest of the Maya, Spanish soldiers burned the codices. Why? Because the Spanish thought the pagan codices were the work of the devil. Three of the codices eventually were found in European libraries. Experts believe they ended up in Europe when Spanish explorers sent them home as souvenirs. Named after the cities where they are now located, these codices are known as the Dresden Codex, the Madrid Codex, and the Paris Codex.
An example of in on the ancient Maya codex. 99% of the codices that were made were distroyed during the spanicsh conquest.
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SACRIFICE
AN HONORED OFFERING OF DEATH
Other methods of sacrifice included drowning, beating, mutilation, and arrow sacrifices.
Historians believe that the Mayans were first introduced to human sacrifice by the Toltecs. Human sacrifice had long been a part of the Toltec religion. The sacrifices were performed by a priest called a nacom. The nacom was in charge of cutting out the hearts of the victims. He did this while he was entirely dressed in black. The nacom’s assistants were elderly subordinates called chacs. Chacs were named after the god of rain. It was their job to hold the victims down during the sacrifice.
It is believed that commoners had little or no access to the main temples. The general population only participated in harvest, fertility, and hunting rites that were performed on specific calender days. At these times the ceremonial centers were packed with people who were bloodletting, drinking an intoxicating beverage called balche, and probably using hallucinogenic mushrooms or peyote. Ritual sacrifices played a vital role in the Mayan realm. They sacrificed both animals and humans. Animals that were sacrificed in great numbers included crocodiles, iguanas, dogs, peccaries, jaguars, and turkeys. The supreme sacrifice was the human life. This took place during elaborate ceremonies. Sacrificial scenes have been depicted in ancient Mayan ceramics, sculptures and murals. Like the Aztecs, this was all done in an attempt to appease the gods. Slaves, criminals, bastards, orphans and children made up the bulk of the sacrificial victims. Children were desired because of their innocence, and they would sometimes be abducted or purchased from neighboring cities. The purchase price was paid in red beans.
Diego de Landa witnessed human sacrifices. He tells us that the sacrificial victim was painted blue. Next, the victim was led to the summit of the pyramid and laid over a stone alter. Then with his arms and legs firmly held by the chacs, the nacom cut open the chest and tore out his heart. This was usually done with an obsidian or flint knife. Next, the heart was handed to the high priest, and the body was thrown down the temple stairs. Other methods of sacrifice included drowning, beating, mutilation, and arrow sacrifices. In the arrow sacrifice the victim was painted blue, and tied to a stake while dancers took turns trying to pierce the victims heart. During the Toltec-Itza rule of Chichen Itza pilgrims would travel great distances in order to perform human sacrifices. The victims who were sometimes laden in gold, silver and precious stones were hurled into the Sacred Cenote, a deep pool of water where the god Chac was said to live.
An image drawn in one of the surviving codiced of sacrificial ritual performed by the Maya. Often they took place on top of their pyramids. The heart was often removed as an ofering to the gods.
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THE MAYAN CALENDAR THE END OF THE WORLD The Maya calendar in its final form probably dates from about the 1st century B.C., and may originate with the Olmec civilization. It is extremely accurate, and the calculations of Maya priests were so precise that their calendar correction is 10,000th of a day more exact than the standard calendar the world uses today.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate. They used 20-day months, and had two calendar years: the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. These two calendars coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a “bundle� and meant the same to the Maya as our century does to us. The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names. Each of the day names is represented by a god who carries time across the sky, thus marking the passage of night and day. The day names are Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. Some of these are animal gods, such as Chuen (the dog), and Ahau (the eagle), and archaeologists have pointed out that the Maya sequence of animals can be matched in similar sequence to the lunar zodiacs of many East and Southeast Asian civilizations.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
A close-up of some of the detail on the Mayan Calendar. One of the most accurate calendar systems developed.
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The Doomsday Theory Some have argued that Mayans, whose civilization spanned across southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize from 1000 B.C. to 1519 A.D., carved into their calendar the day the world would end—Dec. 21. Many scholars have debunked the Mayan doomsday myth but it hasn’t stopped some from treating December as Armageddon month, turning to social media to share elaborate lastminute bucket-list ideas. A Facebook user framed it eloquently: He urged his friends to get right with God or make love with a stranger. But Gerardo Aldana, an associate professor at the University of California (Santa Barbara) tells his students, also via Facebook, they still have to do Christmas shopping this year. Aldana, who has studied the Mayans since 1995, says the theories of mayhem attributed to the calendar came largely ’from a misunderstanding of the calendar and mythology.’
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’Priests and historians used the Long Count to track mythology back to 3114 B.C. and even earlier,‘ Aldana said. ’But they only really recorded their history for the time between A.D. 300 and 900. They then extended the calendar far into their and our own future, as far as A.D. 4772,‘ he added. Aldana argues the misinterpretation dates back to the 1960s when archeologist Michael D. Coe published ’The Maya.‘ There he suggested the Mayan calendar would end in 2011 or 2012, hinting, in jest, that it meant the end of the world. Scholars have since said there’s no evidence the calendar predicts an apocalyptic future. The Mayan calendar has long astonished scholars. John Malone, author of Unsolved Mysteries of Science, regards the ancient timekeeper as the ’most accurate calendar devised by any ancient culture.‘
The Maya, Death of a Culture
There he suggested the Mayan calendar would end in 2011 or 2012, hinting, in jest, that it meant the end of the world. Scholars have since said there’s no evidence the calendar predicts an apocalyptic future. 25
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THE BALL GAME A GAME OF LIFE OR DEATH
The game was invented sometime in the Preclassical Period (2500-100 BCE), probably by the Olmec, and became a common Mesoamerican-wide feature of the urban landscape by the Classical Period (300-900 CE). Eventually, the game was even exported to other cultures in North America and the Caribbean.
In Mesoamerican mythology the game is an important element in the story of the Maya gods Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú. The pair annoyed the gods of the underworld with their noisy playing and the two brothers were tricked into descending into Xibalba (the underworld) where they were challenged to a ball game. Losing the game, Hun Hunahpús had his head cut off; a foretaste of what would become common practice for players unfortunate enough to lose a game. In another legend, a famous ball game was held at the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan between the Aztec king Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (r. 15021520 CE) and the king of Texcoco. The latter had predicted that Motecuhzoma’s kingdom would fall and the game was set-up to establish the truth of this bold prediction. Motecuhzoma lost the game and did, of course, lose his kingdom at the hands of the invaders from the Old World. The story also supports the idea that the ball game was sometimes used for the purposes of divination.
The hoop was placed along the sides of the court, The game was played in a way that meant players werent allowed to use their feet. The largest court is found at Cichen Itza.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
The Court
Courts were usually a part of a city’s sacred precinct, a fact which suggests the ball game was more than just a game. Early Preclassic playing courts were simple, flattened-earth rectangles but by the Late Formative Period (300 BCE onwards) these evolved into more imposing areas which consisted of a flat rectangular surface set between two parallel stone walls. Each side could have a large vertical stone ring set high into the wall. The walls could be perpendicular or sloping away from the players and the ends of the court could be left open but defined using markers or, in other layouts, a wall closed off the playing space to create an I-shaped court. The court at Monte Albán, Oaxaca is a typical example of the I-shaped court. The length of the court could vary but the 60 m long court at Epiclassic El Tajín (650-900 CE) represents a typical size.
Surviving courts abound and are spread across Mesoamerica. The Epiclassic city of Cantona has an incredible 24 courts with at least 18 being contemporary. El Tajín also has a remarkable number of courts (at least 11) and it may well have been a sacred centre for the sport, much like Olympia for athletics in ancient Greece. The earliest known court is from the Olmec city of San Lorenzo whilst the largest surviving stone playing court is at the Mayan-Toltec city of Chichén Itzá. With a length of 146 m and a width of 36 m, this court seems almost too large to be actually played in, especially with the rings set at the demanding height of 8 m.
The flat court surface often has three large circular stone markers set in a line down the length of the court. Some of these markers from Maya sites have a quatrefoil cartouche indicating the underworld entrance which has led to speculation that the game may have symbolised the movement of the sun (the ball) through the underworld (the court) each night. Alternatively, the ball may have represented another heavenly body such as the moon and the court was the world.
The Rules
The Players
The exact rules of the game are not known for certain and in all probability there were variations across the various cultures and different periods. However, the main aim was to get a solid rubber (latex) ball through one of the rings. This was more difficult than it seems as players could not use their hands. One can imagine that good players became highly skilled at directing the ball using their padded elbows, knees, thighs and shoulders. Teams were composed of two or three players and were male-only. There was also an alternative version, less-widespread, where players used sticks to hit the ball.
The ball could be a lethal weapon in itself, as measuring anywhere from 10 to 30 cm in diameter and weighing from 500 g to 3.5 kg, it could easily break bones. Remarkably, seven rubber balls have been preserved in the bogs of El Manatí near the Olmec city of San Lorenzo. These balls range from 8 to 25 cm in diameter and date from between 1600 and 1200 BCE.
Players could be professionals or amateurs and there is evidence of betting on the outcome of important games. The game also had a strong association with warriors and war captives were often forced to play the game. Players were frequently depicted in Mesoamerican art, appearing in sculpture, ceramics and architectural decoration - the latter often decorating the courts themselves - and these depictions often show that the players wore protective gear such as belts and padding for the knees, hips, elbows and wrists. The players in these works of art also typically wear a padded helmet or a huge feathered headdress, perhaps the latter being for ceremonial purposes only. Zapotec relief stones at Dainzú also depict ball players wearing grilled helmets as well as knee-guards and gauntlets.
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The Ball Game Winners Winners of the game received trophies, many of which have been excavated and include hachas and palmas. A hacha was a representation of the human head (early ones might have actually been heads) with a handle attached and was used as a trophy for a winning player, a piece of ceremonial equipment or as a marker in the court itself. A palma was also most likely a trophy or element of ceremonial costume worn by ball players. They are frequently represented in stone and can take the form of arms, hands, a player or a fan-tailed bird. Other trophies for game winners include stone yokes (typically u-shaped to be worn around the waist in imitation of the protective waist gear worn by players) and hand stones, often elaborately carved. All of these trophies are frequently found in graves and are reminders of the link between the sport and the underworld in Mesoamerican mythology.
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As games often had a religious significance the captain of the losing team, or even sometimes the entire team, were sacrificed to the gods. Such scenes are depicted in the decorative sculpture on the courts themselves, perhaps most famously on the South ball court at El TajĂn and at ChichĂŠn ItzĂĄ, where one relief panel shows two teams of seven players with one player having been decapitated. Another ominous indicator of the macabre turn that this sporting event could take is the presence of tzompantli (the skull racks where severed heads from sacrifices were displayed) rendered in stone carvings near the ball courts. The Classic Maya even invented a parallel game where captives, once defeated in the real game, were tied up and used as balls themselves and unceremoniously rolled down a flight of steps.
The Maya, Death of a Culture
This is a carved depiction of two of The Maya playing The Ball Game. The game was a massive part of their culture much like sport today.
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ba tabob. U meyahtab en palalob a muk uch h num yao The Undiscovered Country
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U meyahta bal fiscalo b.U palil c hac nums ob. Lay ha The Maya, Death of a Culture
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MAYAN PYRAMIDS TEMPLES OF DOOM
Deep within the jungles of Mexico and Guatemala and extending into the limestone shelf of the Yucatan peninsula lie the mysterious temples and Mayan pyramids.
While Europe was still in the midst of the Dark Ages, these amazing people had mapped the heavens, evolved the only true writing system native to the Americas and were masters of mathematics. They invented the calendars we use today. Without metal tools, beasts of burden or even the wheel they were able to construct vast cities across a huge jungle landscape with an amazing degree of architectural perfection and variety. Their legacy in stone, which has survived in a spectacular fashion at places such as Palenque, Tikal, Tulum, Chichen Itza, Copan and Uxmal, lives on as do the seven million descendants of the classic Maya civilization. The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica. Originating in the Yucatan around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy.
The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including templepyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools.
Tikal is an ancient Mayan citadel in the rainforests of northern Guatemala. Possibly dating to the 1st century A.D., Tikal flourished between 200 and 850 A.D. and was later abandoned.
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Calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.
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Teotihuacan Pyramid The Mayan pyramids of Teotihuacan rise as high as twenty-story buildings,above the central Mexican highlands with a grandeur and mystery that stirs the imagination and inspires the soul. All of the buildings are aligned with the stars and the solar system from precise survey points in the nearby mountain range, using an advanced understanding of mathematics, geometry and astronomy. Little is known by traditional researchers about the pyramids of Teotihuacan (pronounced tayoh-tee-wah-con, and simply referred to as ‘Teo’ by the locals). Built by the Toltecs, Teo was once a city the size of ancient Athens and Rome. It thrived as the primary center of learning and culture in America for over one thousand years, before it was abandoned about fifteen-hundred years ago. According to legend, after the fall of Teotihuacan, two major paths of sacred knowledge formed. One Toltec path went to Tula near present day Hidalgo. The magic of Tula can be compared to what our culture might term ‘black magic.’ The generally more enlightened path called the Path of Freedom went south toward Xochicalco, near present day Cuernavaca, and also eventually went into hiding.
The term ‘Toltec’ as used by the Aztecs (who came many years after the Toltecs) meant either a “great wise one” or a native healer or artist who followed a certain tradition; it was not necessarily meant to define a specific ethnic group. In fact there is evidence that Toltec society was a relatively harmonious blend of several of America’s early native cultures. The Olmecs and the builders of Monte Alban in Oaxaca, with whom the Toltecs traded, revered the Toltecs and regarded them as the most highly advanced society in religion, magic and art. Yet, unlike the art of other early American societies, Toltec art depicts only two gods: the earth goddess and the rain/sky god. The fact that Toltec art does not prominently portray many gods for worship, supports the belief, common throughout America for over one thousand years, that the Toltecs were able to communicate directly with the gods in the sun, the moon and the stars. Since the 1930s, archaeologists have uncovered startling evidence of interaction between the Early Classic Maya and the great empire of Teotihuacan in Central Mexico. Yet the exact nature of the relationship between these two ancient Mesoamerican civilizations remains to be fully deciphered. Many scholars have assumed that Teotihuacan colonized the Maya region and dominated the political or economic systems of certain key centers—perhaps even giving rise to state-level political organizations. Others argue that Early Classic rulers merely traded with Teotihuacan and skillfully manipulated its imported exotic goods and symbol sets to increase their prestige.
Teotihuacán, was an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub valley of the Valley of Mexico.
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Many scholars have assumed that Teotihuacan colonized The Maya region and dominated the political or economic systems of certain key centers—perhaps even giving rise to state-level political organizations
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Maya Architecture Maya architecture is best characterized by the soaring pyramid temples and ornate palaces which were built in all Maya centres across Mesoamerica from El Tajin in the north to Copan in the south. The Maya civilization was formed of independent city-states and, consequently, there are regional variations in architecture but almost all buildings were constructed with a precise attention to position and layout and a general style prevails. Multi-level elevated platforms, massive step-pyramids, corbelled roofing, monumental stairways, and exteriors decorated with sculpture and mouldings of Maya glyphs, geometric shapes, and iconography from religion such as serpent masks are all typical features of Maya architecture. Interestingly, unlike many other cultures, Maya architecture makes no particular distinction between religious and nonreligious buildings. The Maya were certainly aware of, and were often admirers of, the Mesoamerican cultures which had gone before them, especially the Olmec and at Teotihuacan, and so they took inspiration from this Mesoamerican heritage when developing their own unique architecture.
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Maya architects used readily available local materials, such as limestone at Palenque and Tikal, sandstone at Quiriguรก, and volcanic tuff at Copan. Blocks were cut using stone tools only. Burnt-lime cement was used to create a form of concrete and was occasionally used as mortar, as was simple mud. Exterior surfaces were faced with stucco and decorated with high relief carvings or three-dimensional sculpture. Walls might also have fine veneers of ashlar slabs placed over a rubble core, a feature of buildings in the Puuc region. Walls in Maya buildings are usually straight and produce sharp angles but a notable idiosyncrasy is seen at Uxmal's House of the Governor (10th century CE) which has outer walls which lean outwards as they rise (called negative batter). The whole exterior was then covered in stucco and painted in bright colours, especially red, yellow, green, and blue. Interior walls were often decorated with murals depicting battles, rulers, and religious scenes. Mansard roofs were typical and made in imitation of the sloped thatch roofing of the more modest wooden and wattle dwellings of the majority of the population.
The Maya, Death of a Culture
The Maya were certainly aware of, and were often admirers of, the Mesoamerican cultures which had gone before them, especially the Olmec and at Teotihuacan. 39
The Undiscovered Country
THE MAYA QUEENS MORE THAN JUST MOTHERS AND WIVES The Great Pyramids of Naachtun lie shrouded in the emerald forest of northern Guatemala. They are part of one of the most remote, inaccessible sites in the entire ancient Maya world. At the height of Maya civilization, this prosperous city lay in a perilous heartland, caught between two clashing superpowers: Tikal and Calakmul.
Maya artists frequently portrayed the military prowess of their kings by showing them trampling over cowering prisoners. The sculptures that Reese-Taylor found in Naachtun, however, depict both king and queen as conquering heroes, literally crushing into the ground a member of one of the most powerful dynasties in the Maya world. Reese-Taylor combed through hundreds of published inscriptions and royal portraits housed at university libraries in Canada and the U.S., looking for imagery of other warrior queens from the Maya lowlands around Naachtun. Finding and identifying these women wasn’t easy. Most illustrations and sculptures from the time depicted kings and queens alike in an ambiguous ceremonial garment -- a beaded net skirt. Reese-Taylor turned to the work of Peter Mathews, a former University of Calgary archaeologist who specialized in the Maya of Naachtun. Mathews had already started to decode the subtleties of these ancient Maya costumes, noticing that the images associated with the names of women feature warriors dressed in full, loose, calf-length skirts. Men’s garb was tighter and more revealing. ReeseTaylor confirmed this trend, finding the same costume differences in images of queens from several Maya cities beyond Naachtu
Was it possible that there were warrior queens in ancient Maya societies? Did some royal Maya women actually take part in the violence sparked by ruling houses hungry for power and resources?
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
A tall engraving of a suspected maya queen. Maya hieroglyphs on the back of the jar include the names ‘Lady Water Lily Hand’ and ‘Lady Snake Lord.’
2
OLL SE
THE FALL OF AN EMIPRE
The Undiscovered Country
THE FALL OF THE MAYA THE START OF THE END
In the ninth century, the Maya world was turned upside down. Many of the great centres like Tikal were deserted.
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The sacred temples and palaces briefly became home to a few squatters, who left household rubbish in the once pristine buildings. When they too left, Tikal was abandoned forever, and the Mayan civilisation never recovered. Only a fraction of the Maya people survived to face the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. For decades, archaeologists have been searching for an explanation of the Maya collapse. Many theories have been put forward, ranging from warfare and invasion to migration, disease and over-farming. Many think the truth may lie with a combination of these and other factors
The Maya, Death of a Culture
Their civilisation was so stable and established, they even had a word for a 400-year time period.
A large mayan carving. Mayan carvings often adorned their temples and murals.
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The Undiscovered Country
DROUGHT THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE For hundreds of years the Mayans dominated large parts of the Americas until, mysteriously in the 8th and 9th century AD, a large chunk of the Mayan civilisation collapsed.
The reason for this collapse has been hotly debated, but now scientists say they might have an answer - an intense drought that lasted a century. Studies of sediments in the Great Blue Hole in Belize suggest a lack of rains caused the disintegration of the Mayan civilisation, and a second dry spell forced them to relocate elsewhere.The theory that a drought led to a decline of the Mayan Classic Period is not entirely new, but the new study co-authored by Dr AndrĂŠ Droxler from Rice University in Texas provides fresh evidence for the claims. The Classic Period refers to the time from 300 to 900 AD in Mesoamerica - a region that extends from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala and northern Costa Rica. During this time the Mayans built a number of monuments, on which they recorded dates. In 514 they were building around ten per year, rising to about 40 per year in 750. But following this, the numbers began to decline quickly; by 900, no monuments were being built. Dozens of theories have attempted to explain the Classic Maya Collapse, from epidemic diseases to foreign invasion. This latest theory, though, adds fuel to the idea that climate change was the reason.
The Maya, Death of a Culture
For hundreds of years the Mayans dominated large parts of the Americas until, mysteriously in the 8th and 9th century AD, a large chunk of the Mayan civilisation collapsed. Previous research has found that periods of high and increasing rainfall coincided with a rise in population and political centres between AD 300 and 660. Professor Douglas Kennett, from Pennsylvania State University, and his research team collected a stalagmite from a cave in Belize, less than one mile (1.6km) from the Maya site of Uxbenka in Belize and about 18 miles (29km) from three other important centers. Using oxygen isotope dating in 0.004-inch (0.1mm) increments along the length of the stalagmite, the scientists uncovered a physical record of rainfall over the past 2,000 years. Combined, the stalagmite and hieroglyphs allowed the researchers to link precipitation to politics. They say a climate reversal and drying trend between 660 and 1000 AD triggered political competition, increased warfare, overall sociopolitical instability, and finally, political collapse - known as the Classic Maya Collapse.
Hole, a vast circular sinkhole off the coast of Belize that is 984 feet (300m) across and 407ft (124m) deep. The hole formed tens of thousands of years ago when sea levels were much lower, being filled as the oceans began to rise. Ongoing sedimentation at the base of the hole allows scientists to study periods from history. When there are storms or extremely wet periods, more sediments are deposited at the bottom of the lagoon. But less rainfall can also be accounted for, in particular due to the ratio of titanium to aluminium in cores taken from the sediment. A lower ratio of titanium to aluminium corresponds to dryer periods.
This was followed by an extended drought between AD 1020 and 1100 that likely corresponded with crop failures, death, famine, migration and, ultimately, the collapse of the Maya population. Dr Droxler’s research involved drilling cores from sediments in the Great Blue
The reason for the Classic Maya Collapse in 900 AD has been hotly debated. But the evidence from the Great Blue Hole in Belize (shown) suggests less rain led to famines and civil unrest. Sediements at the bottom of the 407ft (124m) deep hole provide a geological record of the past.
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kin y an su kin y an c nom che U satal uiil Y un Buluuc The Undiscovered Country
1
ulim chan chikin put Uiilnom t Ychil ah bu c ahau u h The Maya, Death of a Culture
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The Undiscovered Country
THE SPANISH CONQUEST THE END OF THE CULTURE
When the Spaniards first arrived in 1517–1519, much of Yucatán was under the control of ruling castes of central Mexican origin, claiming descent from Cuculcán, the mythical god-king who after AD 1000 had rebuilt Chichén Itzá into a powerful Early Postclassic center. During the Late Postclassic period (AD 1250-1520) the center of Maya leadership inYucatán moved to Mayapán, whose dynasty briefly reunified the region.
The conquest of the Yucatan was undoubtedly the most prolonged and difficult campaign attempted by the Spanish. The first unsuccessful attempt was led by Francisco Montejo the elder. Following 13 years of failure, Montejo eventually (in 1540) entrusted the conquest of the Yucatan to his son, Francisco Montejo the younger. Several more years of difficult campaigning followed and finally, in 1546, most of the northern portion of the peninsula came under Spanish control. The city of Merida was founded in 1542 and served as the capital of the region and the base for further Spanish incursions to the south. Like their brethren to the north, the Maya of Belize and the Peten remained defiantly independent long after the fall of other Mesoamerican people. Many years after the conquest of the northern Yucatan, the Spanish moved into the province of Uaymil. They erected a fort on the shores of Lake Bacalar and from here they attempted to convert and subjugate the Maya to the south. In 1618 two Spanish priests, Fray Bartolome de Fuensalidas and Juan de Orbita journeyed from Bacalar to Tah Itza. On the way these Franciscans journeyed up the Dzuluinicob (or New) River making stops at Lamanai, Zaczuus (near Roaring Creek), Tipu (Negroman), and eventually reaching Tah Itza (Flores, Peten) about six months later. We know that at Lamanai, Zaczuuz and Tipu the Spaniards constructed churches for the christianization of the Maya. At Tah Itza they were not so welcomed and the padres eventually left and returned to Merida.
When misery came, When Christianity came From these many Christians Who arrived With the true divinity, The True God.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
1492
Christoper Columbus’ initial arrival in Caribbean. Subsequent exploration of region makes tentative contacts with Maya of Mesoamerica
1517
Hernandez de Cordoba meet the Maya. After initially friendy greetings from the Maya with gifts of gold, his party is attcked numerous times over the next few weeks. Cordoba flees back to Cuba and tells of new lands wealth.
1518
May 26, Juan de Grijalva pulls ashore. The Maya natives allow him to draw water and present him with some gold. They order him to leave but he refuses and an indecisive battle results.
June 17, Local Totanac Indians (offshoot of the Maya) offer Grijalva treasures, hoping that they will join forces to overthrow the Aztec rule and reestablish strong Maya city states.
Novemer 18, Cortes sets sail from santiago de Cuba, gathering more recruits and supplies while openly defying Velazquez’s repeated recalls.
1519
February 21, Cortes’ expedition lands at Cozumel. March–April, Spanish victories agains Poonchan and Cintla convinces The Maya to submit to Spanish rule. They offer Cortes 20 Indian slave women. June 30, Cortes continues to covertly encourage Mayan tribes to refuse paying tribute to The Aztecs.
March 13, Cortes is joined by a Spanish castaway (Geronimo de Aguilar) who has been living with the Idians of Yucatan for 8 years. He proves to be an invaluable translator. June, Mayan cacique proposes Cortes form an alliance with the inland tribes of Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo to help overthrow The Aztecs. Mayan tribes are resentful of Aztec rule.
June 30, Cortes begins his march inland.
1520
April, Verlazquez sends Panfilo de Narvaez to capture and kill Cotres. Narvaez’s presence on the Mayan coast upsets the alliances Cortes negotiated with the cacique of Cempoala. September, The first news of smallpox spreading amongst the native population reaches Cortes. The disease kills friendly and foe Indians alike, but leaves the spanish remarkably untouched. This fact results in the Maya and other tribes to believe that the apanish have a god that protects them.
1521–22
August, In the year that follows the fall of Tenochtitlan, Cortes and his soldiers consolidate their holdings throughout Mesoamerica. Disease, starvation and increased Spanish presence at news of welth made any Mayan resistance weak. Cortes requests for Franciscans to be sent to New Spain to help convert and as-similate the native population. The natives are assigned to serve in encomienda as rewards for the service of Spanish soldiers and for Mayan and other allied caciques.
1524
Spain creates the council of the Indies to oversee all aspects of colonial administration in the New Worl. Cortes enocounters aloof Mayan people known as The Itza, the last Mayas to hold out aginst the Spanish.
1541
The last of the Maya people are subdued.
1520–60
The Maya experience rapid decline in the face of disease and heavy compulsory labour requiorements. The Spanish establish a capital city at Merida in the Yucatan Peninsula.
May 29, Using Stealth, Cortes and his native capture Narvaez at Cempoala before a general alarm is raised. Narvaez’s army weren’t particularly loyal. They surrender and are incorporated into Cortes’ arm.
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The Undiscovered Country
A MAYA ACCOUNT OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST La ix u katunil Yax hulci ob españolessob Uay Tac lumil lae T u uuc pis tun Buluc ahau U katunil Ti ix hop’i xpnoil lae T u habil quinientos dies y nuebe años Do 1519. . . .
That then was the katun period1 When the Spaniards first arrived Here In these lands. On the seventh measured tun Of 11 Ahau Was also the katun period that began Christianity, In the year or our lord fifteen nineteen, 1519 V [1546 M].2. . .
T u kin y an sulim chan T u kin y an chikin putun Uiilnom che Uiilnom tunich Ah satal uiil Ychil ah buluuc ahau katun Buluuc ahau u hop’ol u xocol Y oklal lay katun y an ca uli tz’ulob
At that time there was Zulim Chan; At that time there were western Chontal.3 Hungering were the trees; Hungering were the rocks.4 The destroyer hunger Was during the katun of the lord of 11 Ahau. 11 Ahau was the beginning of the count Because this was the katun when the foreigners arrived.
Ti u talel ob Ti likin ca uli ob e Ti ix hop’i christianoil xan i Ti lakin u tz’oc than Ych can si hoo U hetz’ katun He u kahlay uchc i Bal t u mentah ob . . .
When they came, They arrived from the east. When Christianity began also, In the east was its word completed. Heaven Born Merida Was the seat of the katun.5 This is the account of what occurred, Of what they did. . . .
Ca oci num ya Ca oci christianoil T u men lay hach christianoob Ti ul i Y etel hahal ku Hahal Ds He uac u chun num ya T oon
For this indeed was the beginning of misery For us,
U chun patan U chun limosna U chun hoc mucuuc tza U chun tz’on bacal tza U chun cumtan tza U chun tocluksah U chun tz’al pach p’ax U chun pak pach p’ax U chun caca tza U chun numsah ya U chun tocluksah U chun u meyahtabal españolesob Y etel ah kinob U meyahtabal ba tabob U meyahtabal camsahob U meyahtabal fiscalob T u men mehen palalob U palil cahob Ta muk uchac numsabal ti ya Ah num yaob Lay hach otzilob e Lay hach otzilob ma likul ob i Ti lic u mentic Cij u tz’aal pach Lay u antachristoil Y okol cabob lae Uh cab cohil cahob U chamacil cahob Uh picil cahob Y ah tz’utz’il otzil maseualob lae He uac bini to kuchuc T u kin u kuchul Y alil u u ichob Y icnal ca Ca yumil Ti Ds. Emon u justisia ca yumil Ti Ds. Hun yuk Ti bal cah Hach likul Ti Ds. Bin tal bal Ah kan tenal Yx puc y ol a U tz’utannilob Y okol cab lae.
The beginning of tribute, The beginning of tithes, The beginning of strife over purse snatching, The beginning of strife with blowguns, The beginning of strife over promotions, The beginning of the creation of many factions, The beginning of forced seizure for debts, The beginning of forced imprisonment for debts, The beginning of village strife, The beginning of misery and affliction, The beginning of forcible separation, The beginning of forced labor for the Spaniards And the sun priests, Forced labor for the town chiefs, Forced labor for the teachers, Forced labor for the public prosecutors, By the boys, The youths of the towns, While the force of great suffering Afflicted the suffering people. These were the very poor, These were the very poor who did not rebel At the oppression That was inflicted on them. This was the Antichrist Here on earth, The Earth Lions of the towns, The Foxes of the towns, The Bedbugs of the towns Are the bloodsuckers of the poor peasants here. For indeed the time is coming soon Of the day of the coming Of tears to the eyes And the presence Of our Lord Who is God. The justice of our Lord God will descend Everywhere In the world. God will be very angry And something will come From Yellow Death And the Destroying Spirit, The oppressors On the face of this earth.
A portrait of Hernan Cortes, the Spaniard who lead the quest to take over the Yucatan Peninsula and defeat the native Maya.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
2
The Undiscovered Country
DEFORESTATION THE END OF THE CULTURE
Ancient Maya flourished for six centuries across southern Mexico and northern Central America, but their civilization started collapsing since A.D. 695. While earlier studies have attributed the decline in Maya population to drought in several cities, this new research adds more to it suggesting Maya people’s contribution to the collapse.
‘We’re not saying deforestation explains the entire drought, but it does explain a substantial portion of the overall drying that is thought to have occurred,’ the study’s lead author Benjamin Cook, a climate modeler at Columbia University, said in a statement. Using computer simulations, the researchers compared the loss of rain forests in the Maya territory as their population grew. They analyzed what effect did the crops that replaced the forests had on climatic conditions. Researchers estimated that 60 percent of the drying conditions could have been caused by deforestation carried out by the Maya. Maya people are said to have cut down trees to obtain large amounts of lime plaster for constructing their cities. According to researcher Thomas Sever from the University of Alabama, who co-authored a study titled “Collapse of the Maya” published in the journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres in 2010, the Maya would have used at least 20 trees to produce a single square meter of cityscape. They also grew corn crops replacing forests which might have contributed to the dry climate, said the experts. As corn replaced the forests, they reflected the sunlight back into the space. The ground absorbed less energy from the sun and less water vapor was absorbed in the air, thus reducing the formation of rain-making clouds. This contributed to less rain and more drought conditions in the region.
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The Maya, Death of a Culture
The Maya are often depicted as people who lived in complete harmony with their environment, But like many other cultures before and after them, they ended up deforesting and destroying their landscape in efforts to eke out a living in hard times. 55
The Undiscovered Country
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