The Physic Garden at the Palace of Holyroodhouse Sutherland Forsyth

The Return of the Holyrood Physic Garden Sutherland Forsyth

2020 marks 350 years since Robert Sibbald and Andrew Balfour established a Physic Garden beside the Palace of Holyroodhouse, eventually giving rise to the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. This autumn sees the opening of a new incarnation of that original Palace garden.

The new Physic Garden takes its inspiration from several historic gardens at the Palace and is located, on what was an open grassed area behind the Abbey Strand buildings, by Queen Mary’s bathhouse. There is no entry fee, with the public able to wander among three different areas. The first is inspired by the original 17th century Physic Garden, with raised beds containing culinary herbs, native Scottish plants, varieties featured in the Hortus Medicus Edinburgensis of 1683, and more. With over 20 beds, planters, yew hedges and benches, this space is an accessible haven in a busy city.

The second area is located on what was once part of the old 16 th century Privy Garden. Indeed, visitors can even see the remains of the old Privy Garden wall running up the middle of the new garden. Instead of the intricate parterre hedges, however, the same patterns have been recreated with bulbs and long grasses, providing winding paths to walk through. Lastly, a medicinal meadow with a path running through its centre is inspired by the wilder monastic gardens once tended by the canons of Holyrood Abbey, where medicinal herbs were grown for use in healing.

The new Physic Garden has been created by Royal Collection Trust— the charity that looks after the royal art collection on behalf of The Queen and for the benefit of the nation, and oversees the opening of the official residences of HM The Queen, including the Palace of Holyroodhouse. The project is part of Future Programme; a multimillion pound investment in improving the visitor experience at the Palace, which has included creating a new Welcome Centre, resurfacing the huge forecourt at the front of the Palace, re-displaying many paintings and works of art, and constructing a new Learning Centre in the Abbey Strand building at the entrance to Holyrood. Ahead of the opening, a group of graduates and volunteers from the RBGE Diploma in Herbology, led by Catherine Conway-Payne came to help install many of the plant labels. They also gathered the very first of the Physic Garden’s plants, ready for them to be dried and used later in the year. It was wonderful to finally see people not only enjoying the garden, but using it for its original purpose— as a place of learning, and a resource to enhance health and well-being.

The garden opens to the public this autumn and, as the plants have been selected to ensure year-round interest, there will be plenty to enjoy. As with every garden, as the years pass it will grow richer and fuller, but we are so pleased that in the 350th anniversary year of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, not only has its original Physic Garden been re-imagined and reincarnated, but the first people to collect its plants were herbologists who have been taught at or who work in the Botanics today. The garden has come full circle.

Photos: Sutherland Forsyth. Further photos will be available following the official opening of the garden.

Solar Dyeing Elizabeth Oliver

Dyeing fleece and yarn with foraged plants is a regular hobby for me, collecting from my garden and when walking the family dog. In fact, we call it ‘dog-walk-dyeing’ and I have knitted several sweaters and scarves in these muted hedgerow colours. It was an odd summer this year, though, with restrictions on moving around and meeting people, whilst all the while the sun shone and nature flourished. Back in April, at the beginning of lockdown, I set up some solar dye pots, with dandelion flowers picked from two verges near my home. Solar dyeing is a grand way to describe a couple of jam jars stuffed with dandelion flower heads and topped up with water, but the magic happens when the contents warm up in the sunshine day after day, and colour from the plant material transfers to the yarn or fleece. The substrate in my jars was yarn spun from a local Jacob sheep, called Tulip. I love her fleece; it is lustrous and soft. Usually, I would mordant fleece or spun yarn with alum and cream of tartar, but on this occasion the yarn was scoured, but unmordanted. The filled jars stood in a sunny corner of the garden, warming up and cooling down— and occasionally being moved because they were in the way. Eventually, when the water looked quite murky and I decided that the alchemy must already have happened, I emptied out the sweet, fruit-smelling contents. I have to be honest, the results were not spectacular.

I had kept back one mini-skein of undyed yarn for comparison and can see that the first dyebath gave a clear yellowish colour, whereas those flowers picked just a week later had a warmer brownish tone. The water source was the same, and the position in the garden was the same. The flowers were picked from the same verges (behind my neighbours north facing wall). Had the plants altered their chemical makeup in the intervening seven days?

Now I’m trying again, this time with sunflower petals and some silk thread. Once again, I have chosen not to mordant. This time, the thread seems to have taken on some colour after only a couple of weeks…

Photos: Elizabeth Oliver

Flora in Scottish Gaelic Place-Names Jake King

It hardly needs to be said that flora and fauna were of utmost importance to pre-industrial man. Thus, it is unsurprising that almost all the flora abundant in the Scotland of old appear in placenames of Gaelic origin.

Muran or bent grass (Ammophila arenaria), so commonly found on sandy beaches in the Hebrides and West coast of Scotland, is found in the poetic name of South Uist—Tìr a’ Mhurain, ‘the land of the bent grass’. (Whilst the poetic name for North Uist is Tìr an Eòrna, ‘the land of the corn’.) Likewise, Àird a’ Mhurain on Barra translates as ‘the height of the bent grass’. On both Coll and Iona, we find Port a’ Mhurain, ‘the anchorage of the bent grass’. Elsewhere in Scotland, particularly in Wester Ross, the Gaelic for bent grass is mealbhan. Several places in that area are simply called Am Mealbhan, ‘the bentgrass’, denoting their sandy dunes.

Seaweed was, of course, important to Highland and Hebridean culture and this is reflected in place-names; not in the names of towns and villages so much as in smaller coastal features. The edible Duileasg, or dulse, (Palmaria palmata) appears many times: Geò an Duilisg, ‘the creek of the dulse’, in Applecross; Eilean an Duilisg, ‘the island of the dulse’, off Colonsay; Sgeir an Duilisg, ‘the skerry of dulse’, off Berneray. Feamainn is a general term for many sorts of seaweed, but is not seen so often in place-names. Nonetheless, on Tiree we find Rathad na Feamainn, ‘the road of the seaweed’, used by the crofters in Gott, an inland village, to access the coast and bring the seaweed inland. Craobh is the Gaelic word for tree. The Gaelic name of Crieff, in Perthshire, is Craoibh, meaning ‘tree place’. In all likelihood, a famous single tree once stood here. Indeed, a local man born in the late eighteenth century claims to remember the site of the then-felled tree stump. As with the nearby Fortingall Yew— the oldest tree in Britain —these ancient trees may have been important sites in the pagan past. In Loch Lomond, there are two islands containing this element: Creinch, which in Gaelic is Chraoibhe-Innis, ‘tree island’; and Eilean na hAon-Chraoibhe, ‘the island of the one tree’. The latter serves to remind us of the danger of using place-names as a means of researching where certain flora used to grow. Sometimes the name of a plant or tree appears in part of a place-name precisely because it was rare in the area, not because it was abundant. Juniper (Juniperus communis) is known in Gaelic as aiteann and is seen in several place-names, most famously in Speyside’s Tomatin. This name derives from An Tom Aiteann ‘the juniper hill’, and on an old map, circa 1591 , it is described as Tomm-Ackenn, and Juniper moat. Moat or motte is the Scots word for a mound and seems to be a translation of the original Gaelic tom, meaning ‘hill’.

Yew (Taxus baccata) are very common in the Highlands, and place-names reflect this. The Gaelic word is iùbhrach. Tomnahurich, a famous cemetery in Inverness, is Tom na h-Iùbhraich, ‘the hill of the yews’. Ury, near Stonehaven, possibly derives its name from An Iubhraidh, ‘the yew tree area.’ When visiting the Ury estate in 1867, one writer remarked: Numerous beeches of startling dimensions grace the lawn, and near where stood the old homestead an yew tree now in the strength of its power, reminds one that it might have enjoyed, probably did enjoy, youth contemporaneously with the ancient Laird of Ury.

Clovers or shamrocks (Trifolia spp.) often appear as seamrag. (Indeed, the English word ‘shamrock’ comes from the Irish Gaelic seamróg). Thus, Achtemarack in Inverness-shire is, in Scottish Gaelic, Achadh an t-Seamraig, or ‘field of clovers’. Back in 1654, Glenchamber in Galloway was written as Gleyschambrach and probably contains the seamrag element, meaning ‘shamrock glen’. Rye (Secale cereale) or seagal, appears in several names: Shewglie in Glenmoriston is Seagalaidh, ‘place of rye’; whilst Ashogle on the river Deveron is Àth Seagail, ‘rye ford’.

Raineach, the Gaelic word for fern or bracken (Pteridium spp.) appears, most famously, in the naming of the Rannoch region of Perthshire. It also appears as a common noun in various smaller place-names, such as An Camas Raineach, ‘the bracken bay’, in Ross-shire.

As one would expect, fraoch or heather (Calluna vulgaris) appears in many place-names. Am Fraoch-Eilean, ‘the heather isle’, can be found naming a few islands across Scotland, these are usually small heather-coated islands, not far from the mainland. We find one in Loch Lomond, as well as Loch Duich in Ross-shire, off Morar, and off Grimsay, and again in North Uist. Freuchie, in Fife, is also named from this element and would be called Fraochaidh in modern Gaelic.

Plague and Pestilence, Past and Present Claire MacKay

We have many reasons to be grateful for the evolution of germ theory and the resulting progress that has separated us from the conditions of the Dark Ages. Whilst this scientific breakthrough led to a better quality of life for many, it would be a mistake to entirely disregard older practices as mere uninformed experiments.

Although our Scottish ancestors of the 17 th and 18 th centuries lacked an understanding of the pathogenic origins of disease, they were nonetheless painfully aware of the diseases we now know to be caused by microbes. The language used to describe commonplace diseases was, of course, vastly different from our own, but surviving records and medical manuscripts provide clear records of the microbial infections and, crucially, of skilfully developed plant medicine treatments. These records indicate an extensive pharmacopeia of plants used for complex treatments of diseases likely caused by microbes —such as tuberculosis, typhus, diphtheria, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, and pneumonia — which took a large toll on the early populations of the British Isles (Wagner et al, 2017).

Ancientbiotics So far, the lack of necessary scientific validation and supporting research has prevented modern medicine’s integration of traditional approaches for treating infections. However, antibiotic resistant infections and the emergence of ‘superbugs’ such as MRSA, have led to a recent interest in this area. Promising research is underway, serving as a potential gateway to the rediscovery of the plant wisdom of our ancestors. For example, collaboration between scientists, ethnobotanists and historians at the Ancientbiotics Project at the University of Nottingham (2020), looks to the past to evaluate historic cures through modern methodology. Thus scientists, working alongside an Anglo-Saxon specialist, were able to develop a leading antimicrobial formula for the treatment of MRSA, based on a recipe from the Leech Book of Bald, which dates back to the 10 th century. A similar experiment conducted by researchers on the Isle of Arran examined the anti-microbial potential of 83 plants listed in Celtic medical literature. Of the plants tested, around 80% showed anti-microbial properties, with 14 showing strong potential in treating modern infections. Garlic (Allium sativum) and Juniper (Juniperus communis) showed the greatest potential, echoing the ingredients of the AngloSaxon remedy, which contained three plants from the allium family, including Wild Garlic (Allium ursinum) and Bulb Garlic (Allium sativum) (Wagner et al, 2020).

Potions for Plague and Pestilence If we could speak directly to our ancestors, and ask their advice on the ailments that concern us, what might their words of wisdom be, and how would these relate to our contemporary understanding of medicine? One source that may provide some answers is an 18 th century herbal notebook, held in the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow. It contains notes from a series of classes taken by a student who wishes, as a note on the first page tells us: to know what herbs is for every truble, pin and diseases which befal man The notebook contains a comprehensive series of questions and answers, covering most ailments and effective herbal remedies for each. For example, (Anon., C18th, p.5): Which herbs are for the plague or pestilence fevers or any other regions diseases? elder leaves, red briar leaves, red sage, rue, garlic, barberry leaves or inward bark, agrimony, ivy berries dried in a powder and taken in plantain water.

As a herbalist passionate about the use of native plant medicines, I note how every herb listed is native to Scotland and relatively easy to source locally, but what place do these herbs have in today’s medicine cabinet, and is there any

validation of their suggested use? Let’s take a closer look at a few of the herbs mentioned: Sage (Salvia officinalis) There’s a saying in Gaelic ‘Carson a gheibheadh duine bás. Aig an’ bheil sàiste fas’, which roughly translates as ‘Why should any man die who has sage in his garden?’ . Salvia officinalis has a long and varied history of traditional use in medicine. The ‘officinalis’ tells us that it was one of the main herbal medicines held in the ‘office’ of the apothecary, an official herb. In recent years, it has been the subject of intensive studies. A 2017 study (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh) updated the pharmacological actions of S. officinalis as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (relieving the sensation of pain), antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antidementia, hypoglycaemic (reducing blood sugar levels), and hypolipidemic (reducing cholesterol levels) . Traditionally a herb that was used in treatment of fevers, sore throats and general signs of infection, it is easy to see why it was held in such high esteem by the Gaels (Darwin, 2008). Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) All parts of this plant contain a bright yellow dye, especially noticeable in the inner bark. This bright yellow dye is berberine, which has been subject to clinical studies for its beneficial actions in diabetes and cardiovascular health. However, berberine is also a powerful antibiotic, and has been demonstrated in clinical studies to inhibit 96% of MRSA growth at relatively small doses. In combination with antibiotic treatment in infections, this plant-derived constituent has even demonstrated a synergistic effect in the antibiotic treatment of antibiotic-resistant infections (Yu et al, 2005). This is a promising discovery, suggesting the potential of plant medicines to reduce reliability on pharmaceutical antibiotics in the treatment of serious infections. In a bygone era, this powerful antibiotic plant medicine would have been an excellent remedy to have to hand. Garlic (Allium sativum) The use of Garlic spans the breadth of time, as far back as the Babylonians. Past understandings of Garlic’s antimicrobial and antibiotic activities is clear from the therapeutic applications of the herb. The Copts recommended a Garlic cure on a fasting stomach to clear the intestines and head. Ear drops for a sore ear in Egypt consisted of goose grease and Garlic juice. Tutankhamun was buried with a bulb of Garlic, no doubt demonstrating how highly the plant was revered Garden (Manniche, 2006). In Britain, the Gaels were fond of the wild variety ‘Creamh’, to help prevent food from spoiling (Beith,1995). All members of the allium family contain sulphur compounds. Allium sativum has over 50 known organosulfate compounds. An enzyme released when the bulbs of garlic are crushed assists in the production of allicin, which has been clinically proven to be antibiotic, antimicrobial, and to lower cholesterol, reduce blood pressure and blood sugar. As the Ancientbiotics Project demonstrated (2020), a formula containing three members of the allium family has high potential for the inhibition of MRSA and the treatment of antibiotic-resistant infections. It is possible that the superstitious use of garlic to ward off evil spirits stems from an intuitive understanding that garlic could alleviate the causes of disease. Many ancient descriptions of the nature of illness, such as being ‘shot by elfarrows’ or ‘afflicted by evil spirits’, were ways of filling in gaps in understanding. That Highlanders believed Garlic would purify the blood does not negate the efficacy of the remedy (Beith,1995). Elder leaves (Sambucus nigra) The abundant uses for the fruits of the elder tree are fairly common knowledge today. Elder is perhaps one of the most ubiquitous of herbal remedies, specifically used for colds and flu symptoms. However, the use of elder leaves remains mostly in the realm of tradition. Elder leaves are widely documented in Highland folk medicine as being used for treating wounds (especially ‘green wounds’) and burns. Typically, the leaves were combined with lard to make an ointment, often with other herbs added. In the 17 th century, this ointment was known as Unguentum Sambuci viride and used for most bruises, wounds and external complaints, including piles. An oil known as Green Oil and used for the same purposes was made from green elder leaves and linseed oil (Grieve,1931 ). Culpeper (1652-1653) records the 17 th century usage of the fresh juice of elder leaves in treating sore eyes, suggesting perhaps an antiseptic action. Interestingly, Black Elder (Sambucus Nigra L.) is one of the plants that has been closely examined by researchers for its antiviral potential against SARS COV-2 (Fakhar et al, 2020). The whole plant seems to exhibit strong antiviral properties,

although the exact mechanisms are not understood, and it seems the plant is also immunomodulatory (Porter, 2017). . Whilst research is still ongoing, and there is some caution around the potential of the berries to increase cytokine activity during a COVID-19 infection, contemporary studies appear to confirm Elder medicine is of value against viruses in general, in addition to its traditional antibiotic and vulnerary action.

In Sync with the Seasons Many of the cures of the past were born from the necessities of seasonal availability. New findings are revealing there is more to this simple approach of living in harmony with the seasons than first meets the eye. In 2015, a study which hoped to determine the most effective time of year to vaccinate looked at the expression of thousands of genes and how they differed through the seasons. The findings showed a correlation between the winter season and increased immune activity, also associated with increased inflammation markers. This would explain why people are more prone to colds and ‘flu during the winter months, when immune system reactivity is heightened, and also why rheumatic symptoms worsen at this time of year. However, scientists noted a difference in results between Iceland and countries in the Southern and Northern hemispheres. They concluded that these differences in gene expression were most likely accounted for by changing light levels through the year. Iceland, of course, has markedly different light levels— with near to 24 hours of light in summer, and 24 hours of darkness in winter (Dopico et al, 2015). Our ancestors didn’t know about changes in gene expression, but at the time of the autumn equinox, when the light begins to decline, Nature provides a bounty of hedgerow hips, haws, berries and fruits rich in anthocyanidins, antioxidants and vitamins to boost our immune defences. These would certainly have featured heavily in the diet of our forefathers, and this simple and intuitive way of living in harmony with the seasons helped our ancestors to remain in the best possible health through the centuries. 43 Herbal Histories Research into the antiviral potential of Garden the anthocyanidins found in berries such as blackcurrants, bilberries, raspberries, hawthorn berries, sloes, cranberries, plums and apple skin discovered that anthocyanidins bind to many of the receptors of common viruses. They not only prevent viruses from entering cells, but prevent infected cells from replicating the virus, thereby demonstrating potential for preventing viral infections and limiting both the course of infection and the duration of symptoms (Sampangi-Ramaiah et al, 2020). This proved to be the case for influenza A & B, common cold viruses, herpes zoster and simplex, and also HIV. Anthocyanidins from several fruits have also been shown to have an inhibiting effect on Coronavirus, by attaching to two protease sites necessary for SARS Cov2 to infect cells. The findings suggest a diet rich in fruits containing anthocyanidins may help prevent infection, or reduce severity of infection by many seasonal viruses, including perhaps COVID-19.

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and Complementary Medicine, Vol 7:4, pp.433- 440 Grieve, M. (1931 ) A Modern Herbal, Jonathan Cape: London Manniche, L. (2006) An Egyptian Herbal, British Museum Press: London Porter, R.S. (2017) ‘A Review of the Antiviral Properties of Black Elder (Sambucus Nigra L.) Products’, in Phytotherapy Research, Vol 31:4, Sampangi-Ramaiah, H.; Vishwakarma, R.; & Uma Shaanker, R. (2020) ‘Molecular Docking Analysis of Selected Natural Products from Plants for Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease’, in Current Science, Vol.118:7, pp. 1087-1092 University of Nottingham (2020) ‘AncientBiotics — Medieval Medicine Conquers MRSA Superbug’, online article: https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/impact/c asestudies/ancientbiotics.aspx , accessed 22.09.20 Wagner, C.S.; De Gezelle, J; et al (2017) ‘Antibacterial Activity of medicinal Plants from The Physicians of Myddvai, a 14 th Century Welsh Medical Manuscript’, in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol 203:6, pp.171 -181 Wagner, C; De Gezelle, J.; & Komarnytsky, S. (2020) ‘Celtic Provenance in Traditional Herbal Medicine of Medieval Wales and Classical Antiquity’, I Frontiers in Pharmacology, Vol 28:11, p.105 Yu, H-H.; Kim, K.-J; Cha, J-D; Kim H-K; Lee Y-E; Choi, N-Y & You, Y-O (2005) ‘Antimicrobial Activity of Berberine Alone and in Combination with Ampicillin or Oxacillin Against Methicillin- Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus’, in Journal of Medicinal Food, Vol 8:4, pp.454-61