The Vietnam War In An Hour Neil Smith
The Vietnam War was, and perhaps in spite of the ongoing engagements in Afghanistan and Iraq, still is, the most traumatic military experience which the United States has been involved in. It was a conflict which cost America 58,219 lives, destroyed two presidencies, and provoked such unrest at home that protestors were killed on university campuses, and Congress was forced to limit the executive branch from taking future military action without approval from the legislature. The impact on South East Asia was even greater. More than two million Vietnamese died during the conflict, and the resulting political and military upheaval triggered communist revolutions in Laos and Cambodia. Thailand, Korea, Australia and New Zealand also provided troops to support the American war effort. Vietnam is a narrow, “S-shaped� country running for 2000 km between China and the Gulf of Tonkin in the north, to the South China Sea in the south; and Laos and Cambodia in the west. Most of Vietnam is mountainous, with a long forested chain of mountains running down the centre and western side. However, large flat and fertile land lies in the south, centred on the capital city Hanoi and in the Mekong Delta in the south. The latter is the food bowl of the nation, producing, for example, three rice crops a year.
In 1887, it became part of the French Empire, along with Laos and Cambodia. Together, the French referred to this region as Indochina. Life under French rule was largely grim, and an eclectic range of opposition groups emerged. The Vietnamese Communist Party was formed in February 1930, and although it had suffered periods of repression and exile, by the start of World War II, it had assumed a place at the forefront of resistance to rule in Indochina. During World War Two, the country was occupied by the Japanese, who allowed the French to maintain control of their colony, thus inflicting what the nationalist Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh later described as a double yoke of imperialism on the people. At the end of the war, Ho Chi Minh declared the creation of an independent Vietnamese state; something which the French, with British and US support would not tolerate. Between 1948-54 the First Indochina War was fought between Ho’s VietMinh and the French. After the French defeat at Dienbienphu in 1954, the country was partitioned and an anti-communist state was formed in the south. Propped up by the US, her involvement grew steadily during 1954-65, to the point where she assumed responsibility for the war against the communist insurgents.
In spite of an immense military campaign, the USA withdrew her forces from Vietnam in 1973, having failed to defeat the communists, and having failed to create a strong, stable state in the south. Within two years, Vietnam would be once again unified, but under the control of Hanoi. This, in one hour, is the history of the Vietnam War.
The first Indochina War and the end of French rule
Letter from Ho Chi Minh to President Harry S. Truman, 28 February 1946. Source: US National Archives
On 2 September 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochina Workers Party, and effective leader of the revolt against the Japanese invaders, declared Vietnamese independence in Saigon. Although this ceremony was witnessed by several US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) agents sent to coordinate opposition to the Japanese, the French were quick to reclaim their former grip on their colonies in Indochina. Within a month of Ho’s proclamation, they had initiated a military campaign against the Vietminh, with the primary intention of re-establishing their influence in the country. From the start of 1946 until the outbreak of the First Indochina War in October 1946, both sides demonstrated a willingness to negotiate, whilst pursuing low level military action against the other. By 6 March 1946, a preliminary agreement had been reached recognizing the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as an independent state within the French Union, with referendums over the future of the provinces of Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin to follow. Unfortunately, neither French officials in Vietnam, nor Ho’s supporters were satisfied with the agreement, and both groups seemed content to see the situation drift towards civil war. The trigger for the war came in late November 1946 when the French commander in Indochina, General Etienne Valluy, authorised the bombardment of the Vietnamese settlement in Haiphong, resulting in approximately 6,000 Vietnamese fatalities. On 19 December, French forces in Hanoi demanded that the occupants of the city surrender their weapons. Authorised to do so by the party leadership, General Giap, Minister of the Interior in the DRV, refused and declared the start of a war of resistance against the French colonialists. In response to the overwhelming advantage held by the French in terms of weaponry and manpower, the VietMinh fled to the countryside. However, their determination and willingness to absorb huge casualties shocked the French forces, who expected an easy victory. Ho’s adoption of a guerrilla ‘hit and run’ strategy proved effective in the early stages of the war in denying the countryside to the French, which in turn provided a greater opportunity for Ho to wage a political war targeted at the Vietnamese peasantry. For the Americans this situation presented a dilemma. The classic Wilsonian
liberalism which had underpinned America’s approach to both world wars was resolutely anti-colonialist; indeed the copy of the declaration of independence quoted extensively in Ho’s declaration of the Republic of Vietnam in September 1945 was actually provided by US agents. Ho appealed to this strand of liberalism in the months after the end of the war, sending a series of messages to Washington asking for help. None of these were replied to. The wider context of the Cold War in Europe and Asia, along with suspicions over Ho’s ideological leanings, persuaded both of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower that they should not accede to his requests for support. The USA did not want to antagonise the French, especially after the creation of NATO in 1949, and the ongoing concern over Germany’s future. Furthermore, the fear of the spread of communism into Asia from China (communist since 1949) and the start of the Korean War in June 1950, forced the hand of the US. Many in Washington were highly sceptical about Ho’s claims to be a mere nationalist. Indeed, the prevailing view was that nationalism proved to be a convenient fig leaf for all communists to hide behind, in their battles against western colonial rulers: once the imperialists had been removed, so the true colours of the guerrillas would (?) YES appear. US Secretary of State, Dean Acheson summed this position up perfectly in 1949, stating all Stalinists in colonial areas are nationalists.
In an attempt to counter the Vietminh’s appeal to Vietnamese nationalists, and to solidify US support, the French introduced a new government in March 1949. It was headed by former Emperor Bao Dai, and had the power to manage its own foreign affairs and establish a Vietnamese Army. Whilst the Emperor proved to be an unconvincing advertisement for ‘third force’ politics in Indochina, the outbreak of the Korean War had a significant impact on US attitudes to the communist threat in Asia. As a result of the North Korean invasion over the 38 th parallel, US aid increased considerably, to the point it was funding 80% of the French war effort against the Vietminh. In addition, America’s involvement in Vietnam started with the creation of the Military Assistance and Advisory Group, Vietnam in September 1950.
Militarily, however, the French lack of manpower in Vietnam restricted their ability to launch the concerted offensives required to capture and hold territory throughout the country. By the middle of 1953, the Vietminh were approximately 60% strength of the French, but were able to launch more frequent attacks against a foe increasingly committed to defense, and looking for a way to end the conflict. This was the context in which General Henri Navarre developed a plan to lure the Vietminh into a conventional battle, where he would achieve the decisive victory of the war. He established a strongpoint at Dienbienphu, a remote outpost in the north of the country, so chosen so as to prevent Vietminh infiltration into neighbouring Laos. Its airfield also meant that the garrison could be easily re-supplied by air. Unbeknown to Navarre, Giap had managed to surround the 13 000 troops at the French base with 50 000 men, and co-ordinated the immense physical task of hauling heavy artillery up the mountains surrounding the French position. The battle of Dienbienphu started on 13 March 1954. In spite of constant French diplomatic pressure, the US refused to intervene with airstrikes against the Vietminh positions. When the battle ended on 7 May, the French casualties were enormous: they suffered 1 500 killed, with 10 000 taken prisoner. The DRV gained fresh impetus in the ongoing Geneva peace talks, whilst the French had to accept that their role in Vietnam’s future was about to come to a swift and ignominious end.
Eisenhower and Vietnam: creating the quagmire
President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles (from left) greet South Vietnam's President Ngo Dinh Diem at Washington National Airport, 8 May 1957
When Dwight Eisenhower assumed responsibility for the American commitment to the French cause in South East Asia, the US contribution was approximately 40% of the French war effort. By the time he left the White House, America was upholding an independent South Vietnam, and providing over 700 advisors to the South Vietnamese Army. During his time in office, the US had assumed sole responsibility for the future of South Vietnam, and involved the US to an extent that withdrawal was not an option for his successors as President. Eisenhower’s attitude to South East Asia was heavily influenced by the context of the Cold War. In particular, he was concerned about the growing threat from communism in Asia. The communist victory in China in 1949, the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950, as well as the British struggle with communist rebels in Malaya appeared to confirm the fears expressed in the 1950 National Security Council report NSC-68, which warned that communism had become a
global, rather than purely European, threat. Accordingly, he described the nature of the threat posed in South East Asia in terms which would provide shorthand for US concerns for the next 19 years. Whilst not using the phrase himself, his description of the ’domino theory’ in a press conference on 7 April 1954, outlined the consequences for neighbouring countries if a communist state emerged in Vietnam after the French withdrawal. In essence, men and resources would be provided to support communist insurgencies in countries such as Laos, Cambodia, Thailand and Malaya increasing the likelihood that these too would eventually become communist states themselves. Eisenhower’s first major test in Indochina came in March 1954, and the impending French defeat at Dienbienphu. He had previously been critical of the French strategy in the months preceding the battle and believed that General Navarre’s plan to fight the decisive battle of the war in such unhelpful terrain seriously undermined any chance of a successful outcome. As the battle progressed, he was under pressure from the French and members of his own party to intervene with American airpower, in order to prevent both French defeat on the battlefield, which might then lead to the subsequent fall of SE Asia to communism, and subsequent capitulation in the Geneva negotiations. The President adopted a middle path designed to put off immediate US intervention whilst at the same time placing the possibility of US military intervention in the public domain. His four preconditions for intervention were: clear objectives had to be met; intervention had to be restricted to air and sea; Congress had to support action; and France had to agree to full independence for Vietnam. Lacking Congressional support, Eisenhower kept American forces out of the battle. The resulting Geneva peace conference temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17 th parallel. The Vietminh were given control of North Vietnam, whilst a capitalist state was created in the south. Formal unification elections were scheduled to take place in 1956. The response from the US was mixed. Whilst on the one hand, it represented the first time land had been voluntarily ceded to communism, but it allowed the US to develop South Vietnam into a shining example of a non-
communist and non-colonial state in SE Asia, whilst the two year period until the unification elections would provide sufficient time to develop the anti-communist vote. After the division of Vietnam, the US took responsibility for South Vietnam from the French, and set itself the goal of making the country politically stable, economically self-sufficient, capable of providing for its own internal security, and dealing with an invasion from North Vietnam. To achieve these goals, it implemented a three-pronged strategy. Firstly, it established the South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO), a regional defence grouping consisting of USA, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Philippines, and Pakistan. Although SEATO’s focus was on protecting a very wide area across Asia, the Treaty’s protocol identified Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam as areas of possible conflict, and that member states would “act to meet the common danger” should these territories be threatened. The second element of the strategy was targeted at the communist state above the 17th parallel, and was based on CIA subversion. Colonel Edward Lansdale, based in Saigon, controlled all efforts to undermine the Hanoi Government. Examples of the tactics deployed included destroying printing presses, ‘psywar’ ops to embarrass North Vietnam and encourage emigration to the South (such as dropping pornographic images over North Vietnamese villages), sand emptied into petrol tanks of buses, and ‘genuine’ astrological charts to predict a troubled future for the North. The strand, and most important strand, was the ‘nation-building’ project in South Vietnam. Between 1954-60, the US provided nearly $7billion in aid, making South Vietnam the fifth largest recipient of US aid in the world. In spite of repeated warnings, Prime Minster Diem ignored demands to broaden his power base by cultivating popular support. Instead, he maintained a repressive regime, knowing that American fears about communist expansion in the region heavily outweighed any other fears they may have had about the nature of the regime operating in the
South. In order to develop the military capabilities of South Vietnam, the US created the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), and despatched 750 advisors to train it in counter-subversion techniques. However, whilst they were giving Diem the means to create what was in effect a dictatorship, the US ignored the concerns of ordinary South Vietnamese villagers, who blamed Diem’s corrupt regime for denying them land ownership and poor living standards. By placing the future of Indochina into the context of the wider Cold War, Eisenhower arguably committed future US Presidents to maintaining the security of an anti-communist state in the south. Furthermore, he had authorised a repressive, military-based approach to tackling the communist threat in the region at the expense of building a popular, democratic government. These measures therefore created a “quagmire” which America was neither able to extricate herself from nor make any effective progress with. Whilst Eisenhower had not committed any US troops or bombers to the area, he left a commitment which became inextricably linked to US credibility in the Cold War, yet offered little hope of long term success in the war against communism.