Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh : Impacts of Sea Level Rise by Harry Lam

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh : Impacts of Sea Level Rise Semester 1 AY 2021/2022 Master of Architecture National University of Singapore

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 1: Bangladesh Coastal Conditions

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Preface This thesis is a culmination of my study on the climatic impacts currently faced in the rural villages of Bangladesh. My interest in such issues stems from my deep desire as a creative practitioner to contribute towards newfound solutions and innovative possibilities that could better the lifestyle and livelihood of people in need. As the effects of climate change are expected to worsen in future years, humanity will be forced to address such imminent issues of sea-level rise in the foreseeable future. Thus, it is of importance to raise awareness towards such causes and observe the actions taken in countries like Bangladesh, which are currently facing such hardships. By learning from these countries we can then hope to apply the same knowledge and understanding to other future countries who may experience the same climatic ramifications.

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor Erik L’Heureux, for the constant guidance and support throughout the research. Thank you for the patience in helping me through the project during such difficult times in the midst of a pandemic. My sincere thanks also extends to my secondary reader Florian Heinzelmann, who has also taught me previously. Thanks for introducing me to the fundamentals of vernacular architecture as well as improving my Rhino Software skills throughout the elective.

Advisor, Interviewees, Lecturers and Consultants Erik Gerard L’Heureux (Thesis Advisor) Florian Heinzelmann (Secondary Reader) Fatema Zohra Adiba (Bangladesh Architect) Prova Igbal (Bangladesh Architect) Atul Garg (Indian Architect)

Student Name: Harry Lam Student ID: A0215686W

I thank my Bangladeshi friends Fatema and Prova for the constant support throughout my research by providing me with internal information of the situation. Thank you for the extreme efforts you have contributed to my research and the patience you had towards my countless questions asked. I would like to thank my friend Ming Cao for the support throughout my thesis and for believing in me. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their support and encouragement.

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Contents Preface Acknowledgements Research

6 7

Research Abstract (324 words)

Introduction

CHAPTER 1: Overview Bangladesh Failing Solutions

CHAPTER 2: Micro Investigations Evolution of Rural Housing

CHAPTER 3: Macro Investigations Climate Change on Livelihoods

CHAPTER 3.1: Macro Investigations Impacts on Rural Farming

CHAPTER 3.2: Macro Investigations Impacts on Village Milieu

CHAPTER 3.3: Macro Investigations The Future of Rural Villages

Conclusion

End Notes

Appendix A & B

Bibliography

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 2: Bangladesh Coastal Conditions

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise Bangladesh is a country that is vulnerable to the effects

architecture and resilient housings alone are not enough

of climate change and the rising of sea levels, due to the country’s geographical typography, being flat and lowlying.1 With the encroachment of seawater inland, this has

to sustain the livelihood of these villages. Instead, it is through this collective consideration of both architecture as well as the entire social territory of these rural villages,

resulted in the endangerment of housing, food security, and the well-being of individuals. As a result, the government along with multiple NGOs have assisted in providing rural villages with various flood-resistant housing designs

that enable new innovative solutions to emerge, allowing for improved adaptive approaches towards community lifestyles that can thrive alongside climate change.

over the last decade in attempts to improve the lifestyle of affected communities. Although sea-level rise poses a threat towards rural housings, from my investigations and research into the climatic impacts experienced within these rural villages located in district Khunla, I have come to realize that it is the climatic threat towards the profitable farmlands that have instilled immense suffering upon these rural communities. The encroachment of seawater has greatly degraded the soil quality of farmlands, posing

(324 Words) Keywords: Bangladesh, Climate Change, Adaptable, Territory, Architecture

an imminent threat to the production of horticulture. As a result, over the last decade, there has been a gradual shift from rice paddy farming to shrimp farming within regions most affected by the salinity intrusion.2 Although this emerging shift towards aquaculture has proven successful in providing villagers with a degree of financial security, this has also caused extreme changes in both the traditional milleu of these villages as well as their housing typologies. As villages become more permeable in the near future, there is an increasing demand for new innovative, adaptive solutions in which architecture along with the design of territories could be further optimized to improve both the social and economic lifestyle of the rural poor. Therefore,

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 3: Bangladesh Rural Villages

Fig 4. Rural Bangladesh

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

INTRODUCTION

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

INTRODUCTION Climate change has become one of the biggest challenges of this decade, where the increase in globalization and urbanization has both greatly exacerbated the warming of the planet’s atmosphere and in turn the rising of sea levels. With an expectancy of around 2-6 celsius increase in temperature within the next century, this has had extreme impacts on many countries around the world.3 For example, Bangladesh, often referred to as the ‘ground zero’ of climate change due to its flat and low-lying geographical typology, in which such features have in fact rendered it extremely vulnerable to the effects of rising sea levels. Over the recent decade, this has introduced various threats and led to a plethora of undesirable consequences in relation to the country’s housing, food security, income, and population well-being. As a result, disaster-resilient housing has been set up by both the government and many NGOs in attempts to combat sea-level rise as well as to improve the livelihoods of the affected communities.

where the geographical layout of such territories has transformed in ways that have proven to be more adaptable and conforming to the new socio-climatic requirements. At the same time, as villages become more inundated and permeable in the foreseeable future, this would subsequently give rise to a demand for improved housing strategies and village milieux that would better adapt to the changing environment. Thus, it is of importance to deconstruct and examine the relationship between the territorial settings at a macro scale as well as the micro scale strategies implemented within rural architecture, in order to fully comprehend the interweaving relationships within these communities. By doing so, can we then hope to reterritorialize and improve the design of territories in relation to architecture, in order to achieve more adaptable and resilient communities that can thrive in such climatically threatened regions of Bangladesh.

However, from my investigations and research into the climatic impacts upon the rural areas within the district of Khunla in Bangladesh, I have come to realize that sustainable architecture alone is not enough to uplift the livelihood of the local communities. Although sea-level rise poses an imminent threat towards housing stability amongst the rural villages, the threat itself predominantly originates from the fear of unprofitable farmlands which has forced people to migrate into more urbanized areas, in pursuit of better job opportunities.4 Hence, we must consider the entire social construct and the design of territories in order to fully comprehend the current conditions within these rural areas, where a shift towards aquaculture from traditional horticulture has recently begun to flourish. This rising shift towards aquaculture and shrimp farming has had tremendous impacts on village compositions, 16

Fig 5. Rural Bangladesh Villages

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 6. Climate Change Cycle Diagram

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 1

Fig 7. Bangladesh Polders

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Overview

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW

BANGLADESH’S FAILING SOLUTIONS

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 1

BANGLADESH’S FAILING SOLUTIONS With the expectation of sea levels to rise up to 88-100cm by the year 2100, this means that it would not only inundate an approximate 16% of the total landmass of Bangladesh, but it would also fully submerge the entire Sundarbans mangroves forest as well as the southern coastal wetlands which offers a degree of protection against climatic catastrophes.5 As a result, this will give rise to more frequent natural hazards like cyclones, which impact the southern parts of Bangladesh the most. Such calamities have already caused significant casualties amongst the southern areas of Bangladesh like the district of Khunla, where villages were hit by cyclone Aila in the year 2009. Although foreign solutions such as ‘poldering’ had been set up as a form of resilience against such disasters, cyclone Aila broke through the polders flooding the entire zones.6 From such events, we begin to realize how foreign solutions such as poldering have proven to be inefficient in Bangladesh’s unique geographical typography and have made the country more vulnerable in a sense. The

rivers of Bangladesh carry a large amount of sediment each year, which causes a build-up of silt in the riverbed. 7 Consequently, this has condemned villagers into vulnerable states where the excessive build-up of silt has contributed to the risks of potential bursts in polders. Thus, although such solutions may have proven to be successful in countries like the Netherlands, the same cannot be said for Bangladesh with it’s unique topography and landscape. In attempts to address such issues, new solutions such as “controlled flooding” have been introduced, where polders are opened up to reduce risks of potential bursts in polders.8 By doing so, this strategically reintroduces water back into areas, redirecting waterways in a controlled and risk-free approach. Although solutions such as controlled flooding have relieved the stress and risks behind potential polder bursts, this has far from amended much of the damage and complications that climate change has induced.

Fig 8. Bangladesh Polders

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 9: Bangladesh Embankments

Chapter 2

Fig 10. Rural Bangladesh Housings

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Micro Investigations

CHAPTER 2: MICRO INVESTIGATIONS

EVOLUTION OF RURAL HOUSING

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 2

EVOLUTION OF RURAL HOUSING Similar to the issues faced with the prolonged periodic use of polders, housing typologies within rural villagers have likewise struggled to adapt to the environmental changes that climate change imposes. Over the past century, many different housing typologies have emerged as an attempt to remedy the struggles of flooding and climatic impacts in the rural areas of Bangladesh. Traditional Bangladesh housings are known as Bengali houses, which often features a woven thatch roof with bamboo walls on a rammed earth plinth.The roof structure often slopes at an angle on all sides to facilitate the flow of rainwater whilst reducing the risks of potential leakage.9 However, as environmental conditions have worsened over the past century as a result of climate change, this has rendered the traditional housing methods invalid, where such housings are often easily decimated and damaged in harsh weather conditions. As a result, the government has provided new housings which feature corrugated metal sheets for the roof and walls, with concrete footings. Ironically, although more resilient towards the effects of weathering and climate change, such new housing designs have had several negative implications within these rural areas. Such housings are often constructed with very little knowledge of the site conditions as well as both a “lack of local practice and

Fig 11. Tradditional Bengali Housing

Fig 12. Government Housing

Fig 13. NGO Prototype Housing

technical knowledge”.10 Ironically, this has resulted in the construction of housings that did not respect the local culture of the villagers, as well as the construction of housings in highly vulnerable locations.11 Current codes in Bangladesh do not have any provisions for disaster resilient rural housing designs, hence there is a rising demand for better housing provisions where R&D can be transferred into the fields of local practices. By doing so can we aim to bridge the gap between technology and tradition to Fig 14. Future Adaptable Housing 24

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Micro Investigations

achieve effective housing designs that are not only culturally accepted by the local communities but are also more site-specific and disaster-resilient.12 In recent years a few NGOs have attempted to improve the housings conducted by the government, by taking into account the cultural appreciation from the locals, as well as the specific environmental conditions of the site. A research team led by BUET (Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology) in the year 2015, constructed 6 disaster-resilient housings distributed across 6 different sites within Bangladesh. Of the 6 housings constructed, each was constructed differently and featured site-specific strategies that responded to the environmental conditions of the specific site. One of the housings, in particular, was constructed in Assasuni within the district of Khunla where the coastal saline region often experienced annual cyclones and floods. As a result, the housing designed for this specific site featured clay roof tiles, mud walls with bamboo posts on a 5ft rammed earth plinth. A fourpitched roof was also selected for better wind resistance against potential cyclones, with an overall strength that was expected to resist a wind speed of 260kmph.13 Although many solutions have been implemented to cope with the site’s specific climatic conditions, the housing design fails to address the constant, periodic rise in sea levels within future years to come. The NGO housing model features a raised earth plinth with a fixed height limit that is only capable of withstanding sea levels to a certain degree. Inevitably, this would mean that sea levels would rise beyond the height of the plinth eventually, posing a threat.

architectural building that has incorporated this floatation system within Bangladesh, is the Arcadia School designed by local architect Saif UI Haque Sthapati in the year 2019, which utilizes recycled tires and steel drums under the building structure as the buoyant foundation.15 From this example, there is this clear differentiation between the NGO model compared to the Arcadia School, where one aims to resist sea-level rise, whilst the other aims to adapt to sea-level rise. Thus, it is clear that resistance towards the sea is no longer a feasible solution, with past failures like polders that aimed to prevent the intrusion of water, ironically fueled further complications. It is without a doubt that the construction of housings within villages is in desperate need of improvements and new solutions that can adapt to the rise in sea levels. However, through further research and investigations, it is not only the housing instabilities within villages that have contributed to the mass migrations between rural to urban settings. Statistics reveal that of the two-fifth of migrants who migrated to the capital city of Dhaka, around 40% of the individuals reported to have migrated in hopes of better job opportunities and a more reliable source of income.16 Thus, such issues stem deeper than the surface of sustainable housings, where the entire social milieu must be considered in relation to the economic sustainability of the village as well, in order to fully achieve adaptive and resilient communities that can thrive within such climatically challenged regions of Bangladesh.

Thus, there is this emerging demand for alternative solutions that are more capable of adapting towards the increasing mean sea level for future housing developments. Many recent studies have begun experimenting with Buoyant Foundations, where structures are retrofitted with buoyancy blocks to allow the structures to rise simultaneously with the water height.14 An example of an

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 15. Arcadia School

Fig 16. Arcadia School 26

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 17. Arcadia School Bouyant Foundation

Fig 18. Arcadia School Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

Fig 19. Bangladesh Rural Migrants

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

CHAPTER 3: MACRO INVESTIGATIONS

CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVELIHOODS

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVELIHOOD The rise in sea levels has resulted in the emergence of various complications, some of which include land erosion as well as salinity intrusion which has contributed to the increase in salinity levels found in soil compositions. As depicted in fig 22, statistics show that the water salinity boundary has been constantly shifting upwards throughout Bangladesh over the years. Such salinity intrusion has had severe consequences on areas such as Assasuni in the district of Khunla, where it has not only affected the villager’s source of domestic water for drinking and washing but it has also threatened the wellbeing of farmlands in the area.17 With this increase in salinity levels, rice paddy farms have become too saline to grow rice. As a result, villagers are either forced to migrate to urban settings for better job opportunities or to convert their paddy farms into shrimp farms instead, in order to sustain their flow of income.18 Thus, such climatic challenges have placed an immense burden on both the financial income and wellbeing of victims, where their lifestyles are forced to adapt to new climatic circumstances. As shown in fig 23, for those unable to adapt their farming techniques to better cope with the environmental changes, many victims have migrated to five distinct areas throughout Bangladesh, this includes; Dhaka City, Chittagong City, Divisional Cities, District Headquarters, and Upazilla Headquarters.19 This increased flux of migrants into urban settings has resulted in an increased demand for resources and job opportunities, which has subsequently led to an increase in dams and factories to supply for the growing demands in these urban areas. Ironically, this has further contributed to an increased output of carbon emissions, fuelling this cycle of climate change.20 However, from recent interviews on Instagram with local Bangladesh architect Prova Igbal, Prova provides new insights, revealing how it is not only a one-way migration that is occurring between rural to urban settings but a growing trend of two-way 30

migration is also emerging. As rural paddy farming only offers a seasonal bulk of income during the three harvesting seasons; Aus Season (March-April), Aman Season (July- November), and Boro Season (NovemberDecember), there are slow seasons most notably during January-February, and August-September when crops are still premature.21 Therefore, during these slow seasons, there is an emerging recent trend where villagers would flock to cities for seasonal jobs for 2-3 months and return to the villages to work in the fields during harvesting seasons. Thus, there is this constant back and forth flow of migrants between rural and urban settings throughout the year, as paddy farming can no longer offer a reliable source of income as the severity of climate change exacerbates.

Fig 20. Migration Push Factors

Fig 21. Migration Pull Factors

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

Fig 22. Salinity lntruion Line

Fig 24. Annual Cyclone Paths

1967

1997

2009

Fig 23. Migration Routes

Fig 25. Flood Map

Monsoon Flood

Tidal Flood

Rainfall Flood

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

Fig 26. Rural Bangladesh Shrimp Farms

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

CHAPTER 3.1: MACRO INVESTIGATIONS

IMPACTS ON RURAL FARMING

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

IMPACTS ON RURAL FARMING Climate Change has had significant impacts on the financial security of paddy farming villagers, where salt intrusion degrades soil quality, posing a threat to the production of horticulture. As a result, sites such as Assasuni in district Khunla have begun shifting towards the production of fish and shrimps as an alternative source of income instead, as such species have been more adaptable towards the increase in salinity levels.22 Since the 1980s, Bangladesh has seen a dramatic increase in shrimp farms in southern coastal areas, with an initial shrimp farming area of 1330 hectares in the year 1975, increasing to an estimated size of 250,000 hectares in recent years.23 On the contrary, rice production has seen a significant decline over the years, with an estimated rice production of 1265 hectares in the year 1985, this has decreased to only 522 by the year 2003.24

In addition to the benefits of a more stable source of income and financial security, aquaculture has also provided villagers with new job opportunities as well. For example, previously unused natural resources such as snails are currently in demand, as they have been used to feed shrimps in many farms located within the district of Khunla. As such, this new demand for resources has opened up new job opportunities for both women and children, where snails could be collected and sold to dealers. Shrimp farming has therefore been regarded as “white gold” to the local communities of Bangladesh, where its value has helped affected communities to survive in such climatic circumstances.28

Termed the “Blue Revolution”, shrimp farming has been a game-changer in the rural areas of Bangladesh, where shrimp farming implementations have allowed many villagers to adapt and thrive in recent climatic challenges.25 Shrimp farming not only offers greater income compared to paddy farming but aquaculture also has better harvesting flexibility, which has made shrimp farming more adaptable towards environmental disasters. For example, learning from cyclone Amphan in the year 2020 which washed away countless shrimp farms, farmers

Fig 27. Rural Bangladesh Farms

have now considered early harvests between April-May, and October-November before the two annual cyclones. By selling out premature shrimps, farmers are able to reduce the risks of losing everything in the event of a disaster.26 Alternatively, farmers also have the option for a late harvest after 160 days of culture, selling out shrimps at 35g for more profit but at their own risks.27 From this example, shrimp farming has proven to have more flexibility and adaptability towards the many climatic challenges faced currently, which is only expected to be heightened within the near future.

Fig 28. Rural Bangladesh Paddy Farms

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 29: Bangladesh Farmers

Chapter 3

Fig 30. Rural Bangladesh Villages

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

CHAPTER 3.2: MACRO INVESTIGATIONS

IMPACTS ON VILLAGE MILIEU

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

IMPACTS ON VILLAGE MILIEU This shift from paddy farming to shrimp farming has had immense transformative impacts within the traditional village compositions in the rural areas of Bangladesh. Paddy farming in particular often utilized a traditional village composition known as the Choushala Griha, which featured four housing units on four sides called the Bhita, with a central courtyard in the middle known as the Uthan. This traditional village composition provided the villagers with a sense of security, where the protective courtyard layout was often used by the women for paddy thrashing and grain drying.29 From the mappings shown in Fig 31, it depicts a general paddy farming village located in Assasuni within the district of Khunla. Depicted in the mappings, it is clear that the location of the river dictates the location of the housing units, as it allows villagers to easily set up domestic ponds in close proximity for washing as well as for irrigation purposes. The paddy farms are then often located at the back of the village as shown in Fig 32.

Fig 31. Paddy Farming Village in district Khunla

Fig 32. Paddy Farming Village in district Khunla

Shrimp farming villages, on the other hand, follow a different approach in spatial layout. Unlike paddy farms, where the location of the river dictates the positioning of the housing units, higher ground and the location of main roads are some of the geographical elements that dictate the location of dwellings for these villages shown in Fig 33. From this comparison between the two villages, it is clear that climate change has had significant impacts on the village compositions in the district of Khunla, where villagers are forced to alter and change their territorial configurations in order to adapt accustoming towards more adaptable farming measures that can supplement a more reliable source of income. With a more reliable and constant source of income that shrimp farming offers, this, in turn, could potentially reduce the increasing flux of two-way migration occurring between urban and rural areas, as well as reducing the demand for urban resources that has further fueled climate change.

Fig 33. Shrimp Farming Village in district Khunla

Fig 34. Shrimp Farming Village in district Khunla

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 35: Bangladesh Shrimp Farms

Fig 31. Paddy Farm Mapping

Fig 32. Paddy Farm Mapping 40

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 33. Shrimp Farm Mapping

Fig 34. Shrimp Farm Mapping Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

Fig 36. Future Bangladesh Village

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

CHAPTER 3.3: MACRO INVESTIGATIONS

FUTURE RURAL VILLAGES

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Chapter 3

THE FUTURE OF RURAL VILLAGES Although this shift towards shrimp farming has seen impressive outcomes in adapting to climatic challenges, the dramatic loss of rice production has in turn also given way to new difficulties. As rice is the main diet of the nation, recent studies have raised awareness towards the rising negative effects of this decline in rice production. Studies have revealed how the decline in horticulture would consequently force Bangladesh into becoming more “reliant on imports from the ROW….making the goal of self-sufficiency more difficult to achieve”.30 Therefore, perhaps a new village milieu may begin to emerge where it is not only focused on the capital gains from aquaculture but also incorporates a level of self-sustainability to these villages, where community farms supported by new strategies can be introduced to further improve and optimize the livelihoods within these villages.

As a creative practitioner, I have attempted to contribute mapping interventions as shown in Fig 37, that explore the possibilities of future territorial designs of rural villages in Bangladesh. From the readings “The Agency of Mapping” by James Corner, the text mentions the three essential components that formulate a mapping. Firstly, this involves the creation of a field, which is essentially the set of rules and the system that derives the mapping. The second component revolves around the deterritorialization of parts and data, with the third component referring to the re-territorialization as well as the set up of relationships. From this, Corner emphasizes the importance of understanding the fundamental socio construct of the territory, where such rhizomatic mappings should emphasize the networkings amongst forces in time.31 Thus, such methods have helped set up the fundamental mapping parameters that have helped

Fig 37. Proposed Future Bangladesh Village Mapping 44

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Macro Investigations

guide and develop my own mapping. Through my research into the territorial configurations of rural villages in Bangladesh, along with the conventions of GIS mappings, I have attempted to reconstruct a new village composition that aims to open up new discussions and interpretations of future rural village designs in Bangladesh. Learning from the past failures of the government and NGO, where designs failed to address the cultural acceptance of the locals, the new mapping of the village retains the traditional Choushala Griha layout. However, as the Uthan courtyard no longer serves as an area for paddy thrashing in present times, it holds potential in transforming into an area that could potentially contribute to the self-sufficiency of the surrounding 4 Bhita units. As such, the Uthan could potentially be repurposed and converted into community farms, rain catchment basins, or nursery ponds that help provide the community with a degree of self-sufficiency.

of reterritorialization that we begin to unfold and explore new potential, self-sufficient interpretations of a milieu that can better cope with the emerging, contemporary struggles faced in Bangladesh. Additionally, as the sea level rises along with the growing trend in aquaculture and shrimp farming, the architectural consequences within these villages will therefore require the implementation of new solutions and strategies to better cope and adapt to such permeable conditions.Thus, as depicted in fig 38, the following Bhita model explores the possible potentials of rural architecture and how architecture itself could contribute towards community objectives. With the implementation of new technology such as buoyant foundations, vertical rooftop farming, and water catchment systems, architecture can therefore become the vessel that enables the actualization of future improvements towards the lifestyle of rural communities in Bangladesh.

With the implementation of new vertical farming strategies using local bamboo supports, such new technology could greatly boost the production and practice of horticulture within these communities. The implementation of Aeroponic Seedlings, Tower Farms, and Roof Farms are only a few contemporary solutions that can be adopted and implemented in rural villages of Bangladesh to help further improve the resilience of these communities. Additionally, the raised embankments of the shrimp farms could also contribute to land areas that can host specific saline plant species. With the exacerbating effects of climate change, the traditional Choushala Griha village composition therefore not only encourages and facilitates the intimate relationships amongst supporting households but it also allows for new zones to emerge that could possibly contribute to achieving a degree of selfsufficiency for the villages. It is therefore from such mapping extractions and the act Fig 38. Adaptive Housing Designs Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

CONCLUSION It is without a doubt that climate change will pose severe challenges to many rural communities within the southern regions of Bangladesh. For example, the district of Khunla is just one of the many areas affected by rising sea levels as well as salinity intrusion, which has caused serious soil contamination and foundation instability upon many rural housings. Such climatic ramifications have led to the identification of 3 possible solutions which include: retreat, protection, and accommodation.32 As ‘retreat’ through emigration is not a feasible solution, efforts of ‘protection’ had been conducted over the last decade in attempts to combat sea-level rise. Protective solutions such as coastal infrastructures and disaster-resilient housings have been implemented by both the Government and multiple NGOs in attempts to improve the lifestyle of the rural poor. Despite such endeavors, through my investigations and research into the socio-climatic conditions of rural villages in Bangladesh, I have come to the realization that ‘protection’ through resilient housings and embankments alone are not enough to sustain the lifestyles within rural communities. Instead, from supported findings, it is the solution through ‘accommodation’ that holds potentials for future milieu developments in adapting towards more permeable environments.

In an environment that is progressively salinizing, the rise in sea levels has conditioned many villages into a shift from horticulture to aquaculture in attempts to adapt to the rising salinity levels and saltwater intrusion. As a result, this has caused immense transformations to village compositions, where the geographical layout of such territories has altered over the last decade to better conform to the new socio-climatic requirements. However, although aquaculture has proven successful in sustaining the economic livelihoods of villages, the decline in rice production as a result of this shift towards aquaculture has raised recent concerns on the future selfsustainable aspirations of Bangladesh. In concern of this, as a creative practitioner, I have contributed to the cause by exploring rhizomatic mappings in relation to the re-territorialization of rural villages, in hopes of opening up new interpretations and discussions on the future territorial advancements of rural villages. Thus, it is this collective approach between both architecture and the design of territories that would enable newfound solutions capable of actualizing the future development of rural communities in Bangladesh. It is from such considerations can we then hope to provide villages with successful, adaptive solutions that enable communities to thrive alongside climate change.

Fig 39. Rural Bangladesh Village 48

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 40: Bangladesh Rural Villages

End Notes Healy, Hazel. 2012. “Ready Or Not: Can Bangladesh Cope With Climate Change?”. New Internationalist. https://newint.org/features/2012/04/01/climateadaptation-bangladesh/. 1

Khan,Halim. 2009. “Global Warming And Sea Level Rising: Impact On Bangladesh Agriculture And Food Security”. Bangladesh: Department of Crop Botany Bangladesh Agricultural University.

Muktadir, Mohammed A. “Traditional House Form in Rural Bangladesh: A Case Study for Regionalism in Architecture”. In Regionalism in Architecture, edited by Robert Powell. Singapore: Concept Media/Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 1985. 81-87 9

Sarwar, Golam Manhabub. 2005. “Impacts Of Sea Level Rise On The Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh”. Sweden: Lund University International Masters Program in Environmental Science. 3

Walter, Pierre. 2017. “Floods And Rural-Urban Migration In Bangladesh”. Labos.Ulg.Ac.Be. 4

“Bangladesh: Flooding And Impacts”. 2021. Floodworld. https://water104website.weebly.com/ bangladesh-flooding-and-impacts.html.

Shariful Islam, Mohammad, Tahsin Reza Hossain, Olivier Moles, Annalisa Caimi, Ratan Kumar Podder, and Farnia Nayar Parshi. “Disaster Resilient Rural House Designs For Different Geographic Regions Of Bangladesh”. (Berkley, USA: Problems and Prospects, 2016), 1-2. 10

Nguyên, Nguyên Khôi, Sarah Crespi, and Warren Cornwall. 2018. As Sea Levels Rise, Bangladeshi Islanders Must Decide Between Keeping The Water Out—Or Letting It In. Video. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yjub5qBcSK8 6

Nguyên, Nguyên Khôi, Sarah Crespi, and Warren Cornwall. As Sea Levels Rise, Bangladeshi Islanders Must Decide Between Keeping The Water Out—Or Letting It In. 7

Nguyên, Nguyên Khôi, Sarah Crespi, and Warren Cornwall. As Sea Levels Rise, Bangladeshi Islanders Must Decide Between Keeping The Water Out—Or Letting It In. 8

“GRP Typical House Scenario 07Nov2017 V1 1”. 2017. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=X7YjIMC5lUM&t=37s. 14

”This ‘Waterproof’ Bamboo School In Bangladesh Could Be The Solution To Rising Sea Levels Due To Climate Change”. 2021. India Today. 15

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

End Notes Walter, Pierre. 2017. “Floods And Rural-Urban Migration In Bangladesh”. Labos.Ulg.Ac.Be.

”Evolution Of Shrimp Farming In Bangladesh Responsible Seafood Advocate”. Global Seafood Alliance.

Sarwar, Golam Manhabub. 2005. “Impacts Of Sea Level Rise On The Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh”. Sweden: Lund University International Masters Program in Environmental Science.

“PROPOSED RESEARCH PROGRAMME FOR THE BRACKISHWATER STATION TO BE ESTABLISHED AT PAIKGACHA FINAL REPORT”. 2021. Fao.Org. https://www.fao.org/3/AC370E/ AC370E02.htm.

”Evolution Of Shrimp Farming In Bangladesh Responsible Seafood Advocate”. 2021. Global Seafood Alliance. https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/ evolution-of-shrimp-farming-in-bangladesh/.

Hosain MA, Ullah K, Al Sayam MA, Mohiuddin K, Rahman E (2021) Present Status and Future Direction of Bangladeshi Shrimp Resources. Fish Aqua J. 12:276. 1-6

“Semi-Intensive Shrimp Farming - Seafood TIP”. 2021. Seafood TIP. https://seafood-tip.com/sourcingintelligence/countries/philippines/cultured-shrimp/ semi-intensive 27

“Bangladesh’s Battle With Water: Can It Save Its Climate Refugees? | Once Upon A River”. 2021. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tV42sBSq1Mw&list=LL&index=5&t=1845s. 20

“PROPOSED RESEARCH PROGRAMME FOR THE BRACKISHWATER STATION TO BE ESTABLISHED AT PAIKGACHA FINAL REPORT”. 2021. Fao.Org. https://www.fao.org/3/AC370E/ AC370E02.htm.

”Evolution Of Shrimp Farming In Bangladesh Responsible Seafood Advocate”. Global Seafood Alliance. 28

Nahar, M. (2016). “The Impact of Climate Change in Bangladesh on the Rice Market and Farm Households.” Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 1-75 30

Corner, James. 1999. “Mappings”. The Agency Of Mapping: Speculation, Critique And Invention. London: Books Rakton. 212-252 31

Taylor, Richard. 2021. “Mangrove Ecosystem And Shrimp Aquaculture In SW Bangladesh”. Weadapt. https://www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/adaptationdecision-making/shrimp-aquaculture-in-bangladesh. 22

Sarwar, Golam Manhabub. 2005. “Impacts Of Sea Level Rise On The Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh”. 23

Sarwar, Golam Manhabub. 2005. “Impacts Of Sea Level Rise On The Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh”. 24

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig.1 Bangladesh Embankment

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

APPENDIX

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

APPENDIX A: Interviews & Diagrams The following captured screenshots and diagrams reveals segments of the interview taken through the social media platform ‘Instagram’. Bangladesh Architect : Prova Igbal Prova is a Bangladesh Architect who grew up in district Khunla and has aquired a degree from both Bangladesh Open University as well as from the University of Sydney. Prova is currently working in the city of Dhaka as an Architect. Bangladesh Architect: Fatema Zohra Adiba Fatema is a young architect who graduated with a Masters in Architecture from the University of Sydney. She is currently working at Noby Architects in Australia.

Bangladesh Milieu

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

APPENDIX A: Interviews & Diagrams

Bangladesh Topography

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

APPENDIX B: Work Plan Schedule Moving forward, the following Work Plan Calendar indicates the expected progression of the project throughout the mid-sem break. In preparation for the Thesis Primary Review on the 11th of January, further research into the rural villages of Bangladesh will be conducted to support a conclusive design outcome to be presented for the Primary Review.

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

APPENDIX B: Work Plan Schedule

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Fig 41: Bangladesh Rural Conditions Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Bibliography REPORTS: Shariful Islam, Mohammad, Tahsin Reza Hossain, Olivier Moles, Annalisa Caimi, Ratan Kumar Podder, and Farnia Nayar Parshi. “Disaster Resilient Rural House Designs For Different Geographic Regions Of Bangladesh”. (Berkley, USA: Problems and Prospects, 2016), 1-2. Muktadir, Mohammed A. “Traditional House Form in Rural Bangladesh: A Case Study for Regionalism in Architecture”. In Regionalism in Architecture, edited by Robert Powell. Singapore: Concept Media/Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 1985. 81-87

Sensing Organization. 1-6 Maki, Fumihiko. 1964. “Investigations In Collective Form”. A Special Publication, Number 2. The School of Architecture, Washington University. 1-50

Nahar, M. (2016). “The Impact of Climate Change in Bangladesh on the Rice Market and Farm Households.” Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 1-75 Hosain MA, Ullah K, Al Sayam MA, Mohiuddin K, Rahman E (2021) Present Status and Future Direction of Bangladeshi Shrimp Resources. Fish Aqua J. 12:276. 1-6

Khan, Halim. 2009. “Global Warming And Sea Level Rising: Impact On Bangladesh Agriculture And Food Security”. Bangladesh: Department of Crop Botany Bangladesh Agricultural University.

Walter, Pierre. 2017. “Floods And Rural-Urban Migration In Bangladesh”. Labos.Ulg.Ac.Be.

Sarwar, Golam Manhabub. 2005. “Impacts Of Sea Level Rise On The Coastal Zone Of Bangladesh”. Sweden: Lund University International Masters Program in Environmental Science.

Hossain, Zakir, Mohammad Mahmood Riad, and Jasim Uddin Ahmed. 2016. “Rural-Urban Migration In Bangladesh And Its Nexus With Some Socioeconomic Indicators At Origin And Destination”. Vol. 4, Issue 12,. Bangladesh: IJournals: International Journal of Social Relevance & Concern.

Kais, Shaikh M., and Md S. Islam. 2021. “Resilience to Climate Change in Industrial Shrimping in Bangladesh: Assessing the Comparative Role of the Stakeholders” Sustainability 13, no. 1: 307. 1-21 Corner, James. 1999. “Mappings”. The Agency Of Mapping: Speculation, Critique And Invention. London: Books Rakton. 212-252 Z.Islam, H.Rahman, and Salam Khan. 2004. “Suitable Site Selection Of Shrimp Farming In The Coastal Areas Of Bangladesh Using Remote Sensing Techniques”. Dhaka: Bangladesh Space Research and Remote 60

VIDEOS: Nguyên, Nguyên Khôi, Sarah Crespi, and Warren Cornwall. 2018. As Sea Levels Rise, Bangladeshi Islanders Must Decide Between Keeping The Water Out—Or Letting It In.Video. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=yjub5qBcSK8. “Next Gen Farming Without Soil And 90% Less Water | GRATEFUL”. 2019. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=3Ww2TP_tU7o&list=LL&index=10.

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

“Amrita Self Reliant Village (Serve), Empowering Rural India”. 2019. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=gQMx8305kJI&list=LL&index=12.

“How Global Climate Change Is Already Devastating Bangladesh”. 2015. Youtube. Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=I9yJ7K_3n50&list=LL&index=92.

“Starting A Business - How To Start A Business Of Super Intensive Shrimp Farming And Shrimp Fish Farm”. 2017. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=xo4UpCewYJw&list=LL&index=21.

“Rising Sea Levels Threaten Bangladeshi Capital Dhaka”. 2021. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zqsqopQIIXE&list=LL&index=93.

“Environmental Toll Of Bangladesh Shrimp Farms Story 2”. 2014. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=yhH75kTJBGc&list=LL&index=22.

“GRP Typical House Scenario 07Nov2017 V1 1”. 2017. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=X7YjIMC5lUM&t=37s.

“Gher Farming (Rice - Prawn Farming) In Bangladesh”. 2016. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=LEZh9l9iywg&list=LL&index=23.

“Bangladesh’s Battle With Water: Can It Save Its Climate Refugees? | Once Upon A River”. 2021. Youtube. Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tV42sBSq1Mw&list=LL&index=5&t=1845s.

“6 Key Steps For Shrimp And Prawn Farming: Winrock SAFETI Project”. 2021. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/watc h?v=GcNHQFZ9gs&list=LL&index=24.

WEBSITES:

“The Devastating Truth Behind Shrimp Farming”. 2011. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=hPJpPEH3l7o&list=LL&index=25.

”Evolution Of Shrimp Farming In Bangladesh Responsible Seafood Advocate”. 2021. Global Seafood Alliance. https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/ evolution-of-shrimp-farming-in-bangladesh/.

“Satabhaya;

2019.

”This ‘Waterproof’ Bamboo School In Bangladesh Could

Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=KLHhpxpoT8o&list=LL&index=26.

Be The Solution To Rising Sea Levels Due To Climate Change”. 2021. India Today. https://www.indiatoday. in/education-today/news/story/this-waterproofbamboo-school-in-bangladesh-which-stands-onwater-could-be-the-solution-to-rising-sea-levelsdue-to-climate-change-1594405-2019-09-02.

Swallowed

The

Sea”.

“As Sea Levels Rise, Bangladeshi Islanders Must Decide Between Keeping The Water Out—Or Letting It In”. 2018. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yjub5qBcSK8&list=LL&index=36. “Climate Migration- Bangladesh On The Move”. 2015. Youtube.Com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PBJeelgnadU&list=LL&index=82.

Taylor, Richard. 2021. “Mangrove Ecosystem And Shrimp Aquaculture In SW Bangladesh”. Weadapt. https:// www.weadapt.org/knowledge-base/adaptationdecision-making/shrimp-aquaculture-in-bangladesh.

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Bibliography Healy, Hazel. 2012. “Ready Or Not: Can Bangladesh Cope With Climate Change?”. New Internationalist. https://newint.org/features/2012/04/01/climateadaptation-bangladesh/.

[image] Available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/ gallery/2019/12/5/in-pictures-bangladesh-on-thefrontline-of-climate-crisis> [Accessed 6 November 2021].

“Semi-Intensive Shrimp Farming - Seafood TIP”. 2021. Seafood TIP. https://seafood-tip.com/sourcingintelligence/countries/philippines/culturedshrimp/semi-intensive/#:~:text=Most%20 farmers%20employ%20a%20partial%20water%20 exc hange%20system,using%20a%20net%20 when%20the%20ponds%20are%20drained.

Figure 4: Lohuizen, K., 2014. Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. [image] Available at: <https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/world/asia/ facing-rising-seas-bangladesh-confronts-theconsequences-of-climate-change.html> [Accessed 6 November 2021].

“Bangladesh: Flooding And Impacts”. 2021. Floodworld. https://water104website.weebly.com/bangladeshflooding-and-impacts.html. “PROPOSED RESEARCH PROGRAMME FOR THE BRACKISHWATER STATIONTO BE ESTABLISHED AT PAIKGACHA FINAL REPORT”. 2021. Fao.Org. https://www.fao.org/3/AC370E/AC370E02.htm.

IMAGES: Figure 1: 2021. Bangladesh-World Bank- Solutions for Coastal Erosion. [image] Available at: <http://cdrinternational.nl/portfolio/bangladesh-worldbanksolutions-for-coastal-erosion/> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 2: Lohuizen, K., 2011. Scene from Bangladesh. [image] Available at: <https://www.globalcitizen. org/en/content/sea-level-rise-photo-book/> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 3: Chowdhury, Z. and Jazeera, A., 2019. In Pictures: Bangladesh on the frontline of climate crisis. 62

Figure 5: Lohuizen, K., 2014. Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. [image] Available at: <https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/world/asia/ facing-rising-seas-bangladesh-confronts-theconsequences-of-climate-change.html> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 7: BHADURI, T., 2018. The dance between water and land. [image] Available at: <https:// www.science.org/content/article/sea-levels-risebangladeshi-islanders-must-decide-between-keepingwater-out-or-letting> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 9: Pilston, T. and Aid, C., 2021. Bangladesh: A Flooding, Mega-Urbanizing, Climate Trap. [image] Available at: <https://www.wilderutopia.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/10/Tom-Pilston-FloodedFields-in-Bangladesh-Christian-Aid.jpg> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 10: 2019. Nature could be an ally in battle against rising sea levels. [image] Available at: <https:// www.straitstimes.com/world/nature-could-be-anally-in-battle-against-rising-sea-levels> [Accessed 6 November 2021].

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Bibliography Figure 15: Carlo Darsa, S., 2019. Arcadia Education Project, South Kanarchor, Bangladesh. [image] Available at: <https://www.akdn.org/architecture/ project/arcadia-education-project> [Accessed 6 November 2021].Figure 16: Carlo Darsa, S., 2019. Arcadia Education Project, South Kanarchor, Bangladesh. [image] Available at: <https://www. akdn.org/architecture/project/arcadia-educationproject> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 17: Carlo Darsa, S., 2019. Arcadia Education Project, South Kanarchor, Bangladesh. [image] Available at: <https://www.akdn.org/architecture/ project/arcadia-education-project> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 18: Carlo Darsa, S., 2019. Arcadia Education Project, South Kanarchor, Bangladesh. [image] Available at: <https://www.akdn.org/architecture/ project/arcadia-education-project> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 19: Lohuizen, K., 2014. Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. [image] Available at: <https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/world/asia/ facing-rising-seas-bangladesh-confronts-theconsequences-of-climate-change.html> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 26: Barker, P., 2016. Panos. [image] Available at: <https://www.scidev.net/asia-pacific/news/ bangladeshi-shrimp-farming-gets-app-savvy/> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 27: 2019. Floating vegetable farming gaining popularity in Sylhet. [image] Available at: <https:// www.dhakatribune.com/business/2019/02/25/ floating-vegetable-farming-gaining-popularity-in-

sylhet> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 28: Chowdhury, Z. and Jazeera, A., 2019. In Pictures: Bangladesh on the frontline of climate crisis. [image] Available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/ gallery/2019/12/5/in-pictures-bangladesh-on-thefrontline-of-climate-crisis> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 29: 2020. Irri-boro transplantation begins in Rajshahi. [image] Available at: <https://m.dailybangladesh.com/english/Irri-boro-transplantationbegins-in-Rajshahi/36311> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 30: 2021. “There is a growing crisis with climaterelated disasters”. [image] Available at: <https:// asiapacific.unfpa.org/en/profile-rumana-khan> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 35: Frerck, R., 2021. Shrimp Farming and Environmental Degradation. [image] Available at: <https://blueocean.net/shrimp-farming-a-cocktailof-controversy/> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 39: 2021. “There is a growing crisis with climaterelated disasters”. [image] Available at: <https:// asiapacific.unfpa.org/en/profile-rumana-khan> [Accessed 6 November 2021]. Figure 40: Chowdhury, Z. and Jazeera, A., 2019. In Pictures: Bangladesh on the frontline of climate crisis. [image] Available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/ gallery/2019/12/5/in-pictures-bangladesh-on-thefrontline-of-climate-crisis> [Accessed 6 November 2021].

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Bibliography Figure 41: Lohuizen, K., 2014. Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. [image] Available at: <https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/world/asia/ facing-rising-seas-bangladesh-confronts-theconsequences-of-climate-change.html> [Accessed 6 November 2021].

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Adaptive Strategies for Future Rural Villages of Bangladesh: Impacts of Sea Level Rise AR5806 Architectural Design Research Report Thesis Advisor: Erik Gerard L’Heureux Master of Architecture Programme AY2021/2022 Department of Architecture College of Design and Engineering