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VOLUME 21 • NUMBER 16

Poetry-Art on the Border

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Esquina E ditorial

Uh

-oh. Academia seems to be following the business model again. According to media reports, many college and university presidents are getting normal raises despite a climate in which whole programs are being dumped, classes cut, and faculty raises, if any, would allow them to perhaps “buy that box of toothpicks I’ve had my eye on,” as one joker put it.

Faculty raises for 2010-11 at public colleges averaged zero; at private ones, they averaged 2 percent.

The “total cost” of a public college president, per Jack Stripling and Andrea Fuller in the Chronicle of Higher Education, ranges from a low of $212,800 to a median of $440,487 and high of $1,818,911, with private institutions getting even higher.

Starting salaries of faculty at public colleges are $49,000 and up, with adjunct pay that is often impossibly low.

This is not to say that college presidents don’t earn their pay. And the disparities are not as mind-bending as gaps these days between top exec and worker pay in many profit-driven industries.

Still, with stimulus funds running out, and state budgets getting so lean you could read a syllabus through them, we have to wonder what is coming next.

One possible trend noted in Education Report is that of Tea Party candidates entering school board races. And in several states with new governors, there’s a move against teachers unions.

On the plus side, Samantha Stainburn’s article “Transferring? Get Schooled,” in the Apr. 17 New York Times, is a very useful resource. Her succinct advice on financial aid, making credits count, housing, and acclimation should be read by all. ¡Adelante!

Suzanne López-Isa Managing Editor

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by Carlos D. Conde

LATINO KALEIDOSCOPE

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The Latino Influence on Gossamer Wings here’s something regarding the Latino world that baffles. The spectacular growth in the Latino population in the U.S. is disproportionate to its influence. There’s a lot more of us, but we don’t seem to be making an impact on matters or events to reflect that phenomenon.

If we are growing so fast, why isn’t our influence and involvement in all phases of society keeping pace with our population growth?

That it isn’t happening is the challenge in trying to understand if and why we are the main culprits in undermining our status.

One hypothesis is extrapolated from a recent article in The New York Times that centered on one isolated area in an isolated jurisdiction in Florida that suggested numbers don’t necessarily equal power or influence and even produce the fear of retribution.

The Latino population in Orange County, Fla., home to Disney World and other famous amusement parks, increased 84 percent in the last decade to 308,244 residents out of a population of 1.2 million.

One of the county board members ignored this large ethnic population in her district and named two nonHispanic Whites to a citizens board assigned to redraw political districts.

When confronted as to why she didn’t name any Latinos, she dismissively replied, “I wouldn’t say it was a priority.”

Fair enough, but realistically speaking and considering the explosive Latino numbers, it should be, particularly when it concerns a high-impact board with such a large and growing Spanish-speaking constituency.

In many U.S. jurisdictions, regardless of the increasing sway of the Latino population, the impact is still so minimal that you begin to wonder if it’s self-inflicted or endemic to this particular group.

The lack of impact given the Latino numbers, and as isolated or insignificant as they might seem, suggests that numbers don’t necessarily translate into power or influence by this minority on its way to becoming the dominant group in the U.S. It also says that Latinos, apparently, are still not that well schooled in the art of community politics, and reflects apathy in the use of suffrage as a social tool and political persuader.

The U.S. Census data as of 2010 revealed there are now 50.5 million Hispanics, growing 46.3 percent from 2000 to soon become the largest demographic group in the U.S., overtaking the current dominant group, non-Hispanic Whites.

In numbers there is power, right? No, wrong. Judging from the history of U.S. Latinos, we seem destined to remain second bananas in most walks of national life, which is already illustrative in many areas, with some notable exceptions.

In the U.S. Congress, wherein lies our faith in constitutional governance, there are 24 Latino congressmen out of a body of 541 members, five nonvoting, and two senators in the 100-member body.

It doesn’t really matter, I suppose, when there are many U.S. Latinos who have trouble identifying their national leaders or simply reply that we don’t have any, suggesting a “who cares” attitude.

In one poll, Latinos were asked to name the Latino they considered “the most important leader in the country today.”

Almost two-thirds – 64 percent – said they didn’t know, and 10 percent said, “no one.”

In another poll, they were given names of eight prominent Latinos and asked if they had heard of them and consider them as leaders. Only four were identified as leaders, and by less than half of the respondents.

Our seemingly limited knowledge of representative government aside, the irony is that, like Native Americans, we can lay claim as the first inhabitants and settlers of this land, and this history permeates the entire fabric of this country.

Mexicans – Puerto Ricans and other Latinos weren’t around yet – were here before the first White settlers, and their culture’s imprint is evident throughout U.S. history. Mexicans fought on both sides of the Civil War – and some at the Alamo on the Texicans side that went down fighting Gen. Santa Anna’s Mexican armies.

Military history is filled with the heroic service of Latinos – largely Mexican-Americans and Puerto Ricans – in all of our world wars – including 12 Medal of Honor recipients in World War II, where up to half a million served.

Mexicans were panning for gold in California before the Gold Rush and supposedly taught the gringos the technique. There are countless cities with Latino names and customs handed down from the Mexican influence of these ethnic settlers.

California has more than 400 cities and communities with Spanish names.

Texas came from tejas, land of tile roofs; Nevada, land of snow; Colorado, the red land; and Florida, land of flowers.

A lot of our U.S. English vocabulary comes from the Spanish/Mexican influence, like chocolate, tobacco, rodeo, burro, corral, patio, mosquito, cafeteria, vigilante and countless others.

We are part of the American mosaic in so many ways, and the American nation has been built with many contributions by the Mexican influence and lately by the all-inconclusive Latino population.

Yet many of us still prefer our own cuisine, our own languages, our own traditions and our own entertainment.

It’s no wonder we trail other U.S. cultures and races in assimilation and participation and why, in some ways, some of us find more comfort existing in a separate society, opting not to pursue our just deserts and obligations as some sort of social escapism and rebellion.

The U.S. Black community has done an excellent job of integrating into U.S. society and claiming its rightful participation, although it came with a lot of struggle overcome by tenacity and an unshakeable faith in its pursuits.

Maybe we enjoy better a bifurcated society in which our community is still playing over other more viable options.

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Carlos D. Conde, award-winning journalist and commentator, former Washington and foreign news correspondent, was an aide in the Nixon White House and worked on the political campaigns of George Bush Sr. To reply to this column, contact Cdconde@aol.com.

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MAGAZINEÂŽ MAY 16, 2011

CONTENTS University of Michigan Finds New Ways to Attract Latinos and Minorities by Gary M. Stern

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Diversity Initiatives Multifaceted and Productive at UT-Austin by Frank DiMaria

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2011 Immigration Reform Proposals Focus on Educated 14 Migrants, Internal Enforcement by Peggy Sands Orchowski Minorities and Tenure in the Academy

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by Michelle Adam

Ingrid Betancourt: Even Silence Has an End

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by Sylvia Mendoza

Promoting Literacy and Creativity: Poetry-Art on the Border by Steven P. Schneider

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UMichigan Professor Chronicles the Power of TV

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by Clay Latimer

Online Articles Leisure College, USA:The Decline in Student Study Time by Philip Babcock and Mindy Marks To view this and other select articles online, go to our website: www.HispanicOutlook.com.

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DEPARTMENTS Latino Kaleidoscope

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by Carlos D. Conde

The Latino Influence on Gossamer Wings

In the Trenches ...

by Lidia V.Tuttle

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by David Nieto

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Puntos Suspensivos

Scholars’ Corner

Interesting Reads and Media...

Book Review

by Mary Ann Cooper

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Latinos and American Law: Landmark Supreme Court Cases

Hispanics on the Move Hi gh Sc ho ol For um

Page 20

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H.S. Hispanics’ Formula for Success:The Bottom Line Can Be Found Online by Mary Ann Cooper

FYI...FYI...FYI...

Priming the Pump...

by Miquela Rivera

Helping Latino Parents Prepare for Child’s Education

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Back Cover Page 23

HO is also available in digital format; go to our website: www.HispanicOutlook.com.

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Cover photo of Michigan Union Building courtesy of U-M Photo Services, Scott Soderberg

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University of Michigan Finds and Minorities RECRUITMENT/ADMISSIONS

The

“College Corps mentors are

trained in how to understand and cope with issues that can arise for Latino students.”

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by Gary M. Stern

University of Michigan's (U-M) 2003 U.S. Supreme Court victory in Gratz v Bolllinger was cut short in 2006 by passage of Michigan ballot Proposal 2/2006, which prohibits the use of affirmative action as a way to spur minority enrollment and even the play field for undergraduate admissions. But that hasn’t stopped the university from finding innovative ways to target Latino and African-American students that don’t contradict the Supreme Court ruling or give admissions preference to minority students.

Latinos account for 5 percent of the state of Michigan population, a much smaller percentage than in California or Florida, said William Collins, director of the university’s Center for Educational Outreach, which was launched in 2008 to find ways to reach minority audiences. The Latino population in Michigan, however, is expected to double in the next 15 years, so attracting Hispanics is critical if the university wants to reflect the state population. Since the Center for Educational Outreach is not connected to the admissions department, it doesn’t admit students but makes minorities aware of what the college offers.

Gaining acceptance to the University of Michigan is demanding. Of its freshman class in 2010, students averaged a 3.8 GPA and 31 to 36 on the ACT. Still, U-M prides itself on attracting a diverse student body and reports that of its 41,924 undergraduates, 5 percent are Latino, 6 percent are African-American, 1.5 percent are Native American and 15 percent are Asian-American, constituting a 26 percent minority population.

In 2008 the university launched the College Corps program – an intensive, 10-week program of workshops focused on college access and awareness that targets secondary school students in underserved communities, explains Michael Turner, coordinator of College Corps and outreach coordinator at the university, based in Ann Arbor. The workshops concentrate on financial aid, careers, setting goals and applying to college.

Why start College Corps? “It’s a response to the Supreme Court verdict.

The university isn’t blind to the fact that many of these communities are undersourced,” Turner said. Hence the program tries to level the playing field and provide opportunities for talented minorities who can meet U-M’s criteria. While it hopes to attract students to U-M, if students are inspired to attend Eastern Michigan University or a community college, the program still meets its goals, Turner suggests.

Thirty University of Michigan students, mostly Latino undergraduates, tutor and mentor students in middle and high schools in Monroe, Mich., located 30 miles south of Ann Arbor. “You must reach them early. Twelfth grade is too late,” Collins said.

The Latino U-M undergraduates that volunteer receive no pay but want to give back to the community. They mentor 30 Monroe students after school, helping them with academic work and explaining what colleges expect from students. Nearly 90 percent are first-generation Latinos whose parents haven’t attended college.

University of Michigan coordinates two College Corps programs. The Monroe program attracts mostly Latino students. The other program is located in Brightmor, a Detroit neighborhood whose school population is

New Ways to Attract Latinos mostly African-American. Both programs are open to students of other ethnic backgrounds as well. Turner would like to see a program started in Dearborn, where a large Muslim population resides.

Both programs are funded by a $12,000 Michigan Campus Compact Grant, which requires a yearly resubmission. Combined, the programs cost about $30,000 to run annually, and U-M supplies the additional $18,000 funding.

College Corps is filling in the admissions gaps since the high schools don’t have the budgets to provide intensive college counseling. One of its primary goals is to raise students’ aspirations. Many of the Latino students only have community colleges on their radar screen, and College Corps encourages them, when appropriate, to consider more academically rigorous colleges, such the University of Michigan.

“How do we reach out to communities and make them aware of college culture and position them to go to college and become high-earning members of society?” asks Collins. Turner added, “We want them to know that college is possible.” Students are taught that attending a college requires extensive planning and an ability to choose the college that best fits their academic performance.

The College Corps workshops teach a variety of skills. For example, students learn goal setting, which entails how to set a plan and complete it, such as applying to college or researching financial aid. Students are encouraged to show perseverance and not give up if they reach an impediment or obstacle. During the workshops, students fill out applications for three different colleges to provide exposure to the complicated admissions process, which has derailed many minority students. A U-M financial aid officer leads a workshop that explains how to apply for financial aid, including Pell Grants, and explains what resources and aid colleges such as University of Michigan offer.

Ingredients that Make College Corps Successful Two other aspects of the program contribute to its effectiveness: involving parents and bringing students to the University of Michigan campus. College Corps holds two parents nights. To attract parents, it notifies them of events via regular mail and e-mail and, as an incentive, provides dinner. During the program, parents listen to a financial aid representative who explains how college can be made affordable through grants, scholarships and loans.

In addition, Monroe students are brought on campus to attend a Latino cultural event that includes classical dance and musical performances. “We want to immerse them in campus life,” said Turner, a Detroit native, so students don’t see it as a “foreign territory. Students need to feel welcome on campus.”

Attracting the Right Volunteers Is Essential Another key to the program’s effectiveness is attracting U-M students on campus as tutors and mentors who have a willingness to help others. Since University of Michigan is a highly competitive college and students must spend time working with students after class and travel 30 miles to Monroe, undergraduates must be very willing to give back. College Corps works closely with

“College Corps is an

intensive, 10-week program of workshops focused on college access and awareness that targets secondary school students in underserved communities.”

Michael Turner, Coordinator of College Corps, Outreach Coordinator, U-M

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JFK on the Michigan Union Steps © Ann Arbor News Maximizing Academic Success (MAS), which was started at U-M as a studentrun organization to expose Latino youth to higher education, explains María Rahman, who heads MAS and is a fourth-year engineering major.

Mentors must take a three-credit sociology course, Project Community, that trains them to work with high school students and focuses on social justice. Collins says that College Corps mentors are trained in how to understand and cope with issues that can arise for Latino students. For example, Latinas, even those with high GPAs, have often been discouraged from attending college in order to help out home with younger children or earning money to balance the family budget. Students explain to parents that earning a college degree can multiply their earnings many times over during their working life.

Peer-to-Peer Mentoring Works Another factor that contributes to making the program effective is peerto-peer mentoring. It raises a high school student’s comfort level when the mentor is someone with whom the adolescent can identify, someone who understands what the teenager is experiencing. University professors can be intimidating to first-generation students who aren’t familiar with college. Rahman added, “It allows students to be comfortable enough to listen and learn from one another without the typical hierarchal learning styles.”

The student volunteers who succeed show “timeliness, organization, professionalism and an eagerness to learn, as well as helping others,” Rahman said.

Why do students volunteer? Turner says that the undergraduate mentors and tutors volunteer for a variety of reasons, but most have a passion for helping others. Volunteers are often involved in helping fields such as teaching and nursing but can also be science and music majors who want to deepen their knowledge. Said Rahman, “Aside from a great community service activity on their résumé, it allows them to break away from the rigorous college routine and make a difference in one person’s life.”

Rahman said she’d like to see the Monroe students get help with their test taking. Collins noted that “minority students haven’t fared well on standardized tests. They haven’t had the experience and exposure with test taking.”

When Skylar Soto was in middle school in Monroe, Mich., she participated in Maximizing Academic Success. MAS, she said, provided tutoring

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and academic preparation but also created an entire support system for the mostly minority participants. “If you needed support for anything, academic help or socially, someone at MAS was there to offer help,” Soto said.

Her MAS experience led her to participate in College Corps.

In the fall of 2010, Soto started as a freshman at the University of Michigan. She’s part of the College of Engineering and leaning toward majoring in mechanical engineering. Since she’s most talented at math and enjoys problem solving, engineering suits her. She says engineering offers a wealth of opportunities, challenges and careers.

Soto’s mom and dad are Mexican and American. Her dad works on the Chrysler assembling line, and her mom, who is Caucasian, is a waitress in Monroe. MAS provided early exposure to the University of Michigan campus, which motivated Soto back then to envision attending U-M. Soto describes College Corps as offering college preparation, emphasizing teamwork and collaboration, and providing scholarship information. She learned how to apply for college and financial aid, which helped her identify $18,000 in scholarship money, reducing her need to take out loans. “I thought I had a grasp on scholarships, but I learned that there was a lot I didn’t know,” she admitted.

As a freshman at U-M, Soto had to make certain adjustments. For example, she had to master managing her time, “and not waiting until the last minute because there’s no one there to discipline you.” But since one quarter of U-M’s student body is minority, and minorities have a strong presence on campus, Soto felt as if she fit into campus life. College Corps and MAS paved the way and showed her “there were many opportunities and resources on campus,” she said.

After two years, College Corps has not been evaluated, but Turner says it should be judged on whether the high school students are improving academically, their attendance in the workshops, parental involvement, and what percentage of students apply and are accepted by colleges.

Overall, what’s the effect of College Corps on Monroe’s minority students?

“It levels the playing field and provides more access to college for firstgeneration students. The university meets students where they’re at, in their community. It focuses on academic excellence,” Turner said.

ADMISSIONS/RECRUITMENT

Diversity Initiatives Multifaceted and Productive at UT-Austin

When

by Frank DiMaria students returned to the University of Texas (UT)Austin last fall they found that, for the first time in the school’s history, fewer than half of the fall semester’s firsttime freshmen were White students. The number of first-time freshmen who identified their ethnicity/race as “White” on admissions information totaled 47.6 percent. Whites are no longer a majority at UT-Austin, a change that reflects the

“Diversity is crucial to UT-Austin,” says Dr. Shannon Speed, assistant vice president and associate professor of anthropology. “This is the flagship campus of the University of Texas system, which was created to serve the people of Texas. Texas is a diverse state; indeed, it is a majority Latino state. In order to serve the people of the state, it is vital that the student body reflect the diversity of the state’s population,” she says.

expanded and more coordinated ties between the university and the community.

The DDCE, which is divided into four strategic areas, each under the direction of a different UT faculty member, embraces and encourages diversity in all its forms, according to Dr. Gregory J. Vincent, DDCE vice president. It strives for an inclusive community that fosters an open, enlightened and robust learning environment and works with a broad range of student,

Dr. Shannon Speed, Assistant VP, Associate Professor of Anthropology

Dr. Angela Valenzuela, Associate VP and Professor, Departments of Curriculum and Instruction and Educational Administration, College of Education

Linda Millstone, Associate VP for Institutional Equity and Work Force Diversity

demographics of the state of Texas as a whole.

The White-only category in the fall of 2010 was 47.6 percent (3,464 students) as compared to 51.1 percent (3,700 students) the previous fall.

The Hispanic (any combination) category is now 23.1 percent (1,680 students) compared to 20.8 percent (1,503 students) in the fall 2009.

The Black total category is 5.1 percent (372 students) compared to 4.9 percent (354 students) in fall 2009.

To better serve the diverse population at UTAustin, the school launched the Division of Diversity and Community Engagement (DDCE) in 2007 and promptly charged it with ensuring that the university is responsive to and positively impacts the surrounding community, ensuring that community engagement remains central to the university’s core academic mission and serving as a catalyst to create new opportunities for

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faculty, staff and community constituents to ensure that UT-Austin is a national model for diversity in higher education.

Community Engagement Center Since its founding in 1883, UT-Austin has enjoyed a rich history of community engagement and service, with service as a key component of its overall mission. DDCE’s Community Engagement Center (CEC), under the direction of Speed, pro-

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motes and coordinates service, pedagogy and research benefiting communities that have been historically underserved by the university, through respectful, collaborative partnerships.

“By underserved communities we mean communities that due to race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, sexual preference, disability or other reasons have had difficulty or face barriers to accessing the benefits of the university in education and knowledge production,” says Speed.

In that sense, all the work of the center involves minorities or groups that have been minorities in the past. Historically, the Hispanic community has been one of those groups underserved by the university. But now the CEC features a number of programs and projects involving collaborations with different Hispanic interest groups or projects in which Hispanics play a significant role.

For example, through the center’s Community Engagement Incubator (soon to be renamed the Social Justice Institute), the CEC has collaborative projects with the Proyecto de Defensa Laboral (a workers advocacy group), Austin Immigrant Rights Coalition (immigrant advocacy), Texas United for Families (anti-incarceration/immigrant advocacy), the Hutto Visitation Project (providing accompaniment to women asylum applicants in the Hutto Immigration Detention Center), Texas After Violence Project (death penalty oral history project), Refugio Community Organizer Training series, and Alma de Mujer Center for Social Change.

Through its Indigenous Studies Initiative, the CEC collaborates with the Indigenous Cultures Institute to educate Texans about the indigenous/Native American heritage of Texas Hispanics. The CEC also houses two affiliated programs and organizations that have significant Hispanic involvement: the Free Minds Program, which, through a UT-Austin Community College collaboration, provides college-level courses in the humanities to low-income residents of central Texas who have faced barriers to attending college, and Foodways Texas, an organization that preserves, promotes and celebrates the diverse food cultures of Texas.

Diversity and Youth Development The Academic Diversity Initiatives and PreCollege Youth Development group in UT-Austin’s DDCE focuses on building a pipeline to college for underrepresented, low-income and first-generation K-16 students; helping with the recruitment, retention and graduation of these students; and encouraging undergraduates to attend graduate or professional school. The programs in this

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area include the Neighborhood Longhorns Program, University Outreach Centers, Longhorn Center for Academic Excellence, Pre-College Academic Readiness Programs, and projects led by distinguished DDCE Faculty Fellows, including Latino Male initiatives, Scholarship in Action and Thematic Initiative, focusing on faculty and graduate recruitment.

The Neighborhood Longhorns Program, under the direction of Celina Ruiz-Snowden, increases student achievement through an educational incentive program operated in partnership with the Austin Independent School District in 21 Title I elementary schools and middle schools to improve overall grade performance, reading, math, science and language arts skills, to increase student retention rates; and provide scholarship awards for students to apply toward a college education.

The Longhorn Center for Academic Excellence, directed by Dr. Leonard Moore, increases and maximizes the academic and personal success of first-generation and traditionally underrepresented students at UT-Austin. The Gateway Scholars program, under the direction of Dr. Aileen Bumphus, maximizes the academic success and social connections of new first-generation and underrepresented students at UTAustin. Started in fall 1994, Gateway Scholars has expanded to include UTransition, a learning community for first-generation and underrepresented transfer students, the Achieving College Excellence Program, a service for students who seek additional academic assistance, and the Welcome Program, a diversity education program for incoming first-year students.

Education Policy The Texas Center for Education Policy was founded in 2006 and builds upon the University of Texas-Austin’s tradition of distinguished scholarship. The center is committed to broadening research on equity and excellence in PreK-16 education through policy. It promotes interdisciplinary and collaborative research, analysis and dissemination of information to impact the development of education policy, through partnerships established with local, state, national and international education communities.

Dr. Angela Valenzuela, associate VP and professor, departments of Curriculum and Instruction and Educational Administration, College of Education, says that UT-Austin has a national and international status but is still a state institution serving a variety of constituents at a variety of levels. As a result, the Division of Diversity and Community Engagement works tirelessly toward getting African-Americans and Latinos into post-

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secondary education at the University of Texas.

Valenzuela, along with her colleagues at the center, works at the state level to address policy issues in areas such as high-stakes standardized testing and assessment, teacher accountability, and English-language learners. Because much of the legislation in Texas reflects a state demographic that is growing at a very high rate, it’s not an exaggeration to maintain, she says, that much of what is called public education is indeed Latino education, particularly in urban areas of Texas, Florida and California. “It’s hard for me to draw a clear-cut distinction between what we might call education policy for Latinos and education policy for children generally, particularly in places like Texas,” says Valenzuela.

When she and her colleagues at the Center for Education Policy advocate for fairness and validity in assessment, they are a voice for African-Americans, Asians and Hispanics, essentially all children who have a stake in education, because their advocacy is based on research and reflects what scholars have learned about the best ways to assess student performance.

“We don’t have to say that it’s for any particular group to argue in effect for all groups, including Latinos, because of their preponderance, their concentrations in large urban areas and their growth rates. Clearly,” she says, the state of Texas “is diverse, and Latinos would have some issues that relate particularly to instruction in Spanish or alternative methodologies, or even in the area of assessment, using alternative kinds of assessments, but they cut across all the categories of program types – like curriculum, technology education, special education, giftedness, arts and the like.”

Valenzuela calls the Center for Policy Education a piece of the pipeline that feeds undergraduates into master’s and Ph.D. programs across America, and former interns she’s had at the center have gone on to Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania. She calls the interns who apply to the center a rather select group, most of whom have an interest in public policy, pursuing a law degree or launching a career in public service. “This is what distinguishes them from a good number of their peers just to begin with,” says Valenzuela.

Institutional Equity and Work Force Diversity Although this school year’s freshman class is the first minority majority class in the history of UT-Austin, diversity is always important at a predominately White institution, according to Linda Millstone, associate VP for institutional equity and

work force diversity at UT-Austin. Millstone contends that the University of Texas has a well-known past regarding people of color, diversity and the value the institution has placed on diversity.

To prove her contention, she points out that Texas is the home of two important legal cases dealing with segregation: Sweatt v. Painter, in which an African-American, Heman Marion Sweatt, was refused admission to the School of Law of the University of Texas; and Hopwood v.

Texas, in which four White plaintiffs who had been rejected by the University of Texas School of Law challenged the institution’s admissions policy on equal protection grounds. In both cases, the plaintiffs prevailed and were admitted to the law school. These watershed court decisions remain in the memory of people of color as they decide where they would like to go to school, says Millstone.

The Office of Institutional Equity, says Millstone, has a long list of highlights that relate to the Hispanic population of the state of Texas, although all minority groups benefit from the services extended by the office. “We provide complaint investigations, training and consultation with management and employees on issues

of diversity and equity. The climate that this office works to improve has resulted in an increase of people of color among our work force,” says Millstone.

From 2000 to 2010, the number of Hispanics employed among executive, administrative and managerial staff at the university rose from 45 to 89; and among the professional staff, from 389 to 511. “We believe this reflects recruiting diverse talent but also the supportive environment of the institution,” says Millstone.

One of the direct initiatives that has been beneficial chiefly to Hispanics is the University Resource Groups (URGs), which now oversees the Hispanic Faculty Staff Association. UT has a number of URGs: Black Faculty and Staff Association, Asian and Asian American Faculty Staff Association, and the Pride and Equity Faculty Staff Association. URGs were granted special status in recognition of their role in bringing issues forward to central administration. In support, URG members are provided work release time to attend meetings, as well as some budgetary and Website assistance. Financial support for URG programming is also allocated.

Being aware of UT’s past and the university’s

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responsibility to serve all the people of Texas, says Millstone, UT President William Powers Jr. identified diversity as one of the key strategies of his administration. This in turn provided support and endorsement of the Division of Diversity and Community Engagement and its efforts to continue to transform the campus in terms of a respectful, supportive and welcoming environment for all its community members.

Millstone calls higher education a living laboratory where diverse people come to learn and work together and then go forth into the broader community, comfortable and experienced with being a citizen of a diverse world.

“For most of our students, this is the most diverse place they have lived in, and many are overwhelmed by the diversity they find here. It takes them out of the familiar, comfortable world they knew and forces them to interact with others. This is the living laboratory. Companies have made it clear to higher education that they want employees who work well in teams comprised of diverse thought and approaches. This institution is the first step for many of our students toward this path,” says Millstone.

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2011 Immigration Reform Proposals Focus on Educated Migrants, Internal Enforcement REPORTS

You

by Peggy Sands Orchowski

might hear that “immigration reform is dead” in the 112th Congress. But in reality, since January 2011, hardly a week has gone by without a panel discussion, conference, congressional hearing or expert analysis on immigration in Washington, D.C. There are many immigration initiatives pending, and some serious bipartisan interest in getting something done before the next election. A trend for what immigration reform might look like in the 112th Congress is beginning to emerge. The focus is different than during the last decade, as are the politics and leadership.

The conversation on immigration reform in 2011 seems to be focusing on two elements. The first is on granting more green cards to educated and skilled immigrants. The second is on increasing internal as well as border enforcement. The strong advocacy for legalization of “undocumented” immigrants by the late Sen. Edward Kennedy and by Rep. Luis Gutiérrez, D-Ill. – no longer on the House immigration subcommittee – is noticeably dimmer.

President Obama advocated for educated immigrants in his State of the Union speech on Jan. 25. He spoke about the need for an initiative known as the STAPLE Act that would grant automatic green cards to foreign students who earned advanced degrees in the STEM fields. Similarly, he supported passage of the DREAM Act that would also give an eventual green card to students who, as advocates tell it, had been brought into the country illegally without their knowledge by their parents and had graduated from high school and college. “What a waste of our educational resources and of the talent of educated young people by keeping them from staying and working here,” Obama often says.

The STAPLE Act has been pushed in Congress by Bill Gates for years; an initial bill may be proposed in this coming session. The “DREAM” concept has had a long history of bipartisan support in both chambers and had been regarded by immigration strategists as a major driver of comprehensive immigration reform. But in the last days of the 111th Congress, Democratic leaders decided to allow the bill to go to the chambers as a stand-alone proposal.

Many Republican senators who had previously voted for the DREAM Act (such as Kay Bailey Hutchinson of Texas and some Democrats) voted against it, however, on the grounds that it did not reflect what its advocates claimed.

It is possible that a rewritten DREAM Act could pass in the 112th Congress. It seems the president sincerely wants it. But the likelihood of it driving a comprehensive immigration bill that includes a broad amnesty for illegal immigrants is not likely. What is more possible is that a Democratically driven DREAM Act might be used as a tradeoff for other immigration initiatives such as the STAPLE Act, a broader temporary agricultural worker program, a reduction in family unification visas and even a limited birth-rights citizenship act that would exclude children born to birth tourists.

More likely is that any increase in any visa category could be accompanied by stronger enforcement initiatives. The Obama administration pretty much continued the push of the Bush administration to increase border

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enforcement and improve deportation retention facilities and processes.

Now both state and federal initiatives are turning to internal immigration enforcement, to improving the functions of ICE (the Immigration and Customs Enforcement bureau), America’s first-ever internal immigration enforcement agency.

Foremost among the internal enforcement initiatives are those that propose improving and eventually making mandatory American employers’ use of the E-Verify system. It’s an electronic database that would confirm every new employee’s work permit and immigration status. Sen. Chuck Schumer, D-N.Y., who continues as Sen. Kennedy’s replacement to head the Senate immigration subcommittee, is a strong advocate of E-Verify. His first immigration hearing last year was on that proposal. He often proclaims that “almost all Americans like immigrants but do not like illegal immigration” and that the way to stop the latter is to prevent employers from hiring immigrants without work permits.

Meanwhile the House immigration subcommittee – now called Immigration and Enforcement Policy – has changed to the Republican majority. Former chairwoman Zoe Lofgren, D-Calif., is now the ranking member; Elton Gallegly, R-Calif., is chairman; and Steven King, R-Iowa, the former ranking member, is co-chair. Although Gallegly headed the Congressional Immigration Reform Caucus, he is less of a zealot on some immigration issues than King, who early in the 112th Congress introduced H.R. 104, which would prohibit birthright citizenship to anyone whose parents were both illegally in the country. Their immigration hearings in March focused on the impact of illegal immigration on minority American workers and on the H1B visas. The strident advocacy-voice for the “undocumented” of Gutiérrez has now been replaced by the softer-toned voice of resident commissioner from Puerto Rico Pedro R. Pierluisi.

At the White House, immigration strategy is not clear. Many Hispanic leaders feel the president has not taken a strong enough leadership role.

But Department of Homeland Security immigration advisor and former Kennedy legislative director Esther Olavarria maintains that the White House “wants and believes comprehensive immigration can pass in this Congress.

We will not support piecemeal legislation, even the STAPLE Act,” she said in March at the Urban Institute. However, Cecilia Muñoz, former senior advocate of La Raza and Obama’s director of intergovernmental affairs, seems to have conceded otherwise. The White House agreed to the stand-alone DREAM Act in December, and the president indicates they may try again.

Whether one believes in a piecemeal or comprehensive strategy, immigration legislation is clearly alive and well in the 112th Congress. There is even some evidence of bipartisan support for some of it. Both parties are reaching out to the growing number of diverse Hispanic voters, the Republicans with some notable successes: the five new Hispanic congressmen and the new Hispanic senator in the 112th Congress are all Republican.

Being Republican and supporting some stand-alone trade-off immigration proposals may be seen increasingly as a good political career move.

In the Trenches...

Puntos Suspensivos

by Lidia V. Tuttle

In

2007, I wrote a short essay in The Hispanic Outlook’s nowdefunct Punto Final column on access, persistence and success in college in which I suggested that in addition to looking at national data and national efforts to encourage attainment of college degrees, focusing on institutional data and institutional efforts could provide a sharper picture of student needs and a broader vision for addressing those needs. HO’s new feature, In the Trenches, does just that, and I’ve been thrilled to read what colleagues are doing across the nation to level the playing field for our students, providing access and support that translates to increasing rates of degree completion.

At Florida International University (FIU), we have embraced the idea that each student’s persistence until degree completion is everyone’s job, beginning with President Mark B. Rosenberg, who years ago adopted the phrase “Every Student Counts” as a motto. Broadly speaking, this phrase means that as we implement sophisticated student administration systems, enhance curricular offerings, launch new programs, and develop university-wide initiatives, we must not lose sight of the individual student. After all, requirements are completed and degrees are awarded one student at a time, yet all of us participate in significant ways in each student’s journey from admission to graduation.

The literature on student success, our own personal experiences, and students themselves tell us that there are key factors and decision points that influence a student’s persistence until graduation. With faculty, staff, administrator and student participation, we have implemented several initiatives that are beginning to show promising results. Documentation and assessment have been built into each project so we can determine return on investment for each initiative. I will highlight two of these.

Helping students find their way. FIU is an urban public research university with nearly 44,000 students and projected enrollment growth of up to 52,000 by 2015. At large institutions like FIU, students may feel isolated or lost, and they may have difficulty negotiating the bureaucracy. To welcome students and guide them in finding their way at the start of the semester, we implemented the Concierge Enrollment Services program.

After much planning, we cross-trained and deployed throughout the campus a cadre of professional staff equipped to assist students with their enrollment and financial aid questions. Concierge staff carried iPads that were linked to our student administration system (PantherSoft), and they

were able to research and resolve, on the spot, the problems that students presented. This high-tech, high-touch initiative has been well received by both students and staff. Students have been positively impressed by the expedited services provided by caring, knowledgeable staff. Concomitantly, cross-trained staff members have been empowered to solve problems immediately and experienced satisfaction spending time among students, welcoming them to the FIU family.

Helping transfer students reach the finish line. FIU and Miami Dade College (MDC), two of the nation’s largest Hispanic-Serving Institutions, have a strong partnership with a track record for providing access to higher education to all South Floridians, especially those for whom the possibility of attending college may seem like a dream. For decades, faculty and staff at both institutions have worked together on curricular and administrative matters, meeting regularly, and hatching new approaches to assist the students we have in common to persist in college until graduation.

In 2006, FIU and MDC inaugurated a Dual Degree Program (DDP), enrolling 480 students in its first year. In this program, students who apply to FIU but are not selected for admission are encouraged to enroll at MDC, and are guaranteed admission to FIU if they receive their A.A./A.S. degree at MDC within three years. Advisors at both institutions monitor these students, ensuring that they stay on track and transition successfully from MDC to FIU. Students enrolled in this program participate in Orientation at FIU, receive an FIU ID, and have access to FIU activities and privileges, such as FIU student prices for events and library access.

In 2009, FIU received a Lumina Foundation Minority-Serving Institutions (MSI) Models of Success Grant to study several of FIU’s student success initiatives, including the FIU-MDC Dual Degree Program. While preliminary results in this data-driven study, conducted by both institutions, are positive, we continue to address the barriers that students experience when transferring to a new institution, including navigating separate administrative systems and developing an attachment to the new receiving institution. In accordance with Lumina grant guidelines, final results will be published and shared with other institutions, especially MSIs that may wish to replicate the DDP or some of the other student success initiatives that FIU has implemented.

Despite our efforts, however, challenges remain. Because there is still much more to say and do, and much to learn from what others are doing at their institutions, I think of this particular essay in terms of “Puntos Suspensivos” ... instead of Punto Final.

Lidia V. Tuttle, Ed.D., is deputy director of the School of International and Public Affairs at Florida International University.

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REPORTS

Minorities and Tenure in the Academy

It’s

by Michelle Adam been about a century since the con- Understanding of the Tenure Track for rates than Whites, according to Trower. cept and practice of tenure has Minorities.” “From 1995 to 2005, the number of This reality may be attributed to the fact that been alive within universities and African-Americans with doctorates increased 84 minority faculty on the tenure track seem to be colleges nationwide. Tenure was initially devel- percent; American Indians, 40 percent; Asian- less satisfied with their academic workplace than oped to assure academic freedom, protecting Americans, 20 percent; and Hispanics, 83 per- White faculty are. In a report conducted by teachers and researchers when they dissent from cent. (But the number of Whites still dwarfs the Trower, Highlights Report 2008 – Selected prevailing opinions. number of minorities receiving the doctorate: Results from the Tenure-Track Faculty Job Today those seeking tenure Satisfaction Survey, the majority of undergo rigorous years of hard tenure-track minority faculty reportwork – tremendous research, teached significantly less satisfaction with ing, committee work and community the climate, culture and collegiality service – prior to the big day in of their workplace than their White which their superiors determine if colleagues. Within this minority catthey are worthy of becoming lifelong egory, Hispanics were the only faculty members with academic freegroup to express a similar satisfacdom within their specific institution. tion as the White population with While the process of tenure their campus climate (further varies from institution to institution, research revealed that those who one overarching reality seems to call themselves “Latino” and yet are hold true – minority faculty, who White as well may have different remain underrepresented in acadeworkplace experiences to those who mia, struggle within the tenure-track are within other minority groups process much more so than the preand consider themselves White as dominant White population (and well). more specifically White males).

As one of the few, if not only, Also, despite a growing number of comprehensive reports on workminority faculty entering academia, place satisfaction with tenure-track more and more faculty at institutions faculty, and specifically minority facnationwide are opting out of the ulty within their separate groups, tenure track altogether.

Highlights Report 2008 provides a Cathy Trower, Research Director and Principal Investigator, This reality is taking place as detailed insight into what may or Collaborative on Academic Careers in Higher Education (COACHE), minority faculty numbers continue may not be working for minority facHarvard Graduate School of Education to increase – by almost 50 percent ulty on the tenure track. The study, between 1995 and 2005 and White faculty by there were 29,144 White doctoral recipients in conducted by COACHE, included the responses only 8 percent, according to Cathy Trower, 2005, compared with almost 3,000 Asians and of 8,513 full-time pre-tenure faculty from instituresearch director and principal investigator at African-Americans, 1,740 Hispanics and only tions throughout the country. the Collaborative on Academic Careers in Higher 214 American Indians.)”

The results of this report revealed faculty satEducation (COACHE) at the Harvard Graduate Despite the increasing number of minority isfaction within the following areas of the work School of Education. This can be attributed to faculty in academia, many of them are working environment for tenure-track faculty: clarity of the fact that “the proportion of minorities with in minority-serving institutions (Hispanic- the tenure process, nature of the work, policies doctoral degrees has increased far more than Serving Institutions and Historically Black and practices, climate culture and collegiality, that of Whites, even while their total numbers Colleges, for example) and make up only a small and global satisfaction. The study then broke remain much lower,” wrote Trower in a Change percentage of faculty at major research institu- down survey findings into groups, including the article of 2009 titled “Toward a Greater tions. In addition, they leave academe at greater overall population, women, minorities – and

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within the minority category, Native American and Native Alaskan; Asian, Asian-American or Pacific Islander; Black and African-American; Hispanic or Latino; Other; and Multiracial.

“The COACHE study is the most comprehensive examination of tenure-track faculty specifically focused on workplace satisfaction,” said Trower. “And to my knowledge, we have the largest database of this population that matches and closely tracks the representation of scholars of color according to race and ethnicity. Most studies lump all minorities together for analysis purposes in order to have a large enough number to be able to say anything ... with statistical reliability.”

The Highlights Report 2008 revealed that White faculty and all faculty of color reported similar clarity about their own sense of whether or not they will achieve tenure, as well as clarity about process, criteria, standards and the body of evidence. However, Hispanic faculty, in particular, reported significantly less agreement than White faculty that tenure decisions are made primarily on performance-based criteria, but significantly more clarity about the expectations for their performance as teachers and as members of the broader community.

“Oftentimes, Hispanic faculty report doing research on topics that don’t always fit the normative mold, using methodologies that don’t fit the mold, and publishing in journals that don’t fit the mold (in other words, “brown on brown” research),” said Trower, explaining why Hispanic faculty might feel that tenure decisions are not made primarily on performance-based criteria. “And community service that Hispanics may feel called upon to do and want to do doesn’t count for tenure.”

Among all tenure-track faculty, the pressure to conduct and publish a lot of research is intense, and community service and teaching capacities are often undervalued. In addition, what Trower referred to as “brown on brown” research – Latinos doing research on their own

communities – is looked down upon, and doesn’t count as much as other research at some institutions and departments, explained Trower.

In another report, Workplace Diversity as a Strategy for Recruitment, Retention and Promotion of Faculty of Color in Institutions of Higher Education, researchers also commented on the challenges minority professors face in teaching minority or fringe-type issues.

“Hamilton 2002 found that another obstacle minority faculty face is resistance from students, particularly when they teach courses dealing with issues such as racism, sexism, homophobia, classism and diversity. She states that faculty teaching race and racism face a particular dilemma,” reported the study. “She found that some faculty of color report that students resent being challenged to face issues of race. As it is common in many academic departments to assign minority faculty to courses dealing with the above sensitive topics, the resistance and the repercussions from the negative response of students becomes a shared obstacle for minority faculty.”

Hispanics, along with American Indian and Asian faculty, also stated that expectations for performance as campus citizens were significantly less reasonable than those for White faculty, according to the Highlights Report 2008.

“What happens, especially for scholars of color, is that they are selected to serve on numerous committees to represent their racial and ethnic group (and women of color represent both color and race – called double cultural taxation), and it’s difficult for them to say no,” said Trower, explaining what often happens for minority faculty. “In part, minority faculty may find such work fulfilling, and in part, who feels comfortable saying no to their boss or their boss’ boss on such matters? If such service doesn’t count toward tenure, then it’s unfair to minority faculty who are compelled to do it.”

Trower’s argument is also backed up by the Workplace Diversity report, which states: “Minorities of color make up about 16 percent

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of the total number of instructional faculty.

People of color make up approximately 11.8 percent of professors, 19 percent of assistant professors and 18 percent of instructors.

Minorities tend to have lower research productivity, heavier teaching loads and a substantially greater commitment to community service than nonminorities.”

In addition, this same study reported that “many minority faculty report feeling that they have to work much harder than nonminority faculty to demonstrate competence. Nontenured faculty and faculty of color are constantly pressured to prove that they are effective teachers, capable of writing, conducting research, mentoring and engaging in services.”

When it came to responding to their campus climate, culture and collegiality, minority faculty surveyed in the Highlights Report 2008 mostly agreed that they were less satisfied than their White colleagues with the collaboration, communication and support from tenured professors within their departments. They did not feel the same “sense of fit” as their White counterparts. Both Native American and Black junior faculty felt they had fewer opportunities to collaborate with tenured faculty than their White counterparts felt, and both were less likely to feel that junior faculty were treated fairly and equitably compared to Whites.

Hispanics were the only group that did not report similarly. “I did not expect to find that Hispanic faculty were as satisfied as White faculty,” said Trower, sharing her surprise. “We suspect that our inability to discern by national origin may mask significant subgroup differences.

Similar to Asian/Pacific Islander faculty members, some Latino faculty from foreign Spanishspeaking countries may experience language and cultural barriers that inhibit the development of positive collegiate relationships.”

This sense of not truly fitting in, reported among the larger minority population, was also an issue evidenced by the Workplace Diversity report. This study pointed out that minority faculty who have been successful attribute much of their success to having a mentoring relationship with a senior faculty member. Yet “many minority faculty have reported being left out of the informal look and networks,” according to the report. “Faculty of color are sometimes isolated and struggle with socialization in universities, particularly when there is a ‘chilly climate.’”

According to Trower, this kind of climate is most likely to attribute to the “revolving door” for scholars of color on the tenure track. In

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addition, when minorities leave one institution for potentially another, “they are often replacing a minority faculty person that has just left the institution, the result of which is not an increase in minority faculty hiring and retention, rather a revolving door of minority faculty coming and going,” stated the Workplace Diversity report from a Tolbert, et. al 1995 study.

To add to this challenging situation, tenure is becoming more difficult than before for all groups to achieve, and fewer people are pursuing the nontenure track – just as the number of minority faculty in academe are increasing at noticeable rates!

“University presses are not publishing as much. They never made money, and now they are losing money, or have gone out of business.

This is an issue if you need to be published to peer review for tenure. Getting grants is tougher

as well,” explained Trower. “More institutions are hiring outside of the tenure stream. There is a great increase of nontenure-track appointments out there. Will there be people left on the tenure track, what will happen to academic freedom, and what will happen with the longevity of faculty on tenure?”

Trower and others claim that the entire tenure system needs to be changed in order to survive, especially given the changing needs of younger generations of faculty coming up the pipeline – whether minority or not. “Generation X is much more mobile, and they think about a job in the same place like a prison sentence. Also more and more faculty are associated with corporations outside of academia and are doing interdisciplinary work in research centers,” she said.

In addition to these changes, more people are seeking a balance between family and work

– something the tenure process makes little room for, explained Trower. “In the Latina community, the family – of all generations – is extremely important. Why should Latinas, or anyone, sacrifice family to have a successful academic career?”

The challenges of tenure and the tenuretrack route in higher education are great for all groups, but especially for minorities, according to reports cited here. In Trower’s view, and that of many others, this tenure system needs to become more flexible and inclusive, moving beyond a “one-size-fits-all” system. It seems only with these kinds of changes will the tenure system survive in academia and provide a climate in which faculty of all color, race and gender feel that their diversity is a welcome addition to higher education.

Scholars’ Corner I arrived in Boston in early 2004 following a late passion in education. Although I had finished my bachelor’s degree in political science, a brief experience as an educational counselor and ESL teacher put me on the track of education hopes.

At the applied linguistics program I had just started at the University of Massachusetts-Boston, I found the elements I felt were missing in many other institutions: open questions about race and ethnicity and social class, and all these fundamentals that make an indelible part of the process of teaching and learning.

After graduating in 2006, my decision to continue on the graduate school road took me to the public policy Ph.D. program at the John W. McCormack School of Policy Studies. My doctoral studies had me face my identity almost constantly. All assumptions, all manners, all commonplaces were challenged by an opaque resistance I could not understand. Navigating a singular new sea world to me, the U.S. higher education system, proved not as easy as I had thought. Being an immigrant among my peers, not sharing the history, the word, or the accent, on many occasions brought me to believe I had no language. Furthermore, inconsistencies between my Hispanic background and the expectations in this new world had me in tension for long periods of time in which I questioned my suitability to be part of a doctoral program.

When I was invited to participate in the American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education (AAHHE), I realized I was not the only one walking down the same way. Others were walking right beside me, and yet others had walked the same way in the past, and they shared stories about what it looks like from the other side: graduation or professorship. At AAHHE, I found the space and the momentum to regain my own words: words to know better, understand better and create value for me and for others. I do have a language. It might not be the language others expect or reward; those kinds of words might never belong to me. However, there are, for sure, different ways to construct and share the world.

By David Nieto Ph.D., Public Policy, University of Massachusetts-Boston, 2010 Graduate Fellow

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Interesting Reads The Borders Within

By Douglas Monroy The author reflects on some of the many ways in which the citizens of the United States and Mexico have misunderstood each other, and considers why Mexicans and North Americans tell themselves different versions of the same historical events.

2008. 248 pgs. ISBN 978-0-8165-2692-5. $21.95 paper. The University of Arizona Press. (520) 621-3920. www.uapress.arizona.edu.

The Faith Healer of Olive Avenue

By Manuel Muñoz Set in a Mexican-American neighborhood in central California, the author tells complex stories, from a set of triplets with three distinct fates to a father who places his hope – and life savings – in the hands of a faith healer.

2007. 239 pgs. ISBN 978-1565125322. $12.95 paper.

Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. (919) 933-0272. www.workman.com/ algonquin.

Golden and Blue Like My Heart: Masculinity, Youth and Power Among Soccer Fans in Mexico City

By Roger Magazine The author takes readers inside Mexico’s soccer stadiums showing how young male fans both blindly reproduce and consciously manipulate images of violence and disorder derived from national myths about typical urban Mexican men.

2007. 224 pgs. ISBN 978-0-8165-2637-6. $45.00 cloth. The University of Arizona Press. (520) 621-3920. www.uapress.arizona.edu.

and Media...

Latin Kings: A Street Gang Story

When he became leader of the Latin Kings, Antonio “King Tone” Fernández vowed to end a brutal legacy of criminality and violence. This documentary follows Fernandez as he carries out that vow. Some content may be objectionable.

2003. 76 minutes. ISBN 978-1-60467-812-3. $179.95 DVD. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. (800) 257-5126. www.films.com.

Latinos and American Law: Landmark Supreme Court Cases

by Carlos R. Soltero The University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas 2006 248 pages list $19.95 paper ISBN 978-0-292-71411-3; list $45.00 hard cover ISBN 978-292-71310-9.

As

legislation involving Latinos makes its way through state houses and courthouses around the country, most notably in Arizona, this book provides a historical perspective on how the legal system has addressed Latino issues over the years. Reading through landmark cases that have made their way to the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court provides the reader with an outline of events that have led to the development of timely issues of immigration and citizenship rights being debated and argued in courtrooms and legislatures. Author Soltero’s analysis of Hispanics’ quest for equal protection and justice paints an uneven ebb and flow chart as courts have ruled to sometimes expand and sometimes restrict the legal rights of Latinos.

While there have been noteworthy and famous court rulings on the state level that could have been included in this book, the author wisely focuses on Supreme Court rulings – the court of last resort for such matters. However, the historical analysis he provides in explaining these rulings often traces the path of these cases as they make their way through the judicial system.

Soltero examines 14 landmark Supreme Court cases that he says have significantly affected Latino rights, from Botiller v. Domínguez in 1889 to Alexander v. Sandoval in 2001. The book is very reader friendly and organized chronologically, looking at decisions handed down by the Fuller Court (1888-1910), the Taft Court (1921-1930), the Warren Court (1953-1969), the Burger Court (1969-1986), and the Rehnquist Court (1986-2005). For each case, the author includes both the historical and legal backdrop on the issues involved and how the case relates to Latinos, in particular.

What follows is a thorough vetting of the opinions expressed by the justices in their ruling. He is careful to include minority views as well as majority views since, in many of these cases, the court was divided and some justices wrote opinions separate from the court’s official opinion, either agreeing or disagreeing with the court’s ruling. An important plus for this book is that the author does not view these decisions in isolation.

He provides a meticulous analysis of how these decisions shaped future decisions and what immediate impact they had on Latino rights.

The cases the author has selected for this book cover an expansive range of issues. These include education, the administration of criminal justice, voting rights, employment and immigration. One of his major conclusions is that the Supreme Court does not necessarily set attitudes and politics in America. It has more often than not reflected the majority attitudes and political climate that already exist.

Latinos and American Law is a welcome resource for students and instructors in Hispanic and ethnic studies classes looking for a comprehensive overview of the history of justice and equal protection as they apply to the Latino community.

Reviewed by Mary Ann Cooper

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HISTORY

Ingrid Betancourt: Photo © Melanie Delloye

Even Silence Has an End

by Sylvia Mendoza

“Wend, that was it.”

hen you think of hell as a biblical place where your pain doesn’t

Ingrid Betancourt lived in that hell. A presidential candidate in 2002, she was kidnapped by guerrilla revolutionaries and held hostage for six years deep in the Colombian jungles. The daily horrors, terror, fears and ambiguities made her question her purpose and threatened to strip her of dignity, but also made her pull up core strength and stamina she didn’t know simmered deep within her.

How did she hold onto sanity when she was surrounded by aberrant behavior? When she was assaulted and ostracized by captors and fellow hostages alike, when every simple freedom had been denied her, when she endured bouts of solitary confinement because of her four escape attempts, when betrayal went deep and loyalty lisped, humanity evaporated and values were compromised?

She held onto a basic freedom that anchored her through those doubtfilled days and scary nights.

“I still had one freedom: to decide who I wanted to be and how I would carry myself,” she says. “I thought, ‘I won’t bend, won’t be what they want me to be.’”

Betancourt’s horrific ordeal came to life when she spoke at the University of California-San Diego, and again in her book, Even Silence Has an End: My Six Years of Captivity in the Colombian Jungle. An L.A. Times book review called it “an unforgettable epic of moral courage and human endurance.”

Born in Bogotá but raised in Paris, Betancourt held her politician

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father in high esteem and accepted his challenge to one day return to give back to their country. Her intentions were good; her timing was not.

She realized she needed to document her hostage experience to educate and enlighten and put into perspective the plight of the poor, of her country and of her own precarious position as a politician. The title of her book was inspired by a poem by Pablo Neruda and made her recognize her mortality and what would happen after death. She could be recognized and remembered because of her words. “I needed to transform those years I had lost into something positive,” she says.

She tells of clichéd lessons learned about a life well-lived. She tells of second chances. She tells of truths being unearthed, fallacies being shattered and how hope can be a driving force. She tells of fear taking root, unforgiving and all-encompassing. She tells of how her deep belief in compassion and human justice faltered. She tells of how her family’s love sustained her.

Yet, writing the book wasn’t therapeutic.

“It was torture,” she says. “Other hostages were moving on and, because I was writing, I was still in the jungle. It would be very difficult for people to understand how we had lived in the jungle. Then there were problems when I arrived back in freedom. I couldn’t talk about it. The

emotions are still vivid. But I needed to give testimony, share with my family what had happened.”

She wrote outside of France, in the mountains, white with snow, a heavenly world away from that hellish place. At the end of the day, to look through the window and see she was someplace else helped in healing as she faced the pages daily. “Recalling was not a problem. The problem was that we, the hostages, cannot forget.”

What Betancourt Learned About Humanity In captivity with 14 other hostages, interconnections were made. Seeing human nature evolve and humanity disintegrate made Betancourt realize individual limitations, strengths and flaws. Personalities clashed and opinions on escape or securing freedom ran the gamut. How each of them dealt with adversity and humiliation was traumatizing but brought out the essence of a person and his or her strengths and weakness, explains Betancourt. They wanted to save and be saved. It was a humbling revelation for her. “We all want to be heroes, but we’re not. You’re just you.”

The abduction and captivity tested them, played mind games. “In abduction, you lose identity. Without freedom, we lose the compass to our soul, lose who we are. Without individuality, you question, who am I?” There were thousands of silent moments because sentries would see their communication as threatening. Betancourt refers to different kinds of silences in her book. “We are beings of communication. When silence is an option, and is self-imposed and your choice, it’s sweet. When silence is an order, and is imposed, it’s similar to dying.”

Submitted to these extreme conditions, Betancourt likened the experience to a concentration camp – hostages in one crammed hovel, being watched 24 hours a day. She and her assistant entered a space already colonized by three American contractors and seven Colombians. Securing inches of space they could call their own became a mission.

“We knew we were manipulated,” she explains. “Guards wanted to divide us, but initially we felt solidarity and embraced love. We were like a family.”

That connection did not last as the days turned into years. Survival of the fittest became the mission as they scrounged for more food for sustenance, or something to read to keep their minds sharp, radios to listen to in order to stay connected with the outside world, and protecting any tiny semblance of personal connection to family so that they could stay sane.

Guerrillas assaulted and humiliated them, peeling back layers of dignity, pride and humanity until all that was left was doubt and mistrust, and often, a disconnect between bodies and souls.

“It brought the awareness of true freedom we take for granted. I had lost all sorts of basic freedoms – to sit down, stand up, to sleep, have space. All of these were taken away. I lost everything.” There were points in her captivity where she could no longer bear her situation. She attempted to escape four times. “For every attempted escape, I got recaptured. But I never gave up. I would say, ‘next time I will succeed.’”

As the years passed, however, post-traumatic stress disorder started taking root. Stereotyped images were shattered. For Betancourt, the lack of resilience of fellow hostages who were American soldiers surprised her.

These abducted military men and policemen who had been trained for war were not prepared for the mental wear and tear they experienced.

“I was amazed to see that once they were faced with extreme cruelty, humiliation and unfair treatment, they were not psychologically prepared to withstand it.”

That insight affected her personally, as well. “It was difficult to accept

that I was not as strong as I thought I was.”

Fallacies Shattered/Truths Unearthed Betancourt was running for president because she felt it was time for a change. In her capture, what changed dramatically was her viewpoint of the FARC, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, her captors. She had thought they would have something to say, to be reasonable and insightful, but their power trip made her unearth certain truths that shattered their image. “However, you have to draw a line between the FARC as an organization and the troop made by young men and women.”

“Recalling was not a

problem. The problem was that we, the hostages, cannot forget.”

Ingrid Betancourt, former presidential candidate for Colombia, FARC hostage

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According to Betancourt, the FARC started out with all the rebellious, chivalrous attitude and magnitude of saviors to the poor in the 1960s. It addressed land reform and social justice, equality and compensation. It promised a better life for those who followed the FARC instead of other politicians.

“Sometimes we think of radical as romantic,” says Betancourt. “There’s that romanticism that was associated with Che Guevara, fighting for the poor. I liked that idea.”

Instead, what she saw behind enemy lines as a hostage made her unearth a truth about the FARC and its stance on poverty. It did not fight for the poor to have better privileges or social justice, or to be fair, she says. It used the poor to get better opportunities for itself.

“I realized it was all fake. They lost their soul, their direction. It’s corrupted beyond belief. If they were really working for the poor, there would have been great strides made by now. One guerrilla said, ‘human rights are a bourgeois concept.’ And I had to take another look.”

For the guerrillas and peasants from around the country, a hierarchy existed in the jungle, with drug trafficking as a major source to obtain weapons and privileges such as better food and clothes. People can be very naïve and are duped, says Betancourt. Girls could become prostitutes and work their way up to be partner of a commander because that was a position of power and privilege and guaranteed a better life – or at least a way to fill a belly and leave destitute environments. Being a guerrilla – or with one – was an upgrade.

The FARC, however, lost credibility by holding the hostages so long as trophies and instruments of their propaganda, she believes. It became internationally known, but more as a band of terrorists or drug traffickers than rebels with a cause.

“This is not just Colombia’s problem,” says Betancourt. “It’s society’s problem, a global problem, a problem of terrorism. There is a very inhumane logic to their existence. Like Pandora’s box, the monster is unleashed.”

What Betancourt Learned About Herself Betancourt looked to her family as inspiration, giving her principles and a work ethic that took her from dual citizenship and a life of privilege in Paris back to her roots in Colombia. She attended the Institute d’Etudes Politiques de Paris, also served in Colombia’s Congress. Her father, a diplomat, worked at the United Nations and was assigned to the embassy in Paris. Betancourt found herself becoming an anti-corruption activist and, when she moved to Colombia in the late 1990s, worked her way up from Colombia’s Finance Ministry to the House of Representatives and then the Senate. She didn’t like the endless corruption that distorted all the good that could be done by government and how it affected families. “There were things that I just couldn’t accept. The lack of justice always triggers things in me. It’s difficult to shut up when someone is being treated inhumanely, when something’s not right.”

That’s what led her to run for president and to come up against the FARC. After the hostages’ rescue by Colombian armed forces in 2008, the concept of freedom changed her perspective and life purpose. According to the New World Encyclopedia online, she is seen as “a courageous woman ... who sacrificed everything for her country.” She has received awards such as the Légion d’honneur and the Concord Prince of Austria award, as well as a nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize.

But she is convinced she will never go into politics again. She wants

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to focus on calming her spirit, living an examined life and making up for lost time.

“In daily lives, we forget little details,” she says. “We give ourselves reasons not to be the best we can be. We are nasty because we’re tired or didn’t have breakfast or had a bad discussion. There is no justification for this when it can be harmful for the ones we love.”

She regrets not enough time with her father, who died while she was a hostage, with her children, with her mother, her sister. She has a deep admiration for them, for never giving up. Her father’s death affected her profoundly. “I thought I’d always find time later. Life proved me wrong. We suffered in a way not possible to describe. The most important thing is your present time, not some time in the future.”

Her heartache stretches to the political arena. A lawsuit was brought against the Colombian government because there is a law protecting victims of terrorism; they can claim compensation. “Other hostages asked for it, but when I did, it was a huge scandal.”

Seen as a political threat, she was attacked in court, and her reputation suffered, and she felt betrayed. “It was a lie, grotesque, unfair. Colombians hated me and turned a victim into a criminal. If I received a hundred times more compensation if I went back – I would never go back to that jungle or time in my life.”

She seeks instead inner peace to help her through the onslaught of celebrity status and personal bashing. “You go to that place inside of you.

It doesn’t prevent you from facing problems and obstacles, but you can still retreat to it to put things into perspective. It doesn’t mean you won’t feel pain or feel sorrow, but you’ll be okay.”

Her Silence Has an End Even after her ordeal, Betancourt has hope for healing – for Colombia and herself. “What happened to me and all my compadres was abominable, but pain allows you to grow in a spiritual way.”

In this day of technology at one’s fingertips, she hopes students and young people won’t lose sight of what is important – that humanity and connection that makes them take stock of their lives. “We have become, with all those toys that we have, very distracted. The availability you need to have, always answering to everyone except to yourself, with no time to be silent, can be detrimental.”

This is when she suggests silence.

“Take an hour a day, or whatever it takes, to ponder what you did during the day. What was right? What was not so right? What matters? Do not lose contact with your soul.”

Betancourt embraces that contact with her soul now. The haunted, sad look in her eyes she believes will stay with her forever, but even with that sadness, she can be grateful. “The essence of who I was died. I was harmed and wounded in many ways but persevered, even when I thought I was feeble.”

From her perseverance, she hopes her children have learned they cannot compromise essential principles. That there will always be causes like social justice, anti-corruption, and the fight against drug trafficking that need to be fought. That standing up for what one believes is right might result in sacrifices, consequences, even persecution. Sometimes, silence needs to be broken.

“For freedom, you have to be tough. You need to have a spine. You can’t give up, especially when you’re afraid.”

ARTS

Promoting Literacy and Creativity: Poetry-Art on the Border

The

by Steven P. Schneider Rio Grande Valley of South Texas is a bicultural, bilingual region where three of its counties – Cameron, Hidalgo and Starr – border northern Mexico. The two largest cities of the “Valley,” Brownsville and McAllen, are just across the river from Matamoros and Reynosa, Mexico, respectively.

Much of the news about the Texas/Mexico border these days is about warring drug cartels, American citizens who have been shot and killed,

and farmers who have been threatened with violence. Yet amidst all the news about drugs and guns, the schools in the Rio Grande Valley remain open. The teachers and administrators in these schools, whose students are predominantly Mexican-American, are fighting another “battle.” They are working daily to educate the children of Mexican immigrants to the United States, many of whom will be the first in their families to attend college. These students, like students elsewhere, are reading fewer books and struggling to creatively solve problems. The high school dropout rates for Hispanics are the highest among any ethnic group in the United States.

The executive summary of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) 2007 report To Read or Not To Read notes that “little more than one-third of high school seniors now read proficiently.” The same study reports that 58 percent of middle and high school students use other media while reading. The July 19, 2010, issue of Newsweek ran a cover story on “Creativity in America” in which the authors report that “American creativity scores are falling” at a time when “all around us, matters of national and international importance are crying out for creative solutions.”

How can we as educators promote reading, literacy and creativity in the classroom for a new generation of Hispanic students? These students are now the majority of public school students in Texas and California and are changing the face of higher education.

I would like to draw upon my experiences as an educator and as a writer who has lived in the Rio Grande Valley for 10 years. As chair of the Department of English at the University of Texas-Pan American (UTPA) from 2001 to 2007, we doubled the number of English majors and the department became ranked No. 1 nationally for bachelor’s degrees awarded in English to Hispanic students. I supervised the development of a new curriculum that reinvigorated the department and fueled student interest in the major. I also taught many of the region’s high school teachers in workshops designed to promote creative writing, creativity and “textual power” through engaged reading.

I encourage the teaching of “ecphrasis” in the college classroom and in workshops that I offer to Region One teachers from Brownsville to Laredo. The tradition of writing a poem or prose passage in response to a work of art is called “ecphrasis,” defined by John Hollander in his book The Gazer’s Spirit as a “verbal description of a work of art.” Perhaps the most famous example of this is John Keats’ poem “Ode on a Grecian Urn” in which he uses the art object as an inspiration to contemplate the nature of beauty and time.

Many modern and contemporary poets have written poems in response to works of art. Recently, the University of Notre Dame, with support from the National Endowment for the Arts, sponsored an exhibit titled “Poetas y Pintores,” which featured 12 poems and 12 works of art by Latino/a poets and artists.

In my teacher workshops, the teachers bring a drawing, a painting, a photograph or another piece of art they want to write about. I ask them to imagine the subject of the painting speaking. What story would she or he tell? Or what would the artist say about the creation of this work? I ask them to write down all the visual details of the artwork to see what they reveal about the piece. By engaging in a close examination of the art, they discover all kinds of wonderful insights that can then go into a poem. They can then share this activity with their students.

Honor Moorman, dean of instruction for English and social studies at the International School of the Americas in San Antonio, Texas, also uses “ecphrasis” in her classes. She has found that “studying the specific links between visual and verbal expression found in ecphrastic poetry gives students an even deeper understanding of the power of details to create an

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Boot Seller You sit back in your leather chair With that white sombrero on your head And smile out at the world That passes by your stall at the Mission flea market Where you sell Western boots To construction workers from Oaxaca, To migrant workers from Camargo, To fruit sellers from Nuevo Guerrero.

Your smile is as wide as the Gulf of Mexico And you listen all day to rancheras and conjunto music On the radio.

You are happy to be sitting here.

You are happy to be selling these leather boots, Polished and shiny in the heat of the day.

You cradle in your hands a cell phone As if you hold the world in your fingertips.

You talk to those who enter your outdoor tienda And listen to their stories of coyotes, The women and children they have left behind.

You listen to their struggles to find work.

You are a man comfortable Selling boots at the Mission flea market Close to the fruit stands and the jewelry sellers And the used clothes on the racks.

You are proud of the boots on your shelves And the vast expanse of desert you have crossed.

You have a glint in your eyes of a man Who has made it on this side of the Rio Grande Content to sell these boots On a sunny afternoon in a flea market in Mission, Tejas.

Steven Schneider

image in the mind.”

For Dana Gioia, former chairman of the NEA and instrumental in providing support for “Poetas y Pintores,” “the visual arts are so central to Hispanic culture that by introducing them in classroom assignments it is possible to bring a huge elemental energy into artistic projects. Having grown up in a bilingual family and in a neighborhood of immigrants, I

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have seen how some Latinos feel – initially at least – like outsiders in English-language creative writing. Once they get started, then these worries quickly disappear, but the challenge is to engage both their interest and their confidence. The visual arts give them a starting point which has no barriers and allows them to express their sensibilities directly. Projects which combine visual and verbal elements also allow students who feel comfortable in one area to explore the other without risk, thereby making the exercises more inclusive as well as more accessible.”

When I moved to South Texas, my artist wife Reefka began sketching and drawing the people on both sides of the Rio Grande, in communities in South Texas as well as the northern states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, Mexico. As she continued to draw and paint children, street vendors, musicians and women from the border town of Nuevo Progreso, or the flea markets of Mission, Texas, for example, I began to write poems about some of her portraits. The result of our collaboration is a new book titled Borderlines: Drawing Border Lives (Fronteras: dibujando las vidas fronterizas, Wings Press, 2010). The book consists of 25 of her drawings and 25 poems, one about each of her drawings. We wanted a bilingual text to reflect the two languages spoken along the border, and the poems are translated into Spanish by José Antonio Rodríguez.

Borderlines/Fronteras was featured at the Miami Book Fair International and the Texas Book Festival and has been recommended for classroom use in reviews of the book by the San Antonio Express-News and the Library Journal. Ed Conroy, writing in the San Antonio ExpressNews (May 16, 2010), concludes his review by suggesting “this book will find ready acceptance in schools and public libraries across the U.S./Mexico border, and will help fulfill the authors’ desire ‘to improve cross cultural understanding and deepen awareness of the human ties that bind us all together.’”

Borderlines/Fronteras provides a model text for teachers to promote reading, writing, and creativity in the classroom. Because the drawings in the book are of real people who live along the border, the students see themselves in the drawings as well as members of their own family. The drawings of “Boot Seller” and “Proud Vendedor” feature men we met at one of the many open-air markets in the Rio Grande Valley and who could be the uncles or cousins of my students. As a result, they discover that art can be made from their own world.

Because the content of Borderlines/Fronteras is culturally relevant, the students find that the poems are accessible and hold their interest. Joan Parker Webster, in her book Teaching Through Culture, defines culturally relevant literature as literature in which students “can see themselves ... represented accurately and respectfully.” Louis Moll, a professor of language, reading and culture at the University of Arizona, contends that “existing classroom practices underestimate and constrain what Latino and other children are able to display intellectually.” Borderlines/Fronteras taps into the students’ life experience and presents an alternative to the culture of drugs and violence glamorized in narcocorridos and other expressions of popular culture. Borderlines/Fronteras also provides social commentary on the issues that confront Hispanic students – literacy, education, poverty and freedom.

Moreover, the bilingual text helps Spanish speakers to learn English and English speakers to learn Spanish. Recently, Reefka and I attended a program at the Pharr Literacy Project in Pharr, Texas, a community outreach center that teaches English to new immigrants and prepares them to enter the work force. The founder of the center, Elva Michal, had been working with a group of adults on their English-language skills, using Borderlines/Fronteras as a text.

Each of the students in the class was required to adopt one of the portraits in the book and write a short story in English about the portrait selected. Each student also created a large painting as a backdrop for the story. After many weeks of working on this project, the students’ presentations included a reading in English of one of the original poems from the book, a demonstration of their own artwork and then a reading in English of their short piece of prose. We were moved by the creative way the material in our book had been put to use to help native Spanish speakers learn English and to express their stories of pain and struggle. This is just one of the many different ways that Borderlines/Fronteras can be put to use in a classroom where many of the students may be English-language learners, like here in the Rio Grande Valley.

When Reefka and I began our Borderlines project in 2001, the U.S.Mexico border was very different than it is today. One could cross with ease from the U.S. side to the Mexican side on one of the many pedestrian bridges built over the Rio Grande. The border wall had not yet been constructed. The activity of the Zeta and other drug cartels was quiescent compared to today.

In the current climate of fear along the U.S.-Mexico border, where the headlines about drug-related murders dominate the news, it is very easy to lose sight of the real people who live and work here and aspire to raise their families, listen to music and dance under the stars.

What does it mean to cross over a border? It means that you leave the familiarity of your own space to enter another culture, which opens the door to cross-cultural understanding. When that door is closed, no exchange of views and ideas can take place, no breaking of boundaries.

Reading provides a similar kind of experience, whereby we may be transported by a book into another world. However, if the experience of reading books is diminished, then our students lose out on their experience of other worlds. One of the ways to get them engaged with reading, according to Sandra Cisneros, is to have them discover “su novia” in the form of a book. When students read about their own culture, they unlock the pleasures of reading and in time read to learn not only about their own culture but the culture of others as well.

When students write about works of art, or create works of art in response to poems, it facilitates the expression of their own creativity in new and surprising ways. I have seen this repeatedly in my graduate creative writing seminar at UTPA, where students often produce their best poems in response to a work of art.

Anne Waldman, in her essay “Going on Our Nerve: Collaborations between Poets and Visual Artists” in the book Third Mind (edited by Tonya Foster and Kristin Prevallet), writes that “something new, or ‘other,’ emerges from the combination that would not have come about with a solo act.” The disciplinary crossing of poetry and art, like the crossing of a geographical border, leads to discovery and insight that both nourishes the soul and stimulates the brain. “Highly creative people are very good at marshalling their brains into bilateral mode,” according to the Newsweek article, “and the more creative they are, the more they dual-activate.” Poetry-Art (“ecphrasis”) just may be the key to unlocking our students’ creativity.

If we do not find ways to promote creativity in the classroom for Hispanic students, then the tremendous resource they represent for helping to solve society’s problems will be lost. The Newsweek article cites “a recent IBM poll of 1,500 CEOs who identified creativity as the No. 1 ‘leadership competency’ of the future.” In business, in the arts, in the sciences, the most creative thinkers are changing the directions of society and at the same time working to solve its most pressing problems.

Proud Vendedor You stand in front of the fruits and vegetables You sell at your open-air tienda At Ochoa’s Flea Market each weekend In your Levis and leather belt from Guadalajara Your sleeves rolled up, the collar Of your red and white checkered shirt unbuttoned A man happy to be here Wearing a San Antonio Spurs championship hat And selling red and green chili peppers Carrots, cucumbers, cabbages, To cabinet workers from Michoacán, Locksmiths from Tampico.

Weekdays you drive a tractor And work the sugarcane fields On old Military Highway.

Weekends you sell fruits and vegetables To support your family: Your three children who work beside you, Your wife and your nieces and nephews Who bag the peppers and tomatoes To all who come in their Texas Longhorn hats And Tommy Hilfiger shirts (Bought for less at the mercado on Conway) And drink fruit cocktails from Castañeda’s.

Afterwards they watch La Lucha Libre Each Sunday afternoon in the tin shed nearby Where El Rey del Camino Takes on the Black Venom.

Steven Schneider

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Six-Year-Old Street Vendor In her right ear she wears a pink stud.

Her lips are sealed and will not share the secrets Of her family, the two room house With dirt floors and no running water.

Her mother makes doilies and tablecloths Sold at the basilica.

The handbags draped over each wrist And around her neck Are stitched by a cousin Who lives in Matamoros.

They hang from her like ornaments.

She awakens each day, early, To walk the streets of Nuevo Progreso Where she competes With other child vendors – of watches, silver bracelets, CDs of Tejano music.

She is intimate with the alleys of this border town Beggars with tin cans, children playing the accordion, stray cats.

She will never learn how to read or write.

She leaves only traces of her footsteps On the muddy paths beside the Rio Grande.

Steven Schneider Dr. Steven P. Schneider, director of new programs and special projects at the University of Texas-Pan American, is the co-author with his wife Reefka Schneider of Borderlines: Drawing Border Lives (Fronteras: dibujando las vidas fronterizas). You can follow their work at www.poetry-art.com.

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HI S PAN I C S O N T H E MO VE Idaho Board Names Fernández President at LCSC

Abrego Named Acting VP for Student Affairs at CSU-Fullerton

The Idaho State Board of Education has announced the hiring of Dr. J. Anthony (Tony) Fernández as president of LewisClark State College (LCSC). Fernández served previously as vice president/provost at LCSC before he was named interim president in April 2010.

He has a bachelor’s degree in biological sciences from California State College-Fullerton and a Ph.D. in plant pathology from Washington State University.

Dr. Silas H. Abrego has been appointed acting vice president for student affairs at California State University-Fullerton.

Abrego will provide “executive-level leadership and vision” in the administration of a comprehensive range of services, policies and procedures related to student affairs programming and planning for the student body of more than 35,000 students at Cal State Fullerton. He received his Ed.D. and M.A in higher education, governance and management from the University of Southern California.

Robert Renteria, Chicago businessman and author of the memoir From the Barrio to the Board Room was a guest speaker on Latino Student Visit Day last month at College of DuPage (Ill.). Renteria’s memoir urges youth to replace violence, gangs and drugs with education, accomplishment and self-esteem. In 2010, he was named Chicago Latino Professional of the Year by the Chicago Latino Network.

Martínez Appointed Associate VP for Diversity at UT-Austin

ACE Recognizes Acuña as Adult Learner of the Year

Dr. Octavio N. Martínez Jr., executive director of the Hogg Foundation for Mental Health and clinical professor in the School of Social Work at the University of Texas (UT)-Austin, recently was named associate vice president for diversity and community engagement at the university.

Martínez has a bachelor’s and master’s degree from UT-Austin, master’s from Harvard University’s School of Public Health and doctoral degree from Baylor College of Medicine.

Mercedes Acuña, mother of three, fulltime employee and military spouse, has been named the American Council on Education’s (ACE) 2010 Adult Learner of the Year.

Acuña received a Bachelor of Science degree in liberal arts from Excelsior College, having applied workrelated training courses recommended for college credit by ACE’s College Credit Recommendation Service to her degree requirements. She currently works for the U.S. Army’s Family and Morale, Welfare and Recreation Academy.

LatinoJustice PRLDEF, formerly known as the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, recently named Juan Cartagena its new president and general counsel. Cartagena is a constitutional law and civil rights attorney with extensive litigation experience in voting rights, employment discrimination, education and language rights.

Campo New Chair of Alliance for Hispanic Christian Education Dr. Carlos Campo, president of Regent University (Va.), has been named chair of the Alliance for Hispanic Christian Education by the National Hispanic Christian Leadership Committee. Campo will provide “visionary leadership” to the group, the purpose of which is to significantly increase Hispanic secondary and postsecondary graduation rates by establishing strategic partnerships between Hispanic evangelical churches and Christian colleges and universities.

Renteria Speaks at College of DuPage

Neller Named to New VP Role at Biola University Twenty-three-year marketing veteran Irene Neller was appointed to the new position of vice president of university communications and marketing at Biola University (Calif.).

Neller, a first-generation Latina, has a bachelor’s degree from Bethany University and

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Photo © Cable Risdon/ACE

Cartagena Named LatinoJustice PRLDEF President and General Counsel

a master’s from California State UniversityFullerton.

FACULTY/ARTS

UMichigan Professor Chronicles the Power of TV

Yeidy Rivero, Assistant Professor, Department of Screen Arts and Cultures, Program of American Culture, University of Michigan

by Clay Latimer

Ysitting in her Ann Arbor home, watching TV for several hours.

eidy Rivero was where she liked to be best on a recent weekday night –

But it wasn’t to unwind.

Watching television is Rivero’s profession. As associate professor in the University of Michigan’s Department of Screen Arts and Cultures, and the Program of American Culture, she studies the medium and its relationship with culture and race, with a special emphasis on subjects of interest to Hispanics.

In some academic circles, scholars still debate whether TV is a crucial force in contemporary society, or just another electrical appliance. But Rivero saw the big picture after focusing on theater studies as an undergraduate and the first few years of grad school. Since earning a Ph.D. from the University of Texas in 2000, she has published one book, is working on her second, and contributes frequently to scholarly journals and magazines on a range of subjects from Ugly Betty, a network TV show based on a young Hispanic woman, to Havana’s commercial television industry in the 1950s.

“I never in my life imagined I would be studying this,” she said. “My background is in theater. It’s my passion. But TV is a very powerful medium. It’s still the most powerful media outlet. Theater shouldn’t be elite, but not everyone can go.

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“So I switched. I took a TV class in 1997 and fell in love with the subject. At the time, it was unexplored. So it was great timing, and I was at the right place to study the subject.”

In her native Puerto Rico, Rivero was as tuned in as the next kid to the popular TV shows of the time. But at the University of Puerto Rico, her scholarly aspirations were reserved for the theater. “My goal was to stay in Puerto Rico and study theater.”

As an undergraduate, she couldn’t help noticing how Blacks were discriminated against in student productions at the school, which sparked her interest in a subject that would later become the topic of her first book on television.

“I grew up listening to racist remarks, but nothing clicked until I went to the University of Puerto Rico,” she said. “I had classmates who were Black Puerto Ricans who were very talented, but every time there was a casting call, they weren’t selected. It happened over and over.”

Instead of remaining in Puerto Rico, Rivero enrolled in graduate school at the State University of New York-Stony Brook, graduating in 1993 with a master’s degree in theater. “One of my mentors wanted me to continue in theater,” in a Ph.D. program, “but I loved to be involved in theater, not to study theater.”

For the next four years, Rivero immersed herself in Spanish-language theater in New York City. She also taught at Hostos Community College (City University of New York) from 1994-96, worked as a translator for the Spanish edition of the New York Daily News, and did voice-overs for American commercials aimed at Spanish-language viewers.

“For Avon and the like,” she says. “It was a big market – not as big as it is now, but it was growing. They needed people with my kind of accent in Spanish. It was nice work.

“But I was ready to move on. I had learned that I loved to teach, but to be a professor you have to have a Ph.D. At the time, many theater programs were being closed. There weren’t that many jobs. And I had already decided I wanted to study media.”

So in 1997, she moved to Austin and entered the Ph.D. program in the University of Texas Department of Radio, TV & Film.

In the mid-’80s, there had been only one Spanish-language network and a handful of newscasts in Spanish. In 1987, Telemundo, the country’s No. 2 Spanish-language network, arrived on the scene. In the mid-’90s, Spanish-language TV took off with an explosion of talk shows, game shows, variety programs, sports, music and a 24-hour all-news broadcast – many of them made in Miami.

By 2003, the number of Hispanic actors on network TV had grown fivefold in little more than a decade. Seven percent of regular actors on the major networks, more than 40 in all, were Hispanic, up from 4 percent just two years earlier. Rivero, then, was perfectly positioned to explore this growing phenomenon.

“Usually the focus is on text at most schools,” she says. “But what was being studied was being expanded at that time. The professor was the father of TV and cultural studies. And he was interested in what the crews and writers did. It’s a producer’s medium. There were some amazing books being published at the time. Some books blew my mind,” books that interviewed “producers, writers, TV analysts and audience analysts.”

After earning a Ph.D. in 2000, Rivero taught for a year at the University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio before accepting a position at the University of Indiana, which seemed a world away from New York City.

“I had very nice, very supportive colleagues, but the actual town and student population wasn’t very diverse. It was very homogeneous. At the beginning, it was very hard,” she said.

Receiving a Ford Foundation grant in 2003, she studied at the Even more telling, Rivero says, Ugly Betty was modeled after the University of California-Los Angeles for a year and in 2005 finished her first Colombian soap opera, Yo Soy Betty La Fea, making it the first American book, Tuning Out Blackness: Race and Nation in the History of Puerto show to be adapted from a telenovela, or soap opera.

Rican Television (Duke University Press).

“It’s definitely a byproduct of globalization. Usually the exportation of Making use of archival research, textual analysis and interviews, Rivero formats originates in Europe. From Latin America, you expect it to come demonstrated how racist programming intersected with Puerto Rico’s sta- from Mexico. But to come from a small TV market like Colombia, which tus as a U.S. commonwealth, its natural culture and the influx of Cuban until recently was local – that was rare. Ugly Betty is seen in Europe, immigrants after 1960. In a nation that saw itself as a place of racial equal- China, Greece, Israel. ...” ity, Rivero detailed quite a different story in local television. White performThe field is expanding on several fronts. According to Arizona State ers in blackface were common. For example, the first chapter focuses on University Mass Communications Professor Craig Allen, the most dramatic Ramon Rivera, the most famous blackface and black voice actor in Puerto development in modern American mass media is not Facebook, blogging Rican television in the late 1940s and 1950s, who was inspired by a form or the social media. Nothing has expanded more rapidly, and has greater of Cuban theater. implications, than the meteoric rise of Spanish-language television.

“For television studies scholars and historians, Tuning Out Blackness In March, the Univision Network announced that it would finish the fills a critical void in understanding important similarities and differences in the television cultures of Latin America and the United States,” wrote a reviewer in Journalist History magazine.

“The book also appeals to media scholars concerned with media consolidation and localism.”

As it turned out, interest in Rivero’s first book wasn’t limited to media studies programs.

“It’s a surprise that the book is read not necessarily in media courses but usually in history courses – Latin American or Caribbean history. I never imagined these people reading a media book,” she says.

In 2008, Rivero received the Trustee’s Teaching Award in Indiana’s department of communications and culture. She was a visiting resident scholar at the University of Pennsylvania’s Annenberg School for Communication in 2009.

The following year, Rivero was named an associate professor in Michigan’s Department of American Culture and Screen Arts and Cultures, where she continues to work on her second book, a study of commercial television in 1950s Cuba. She has made three trips to Cuba, an outgrowth of her visit to the University of Miami Library’s Cuban heritage collection.

Yeidy Rivero, Associate Professor, Department of Screen “The head librarian had contacts with librarians in the main library in Havana,” she said.

Arts and Cultures, University of Michigan “That librarian in Havana opened doors to me to the Cuban Institute of Radio and Television Research Center. No one had access to that. They were very nice; I was February sweep period as the No. 4 network in broadcast primetime very, very lucky.” among all adults 18-34 and in the 12-34 age group – ahead of NBC. Rivero has written extensively for academic journals about Cuban teleBut with more Hispanic population growth coming from Americanvision and other topics, including Ugly Betty, a groundbreaking sitcom born Latinos than from new migration, Spanish-language networks will with a four-year run in the United States. Not only was a young Hispanic need to be more attuned to creating programming that will interest woman at the center of a national network TV show, but Betty’s young American-born Hispanics. nephew also was gay, another big challenge to stereotype.

In other words, Rivero has plenty of ground to cover in a field of study Led by America Ferrera, who won an Emmy for playing the title role, the Ugly that many academicians still regard with disdain.

Betty cast included several Hispanics, as did the show’s long list of guest stars.

“In academia, many people don’t acknowledge the field; they look The National Latino Media Council, which each year grades the four down on it,” she says. “They’ll say: ‘I don’t have a TV.’ major networks on diversity efforts, saluted Ugly Betty for its portrayal of “I just say: ‘how boring. You’re cut off from the majority of the population.’”

Latino characters and for leading the way in Latino-based themes.

“But TV is a very powerful medium. It’s still the most powerful media outlet.”

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HIGH SCHOOL FORUM

H.S. Hispanics’ Formula for Success: The Bottom Line Can Be Found Online

L

by Mary Ann Cooper

ike it or not, we are living in an increasingly virtual world – especially when it comes to education practices both on the K-12 and college levels.

While Hispanics have improved in numbers when it comes to Internet use, according to a Pew Center report, Latinos Online: Narrowing the Gap, the word “gap” in the title tells the story. Hispanics still lag behind Whites in Internet use by more than 10 percent. There is some evidence to suggest, Pew notes, that the gap is in part related to English-language proficiency.

According to the report by Gretchen Livingston, senior researcher, Kim Parker, senior researcher, Pew Social & Demographic Trends Project, and Susannah Fox, associate director, Pew Internet & American Life Project, Internet use among Latino adults jumped 10 percent, from 54 percent to 64 percent, from 2006 to 2008. This increase was more than double the progress made by Whites (4 percent) and five times that of AfricanAmericans (2 percent ) in the same time period. The gap between Hispanics and Whites in Internet use remains, but this dramatic increase in Internet use by Latinos has reduced the gap to 13 percent.

As the report summary states, “While U.S.-born Latinos experienced a 2 percentage point increase in Internet use from 75 percent in 2006 to 77 percent in 2008, foreign-born Latinos experienced a 12 percentage point increase during the same period, from 40 percent to 52 percent. In 2006, 31 percent of Latinos lacking a high school degree reported ever going online; in 2008, this number was 41 percent. In comparison, Latinos with higher levels of education experienced 3 to 4 percentage point increases in Internet use.”

Hispanic students have to overcome more obstacles than their White counterparts when it comes to accessing the Internet. Home access to high speed Internet is a financial consideration for low income and minority households.

The Pew report also shows that the falling prices of high-speed access offered through cable companies, phone companies and satellite operators have reduced that obstacle. The affordability of Internet access has translated into low-income Hispanic households showing the greatest increase in Internet use DATA POINTS: HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT INVOLVEMENT IN ONLINE LEARNING

40%

30%

The survey asked: “In the past 12 months, how have you been involved in classes taught online?”

20%

Results here represent responses from students in grades 9 through 12

38%

38%

12% 10%

8%

0 Took a blended class

10%

9%

Did not Took an Took an take, but online class online class for school for self study interested

Did not Researched take, and not taking an interested online class

Source: Project Tomorrow, “2009 Speak Up Survey,” March 2010

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by Hispanics, more than higher-income Hispanic households. The report states, “Internet use among Latinos residing in households with annual income less than $30,000 increased 17 percentage points from 2006 to 2008. For Latinos in households earning $30,000 to $49,999 annually, Internet use increased 2 percentage points, and for Latinos in households earning $50,000 Latino Internet Use, by Language Proficiency, 2008 (%) Can Read English.......

Very Well

81

Pretty Well

63

Not Well

52

Not at All

24

Can Read Spanish.......

Very Well

62

Pretty Well

67

Not Well

62

Not at All

66

Source: Pew Hispanic Center surveys

or more annually, there was no change in Internet use.”

Beyond available technology, English-reading ability is still the gold standard in accessing the widest range and amount of education material available for American students on the Internet. As such, Hispanics who are skilled in English-reading had the highest percentage of Internet use (81 percent).

By comparison, 63 percent of Hispanics who professed to read English “pretty well” were online and 52 percent of Latinos who said they didn’t “read English well” used the Internet. Only 24 percent of Latinos who couldn’t read English were online users. According to Pew, how well or poorly Hispanics read Spanish was not relevant to their Internet use. The difference between those Hispanics who read Spanish very well or pretty well and those who did not read Spanish and used the Internet was only 3 percent or 4 percent.

As expected, younger Hispanics were more inclined to go online than older Hispanics. Of those ages 18 to 34, more than three-fourths were Internet users. That compares to the 65 percent of Hispanics 35 to 49 who fell into that category, 53 percent of Latinos 50 to 64, and 25 percent of older Hispanics 65 and older.

The connection between education and Internet use was evident in Pew’s research figures for 2008 showing that 74 percent of Hispanics with a high school degree were online users, compared to 41 percent of Hispanics without one and 93 percent of Hispanic college graduates. With education also

came a greater likelihood of a home having a home Internet connection.

According to Pew, “Among Internet users, 64 percent of Latinos lacking a high school degree had a home Internet connection in 2008, as compared with 84 percent of Latino high school graduates, and 94 percent of Latino college graduates.”

The education community is taking careful note of the use of home Internet connections of school-age children, seeing it as a tool it can use to create a seamless learning environment from the classroom to the home. Project Tomorrow is a national education nonprofit group based in Irvine, Calif. In its report, Learning in the 21st Century: 2010 Trends Update, Project Tomorrow examined just how widespread online learning has become.

The report summarizes its findings this way: “As the use of computing and networking technologies in schools grows, educators increasingly incorporate online tools and resources into their curricula – some even replace traditional classroom interactions with ‘virtual’ courses that take place entirely online. At the same time, administrators are concerned with helping students develop 21st-century skills while bridging the digital divide between students and adults. Today’s students are ready now to seize and shape the future by leveraging technology tools to implement their personalized vision for 21st-century education. Online learning is at the heart of this momentum as it satisfies the three essential elements of this new student vision: learning that is socially based, untethered and digitally-rich.”

The trend statistics in their report are worth considering. The number of high school students who are taking online classes for school credit has almost doubled from 2008 to 2009. In 2008, 14 percent of high school students reported taking an online course. In 2009, 27 percent. The increase in demand for online courses has not, however, produced more teachers up to the task of online instruction. There are three times more teachers teaching

online classes as there were in 2008, but 26 percent of school administrators felt that these teachers needed more guidance and training to implement an online class more effectively. The pessimism stems, in part, from what aspiring teachers are conveying. Only 4 percent say that they are learning how to teach online courses as part of their instructional methods courses.

According to Project Tomorrow’s report, “Online learning within K-12 education is increasing access and equity by making high-quality courses and highly qualified teachers available to students. Online learning programs offer courses, academic credits and support toward a diploma. They vary in structure, and may be managed by a state, district, university, charter school, not-for-profit, for-profit, or other institution. Thirty states and more than half of the school districts in the United States offer online courses and services, and online learning is growing rapidly, at 30 percent annually. This growth is meeting demand among students, as more than 40 percent of high school and middle school students have expressed interest in taking an online course.”

With all its positive projections, Project Tomorrow also has some sobering reminders of the limitations of a new world economy. The report notes that 25 percent of students who haven’t taken advantage of online courses complain that classes weren’t available to them. Indeed, a lack of adequate state funding was cited by 35 percent of school administrators and 40 percent of district administrators as the reason why more online classes were not being offered to students. And where students had to pay for online classes, 16 percent of those who weren’t online explained that taking a course was too cost prohibitive for them. Still, there is a strong desire to take online classes.

According to Project Tomorrow, 38 percent of high school students who haven’t taken online courses in the past year are interested in doing so in the future. So, the desire is there. It remains to be seen if the funding, direction and will are sufficient to make it happen.

Theory into Practice The International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL) is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) association based in the Washington, D.C., area with more than 3,200 members. The members represent a diverse cross-section of K-12 education from school districts, charter schools, state education agencies, nonprofit organizations, research institutions, corporate entities and other content and technology providers. An association of this type is further evidence of the burgeoning online education community that has developed over the past few years. Consider these fast facts offered by iNACOL. K-12 online learning is an estimated $507 million market that is growing at an estimated pace of 30 percent annually. Supplemental or full-time online learning opportunities are available in 48 of the 50 states plus Washington, D.C. Twenty-seven states and Washington, D.C., have statewide full-time online schools, and 38 states have state virtual schools or state-led online initiatives.

The rush is on for educators to create standards to harness the potential and success of online learning. iNACOL is an association that has created a suggested guideline of National Standards for Quality of Online Courses. It is just one of the many guidelines that have been offered or will be offered by academics and education associations. Here’s a representation of what iNACOL suggests for schools “blending” online learning with traditional brick-and-mortar classroom education: Create clear course content.

Students not only need to know what they will have to do to complete the course requirements, they also should know what they can expect to learn and be able to accomplish by the time the course concludes. The content of the course must also comply with state content standards where applicable.

For courses not covered by state standards, other national standards should be consulted, such as those of Advanced Placement, computer science, or technology courses. It is also important to make sure that course content does not violate any copyright standards. This is sometimes a trap those who offer online courses can fall into if the line is crossed between information “aggregation” and copyright infringement. Online “publishing” is still publishing and protected by the same laws as printed works.

Lay out a comprehensive instructional blueprint.

Once content goals are clearly defined, the next step is to design an outline and overview that encourages the kind of independent study that is the hallmark of successful online learning. Begin with a complete overview of the course, describing the objectives and activities of the course as well as the resources required to complete it (i.e, books, videos, access to labs, etc.). Most importantly, the blueprint must contain detailed individual lesson instruction and assignments in a calendar form.

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Don’t skimp on technology.

Design the blueprint for the course with as much technical flexibility as possible. Resist rigid “grid systems” that restrict instructors from giving anything but cookie-cutter comments on assignments or activities. The software and hardware running an online education community should allow for design changes and upgrades as technology and/or student and instructor needs change and evolve.

Don’t keep students in the dark.

High school students entering the world of online academics – especially minority or low-income students who might be new to the Internet – need consistent feedback. This feedback is not only essential in the area of grading and accessing mastery of subject matter, it is also critical to the transitioning of students used to traditional classroom setting to virtual reality. Part of the feedback is preemptive. It should include tips and strategies for students to achieve the highest possible course success. It is also important for students to be able to access their progress or lack of progress in the course work on demand.

Refine and retool as needed.

One of the wonderful things about online learning is its flexibility. Nothing is carved in stone. Courses can be retooled and changed regularly without the time and effort that it takes to revamp a brick-and-mortar classroom-taught course. Changes to text do not require republishing. Materials used online are always fresh and never dated as printed textbooks can be. But this aspect of online learning is only an asset if the courses offered are peer reviewed and welcome student evaluations on a regular basis so that changes and updates can be made.

Stay on the cutting edge.

Online courses are not the place for 20th-century content or learning and thinking skills. Online courses should emphasize the 21st-century skills of this brave new virtual world. These skills include an emphasis on independent, self-directed learning and global awareness.

The Arts Issue Aug. 1, 2011 Media

Back to School Issue Sept. 19, 2011

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Aug. 30

I

n this

of economic uncertainty, you

probably think that

may not be

subscribing to magazines. That the taken them away from

From

to

world has

, this is far from true.

to

educators are reading magazines to broaden their Sure, there’s a ton of on the

being spent

, however, there is also a

being spent on magazines, with thousands of paid subscriptions.

Read magazines and broaden your

Outlook

The Hispanic Outlook In Higher Education

www.hispanicoutlook.com

How Many Hispanics? Pew Hispanic Center Releases Updated Comparison of 2010 Census Counts and Census Estimates WASHINGTON, D.C.

The number of Hispanics counted in the 2010 Census was nearly one million more than expected, based on the most recent Census Bureau population estimates, according to an updated analysis by the Pew Hispanic Center, a project of the Pew Research Center. The report includes comparisons of census counts and estimates for all states as well as the District of Columbia, as well as rankings of states with the largest discrepancies between count and estimate.

The 2010 Census count of Hispanics was 50,478,000, compared with 49,522,000 Hispanics in the bureau’s own estimates.

The count was 1.9 percent higher (955,000 people) than the estimated population. In

MetLife Survey of Teachers Examines Views About the Path to College and Careers DALLAS, Texas

According to the new MetLife Survey of the American Teacher: Preparing Students for College and Careers, a substantial majority of teachers, parents and Fortune 1000 executives believe that one of the nation’s highest priorities in education should be preparing secondary students for college and career success. The latest survey is the 27th in an annual series. The first of two reports from this year’s survey, Part 1: Clearing the Path, examines the implica-

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32 states, the 2010 Census count of Hispanics was at least 2 percent higher than the estimates; in nine states, it was at least 2 percent lower than the estimates. In the nine remaining states and the District of Columbia, the difference was less than 2 percent in either direction.

By comparison, for the total U.S. population, the 2010 Census count of 308.7 million was barely lower (about 232,000 people) than the bureau’s population estimate for April 1, 2010. Compared with results a decade ago, the national Hispanic count in the 2010 Census was closer to bureau estimates than it had been in 2000. The 2000 Census count included 10 percent more Hispanics than the population estimates, and state-level discrepancies also were larger than in 2010.

Unlike the decennial Census, designed to be a 100 percent count of the U.S. population, the Census Bureau’s population estimates are annual updates of counts from

the previous census based largely on birth certificates, death certificates, immigration data and other government records. The most recent published state population estimates for Hispanics were as of July 1, 2009.

For this analysis, the Hispanic estimates were updated to Census Day, April 1, 2010, by extrapolating the 2009 estimates based on each state’s Hispanic population growth rate from 2008 to 2009.

The Pew Hispanic Center analysis indicates that states with large percentage differences between their Hispanic census counts and census estimates also were likely to have large percentage differences between census counts and census estimates for their total populations. This reflects the large role that Hispanics play in overall population growth. Hispanics have accounted for most of the discrepancy between 2010 Census counts and census estimates of states’ total populations.

tions of ensuring that all secondary students are college- and career-ready.

Teachers believe that one of the highest priorities in education should be strengthening programs to help diverse learners with the highest needs meet college- and career-ready standards. Teachers in schools with more than two-thirds minority students are more likely than those in schools with one-third or fewer minority students to support common core standards (English: 68 percent vs. 55 percent; math: 69 percent vs. 52 percent).

Both students and parents report that establishing a college-going school culture appears to make the most difference in predicting student success. In addition to setting

expectations and providing appropriate information to students and parents, schools with such a culture excel at preparing students in core subjects as well as the interdisciplinary areas that build global awareness.

Unfortunately, most of the schools with college-going cultures serve students who traditionally are more successful. Schools with strong college-going cultures include fewer diverse and low-income students and English-language learners.

The second part of this year’s survey will shed additional light on teachers’ views on how to best address the needs of students with diverse learning needs. Links for the entire MetLife Teacher Survey series are available at www.metlife.com/teachersurvey.

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The Hispanic Outlook In Higher Education

Just How Many Student Loan Borrowers Are Delinquent?

WASHINGTON, D.C.

As the number of student loan borrowers has increased and their cumulative indebtedness has grown, so too has concern about whether the resulting debt levels are manageable and about what the long-term impact of student loan debt will be on other life choices, credit scores and future borrowing. Absent better data, policymakers and others who focus on higher education issues have relied primarily on institutional default rates and anecdotal accounts. Now a study conducted by the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP), using a wealth of data provided by five of the nation’s largest student loan guaranty agencies, examines in detail the complete repayment experiences of nearly two-thirds of all federal student loan borrowers.

Public Institutions Lagged Behind Private Institutions in Awarding Faculty Salary Increases Last Year KNOXVILLE, Tenn.

The College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPAHR) recently released the findings of its 2010-11 National Faculty Salary Survey.

Results indicate that the overall median base salary increase for faculty members in 2010 was 1.1 percent. However, data show that increases occurred more frequently at private institutions than public institutions. For public institutions, the median salary

www.hispanicoutlook.com

May 16, 2011

The new report, Delinquency: The Untold Story of Student Loan Borrowing, examines more than 8.7 million student borrowers with nearly 27.5 million loans who entered repayment between Oct. 1, 2004, and Sept. 30, 2009. With a primary focus on the nearly 1.8 million student loan borrowers who entered repayment in 2005, the study provides data on the repayment behavior of borrowers and quantifies how many are having difficulty repaying their federal education loans. The study also highlights the scope of student loan borrowers who become delinquent on their loans, but who do not default, and suggests that to fully capture borrowers’ struggle with repayment each month, data must look beyond just default.

Following are some key findings about delinquent student loan borrowers who do not default: • For every student loan borrower who defaults, at least two more borrowers become delinquent without default.

• Two out of five student loan borrowers are delinquent at some point in the first five years after entering repayment. This equates to 41 percent of the borrowers (712,000 borrowers and $11.6 billion in loan activity) who faced the negative consequences of delinquency or default.

• Certain student loan borrowers – those considered more at risk than their peers – might require additional attention and information to prevent delinquency and default.

For example, the rates of delinquency and default were generally much higher for borrowers who had not graduated than for those who had.

• More than a third of borrowers (37 percent) were able to repay their loans in a timely manner, while 23 percent were able to postpone repayment by using deferment or forbearance to avoid delinquency.

increase was again 0.0 percent (the same as 2009); for private institutions, 2.0 percent.

This finding reflects the salaries of 214,155 faculty members and 5,148 researchers in public and private institutions nationwide. Salaries were reported by 812 institutions, including 497 private institutions and 315 public institutions.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the annual Consumer Price Index for all urban consumers in 2010 was 1.6 percent higher than in 2009. As such, the median salary increase for faculty this year was less than inflation for all institutions combined but substantially less than inflation for the publics and better than inflation

for the privates.

“We are pleased to see that salary increases were awarded to many faculty members at private institutions; however, it is disconcerting that for the second year in a row, the majority of faculty at public institutions have not received increases,” says CUPA-HR President and Chief Executive Officer Andy Brantley. “As our higher education institutions continue to struggle to balance budgets, we hope that college and university leaders will look for new and different ways to acknowledge and reward the work of outstanding faculty.”

To find out more about the survey, visit CUPA-HR’s home page, www.cupahr.org.

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DIRECTOR INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY The Institute for Advanced Study (www.ias.edu) is one of the world’s leading centers for theoretical research and intellectual inquiry in the sciences and humanities. Founded in 1930, this private, independent institution located in Princeton, New Jersey, is dedicated to the disinterested pursuit of knowledge. Four Schools comprise the core of the Institute: Historical Studies, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Social Science.

Currently, a permanent Faculty of twenty-eight eminent academics guides the work of the Schools. Each year, fellowships are awarded to some 190 visiting Members from about one hundred universities and research institutions throughout the world.

The Institute’s more than six thousand former Members hold positions of intellectual and scientific leadership throughout the academic world. Some twenty-five Nobel Laureates and thirty-eight ou of fifty-two Fields Medalists, as well as many winners of the Wolf and MacArthur prizes, have been affiliated with the Institute.

While the Institute has no formal links to other educational institutions, since its founding it has enjoyed close, collaborative ties with Princeton University and with other nearby educational institutions.

In addition to the ongoing research in the four Schools, there are also several special programs, including the Institute/Park City Mathematics Institute; the Program in Interdisciplinary Studies, the Program for Women and Mathematics, and the Science Initiative Group (SIG). The Institute also has an Artist-inResidence program that provides an annual series of concerts and lectures for the Institute and broader community.

Nominations and applications are invited for theposition of Director. A Search Committee chaired by Dr. Vartan Gregorian will conduct the search. Letters of nomination and/or application should be submitted electronically (Microsoft Word format preferred) to:

kages Ad pac able! ail now av

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OUTLOOK

Dr. Ilene H. Nagel Consultant to the Institute for Advanced Study Search Committee Leader, Higher Education Practice Russell Reynolds Associates iasdirector@russellreynolds.com 805-699-3050

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05/16/2011

Tenure Track Assistant Professor Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences College of Agriculture and Life Sciences (CALS) – Cornell University – Ithaca, NY

GTCC has Full-Time Instructional vacancies in the following areas: Biology Instructor Communications Instructor Computer Technologies Instructor English Instructor Geology Instructor History Instructor Human Services Technology Instructor Physics Instructor Psychology Instructor Sociology Instructor Qualifications: Master’s Degree with 18 graduate hours in the teaching discipline required.

Developmental English Instructor Developmental Math Instructor Developmental Reading Instructor Qualifications: Bachelor’s or Master’s Degree in English/ Mathematics required.

Advertising/Graphic Design Instructor HVAC Instructor Qualifications: Associates degree in related field required.

For a GTCC application & additional information, visit our website: www.gtcc.edu. Applicants must submit an unofficial transcript with application. As an Equal Opportunity Employer, GTCC is strongly committed to diversity & welcomes applications from all qualified candidates, particularly minorities and faculty under-represented in higher education. EOE

Cornell University, located in Ithaca, New York, is an inclusive, dynamic, and innovative Ivy League university and New York's land-grant institution. Its staff, faculty, and students impart an uncommon sense of larger purpose and contribute creative ideas and best practices to further the university's mission of teaching, research, and outreach.

The Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (EAS) at Cornell University invites applications for an Assistant Professor in the subject area of extreme weather during climate change. The successful candidate will develop a high quality research program investigating the multi-scale processes linking climate to extreme weather phenomena, such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, tropical and extra-tropical cyclones, flooding, and droughts, and their impacts. The incumbent could take an Earth system approach to the subject, emphasizing the interactions of atmospheric, oceanic and land-surface processes in the climate system, including future climate change scenarios. The incumbent will also be a committed educator, enthusiastically teaching undergraduate and graduate courses, advising undergraduate and graduate students, and supervising students at all levels in research. The ideal candidate will be able to interact in teaching and research with colleagues having similar interests at Cornell University, particularly in the Colleges of Engineering and of Agriculture and Life Sciences, in which the Department of EAS is jointly located. The responsibilities of the position will be split between research (50%) and teaching (50%).

Qualifications Required: A Ph.D. in atmospheric science, Earth system science, or a related science or engineering discipline.

Salary/Benefits: Salary is commensurate with qualifications and experience. Cornell University provides an attractive fringe benefits package.

Please submit applications to: extreme-weather-search@cornell.edu as a single PDF (15 mb maximum) that includes (1) a cover letter addressed to the Search Committee Chair, Professor Stephen Colucci, which includes the names and contact information for three individuals who are willing to write letters of recommendation; (2) a curriculum vitae; (3) a research plan; and (4) a statement of teaching interests.

Applications will be reviewed beginning September 1, 2011.

College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Developing Leaders. Improving Lives. Shaping the Future.

Cornell University is an affirmative action/ equal opportunity employer and educator

Samuel Merritt University, founded in 1909 and located in Oakland, California, educates health science practitioners to be highly skilled and compassionate professionals making a positive difference in diverse communities. Over 1,400 students are enrolled at SMU, with campuses in Oakland, Sacramento, San Francisco and San Mateo.

The University offers an undergraduate degree in nursing; master’s degrees in a variety of nursing fields, occupational therapy, and physician assistant; and doctoral degrees in physical therapy and podiatric medicine. For more information visit the SMU website:

www.samuelmerritt.edu

Persons of color are encouraged to apply.

Samuel Merritt University is an Equal Opportunity Employer 05/16/2011

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HISPANIC

OUTLOOK

37

WESTCHESTER COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Positions DIRECTOR OF STUDENT FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE (Westchester Community College, Valhalla, NY).

DIVISION COORDINATOR, DEPARTMENT OF STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES (Educational Opportunity Center, Yonkers, NY). Search reopened.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, CHAIR OF HEALTH PROGRAMS (Educational Opportunity Center, Yonkers, NY). Search reopened.

Westchester Community College is a SUNY institution in Valhalla, NY. EOC is a division of the college, providing tuition-free non-credit academic and vocational training to eligible underserved adults.

For details, visit www.sunywcc.edu/jobs.

Applications accepted until positions are filled. Resumes to Human Resources, Westchester Community College, 75 Grasslands Road, Valhalla, NY 10595; fax 914-606-7838; email Word documents to humanresources@sunywcc.edu. Please indicate position of interest on envelope or in email “subject” field. AA/EOE.

RIO HONDO COLLEGE Whittier, CA is currently seeking a highly motivated professional to join our team!

DEAN, PUBLIC SAFETY Full-Time, 12 month Educational Administrator

To obtain a brochure, District application, and/or additional info, please visit the employment opportunities section of the Rio Hondo College website at:

www.riohondo.edu/hr EEO

www.riohondo.edu/hr 38

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05/16/2011

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND College Park, Maryland

ASSOCIATE COMPTROLLER ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY: University of Maryland, College Park (UMCP) is the State of Maryland’s Flagship University. Located in close proximity to the Washington, DC and Baltimore metropolitan communities, the University enrolls approximately 26,000 undergraduate and 11,000 graduate students. The annual budget is roughly $1.6 billion, including about $400 million of sponsored research expenditures. The business operations of the University are highly complex and relatively decentralized among 12 colleges and schools.

ABOUT THE POSITION: The Associate Comptroller for Sponsored Programs provides strategic and operational leadership for the post-award administration of contracts and grants received by the University, ensuring compliance with all applicable regulations and policies. Core responsibilities include postaward accounting, billing, collections, and reconciliation activities. Further, the Associate Comptroller has the leadership role for effort reporting, the indirect cost proposal submission to the Federal Government, and related negotiations. The Associate Comptroller is also expected to administer the annual OMB Circular A-133 audit, among others. Finally, the Associate Comptroller will ensure at all times the operation is highly responsive to the needs of faculty, researchers, and University staff.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS INCLUDE, BUT ARE NOT LIMITED TO:

• Bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university, with a minimum of ten years’ progressively responsible leadership in relevant functional areas in a complex organization.

• Extensive understanding of regulations, policies, and accounting principles related to contract and grant accounting, including concepts of cost allocation, allowability, and reasonableness.

• Experience interacting with representatives from external examining agencies.

• Ability to resolve complex issues and make decisions in a dynamic environment.

• Ability to motivate and lead others in the accomplishment of tasks, objectives, and missions, and to take the initiative in influencing events and policy decisions.

• Ability and demonstrated willingness to delegate assignments, authority, and responsibility to determine where/how a task can most appropriately be accomplished, and to establish management controls for follow up.

• Ability to interact with all levels of campus administrators and agency personnel.

• Ability to present ideas effectively orally and in writing with a level of style, grammar, organization, and technical construction expected at a senior management level in a major research university.

STRONGLY PREFERRED: Advanced degree and/or a CPA Certificate FOR BEST CONSIDERATION, apply online at jobs.umd.edu by June 1, 2011.

AA/EEO Employer

05/16/2011

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P.O. Box 68 Paramus, NJ 07652-0068 CHANGE SERVICE REQUESTED

P ri min g the Pump. ..

HELPING LATINO PARENTS PREPARE FOR CHILD’S EDUCATION

M

Miquela Rivera, Ph.D., is a licensed psychologist with years of clinical, early childhood and consultative experience. She lives in Albuquerque, N.M.

oney may be the most common challenge for Latino students in higher education, but they also need the encouragement and emotional support of parents and loved ones, cheering them to the finish line. For Latino students, higher education cannot be a solitary pursuit, separate from the rest of life. It must include – if only at a distance – the family who keeps the student rooted in purpose and direction. And family can better encourage its student – regardless of the student’s age – if they know what it takes to succeed and how the process works.

Relatives who have completed college will know this in general. Others whose children are first-generation college students face a new world that can be complex and intimidating. Sharing information early with families can help demystify higher education, raise their comfort level with the process and guide them in preparing their student for success.

The steps of getting to higher education should be laid out like a roadmap for parents to understand the cumulative effort it takes for a student to enter and succeed. The conversation about that roadmap should happen before the young child initially enters school. When new parents with limited formal education can see they are preparing the child to have many lifelong options, they can begin to monitor their child at every level of education. Knowing the components of quality at every stage of education helps parents question, make informed choices and advocate for their child. And since there are no “do-overs” in child rearing, parents need the help to get it right.

When parents do not realize that the cumulative academic preparation for the future must be on track and achievement lags are determined later, it is often harder for the child to catch up academically.

Specific milestones at each grade level should be explained early and referred to often, with Latino parents being encouraged to question teachers when their child is not on target. Frequent communication between parents and teachers at all levels of the child’s education (including high school) helps parents understand the pace and next steps in their child’s education.

Latino parents – especially those without extensive formal schooling – benefit from understanding early what higher education can do for their children and how the system and processes work. Reviewing

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career options is a good place to start, followed by a discussion of the requirements to enter and complete the coursework leading to that career. Parents with earned degrees benefit from updates on admissions, assessment, ratios, lifestyle options and financing.

Specific guidelines for Latino parents on supporting their child academically to prepare for higher education can include reviewing required coursework, explaining indicators of quality and the role of choice and advocacy, an explanation of standardized testing, and teaming with academic guidance counselors.

Concrete suggestions for ways Latino families can support students outside of the classroom also help. Designated study routines and places, leisure reading, extracurricular activities (including and beyond athletics) and community-based experiences and service are good to discuss.

Providing Latino parents a comprehensive overview and specific suggestions to help their child, beginning early, shifts the parents’ role from distant observers to active consumers and advocates. It reinforces the message to parents that a quality education happens by choice, not by default. And it draws them into that process of helping their child choose.

Finally, explaining criteria for choosing a college, the process and implications for selectivity in admissions, the philosophy, credentials and track record of currently enrolled students, the environment and quality of life at the institution, costs (including and beyond tuition), institutional support like financial aid and student services, the college’s history of serving Latinos, and accreditation are important factors to share with parents.

Beyond the technicalities of understanding higher education’s systems and processes, the hardest part for most Latino parents is letting go of their child. Helping parents understand what is developmentally appropriate (or not) for their children, whatever the child’s age, allows them to track their child’s progress. Talking with parents about their sense of change and loss, and their anticipation and concerns about the future helps the Latino family transition and stay the course. And parents rest assured when they know their child is happy and successful.

These articles appeared online only in the 05/16/10 Issue

Leisure College, USA: REPORTS

The Decline in Student Study Time

In

by Philip Babcock and Mindy Marks

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Figure 1 Average Study Time for Full-time Students At Four-Year U.S. Colleges, 1961 and 2003 Traditional effort standard: 30 hours/week 25

Hours/Week

1961, the average full-time student at a four-year college in the United States studied about twenty-four hours per week, while his modern counterpart puts in only fourteen hours per week. Students now study less than half as much as universities claim to require. This dramatic decline in study time occurred for students from all demographic subgroups, for students who worked and those who did not, within every major, and at four-year colleges of every type, degree structure, and level of selectivity. Most of the decline predates the innovations in technology that are most relevant to education and thus was not driven by such changes. The most plausible explanation for these findings, we conclude, is that standards have fallen at postsecondary institutions in the United States.

From the fact-based fiction of Tom Wolfe’s I Am Charlotte Simmons to the undercover anthropology of Rebecca Nathan’s My Freshman Year, scholars, journalists, and educators have begun to depict the college campus as a place where academic effort is scarcely detectable and the primary student activities are leisure-based. But if history is a guide, every generation has a tendency to slander its progeny with allegations of decadence and sloth. Do recent characterizations of a shift in college culture reflect real, quantifiable changes over time in the choices and behaviors of students, or are they little more than the rants of curmudgeons, stoking the common prejudice with selective examples?

We answer this question with hard data from time-use surveys that go back half a century. Figure 1 offers a condensed preview of the results. In 1961, the average full-time student at a four-year college in the United States studied about twenty-four hours per week, while his modern counterpart puts in only fourteen hours per week – a whopping ten-hour decline. As we explain below, the trend depicted in Figure 1 is not explained by differences in the wording of survey questions, is clearly visible across a dozen separate data sets, and does not appear to be driven by changes in the composition of the college-going population over time.

Study time fell for students from all demographic subgroups, for students who worked and those who did not, within every major, and at four-year colleges of every type, degree structure, and level of selectivity. This mountain of evidence suggests that a change in college culture has taken place over the past fifty years, a change that may have profound implications for the production of human capital and economic growth.

While it is not clear why time spent studying has declined, we argue that the observed ten-hour-per-week decline could not have occurred without the cooperation of postsecondary institutions. Education-policy observers commonly use the word “standards” in reference to education outputs, such as student achievement or learning. But in a university setting, “stan-

20 15 10 5 0

1961

2003

SOURCE: Authors’ calculations.

dards” often refers to inputs, such as time spent in class or time spent studying, as well as outputs. Universities commonly claim that eliciting student effort is a goal and even define a unit of academic credit as the number of hours per week a student should have to spend in class and studying in order to earn it. For decades, educators and administrators have also expressed a common expectation about the amount of study time that should correspond to each hour spent in class, what we call the “traditional effort standard”: in general, the standard is that students study two or more hours outside of class for every hour of class time. We will also present evidence that study time has meaningful benefits and that colleges produce these when they elicit it.

Data and Findings We base our analysis on four large data sets that cover the time periods 1961, 1981, 1987-89, and 2003-2005, and we have restricted the samples to full-time students at four-year colleges in the United States. Each survey asked students to report the number of hours per week they spend studying outside of class. Data for 1961 time use come from Project Talent, for 1981 from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), for the late 1980s from the Higher Education Research Institute (HERI), and for the post-2000 years from HERI (2003-2005) and the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE).[1] Very recent data (for study times after 2003-2005) show a similar trend, and the decline we document here can be replicated using eight alternative data sets stretching all the way back to 1928.[2] We examine study-time declines across three different periods: 1961-81,

25 20 15

1961 2003

10

Female

Male

Father’s education, high school or below

Father’s education, some college

Father’s education, college and above

Work > 20

Work < 20

0

Not working

5

Source: Authors’ calculations.

The answer is a resounding no. In Figure 2, we observe that women in recent cohorts studied more than men and that study time fell dramatically for both women and men. Could it be that students have simply begun to choose less demanding majors? Again, the answer is no. Although different majors require different levels of academic time investment, study time plunged for all majors, as shown in Figure 3. Perhaps a few low-quality colleges have begun to resemble diploma mills, but higher-quality colleges have maintained their effort standards, which would mean that the erosion in studying is restricted to a narrow class of colleges. But the evidence indicates not: although students at liberal arts colleges or highly selective universities did study more than other students, both in 1961 and in the 2000s, Figure 4 shows that studying fell dramatically at universities of every type.

Figure 3 Average Study Time for Full-Time Students at Four-Year U.S. Colleges by Major, 1961 and 2003 30 25 20 15

1961 2003

10

Health

Social Science

Letters

Physical Science

Biology

0

Engineering

5 Education

Changes in the College-Going Population. The college-going population has changed in many ways that could be related to study choices.

For instance, a greater fraction of students work at jobs now than was the case in earlier years. Are students studying less because they are working more? Working students do, indeed, study less on average than nonworking students; however, only a small fraction of the change in study time can be accounted for by changes in work hours. As shown in Figure 2, study hours fell for students in every category of work intensity, including those who did not work at all. Holding work hours constant, then, students invested far less time studying in the 2000s than they did in 1961. The evidence indicates not only that college students are studying less than they used to, but also that the vast majority of the time they once devoted to studying is now being allocated to leisure activities, rather than paid work.

Leisure means time that is spent neither working (for pay) nor studying.

Are recent cohorts of students simply better prepared than earlier ones?

This seems unlikely, as there is little evidence of rising preparedness in the test scores of entering students. Further, changes in parental characteristics do not explain the study-time decline: Figure 2 shows that study time declined even while holding parental education constant. How about gender? More women now go to college than did so before. Are female students lazier or less serious, and does that explain the move away from studying?

30

Business

Different Questions on Different Surveys. The relevant study-time questions in the various time-use surveys were not identical. It could be that subtle differences in the framing of the questions evoked very different answers from students and created the illusion of a study-time decline.[3] To account for this possibility, we estimate these framing effects empirically.[4] Our finding is that framing effects account for very little of the overall study-time decline. (Results displayed in Figure 1 and throughout this Outlook include the adjustment for framing effects.) After accounting for differences in the wording of the surveys, we observe statistically significant declines in study time of about eight hours per week between 1961 and 1981, about two hours per week between 1988 and 2004, and about ten hours per week between 1961 and 2003. The evidence clearly indicates that the study-time decline is not an artifact of the way the questions were asked in the different surveys.

The rest of our analysis focuses on the NSSE colleges, as these allow comparison over the longest period for a large, representative set of colleges. It is worth reiterating that the broad study-time patterns we document are not limited to these particular schools or these particular years.

The patterns are clearly visible in data sets stretching from 1928 to 2008.

Figure 2 Average Study Time for Full-Time Students at Four-Year U.S. Colleges by Work Status, Parental Education, and Gender, 1961 and 2003

Hours/Week

1988-2004, and 1961-2003, based on the comparability of the surveys. We compare 1961 and 1981 samples because both are nationally representative. We compare the HERI surveys (1988 and 2004) but restrict the data to a subset of forty-six colleges for which data are available in both periods.

And finally we compare a consistent set of schools between 1961 and 2003 using 156 NSSE colleges that have data available in both time periods. As we will show, study time declined significantly in each of these periods.

Comparing different surveys over time, however, raises important issues of interpretation. We confront two issues in the next section: first, that these trends are a function of differences in survey questions rather than real differences in behavior; and second, that these trends are the result of changes in the types of students who attend college, rather than changes in student behavior while they are in college.

Source: Authors’ calculations.

The bottom line: study time fell within every demographic subgroup, for working students and those without jobs, for every major, and at every type of college. Further, students do not appear to have reduced study time to work for pay. Students appear to be studying less in order to have more leisure time.[5]

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Figure 4 Average Study Time for Full-Time Students at Four-Year U.S. Colleges by Institution Type and Selectivity, 1961 and 2003

30 25 20 1961 2003

15 10

High Selectivity

Medium Selectivity

Low Selectivity

Bachelor’s/Liberal Arts

Master’s

Doctoral/Research

0

All

5

Source: Authors’ calculations.

Why Study Time Has Fallen The findings above raise many questions about the practices and cultures of postsecondary institutions. Given that eliciting academic effort has been, and continues to be, an explicit part of the university mission, why have postsecondary institutions allowed this decline to occur? Possible explanations fall into two broad categories: improvements in education technology and declines in academic standards.

Improvements in Education Technology. Information technologies may have reduced the time required for some study tasks. Term papers have certainly become less time-consuming to write with the advent of word processors, and the search for texts in libraries has become faster with help from the Internet. We acknowledge these factors but seriously doubt that they tell the whole story. A major reason for our skepticism is that most of the study-time decline took place prior to 1981, well before the relevant technological advances. Moreover, the study-time decline is visible across disciplines, despite the fact that some disciplines, such as mathematics or engineering, feature little or no paper writing or library research. We conclude from the evidence that the Internet and word processors are, at best, a small part of the answer.

Falling Standards. The other explanation for the study-time decline is that colleges have lowered achievement standards. Because there is no uniform measure of student learning in college – no exit exam for undergraduates – it is difficult to determine conclusively whether students are, in fact, learning less in college than they used to. It is possible that achievement standards have not declined, even though student effort has. College instructors may have become so masterful at delivering knowledge to their charges that today’s students are able to match or exceed the achievement of their predecessors without putting in much effort. (As college professors ourselves, we are flattered by the idea that we possess these magical talents, but we find it hard to believe.) However, if we take universities at their word about the average amount of academic effort necessary to produce the appropriate level of learning in college, we can examine their performance

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based on this metric. The traditional effort standard, virtually unchanged for the better part of a century, requires that students put in two or more hours of study time per week for every hour of class time (or course unit).

Recent formulations of this standard abound in college catalogs and websites, the writings of educators, and university regulations that define how units of academic credit are to be awarded.[6] Based on average course loads in national data sets, this effort standard requires that fulltime students study thirty hours per week to pass their courses. College students used to come close to meeting this standard, but they now study only fourteen hours per week. So even though we lack the data to observe directly whether college has been “dumbed down,” we are able to draw from the data a solid conclusion about university practices: standards for effort have plummeted – in practice, if not in word.

Why has this happened? Educators have put forth a few theories. David L. Kirp, in Richard Hersch and John Merrow’s Declining by Degrees, emphasizes student empowerment vis-à-vis the university and argues that increased market pressures have caused colleges to cater to students’ desires for leisure. In the same volume, Murray Sperber emphasizes a change in faculty incentives: “A nonaggression pact exists between many faculty members and students: Because the former believe that they must spend most of their time doing research and the latter often prefer to pass their time having fun, a mutual nonaggression pact occurs with each side agreeing not to impinge on the other.”[7] Consistent with this explanation, recent evidence suggests that student evaluations of instructors (which exploded in popularity in the 1960s and 1970s) create perverse incentives: “easier” instructors receive higher student evaluations, and a given instructor in a given course receives higher ratings during terms when he or she requires less or grades more leniently. Because students appear to put in less effort when grading is more lenient, grade inflation may have contributed to the decline.[8] Perhaps it is not surprising that effort standards have fallen. We are hard-pressed to name any reliable, noninternal reward that instructors receive for maintaining high standards – and the penalties for doing so are clear.

Student Incentives. If standards have fallen at colleges, and if the explanation for this change is that colleges are catering to the leisure preferences of their students, this raises the question of why students would demand more leisure and fewer study hours in the first place. After all, time investment in college is supposed to benefit the students themselves. If students study less, they learn less; if learning is a determinant of earnings, students who demand more leisure will reduce their future earning power.

One theory is that the population has become wealthier over time and that this “wealth effect” has caused students to demand more leisure. Oddly, though, students are spending more time working for pay while in college than they did before. This does not fit well with the theory of a wealthier student population that demands more free time. Further, as shown in Figure 2, advantaged students from educated families appear to study more than other students. This, too, casts doubt on the theory that increased wealth and advantage have caused lower study time. Another theory is that the opposite has occurred, and students feel poorer due to tuition increases: in response to a perceived increase in the cost of college, students could be working more and studying less. But we have already seen that students are studying less even when work choices are held constant. In other words, students do not appear to be studying less to work more. Thus, neither of these human-capital explanations seems very convincing.

Another theory is that some components of leisure are activities that

build human capital and that today’s students are engaged in more of these types of activities, such as volunteer work. Though we do not have the breakdown for leisure activities by subcategory in the early data sets, it does not look as though today’s students are spending much time on this activity. Students in the post-2000 era spend about two hours per week on volunteer work. (By contrast, students in 2006 in the University of California system spent 11.4 hours per week playing on their computers “for fun” – a category of leisure that would not have existed in 1961.)[9] We see little evidence that volunteer work or other worklike leisure activities account for the decline in study time.

An alternative to the human-capital explanations is that students acquire a degree for the signal it sends to future employers, regardless of whether they have learned anything. It has been documented that differences in student ability between colleges have increased over time, while differences in student ability within colleges have decreased.[10] In other words, colleges differ more from one another, whereas students in a given college differ less from one another, than they once did. In the past, then, some students may have worked hard to signal they were high-ability types, relative to the other students in their college. But if students within a given college are now of similar ability, grades or rankings may now lack content as a signal. Perhaps there is no longer as great a reward for students distinguishing themselves in college because an employer learns most of what he needs to know from the name of their alma mater.

Research on hiring decisions adds support for this explanation: studies have found that employers have come to rely less on college grades in hiring decisions in recent years.[11] Also, students appear to put more time than they once did into preparing for college entrance exams, tailoring their high school resumes for the purpose of college admission, hiring college admissions consultants, and filling out their college applications.[12] Consistent with the above explanation, students seem to be allocating more time toward distinguishing themselves from their competitors to get into a good college, but less time distinguishing themselves academically from their college classmates once they get there.

We have discussed only a few of many possible explanations of why students may be demanding more leisure and fewer study hours. Based on the data, we are not able to prove conclusively which one – if any – is right. As educators, we remain somewhat puzzled by students’ apparent demand for leisure and the reduction in learning that this demand seems to entail.

Implications Should we be alarmed by the study-time decline? The answer depends on whether studying is an important input to the production of knowledge, skills, and human capital. There is strong empirical evidence to this effect.

Ralph Stinebrickner and Todd R. Stinebrickner show that randomly induced decreases in study time of about forty minutes per day produce a decrease in student GPAs of 0.24 points.[13] Thus, studying is clearly related to knowledge or learning, as captured by grades.

A more compelling question is whether study time is a good predictor of productivity in the long run. Some of the longitudinal data cited above bear on this question directly. The NLSY79 includes data on time use in college and long-run wages, allowing us to combine time-use data from students who were in college in 1981 with subsequent wage data for these students at two-year intervals from 1986 to 2004. We find that post-college wages are positively correlated with study time in college. The increase in wages associated with studying is small in the early post-college years, but it grows over time, becoming large and statistically significant in the later

years. By 2004, one standard deviation in hours studied in 1981 is associated with a wage gain of 8.8 percent.[14] We do not claim to have proved a causal effect, but we conclude – consistent with common sense and the intuitions of educators – that increased effort in college is associated with increased productivity later in life.

If one believes that declining study time signifies declining acquisition of human capital, as suggested by the evidence here, then the study-time trend is a serious problem. Human capital is extremely important, both for the individuals who acquire it and for the nation as a whole. Evidence indicates that increases in the human capital of the workforce accounted for most of the economic growth in the United States over the twentieth century.[15] On the plus side, declining study time also implies increased access to college because it makes college more affordable. Returns from a college degree remain high, but because students need to invest less time per week to earn a degree, college attendance now requires a much smaller sacrifice in terms of lost wages. This makes college more affordable to more people. The common perception that college is becoming less affordable ignores this apparent reduction in opportunity cost. Our evidence indicates that for most people (that is, those who choose public institutions) college is actually cheaper now than it was in 1961. The savings in time cost (based on the average wages for workers with a high school degree) more than compensates for rising tuition. Though it may be good news that college is cheaper than most people think, this appears to be a byproduct of lowering standards. We would question whether this is the optimal strategy for making college more affordable.

Conclusion We have argued that academic effort is an important input to the production of skills and human capital, but whether or not student effort matters, the pattern in the data is clear. Postsecondary institutions in the United States are falling short of their self-stated standard for academic time investment, and the amount they fall short by has quadrupled over time. We submit that if academic effort is, in fact, a crucial input to the production of knowledge, and eliciting such effort is an important part of the university’s mission, then this widespread deterioration of the standard for student effort demands attention and considered action from all who have a stake in the quality of higher education in the United States.

Notes 1) For convenience, we will refer to the multiyear samples by their middle year.

2) For detailed information on these data sets, see Philip Babcock and Mindy Marks, “The Falling Time Cost of College: Evidence from Half a Century of Time-Use Data,” Review of Economics and Statistics (forthcoming). The additional data sets include Americans’ Use of Time (1965), Time Use in Economic and Social Accounts (1975), Americans’ Use of Time (1985), the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’s American Time Use Survey (2003), and several early surveys from the 1920s and 1930s.

3) Seymour Sudman, Norman Bradburn, and Norbert Schwarz, Thinking about Answers: The Application of Cognitive Processes to Survey Methodology (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996).

4) Specifically, we administered surveys to four large classes of students at a major public university in California. For each survey referenced, we created a survey instrument that contained a verbatim re-creation of the study-time question from that survey. The undergraduates were

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then randomly assigned to a different question wording, so any significant differences across the treatment groups were attributable to differences in survey wording. This allowed us to estimate the specific effects of differences in wording.

5) Not only did study time fall when work choice was held constant, but our best evidence indicates that time allocated toward leisure increased by about nine hours per week between 1961 and the 2000s (see Philip Babcock and Mindy Marks, “The Falling Time Cost of College: Evidence from Half a Century of Time Use Data”).

6) Formulations of this standard can be found in Alfred G. Goldsmith and C. C. Crawford, “How College Students Spend Their Time,” School and Society 27 (1928): 399-402; Margaret F. Lorimer, “How Much Is a Credit Hour? A Plea for Clarification,” Journal of Higher Education 33, no. 6 (1962): 302-6; and George Kuh, “How Are We Doing? Tracking the Quality of the Undergraduate Experience, 1960s to the Present,” Review of Higher Education 22, no. 2 (1999): 99-119. Up-to-the-minute examples of the effort standard are posted on the official websites (URLs available upon request) of numerous colleges, including Auburn University, Pennsylvania State University, Ohio State University, Purdue University, North Carolina State University, University of California, University of Michigan, University of Mississippi, and University of New Hampshire.

7) Richard Hersch and John Merrow, Declining by Degrees: Higher Education at Risk (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).

8) Philip Babcock, “Real Costs of Nominal Grade Inflation?New Evidence from Student Course Evaluations,” Economic Inquiry (forthcoming).

9) Steven Brint and Allison M. Cantwell, Undergraduate Time Use and Academic Outcomes: Results from UCUES 2006 (Berkeley, CA: Center for Studies in Higher Education, University of California-Berkeley, 2008),

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available at http://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/docs/ROPS-BrintTimeUse-9-24-08.pdf (accessed July 23, 2010).

10) Caroline Hoxby, “The Effects of Geographic Integration and Increasing Competition in the Market for College Education” (mimeo, Harvard University, 2000).

11) Henry Rosovsky and Matthew Hartley, Evaluation and the Academy: Are We Doing the Right Thing? (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2002).

12) See, for example, Alex Williams, “Lost Summer for the CollegeBound,” New York Times, June 4, 2006.

13) Ralph Stinebrickner and Todd R. Stinebrickner, “The Causal Effect of Studying on Academic Performance,” B. E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy 8, no. 1 (2008). These decreases in study time were associated with having been randomly assigned a roommate who had an Xbox.

14) Detailed results from these regressions are available from the authors upon request.

15) J. Bradford DeLong, Claudia Goldin, and Lawrence F. Katz, “Sustaining U.S. Economic Growth,” in Agenda for the Nation, ed. H. Aaron et al. (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2003), 17-60.

Philip Babcock (babcock@econ.ucsb.edu) is an assistant professor at the University of California-Santa Barbara. Mindy Marks (mindy.marks@ucr.edu) is an assistant professor at the University of California-Riverside.

This article originally appeared in AEI Education Outlook No. 7.

Reprinted with the permission of the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington, D.C.