Honours Review 16

Introduction

Edition 16: Unlocking Tomorrow

In many cultures, sixteen is a coming-of-age milestone. It is the opening of a door towards new responsibilities and opportunities, a time to step to the threshold of adulthood with a sense of curiosity for what lies ahead. At sixteen, the world begins to reveal itself in its splendor — an age of discovery and boundless potential, the beginning of a new chapter in life. It is also, however, a time of insecurity and doubt, where the vastness of the world is overwhelming and the paths that lie ahead uncertain and treacherous.

In this 16th edition of the Honours Review, we embrace this spirit of being sixteen. This past year has been incredibly turbulent globally. Yet, many of us are privileged enough to live with easy access to food, clothing and shelter. We are more connected than ever, with the wealth of the world’s knowledge at our fingertips. This past year has also seen a meteoric rise in AI, from revolutionizing industries to improving everyday conveniences to raising profound ethical and moral questions. We live in unprecedented times, with the world around us shifting faster than ever before.

Following closely on the heels of No. 15, we look one step further out from our new start to explore how innovations, revolutions and discoveries are shaping the landscape of our future. Where is our current trajectory taking us and what destinations await? And how must we react and adapt our ways of living in anticipation?

An exploration of the future is always speculative. It has the risk of falling either into dystopian alarmism or promises a utopian fantasy that never comes. To label the paths that lie ahead of us as either “good” or “bad” is an oversimplification, and it is here that the principles of diversity and interdisciplinarity that drive the Honours Review are more critical than ever. This edition platforms a multitude of perspectives and solutions for the times ahead, from emerging fields and techniques in the sciences and humanities to lessons from history to bring us into the future. This diversity in discipline is also reflected in mediums— short essays, poetry, opinion pieces, scientific reviews —and illustrations that showcase the richness of our dialogue.

Through this diversity, we hope to recapture the fresh-faced zeal of being sixteen, and inspire you towards new ways of looking and adapting to the world around us. And as our magazine grows one year older and transitions into maturity, we get one step closer towards Unlocking Tomorrow.

The Editorial Board 2023-24

Table of Contents

GREEN TECHNOLOGY

Author: Wally van der Laan

Illustrator: Tessa Drenth, Monika Mineva

Climate change is a pressing problem for all of us—but this is likely not the first time that someone has tried to convince you of this. Our current level of greenhouse gas emissions is estimated to, soon enough, bring about a 2 to 3-degree Celsius increase in global temperatures. This is enough to have disastrous effects on agriculture, animal and plant biodiversity, mass infrastructure, and human health [1-3]. Governments worldwide have aimed to collectively combat the impact of climate change through various policy measures, such as tariffs, investments in green technology, and restrictions on the use of certain highly polluting materials and machines. What governments may lack, however, is a normative account of the policy measures we wish to implement. In other words, why should we implement specific policies? And what makes certain policy measures objectionable?

Simon Caney, professor of political theory at Warwick University, aims to answer this question by narrowing down this question to a ‘simple’ equation: climate impact is equal to the product of population, affluence, and technology (I = P x A x T) – the IPAT formula [4]. All drivers of climate change are encompassed in this small mnemonic. More population growth, higher levels of consumption, and less use of green(er) technologies all contribute to a higher degree of climate impact. Professor of Continental Philosophy Patricia MacCormack, for example, writes in her A Human Manifesto that we have a moral obligation to go extinctfor the climate’s sake [5]! Others, like Elizabeth Cripps, take a milder position and argue in favor of limiting childbirth, even if it tramples reproductive rights [6].

This might be problematic, though. As countries become more industrialized, they tend to bring about fewer children, but forcefully lowering the birth rate by infringing on the human right to reproductive self-control seems too extreme [4]. Population growth is not the only impacting factor, after all. Caney’s IPAT formula includes affluence and technology as well – what about those? If technological advancement results in a lower impact on climate change, and indirectly reduces childbirth rates, then we might not need such invasive policies.

“If we travel to a faraway country twice a year to drink cocktails in the sun, so should our great-great-great-greatgrandchildren be able to do so!”

Should our focus then lie on developing green technologies? According to Caney, it should. Not only should countries focus on the innovation of climate-positive technologies, but gas-guzzling cars and exhaustive barbecues should likewise be taxed. People would be able to freely use any technology they can afford to the extent they’d like—up to a given maximum so as not to lead to too much use of high-carbon technology. Caney crowns this model of mitigating climate change as ‘ecological liberalism.’

Liberalism does sound a bit dirty in this context. Many people believe neoliberalism to be largely responsible for the climate disasters we observe nowadays—so what does ecoliberalism have to offer for us? In my opinion, not much more. Systems like Caney’s proposal still allow for the use of gas-guzzling cars, albeit that people have to pay more for it. The well-off are better able to afford this, while lower-income people do not – especially since lower-income people are more dependent on carbon-based technologies in their daily lives [4]. This seems unjust, especially when considering this would extend also to higher- vs. lowerincome countries. While high-income countries enjoy a high level of affluence, lower-income countries, unable to afford green technologies or carbon taxes, would have to deal with less. This disproportionate burden is difficult to justify.

Besides this asymmetry, Caney’s argument relies on the belief that green technologies will soon be able to meet current energy demands to the point where carbon-based technologies become redundant. Electric cars, solar panels, and other green innovations are stimulated by governments and produced by private industries. He focuses on technology, because to him, focusing on population growth would be immoral (and the global population will decrease, anyway, with innovation!) and future generations are owed the same level of affluence as we have. If we have two family cars, future generations should also have access to this. If we can travel to a faraway country twice a year to drink cocktails in the sun, so should our great-greatgreat-great-grandchildren! This means that our options in the IPAT formula are limited to technology.

Although an emphasis on technology sounds nice, I find it highly implausible. I certainly dream of a future where my flying, electric car can take me to a sustainable resort in the south of France –but this is perhaps just a fantasy. More generally, relying on future green innovations to reduce climate impact is a bit naïve. Green technological innovations have been rather disappointing. Solar panels and wind turbines are proper sources of clean energy but are unreliable when it comes to sustaining the energy needs of large economies. Germany, for example, experienced several power outages as a result of a shift from carbon-based energy to wind and solar energy [7]. Disappointingly, they had to resort to the use of coal to supply their energy needs during outages, causing a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

Nuclear energy, although contested by some environmental organizations as too risky, could become a reliable source of carbonfree energy, but building nuclear power plants would take more time than we actually have if we wish to mitigate climate change before the point of no return [8]. Electric cars are innovative, but even in modern economies in Western Europe or North America, finding good places to charge your electric vehicle is difficult. And think of industries like construction, agriculture, and livestock farming that sometimes specifically require carbon-based energy sources to produce their goods. If every shift to green energy counts, we appear to be done with counting very quickly.

So, now what? With all three variables of the IPAT formula gone, there seems to be no way out. Before we lose all hope, though, I want to reintroduce affluence as a main target for policy measures. Caney argued that our level of affluence should be unaffected because future generations are owed our current level of affluence. But… are they really? The level of affluence that we have enjoyed for the past few decades is exactly what brought this climate problem about in the first place. At the risk of being paternalistic, shouldn’t we make a better choice now to prevent similar problems for future generations?

Think of it this way: our current level of affluence means that we fly often, eat various unhealthy and cheap foodstuffs, and frequently use non-recyclable products. Not to be emphatic, but do we really wish for future generations to be as airborne, meat-stuffed, and microplastics-based as we are? If we do not, then there seems to be virtue in becoming modest consumers. We might owe future generations the same (or better) comfort than we currently do, but this does not imply that they are entitled to consume to the same degree as we do. Virtuously modest consumption can still provide future generations with the same sense of affluence and satisfaction as we currently feel.

A modest degree of consumption can, therefore, help us along the way in building a sustainable future. Perhaps we don’t need to eat as much meat as we do now, and perhaps we don’t need to buy that nice sweater when we already have several. Between possibly infringing upon human rights and hoping for green technology to save us all, the realistic solution seems to be to emphasize consumption –both through private efforts and public policy.

References

1. Bhandari, B., Liu, Z., Lin, S., Macniven, R., Akombi-Inyang, B., Hall, J., … Xu, X. (2023). Long-term consumption of 10 food groups and cardiovascular mortality: A systematic review and dose response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 14(1), 55–63. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2022.10.010

2. Groh, A. (2012). Tourism and Indigenous Communities: Implementing Policies of Sustainable Management.

3. Xiang, Y., Jiang, L., Zhou, Y., Luo, Z., Zhi, D., Yang, J., & Lam, S. S. (2022). Microplastics and environmental pollutants: Key interaction and toxicology in aquatic and soil environments. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 422(126843), 126843. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126843

4. Caney, S. (2020). Human rights, population, and climate change. In Human Rights and 21st Century Challenges (pp. 348–370). doi:10.1093/oso/9780198824770.003.0017

5. MacCormack, P. (2020). The Ahuman Manifesto.

6. Cripps, E. (2015). Climate change, population, and justice: Hard choices to avoid tragic choices. Global Justice, 8(2). doi:10.21248/gjn.8.2.96

7.Schmitz, R. (2022, September 27). Amid an energy crisis, Germany turns to the world’s dirtiest fossil fuel. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2022/09/27/1124448463/germany-coal-energy-crisis

8.Wealer, B. Breyer, C., Hennicke, P., Hirsch, H., von Hirschhausen, C., Klafka, P. Kromp-Kolb, H. ... Müschen, K. (2021). Kernenergie und Klima. Diskussionsbeiträge der Scientists for Future, 9, 98 pp. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.5573719

Biomimicry: Crafting a Sustainable Future with Nature’s Blueprints

In the pursuit of unlocking tomorrow’s solutions to urgent environmental challenges, researchers find inspiration in Earth’s remarkable biodiversity. Biomimicry is a field that takes inspiration from nature’s ingenious designs to tackle urgent environmental challenges. Cutting-edge technologies such as synthetic spider silks, self-cleaning windows, or gecko-based adhesives might confront the current engineering limitations of manufactured technologies and reshape the future. However, it is also essential to emphasize the importance of producing nature-based materials with a deep commitment to ethical standards.

Author: Nina Cielica

Illustrator: Sylwia Jackowska

2.16 million species on the planet

With 2.16 million described species inhabiting our planet and many more yet to be categorized, Earth’s extraordinary biodiversity persists as a striking aspect of life [1]. These organisms have evolved materials with remarkable properties and high efficiency through evolution and adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Hence, despite constant progress in technological advancement, nature remains superior to numerous novel inventions. Current interest in multi-functional, sustainable, nature-inspired materials has led to the development of an interdisciplinary area labeled “biomimicry”. By imitating properties or mechanisms from nature, innovative technologies with versatile functionalities can be created. Clothing fabrics and fog collectors inspired by spider webs’ silk [2,3], the lotus’s self-cleaning properties incorporated into water-repellent windows or paints [4], or artificial adhesives, based on nanostructures on a gecko’s toes [5], are some examples of applications in this emerging field. Researchers envision tackling climate change problems or current engineering limitations by drawing inspiration from the natural world, which offers a promising pathway toward sustainable solutions.

Spider Silk

In the realm of biomimicry, spider silk is one of nature’s most remarkable marvels, which offers a combination of extraordinary strength and simultaneously, lightweight properties. Notably, the strength-to-density ratio of spider silk surpasses that of steel, posing new possibilities for material science and engineering. Inspired by that, researchers have recently made a breakthrough in the manufacturing of synthetic spider silk by engineering bacteria to produce silk mussel foot proteins with amyloids [6]. The fibers produced from those proteins are biodegradable, making them a compelling replacement for petroleum-based materials such as polyester. By adopting this alternative material, the fashion industry may reduce its carbon footprint and become more environmentally conscious manufacturers.

steel

spider silk

Furthermore, research efforts have also been dedicated to fabricating spider web-like fog collectors that imitate the structure and fibers that make up spider silk [7]. Spider webs excel at gathering water due to the presence of regular knots that assist in trapping water droplets [3]. The designed collectors have a 2D arrangement resembling a spiral spine structure with “microchannels”, resulting in efficient water transportation from hydrophobic (water-repellant) to hydrophilic (water-adoring) regions. Those microstructures mimic the role of knots in the spider silk, accumulating water in hydrophilic areas. Such a new water harvesting system would be essential, especially for regions where the conventional methods are ineffective. As the global water crisis looms, this innovation holds a promise for mitigating the pressing issue of water shortage.

Dr. Manel Torres, the visionary founder of ‘Fabrican’ [8], reimagined spider silk with a unique perspective. His groundbreaking research focused on a garment that could be sprayed directly onto the body, disrupting traditional sewing and weaving. This innovation took the spotlight at Paris Fashion Week 2022, where the dress was crafted directly on the model in front of an appreciative audience. Beyond the captivating fashion show, Fabrican’s technology is truly remarkable. A blend of liquid cotton fibers, polymers, and solvents is sprayed directly onto the skin from an aerosol can. As it dries, it transforms into a flawless, flexible fabric that perfectly conforms to the body’s contours. This process resembles the instant creation of webs by spiders and the robustness of such a structure. Acknowledging potential environmental concerns with aerosols, Fabrican takes a conscientious approach, prioritizing sustainability by using non-ozonedepleting substances and incorporating recycled fabrics. Additionally, garments from spray-on fabrics can be reused or re-dissolved, allowing for the material to be sprayed anew. This aligns with circular fashion principles and significantly extends the product’s lifespan [9].

Self-cleaning Properties of the Lotus Leaf

Another example comes from the lotus leaf, known for its magnificent ability to remove dirt particles due to its waterrepellent abilities (also known as the lotus effect). This unique self-cleaning property is attributed to both the microscopic bumps on the leaf’s surface and a waxy coating, which collectively result in the formation of spherical water droplets [4]. When the leaf is tilted, these spherical droplets roll over its surface, also collecting impurities and dirt particles. Inspired by this natural phenomenon, researchers and engineers have developed self-cleaning windows or paints, based purely on structural aspects, (and not the waxiness), of the lotus effect. By reproducing the microscopic roughness of the surface, a robust water and dirt-repellent ability can be achieved. In stark contrast to traditional alternatives, these inventions are characterized by improved cleanliness, reduced maintenance

Gecko’s Adhesion

The gecko is another inspiring organism, renowned for its ability to achieve switchable adhesion, by effortlessly attaching and detaching from vertical surfaces. This extraordinary climbing technique is attributed to the complex, hierarchical structures of the gecko’s feet. On a microscopic level, there is an interplay of van der Waals intermolecular forces that allow for effective adhesion. Those forces depend only on the distance between two surfaces and not their chemical composition.

The gecko’s adhesion mechanism has been thoroughly examined [5] and has led to groundbreaking innovations in the field of biomimicry. One notable development is the gecko-based adhesive ‘Geckskin’ [10]. Unlike the conventional pressure-sensitive adhesives which struggle to combine strong attachment and easy removal, ‘Geckskin’ achieves that by mimicking the structure of a gecko’s foot. It is also made of renewable materials, such as natural fiber, and can be reused, hence minimizing waste [11]. Moreover,

a team of scientists at Stanford have successfully scaled up these gecko materials for human-scale applications, obtaining adhesive pads that allowed a 70 kg human to climb a vertical glass wall [12].

Ethical Considerations of Biomimicry

On the other hand, opponents of biomimicry argue that it is not inherently connected with sustainability and that it might be limited to a decorative or aesthetic aspect rather than delivering tangible environmental benefits. A case in point is the ArtScience Museum in the City of Singapore. Despite its aesthetic appeal in the form of a lotus-shaped design, it lacks sustainability measures, for instance, water-repellent effects that reduce water and detergent usage [13].

It is essential to highlight that in the field of biomimicry, a fundamental distinction emerges between strong and weak approaches [14].

Strong biomimicry involves faithful replication of nature’s mechanisms, while weak biomimicry allows for the adaptation and optimization of these principles to align with human needs.

For biomimicry to be effective in architecture, weak approaches are used, which include factors like scale adaptation. However, a visual component is not enough to classify architecture as biomimicry; it is simply inspired by nature. True biomimicry should encompass a holistic approach that considers not only the aesthetic perspective but also the functional and environmental aspects [13]. A great example is represented by the architect William McDonough, who adds an additional natural aspect- the closed-loop cycle of the material. He promotes the utilization of waste feedstock from one production process in a new architectural project.

Additionally, the philosophical and ethical aspects of biomimicry are another critical consideration, particularly when it comes to pursuing sustainability without inadvertently harming ecosystems or producing waste. For example, the extraction of natural resources for research can lead to environmental degradation and contribute to the destruction of natural habitats. The pursuit of biomimetic solutions designed to address pollution might, ironically, lead to new forms of pollution, if not thoroughly examined. Therefore, even though nature is complicated, before manufacturing the product, the process should be analyzed, and any potential risk should be identified.

It is crucial to acknowledge and address the ethical and environmental concerns associated with biomimicry. The field should prioritize sustainable practices, emphasizing a deep understanding of ecosystems and responsible resource management. Scientists should adhere to ethical guidelines, which ought to minimize the negative environmental impact. To date, human industrial technologies have been hugely wasteful of energy and materials. Even though natural processes tend to consume byproducts instead of creating waste, scientists should still be cautious when producing novel nature-based inventions [15]. Nevertheless, by prioritizing sustainability, adhering to ethical guidelines, minimizing waste, and raising awareness, biomimicry can effectively address ethical and environmental concerns while harnessing the innovative potential of natureinspired solutions.

Biomimicry is a captivating and transformative field that draws inspiration from the brilliance of the natural world. Given the urgent need to tackle global warming, researchers are replicating and modifying natural mechanisms to obtain sustainable solutions. With the rapid advancement of cuttingedge technologies, biomimicry has the potential to integrate seamlessly into everyday life. Just as birds have influenced airplane design and mosquitoes have inspired less painful needle designs, the mentioned innovations hold the promise of becoming equally recognizable in the future.

In the words of Albert Einstein,

“Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better.”

Biomimicry exemplifies this statement, revealing the vast potential of nature-based solutions to address pressing issues and complex challenges. it offers a promising pathway toward a more sustainable and harmonious coexistence with our planet.

References

1. Ritchie, Hannah. “How Many Species Are There?” Our World in Data, 2023. https://ourworldindata.org/ how-many-species-are-there.

2. Jokisch, Stefan, and Thomas Scheibel. “Spider Silk Foam Coating of Fabric.” Pure and Applied Chemistry 89, no. 12 (2017): 1769–1776. https://doi.org/10.1515/ pac-2017-0601.

3. Wang, J., et al. “Laser Direct Structuring of Bioinspired Spine with Backward Microbarbs and Hierarchical Microchannels for Ultrafast Water Transport and Efficient Fog Harvesting.” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces* 12, no. 18 (2020): 21080–21087. https://doi. org/10.1021/acsami.0c02888.

4. Zhang, M., Feng, S., Wang, L., and Zheng, Y. “Lotus Effect in Wetting and Self-Cleaning.” Biotribology 5 (2016): 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotri.2015.08.002.

5. Autumn, Kellar, and Nicholas Gravish. “Gecko Adhesion: Evolutionary Nanotechnology.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366, no. 1870 (2008): 1575–1590. https://doi.org/10.1098/ rsta.2007.2173.

6. Li, J., et al. “Bi-terminal Fusion of Intrinsically-Disordered Mussel Foot Protein Fragments Boosts Mechanical Strength for Protein Fibers.” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-02337563-0.

7. Katiyar, N. K., Goel, G., Hawi, S., and Goel, S. “NatureInspired Materials: Emerging Trends and Prospects.” NPG Asia Materials 13, no. 1 (2021): 1–16. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41427-021-00322-y.

8. Fabrican Spray-on Fabric. “Fabrican Spray-on Fabric Sprayable Non-woven Aerosol Technology.” Accessed N.D. https://www.fabricanltd.com/.

9. Rathinamoorthy, R. “Circular Fashion.” Circular Economy in Textiles and Apparel, (2018): 13-48. Accessed April 21, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/B9780-08-102630-4.00002-9

10. “GeckskinTM is a New Super-Adhesive Based on the Mechanics of Gecko Feet.” 2012. Umass.edu. https:// geckskin.umass.edu/.

11. King, D. R., Bartlett, M. D., Gilman, C. A., Irschick, D. J., and Crosby, A. J. “Creating Gecko-Like Adhesives for ‘Real World’ Surfaces.” Advanced Materials 26, no. 25 (2014): 4345–4351. https://doi.org/10.1002/ adma.201306259.

12. Hawkes, Elliot W., Eason, Eric V., Christensen, David L., and Cutkosky, Mark R. “Human Climbing with Efficiently Scaled Gecko-Inspired Dry Adhesives.” Journal of The Royal Society Interface 12, no. 102 (2015): 20140675. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0675.

13. Aboulnaga, Mohamed, and Shimaa El-Sherif Helmy. Biomimetic Architecture and Its Role in Developing Sustainable, Regenerative, and Livable Cities. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3031-08292-4.

14. MacKinnon, R. B., Oomen, Jan, and Pedersen Zari, Michael. “Promises and Presuppositions of Biomimicry.” Biomimetics 5, no. 3 (2020): 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/ biomimetics5030033.

15. Vogel, Steven. Cats’ Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds of Nature and People. W. W. Norton & Company, 2000

The (not so) Dark Web:

An Essay on the Duality of Internet Privacy

Author: Tessa Pino

Illustrator: Yingyi Chen, Eduard Prunache

“Think of the web as an iceberg— the tip that sticks above the water is the surface web, while the submerged part represents the deep web.”

When mathematician Clive Humby first coined the now-famous phrase ‘Data is the new oil’ in 2006, he may not have fully anticipated the profound accuracy his words would attain over time. Technological advancements have caused data collection to become increasingly prominent over the last few decades [1]. The more data is collected and processed, the better an actor can predict their audience’s actions. For example, Instagram employs data collection on user engagement to predict the interests of its users, enhancing the relevance of the content shown on users’ feeds. This has caused data to become a valuable commodity with the power to influence society. Consequently, companies are avidly working on collecting their user’s data. One way they do this is by making it difficult to refuse the companies’ terms of service or non-essential cookies on their websites [2].

Excessive data collection has caused people that wish for extra protection to turn to darknets. Numerous organisations have created darknets to defend digital rights by providing anonymity and security while browsing by blocking trackers (such as cookies). They created a new part of the web: the Dark Web. The dark web vouches for online privacy and thereby offers those who are oppressed the ability to escape censorship if they wish to do so. However, the anonymous nature of the dark web has also unintentionally made it an ideal platform for criminal activities. Here, we delve into both the positive and negative aspects of the dark web, leaving you the reader to form your own judgement on the matter.

What is the Dark Web?

In recent years, the term darknet has become popular to describe overlay networks that warrant anonymity and security while browsing the internet. Similar terms, such as ‘deep web’ and ‘dark web’, are often incorrectly used as synonyms for the darknet. The differences between the deep web, darknet, and dark web requires some explanation.

Computer Scientist Michael K. Bergman is credited with being the first to use the term ‘deep web’ in contrast with the ‘surface web’ [3]. He likens the deep web to a fishing net that is dragged across the ocean surface. While some will be caught, the majority of information on the web will remain out of reach. This is because content on the deep web is unindexed by being dynamic and not linked to other pages. Therefore, these pages are not (fully) accessible using standard search engines such as Google and Bing. Consequently, content on the deep web can only be accessed if a specific query is used. When Bergman wrote his white paper in 2001, he estimated the deep web to be 400-550 times larger than the surface web, which is still the number used today [4]. One of the largest parts of the deep web are databases such as that of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), or the content of somebody’s private email.

‘Darknets’ originally referred to networks other than the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) Network. However, its definition underwent a slight shift after gaining popularity in 2002 following a paper proclaiming it as the future of content distribution [5]. The paper characterised the darknet as any encrypted overlay network ensuring anonymity and security by dissociating an Internet Protocol (IP) address from its host computer, which is how the term is most commonly used to this day. The most famous, and arguably first darknet is the Onion Router (Tor). The Tor project was created in the mid-1990s by the U.S. Navy Research Laboratory to provide a secure, anonymous communication channel for government employees sharing sensitive information over the internet. It involves a server network encrypting and decrypting data in layers, akin to the layers of an onion, hence the name the Onion Router. This level of security makes it difficult for anyone to trace the origin of traffic, enabling users to communicate anonymously. In 2002, the U.S. Navy publicly released the software as a free, open-source project.

Think of the web as an iceberg— the tip that sticks above the water is the surface web, while the submerged part represents the deep web. No special tools are generally needed to explore the deep web, but if you want to dive even deeper into the hidden corners, that is where the darknet comes in. The part of the deep web that is only accessible with a darknet is called the dark web. An example of a website on the dark web is WikiLeaks. WikiLeaks allows whistleblowers to anonymously submit sensitive documents for publication. Their website was founded in 2006 by Julian Assange, and it has since been used to expose corruption and wrongdoing in governments and other organisations around the world. It is part of the dark web to protect the identities of its sources [6].

The surface web refers To The parT of The inTerneT ThaT can be accessed and indexed by search engines. This is The parT of The inTerneT ThaT we access daily where we can for example “google“ a quesTion.

The Light Side of the Dark Web

Freedom of Expression

“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.”. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) describes freedom of expression [7]. Unfortunately, freely obtaining and sharing information is not an option everywhere. In countries where there is heavy censorship or no freedom of speech, the dark web can become a vital tool for citizens to exercise their right to access information and express dissent without fear of reprisal. Take, for instance, the situation in North Korea, a country known for its strict censorship policies and limited access to external information.

In North Korea, anyone who views so-called ‘reactionary ideology and culture’ - a term used for content from abroad - may face imprisonment of five to fifteen years. On top of that, any person found distributing such material may face life imprisonment or even the death penalty [8]. According to Daily NK, A South Korean newspaper, two North Korean women were publicly executed after breaking the channel lock on their television and secretly watching foreign television programs [9]. The dark web, with its encrypted communication channels and ability to bypass traditional censorship methods, allows individuals in repressive regimes like North Korea to access foreign media such as the New York Times.

Right to Privacy

Companies collect cookies to track and analyse user behaviour on their website. These cookies are small text files that are stored on a user’s device when they visit a website. Some cookies, such as session cookies, are necessary in order to run a website because they enable core functions like user authentication and session management. Others, however, are there to track consumer behaviour, which they can then use to improve their website and optimise their marketing campaigns [10]. Amongst other things, cookies can allow the website to remember a user’s preferences and browsing history.

A study about cookie consent management platforms has shown that some companies can achieve an ‘accept all cookies’ consent rate of more than 90% [11]. This is due to the fact that companies use clever methods to get users to accept their cookies. A report by the European Data Protection Board has highlighted the most common of these methods [12]. These include having pre-ticked boxes, using deceptive button colours or contrast, and removing a reject all button from the first page of a cookie banner. By removing the disagree button from the front page of the banner, the accept all consent raises by 22-23%. Thankfully, the EU reacted to these irreverent ways of making it harder to reject all non-essential cookies. They added a section about cookies to the ePrivacy Directive stating that a reject all button had to be as accessible as an accept all button. This sounds great in theory, however, in 2020 only 11.8% of the top 100,000 websites in the UK met the minimal cookie requirements (such as adding a reject all cookie button) that the ePrivacy Directive set forth.

Article 12 of the UDHR emphasises the right to privacy: “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” [13]. With the pervasive erosion of online privacy on the conventional web, the dark web provides a sanctuary for individuals who value their privacy. Even in countries with relatively open internet access, concerns about unwarranted surveillance and data collection persist. The dark web, with its encrypted communication channels and anonymity features, offers a level of protection for users who wish to shield their online activities from prying eyes.

The Dark Side of the Dark Web

In a horrifying case in Germany in 2018, a 48-year-old woman and her 39-year-old partner were sentenced to 12.5 and 12 years in prison, respectively, for “selling” her young son to abusers on a darknet marketplace. The couple were convicted of forced prostitution, rape, sexual and physical abuse in nearly 60 identified acts. The abuse had persisted for two years, with the mother threatening her son with foster care if he reported it. Six other men, who had paid to abuse the boy, received sentences ranging from eight to 10 years. The court learned that the couple had operated the paedophile ring as a business, charging abusers up to €10,000 per session [14].

The dark web offers a variety of benefits to those who want to escape censorship and monitoring. In some scenarios, this is undeniably justified. However, this anonymity has also made it an ideal platform for criminals. A possible reason it took so long before the German couple was arrested was that the material was never flagged as abusive. The only reason the couple eventually got arrested was because someone gave an anonymous tip to German law enforcement.

Digital black markets that sell goods and services are known as darknet markets. It is surprisingly easy to access these darknet markets. In July of 2023, a Dutch woman came home to find an AK-47 on her doorstep. Her eight year old son had ordered the gun on the dark web [15]. One of the most famous darknet marketplaces was known as the Silk Road. It was eventually shut down by the FBI in 2013, but similar marketplaces, such as AlphaBay and Dream Market (who have both been shut down as well), have emerged to take its place [16]. Darknet markets sometimes seem to act as the Lernaean Hydra who grew one or two more heads whenever someone managed to cut one off.

“Darknet markets sometimes seem to act as the Lernaean Hydra who grew one or two more heads whenever someone managed to cut one off.”

Regulating the Dark

Web

Dark web platforms receive high levels of daily activity, with some sites recording up to 500 page views per second [17]. This ties to a major problem law enforcement agencies (LEAs) face while trying to regulate the dark web: lack of resources. Manual investigatory processes are time-consuming and inefficient when dealing with the massive volume of content on the dark web. Budgetary constraints often prevent the acquisition of specialised software and tools that can assist in navigating and analysing dark web activities. To address these difficulties, LEAs are actively exploring new techniques to identify and apprehend offenders, transitioning from reactive to proactive, intelligence-led approaches [18].

A notable case study where LEAs used a proactive approach was “Operation Sweetie”. In this 10-week operation, nongovernmental organisation Terre des Hommes worked together with the Dutch police to create an AI-generated avatar named “Sweetie” that was used to lure sexual predators on dark web chatrooms and forums [19]. From this operation, 1000 child predators were identified. However, the transnational nature of the web made it unattainable to arrest all the offenders [20]. This highlights another major problem when regulating the dark web: lack of international collaboration.

Despite increased regulation, the illicit portion of the dark web continues to grow. Effectively addressing the challenges of regulating the dark web requires a paradigm shift, allowing for new investigative techniques and increased international collaboration.

It is important to recognize that the dark web is not all dark, nor is it purely light—it’s a spectrum of shades of grey. The question of how to weigh access to information from someone in North Korea against the plight of a child sexual abuse victim in Germany creates an ethical dillemma. Studies offer varied perspectives, with a 2016 estimate suggesting 57 percent involvement in illicit activities on darknet websites [21], while a 2020 study lowered it to around 6.7 percent [22]. The fluctuating numbers highlight the uncertainty surrounding how we should perceive the dark web. Therefore, the exact shade of grey we are dealing with remains unclear.

1. Schäfer, M. T., & van Es, K. (2017). The Datafied Society. Introduction. https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789462987173/the-datafied-society

2. Obar, J. A., & Oeldorf-Hirsch, A. (2018). The Biggest Lie on the Internet: Ignoring the Privacy Policies and Terms of Service Policies of Social Networking Services (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 2757465). https://doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.2757465

3. Bergman, M. K. (2001). White Paper: The Deep Web: Surfacing Hidden Value. Journal of Electronic Publishing, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.3998/3336451.0007.104

4. Hatta, M. (2020). Deep web, dark web, dark net: A taxonomy of “hidden” Internet. Annals of Business Administrative Science, 19, 277–292. https://doi. org/10.7880/abas.0200908a

5. Biddle, P., England, P., Peinado, M., & Willman, B. (2003). The Darknet and the Future of Content Protection. In J. Feigenbaum (Ed.), Digital Rights Management (pp. 155–176). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-54044993-5_10

6. Gehl, R. W. (2018). Weaving the Dark Web: Legitimacy on Freenet, Tor, and I2P. Journal of Web Librarianship, 13(4), 325–326. https://doi.org/10.10 80/19322909.2019.1656493

7. United Nations (n.d.). Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Article 19. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights

8. Volker Türk, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (2023). In DPRK, steps to advance human rights and justice are vital to building sustainable peace, Türk says. https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2023/08/dprk-stepsadvance-human-rights-and-justice-are-vital-building-sustainable-peace

9. Jong So Yong (2023). Two women executed in S. Hwanghae Province for watching S. Korean programs. https://www.dailynk.com/english/two-womenexecuted-south-hwanghae-province-watching-south-korean-programs/

10. Englehardt, S., & Narayanan, A. (2016). Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis. 1388–1401. https://doi. org/10.1145/2976749.2978313

11. Nouwens, M., Liccardi, I., Veale, M., Karger, D., & Kagal, L. (2020). Dark Patterns after the GDPR: Scraping Consent Pop-ups and Demonstrating their Influence. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376321

12. edpb (2023). Report of the work undertaken by the Cookie Banner Taskforce. https://edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2023-01/edpb_20230118_ report_cookie_banner_taskforce_en.pdf

13. United Nations (n.d.). Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Article 12. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights

14. Connolly, K. (2018). German couple who sold son to paedophiles on darknet jailed. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/07/germancouple-who-sold-son-to-paedophiles-on-darknet-jailed

15. Hobbs, J. (2023). An 8-year-old had no trouble buying an AK-47 online and mailing it home. https://nypost.com/2023/07/23/an-8-year-old-hadno-trouble-buying-an-ak-47-online-and-mailing-it-home/

16. Gayard, L. (2018). Darknet: Geopolitics and Uses | Wiley 17. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27885502

18. Akhgar, B., Gercke, M., Vrochidis, S., & Gibson, H. (Eds.). (2021). Dark web investigation (Ser. Security informatics and law enforcement). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55343-2

19. Hoang, N. P., Doreen, S., & Polychronakis, M. (2019). Measuring I2P Censorship at a Global Scale. BBC (2013). Computer-generated ‘Sweetie’ catches online predators. BBC News. [Online] (2013), Available at: https:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-24818769

20. Terre des Hommes, (2022). Sweetie: dé aanpak van online seksuele uitbuiting van kinderen. https://www.terredeshommes.nl/nl/projecten/sweetie

21. Moore, D., & Rid, T. (2016). Cryptopolitik and the Darknet. Survival, 58(1), 7–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2016.1142085

22. Jardine, E., Lindner, A. M., & Owenson, G. (2020). The potential harms of the Tor anonymity network cluster disproportionately in free countries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(50), 31716–31721. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011893117

A Need for Certainty

The controversy of computer-aided proof techniques in mathematics

Author: Wojciech J. Szpytma Illustrator: Tessa Drenth

A core difference between mathematics and other sciences is that it has strived only for nothing less than certainty in its results for the past two millennia. More precisely, most natural sciences come to conclusions inductively by observing multiple phenomena in repeated experiments, while mathematics uses only tools of reasoning and deduction to obtain results. How is guaranteed certainty achieved through mathematical proofs, and how might computer-aided proofs change this?

Euclid, in his ElEmEnts, statEs fivE assumptions and, through rigorous rEasoning, dErivEd multiplE truths about gEomEtrical statEmEnts from thosE prEmisEs. it is important to point out that Euclid did not discovEr many nEw gEomEtric truths sincE most of thE statEmEnts hE provEd wErE alrEady known to his contEmporariEs. thE truE gEnius of thE grEEk mathEmatician consistEd of his dEvElopmEnt of a nEw mEthodology. hE showEd that most (if not all) of gEomEtric knowlEdgE could bE dErivEd from fivE assumptions, thus crEating a dEductivE mEthod of inquiry about gEomEtry. thE mEthodology of ElEmEnts crEatEd a framEwork that is thE basis of mathEmatical mEthodology; namEly, givEn a sEt of assumptions callEd axioms, onE usEs proofs to show thE validity of othEr mathEmatical statEmEnts callEd thEorEms [13].

The key role of the proof

For over 2000 years, mathematicians developed Euclid's paradigms, described in his 13 books called Elements, to create a scientific method that would guarantee absolute certainty in results [1]. In order to do the above, mathematicians resort to formal proofs, that is, structured arguments, which use formal logic to guarantee the validity of a statement. Proofs are considered the core of mathematics, called by some as the “essence”, “heart”, or even “the soul” of mathematics [2] [3] [4]. The concept of proof might be abstract to a reader with no experience with academic mathematics since most high schools do not teach proofs at all to students [5]; hence, an illustration of how proofs differ from methods of inquiry in other fields is given below.

Simply put, a proof assesses whether a mathematical statement is true or not; for example, whether it is the case that “ the sum of angles of any triangle is exactly 180°”. Methods that use statistics, such as generating thousands of random triangles and computing the sum of their edges, are considered to be insufficient by mathematicians’ standards. Namely, the result of the simulation does not exclude the possibility that at least one triangle would exist that does not satisfy the given criterion. In a similar fashion, one could have seen a million crows and claim that “all crows are black”- still, it remains conceivable that a white crow exists somewhere, and if such an animal would be found, the result of the experiment would be falsified. A proof needs to be constructed in such a way that it guarantees the validity of the statement for all objects (for all triangles or all crows in the examples above); hence, it is a stronger result than an experiment, because once a proof is shown to be correct, it is certain that no exceptions to the statement exist.

“Once a proof is shown to be correct, it is certain that no exceptions to the statement exist.”

It is also not possible for mathematicians to disagree with a proof; they can, at most, try to find mistakes or logical inconsistencies in it; however, if the proof is shown to be correct, then the statement is accepted. To illustrate what a proof looks like, consider the earlier mentioned statement: “The sum of angles of any triangle is exactly 180°”. A possible proof of the above could be:

1. Consider any triangle in a two-dimensional plane; Fig. 1

2. Draw a line at half of the height of the triangle, parallel to its base; Fig. 2

3. Then, draw two lines perpendicular to the base of the triangle that go through the intersection of the triangle and the line from Fig. 2; Fig. 3

4. “Folding” the triangle inwards along the lines drawn in Fig. 2. and Fig. 3, proves the statement1; Fig. 4

The argument considers any triangle; hence, it demonstrates the claim that “the sum of angles of any triangle is exactly 180°” on all possible triangles that can be drawn in a twodimensional plane. This way, it is possible to obtain certainty about a property of all triangles since no single triangle on a 2D plane could vary from the criteria above.

The existence of a correct proof guarantees that a statement is true with certainty. For example, the Pythagorean Theorem always holds because it can be proven, and it is possible for humans to verify the validity of the proof. The above is one of the main strengths of mathematics as a science; namely, mathematics is capable of giving logically irrefutable certainty, and all of this is thanks to its one-of-a-kind tool: the proof.

1thE prEsEntEd proof purposEly avoids mathEmatical jargon to bE a clEar ExamplE for any rEadEr. a rigorous proof would rEquirE morE substEps to bE considErEd sufficiEnt by modErn mathEmatical standards; howEvEr, thE idEa can bE dEvElopEd into a prEcisE mathEmatical argumEnt.

Fig 1

Fig 2

Fig 3

Fig 4

First computer-aided proofThe Four Color Theorem

The Four Color Theorem states that [6]:

“The regions of any simple planar map can be coloured with only four colours, in such a way that any two adjacent regions have different colours.”

This means that given any map that can be drawn on a sheet of paper, it is possible to paint all of its regions with only four colours in such a way that no neighbouring regions share the same colour. The problem began in 1852 when Francis W. Guthrie, a Cape Colony mathematician, asked his brother Frederic: “What is the minimal number of colours that are needed so that countries on a map with no bodies of water can be painted in a way that no two neighbouring countries share the same colour?” [1]. The word country is slightly misleading in the context of the Four Colour Theorem since countries can have enclaves, and in such cases, four colours would not necessarily suffice to fulfil the requirement of the statement; thus, the Four Colour Theorem only considered regions without disconnected features.

It is also worth noting that regions are considered neighbours if they share a border of non-zero length; otherwise, a pie chart would be a counterexample to any finite number of colours because all of its elements share a boundary of length zero, i.e. the point in the middle (see Fig.5). It can be easily demonstrated that Francis’s problem is not solvable with three colours; namely consider Fig. 6, where the region with a “?” has to be of a different colour than the others. Still, mathematicians in the nineteenth century could not find examples of maps that would require five colours, leading them to believe that four was the most likely answer [1]. No one at the time could give a rigorous mathematical proof to show that the Four Colour

Theorem is true- the possibility of a map that would require five colours could not be discarded. This way, Francis puzzled not

only his brother but also the mathematical community for over a hundred years. No proof deemed correct was found until 1974 when Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken created the first computer-aided proof.

Appel and Haken thought of dividing the problem into simpler cases. They found that if a finite set of fundamental map configurations, namely 633 particular maps, satisfied the statement, then the Four Color Theorem was true since these examples could generalise to any map [1]. However, the number of these fundamental configurations was too large to be verified by a human hand. That is why Appel and Haken used a computer to verify all 633 cases for them. When starting the program for the first time, they did not know if the computer would ever stop running. The researchers only assumed that if the computer stopped calculating, all cases would have been checked, and thus, the Four Color Theorem would be proven. If the computations were never finished, then no conclusion could be drawn. Luckily for them, the computations eventually stopped after 1200 hours of computer time [1]. This proof was the first of its kind since, for over two millennia, all proofs were fully checkable by humans; however, Appel and Haken’s proof required so much computation that no one could verify if the computer had made mistakes.

The controversy around computer-aided proofs

Appel and Haken were met only with spare applause after presenting their proof of the Four Colour Theorem at a conference. The result was very controversial for mathematicians. Unlike the traditional idea of a proof that can be fully written out and verified by humans, this computer method could not be checked manually due to the amount of computation that is required. The praised certainty of a result that comes from a human-made proof was no longer present. It is conceivable that a computer made a mistake, had a bug, or that a miscalculation occurred in the execution of the algorithm. The possibility of some computer error in the proof could never be fully discarded since one could only be sure that the proof is flawless after manually going over each step of the algorithm execution. It may be possible to find some of the mistakes, but one can never be sure that none remain. In fact, several miscalculations were found in the original proof and later corrected by Appel and Haken. Nevertheless, they still claim that [7]:

“[...] the type of errors that crop up in the details do not affect the robustness of the proof”

The proof method of Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken brought a completely new perspective on what rigorous proof could be in mathematics; yet such changes remain controversial. Computer-aided proofs are still not seen by many as a tool as robust as proofs that can be feasibly checked by humans. A computer proof can be very accurate and most likely true, but it does not guarantee the certainty sought after in human-made proofs.

“A computer proof can be very accurate and most likely true, but it does not guarantee the certainty sought after in human-made proofs.”

2 thE party problEm asks how many pEoplE arE nEEdEd to bE invitEd to a party to guarantEE that at lEast x pEoplE arE mutual friEnds or at lEast y arE mutual strangErs. radziszowski and mckay solvEd it for x=4, and y = 5, and thE answEr is 25 [9].

Since the Four Color Theorem, more computer-aided proofs have appeared, some of them with even larger computation requirements. For example, in the 1990s, Radziszowski and McKay’s found the solution to an instance of the Party Problem2, which needed, according to the authors, 11 years of computation performed by a standard computer of that time [8]. Even though computers now possess greater processing power compared to those at the close of the previous century, computer-aided proofs have also become more calculationheavy over time.

The increasing complexity of computer-aided proofs only makes the concerns of mathematicians more important since it becomes even less foreseeable to verify those results. The proofs have a high likelihood of being correct; however, the value mathematicians granted to the certainty of results cannot be underestimated. The main question that divides mathematicians is whether a problem solved by a computeraided method can be considered proven. For instance, in a situation in which someone would find a computer-aided proof of one of the Millennium Problems3, could they be rewarded with the prize and honours for a proof that is correct with just slightly less than 100% certainty?

3 millEnnium problEms: sEvEn problEms posEd by thE clay mathEmatics institutE in 2000. thE problEms havE bEEn givEn spEcial attEntion and a prizE pool of 7 million us dollars for solving thEm, bEcausE thEy wErE considErEd "[...]somE of thE most difficult problEms with which mathEmaticians wErE grappling at thE turn of thE sEcond millEnnium" [10].

Twilight of the proof

Given the advances that have been possible due to computeraided techniques, some scholars, such as John Horgan, in his article The Death of Proof [8], claim that proofs might become an obsolete part of mathematics. He states that the complexity of human-made proofs is already at a level where it is no longer possible for most mathematicians to understand all the proofs. As an example, he presents Fermat’s Last Theorem, the proof of which is 200 pages long, even when the details are omitted. Horgan speculates that proofs will only increase in complexity, and thus, in the future, it will no longer be possible for humans to find them on their own. Moreover, he quotes Ronald L. Graham [8]:

“The things you can prove may be just a tiny island, exceptions, compared to the vast sea of results that cannot be proven by human thought alone”

All of the above combined with the pressure from applied fields to have answers that do not need to guarantee certainty, but are simply just close enough to be used in a non-theoretical context amounts to Horgan’s pessimism about the future of the proof.

“The existence of proofs allows for a deeper understanding of certain real-world processes.”

Proofs and black holes

It cannot be denied that computer-aided proofs can be useful. As seen in the Four Colour Theorem, the result found by analysing the large number of map configurations was shown to be true faster thanks to computer methods, the only disadvantage being the loss of a small degree of certainty. In other words, computer proofs allow one to establish strong evidence for certain conjectures before somebody comes up with a more elegant method to demonstrate a result on paper. Some applied fields are not interested in extreme cases when general tendencies of mathematical objects break and thus do not require certainty of a result to deem a statement useful. For example, one does not need to know the exact weight of a bridge past the 1000th decimal place to be able to guarantee a safe passage. Wider use of computer methods in mathematics could be very beneficial in many applications, as it would gather more evidence for certain conjectures faster, providing insight in areas where a small human (or computer) error would most likely not be a problem.

On the other hand, proofs are what often allow one to get a deeper understanding of a statement by giving an argument about why something is true; therefore, mathematics can be used in many other fields to bring explanatory power for physical phenomena. For instance, some cicadas of the genus Magicicada have a specific life-cycle; namely, they spend 13 or 17 years (depending on the species) in the nymphal stage, living in the soil before reaching adulthood for only a couple of weeks. What is even more striking about the above trait is that in a given region, all cicadas’ life-cycles are synchronised, i.e. all of the cicadas in a region reach adulthood at the same time [11]. This pattern in the development of cicadas has been observed over 300 years ago; however, a potential explanation of the exact duration of the nymphal stage was only suggested later, using number theory4. In short, 13 and 17 are prime numbers, making it difficult for other species with cyclic predation patterns to hunt down cicadas because cicada’s adulthood will be decorrelated with predation, i.e. the cicadas live their adult lives at different times than certain predators hunt (a more detailed explanation can be found in [11]). The argument uses both evolutionary biology and abstract mathematics to explain the phenomena. Thus, the existence of proofs about prime number properties gives a deeper understanding of why cicadas’ life-cycles have those specific

lengths; that is, proofs give reasons why an event repeating over prime years will not happen at the same time as something else happening more frequently. There are also examples of mathematical explanations for physical phenomena in many other fields (see [12]). Put briefly, the existence of proofs allows for a deeper understanding of certain real-world processes.

There is an appeal in finding statements that are always true without the consideration of context, time, or paradigms, and for millennia, proofs have shown to be a perfect tool for doing just that. Despite the increasing complexity of the arguments, the mathematical community still finds resources and time to check proofs even as elaborate as the demonstration of Fermat’s Last Theorem [1] because the value of certainty of results is praised so highly. Proofs will not become useless, due to their power to grant certainty to results, even if computer-aided techniques will be used more frequently. There is a different value in the theoretical consideration of a black hole and an actual observation of this phenomenon. Similarly, a computer-aided technique might be a strong lead and ampliative argument, yet the need for human-checkable proof that grants certainty is still valuable enough to be praised and investigated by mathematicians.

The importance of proofs and their deductive power used to guarantee certainty in results cannot be underestimated, despite the impact of computer-aided proving techniques in mathematics. The controversy that arises from the computer methods lies in the lack of absolute certainty, which has been present in mathematical statements since Euclid’s time. While computer-aided proofs have become gradually accepted by some mathematicians, such techniques are still not taking over most of current research. The only question that remains is how the traditional proof will be valued in relation to computeraided techniques and which one of those tools will rule the mathematics of tomorrow.

Special Thanks

I would like to thank Alef Sterk for the discussions we had about the essay and his useful advice for writing, as well as the Honours Review peer reviewers for insightful comments that helped me bring the final improvements to this essay. I would also like to thank Julia Milewska and Andrei Seica.

References

1. Krantz, S. G. (2011). The Proof is in the Pudding: The Changing Nature of Mathematical Proof. Springer.

2. Rocha, H. (2019, January 21). Mathematical proof: from mathematics to school mathematics. The Royal Society Publishing. Retrieved February 3, 2024, from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2018.0045#d3e335

3. Tsamir, P., Tirosh, D., Dreyfus, T., Barkai, R., & Tabach, M. (2009, March). Should proof be minimal? Ms T's evaluation of secondary school students’ proofs. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 28(1), 58-67. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0732312309000212

4. Stylianou, D. A., Blanton, M. L., & Knuth, E. J. (Eds.). (2009). Teaching and Learning Proof Across the Grades: A K-16 Perspective. Routledge.

5. Knuth, E. J. (2002). Teachers' Conceptions of Proof in the Context of Secondary School Mathematics. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 5, p. 61-88. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013838713648

6. Gonthier, G. (2008). Formal Proof—The FourColor Theorem. Notices of the AMS, 55, p. 1382-1393. https://www.ams.org/notices/200811/tx081101382p.pdf

7. Appel, K., & Haken, W. (1986). The four color proof suffices. The Mathematical Intelligencer, 8(1), 10-20. https://rug.on.worldcat.org/ search/detail/5653674250?queryString=The%20four%20color%20proof%20 suf fices&databaseList=638&clusterResults=true&groupVariantRecords=false

8. Horgan, J. (1993). Death of Proof. Scientific American, 269(4), 92-103. https://www-jstor-org.proxy-ub.rug.nl/stable/24941653?seq=2

9. Radziszowski, S. P., & McKay, B. D. (1995). R(4,5) = 25. Journal of Graph Theory, 19(3), 309-322. https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/r45.pdf

10. The Millennium Prize Problems. (n.d.). Clay Mathematics Institute. Retrieved February 5, 2024, from https://www.claymath.org/millennium-problems/

11. Baker, A. (2005). Are There Genuine Mathematical Explanations of Physical Phenomena? Mind, 114(454), 223-238. https://academic.oup.com/mind/ article/114/454/223/992237?login=true

12. Bangu, S. (2020). Mathematical Explanations of Physical Phenomena. Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 99(4), 669-682. https://www.tandfonline. com/doi/full/10.1080/00048402.2020.1822895

13. Huggett, N. (Ed.). (1999). Space from Zeno to Einstein: Classic Readings with a Contemporary Commentary. Mass.

The Betrayed Dream: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Vision of the Future

Author: Anna Cyprianová

Illustrator: Eduard Prunache

Portrait of Slovakia in Wintertime

The Greek word for “return” is nostos. Algos means “suffering”. So nostalgia is the suffering caused by an unappeased yearning to return.

- Milan Kundera, Ignorance

Winter is a difficult season in Slovakia. The angular grey buildings tower into the colourless abyss of the cloudy skies, looking down like an all-seeing judge ready to pronounce an accusation against every passer-by. People in heavy coats and fur hats walk the streets hunched over to protect their faces from icy winds. Everyone has somewhere to go; no one ventures into the freezing cold without a good reason.

Once a week, the squares fill with protesters carrying banners and shouting slogans against corrupt politicians. Everything feels oppressive – the architecture, the weather, most of all, the government ruling us with an iron fist. No one feels optimistic about the future, the old generations missing the cold certainty of authoritarian regime, the young generations yearning for the warm security of a stable democracy. We are all stuck in a purgatory of endless wait, expecting change that never comes.

Winter is also the season when I go back. It is the season of family reunions, of sitting at overflowing tables and drinking Kofola while my cousins loudly complain about politics and my grandparents, equally loudly, complain about young people complaining about politics, with festive music playing in the background.

It is the season to hear the impassioned laments of my grandmother, looking longingly back into the days of her youth, when the path ahead seemed bright, and empty promises of communist leaders gave the future a warm and inviting glow. It is the season to hear my grandfather reminiscing about his time in the army, his trips to Russia and Romania, his days spent working in a collectivized glass factory. Their unwavering faith in the socialist dream promised so long ago and failed many times over is still palpable in every word.

I do not wonder at the perseverance of their belief. Sad glimpses of the future-that-might-have-been appear everywhere in our home country. Dilapidated factories dot the landscape and evoke nostalgia the same way Roman ruins in Italy carry the echo of a once-great empire. Shattered windows, rusty steel beams, the breeze carrying faded ghostly laughter of workers celebrating the labour day: The past forevermore haunting the present.

Other sights give the same impression to outsiders. There is an enormous mural overlooking the main hall of the Bratislava train station. Its depiction of a multi-ethnic futuristic utopia welcomes visitors to the capital of one of the poorest countries in the European Union. A black woman embraces a white child next to an East Asian woman holding a black toddler – yet the country’s Roma population still lives largely segregated from the white majority, facing discrimination and prejudice on a daily basis [2]. A group of people looks towards the sky at Sputnik, the crowning achievement of Soviet science – yet the country which launched the first man-made satellite currently wages a pointless and bloody war against its neighbour, trying in vain to recapture former glory to the detriment of its own people.

With the benefit of hindsight, this idyllic portrayal of the perfect communist world, supposedly one that our grandparents were building for the future generations, seems laughably naïve. Needless to say, no one sees Eastern Europe in this light anymore – not people living in it, and certainly no one outside of it.

Photographer: Rob Hurson

What the World Sees

On the surface, an intelligible lie; underneath, the unintelligible truth.

- Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being

The post-communist Europe of the 21st century became, in internet subculture and outside of it, synonymous with depressive fatalism. No one has faith in the future of their homeland anymore. Those who have the means (and the courage) usually leave with a heavy heart and without a glance back, seeking sunnier shores.

Growing up, I have noticed an undeniable partiality of my parents’ generation for certain countries and regions. They popped up in old songs my mom loves – “Everyone is already in Mexico”, “Bonsoir Mademoiselle Paris”, “Nightingales from Madrid” – and they presented an idealized, dreamy image of the places they were supposedly inspired by. The sun seemingly never set over Southern and Western Europe and even if it did, the night sky that replaced it glimmered with countless stars.

These far away places were warmer than dreary Czechoslovakia; the sounds of crashing waves and live music carrying through endless summer evenings filled with wine and laughter made life seem like a scene from a movie. Most importantly, the people were livelier and happier too; falling in love and living the good life was infinitely easier without a strict government breathing down their necks at every turn. Whereas my grandmother displayed matryoshkas and Orthodox icons around her house, my mom took us on vacations to Italy and decorated the walls of our living room with Renaissance paintings. I think I could have recognized Botticelli years before I first heard of the Cold War.

Peculiarly, in recent years, there seems to be a similar phenomenon happening in regards to post-communist Europe. Every time I open Instagram, I am greeted with uncannily familiar videos that could have been taken in Slovakia – but

“There is an enormous mural overlooking the main hall of the Bratislava train station.”

also just as likely in Romania, or Poland, or any other former Soviet bloc satellite. Aerial shots of communal apartment neighbourhoods, graffitied wagons of abandoned trains, at most an empty field covered in snow, are the most common subjects of these montages. Sometimes they include interiors of tiny run-down apartments, with Persian carpets mounted on the walls and folkloric embroidery on every surface, the occasional statue of Virgin Mary clashing with a framed portrait of a deeply anti-religious politician.

And what do these Internet trends tell us about life in Eastern Europe? That it happens in permanent greyscale; white snow, grey concrete, black clothes. People there do not smile. They only ever seem to speak in order to share a piece of stoic wisdom, born of a difficult and disillusioned life. A cigarette clutched in their pale fingers, coffee drunk black and unsweetened, hard liquor vastly preferred over the sweetness of wine. Why do these images appeal to the western audience in the same way that Italy and France appealed to my parents? The truth of them is only skin deep – they provide a distorted, one-sided, exaggerated account of what it’s like to live in the East. Overall, they communicate a sense of hopeless despair; yet, there is an overlaying sentiment of longing and nostalgia, which makes them recognizable and universally appealing. My grandparents saw themselves mirrored in the industrious working class of the fraternal socialist countries; my parents, already disappointed, looked towards the capitalist West. And now the equally-disappointed West finally looks back.

With the proliferating existential problems of climate change, wealth inequality, armed conflicts, and sense of isolation and loneliness among young people, the rest of the world follows Eastern Europe down the path of disillusionment. What we have been feeling since the nineties is now spreading through the sun-drenched streets of Paris and Rome like an infectious disease. The cities of France and Italy do not reflect the inner feelings of many of their inhabitants, but the ones portrayed in these videos do.

What makes the all-pervading melancholia all the more striking is the accompanying sense of a profound loss of something precious and irretrievable – namely, the future. There is an old saying that states it is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all. Applied to the situation of Eastern Europe, it might be said that the sense of hopelessness is all the more debilitating if the people dared, at some point in a notso-distant past, to have hoped. Is it really better to have hoped and lost than never to have hoped at all? And what is it that our grandparents hoped for?

Illustrator: Viktor Koretsky

What the People Dreamed

People are always shouting they want to create a better future. It’s not true. The future is an apathetic void of no interest to anyone. The past is full of life, eager to irritate us, provoke and insult us, tempt us to destroy or repaint it. The only reason people want to be masters of the future is to change the past. - Milan Kundera, The Book of Laughter and Forgetting

To really understand how the communist dream failed, it is first necessary to establish which elements constituted it and why they ended up appealing to such diverse populations. Through propaganda, these main tenets of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine were nudged along to the desperate recipients in war-torn Europe, willing to hold onto any sliver of hope offered to them.

1. Peace

Firstly and perhaps foremostly, the chaos of two world wars was an essential populariser of the “communist agenda”. The October Revolution in Russia, which launched the country’s civil war in 1917 and ultimately toppled the monarchy, was largely prompted by problems arising from the country’s participation in the Great War [3]. In areas further west, which managed to hold onto their democracy a little longer, the breaking point came in the wake of the liberating Red Army in 1945.

Czechoslovakia had been among the first victims of the expansive Nazi regime, given up by the Western democracies at the Munich Convention of 1938 as an acceptable price to pay for maintaining peace. This unfortunate event, known by

Czechs and Slovaks as “the Munich betrayal”, already eroded the country’s trust in the western-style democracy and made it susceptible to other influences. It had suffered enormously in the following years, through forcible partition, cultural and political repression, foreign domination, violent massacres in Kremnicka [4] and Lidice [5], and of course, the annihilation of a large portion of its population.

Thus decimated and in search of a glimmer of light in the dark after the war, it turned its sights towards the regime that vanquished its occupant, not yet knowing that communism would one day replace fascism as the new oppressor. The heroic posters spreading Soviet military propaganda compellingly beckoned: we will win this war and afterwards, we will maintain peace. A very welcome prospect after seven years of trauma. And the Soviet army indeed kept true to its word and ended the deadliest conflict in world history; there was no reason to doubt its other avowals.

To this day, there are countless liberation monuments throughout Czechoslovakia. They have survived the revolution of 1989 and the subsequent decades with ease. Every other square is called “The Liberty Square”, including the one in my native village. Slovaks still remember the joy of ceased bloodshed and the promises of peace and stability made in 1945.

How much truth was in this?

The Soviet Union staged countless military interventions throughout the entire globe. Ironically enough this was done in the name of cooperation. It perpetuated more conflicts and suppression in the very countries that once thought it the harbinger of peace. And its participation in the nuclear arms race with the United States made the whole world hold its breath in fear [6].

The promises were not kept.

“We will win this war and afterwards, we will maintain peace.”

3. Equality

Both within and outside of Europe, the message of equality and anti-imperialism resonated deeply. The people of Central and Eastern Europe still remembered the not-so-distant past of imperial rule and the brief-but-bloody period of Nazi occupation and racial hierarchization, viewing Jews, Roma people, and Slavs as inferior to invading Germans [10]. To people outside of Europe, still living under colonial rule, communism promised a viable alternative to the foreign domination.

A recurring theme in the propaganda aimed against the United States was the reality of deeply ingrained racism. There was a strong emphasis on promoting fraternity and cohesion between people from all parts of the world [11]; as the famous Marx quote goes, “Workers of the world unite!”, rather than “White workers of Europe and United States unite!”.

How much truth was in this?

There is an easily evident contradiction between the antiimperial agenda and the forcefully expansive foreign policy of the Soviet Union – instead of helping with removing the shackles of the disenfranchised as promised, they simply forged new ones. The country that never hesitated to point out the discrepancy between American commitment to civil liberty and its uncompromising racial segregation had, as it turns out, some polarizing issues of its own.

The promises were not kept.

4. Knowledge

2. Prosperity

The successes of communism seemed to be further highlighted by the rapid industrialization that followed in its wake –industrialization that, within a period of roughly one decade, transformed an agrarian society dependent on peasantry into a world class economic power capable of rivalling the United States. In the admiring words attributed to Winston Churchill: “Stalin took Russia with horse and plow and left it with atomic bomb.”

How much truth was in this?

Czechoslovakia had already been a highly developed manufacturing region by the time communism rolled around. In fact, its industrial might had been the primary reason for Hitler’s interest in its occupation [7]. The successful five-year plans espoused in predominantly agricultural areas were not tailored for its needs, and the limitations of command economy imposed by the new regime ended up hindering Czechoslovakia’s economic growth so much that nowadays it still lags behind the Western-bloc countries that it once surpassed.

As in other parts of the socialist bloc, the group who paid the price for this miraculous feat were not the political elite who commanded it – it was the working class. Workers built the communist future with their blood, sweat and tears. No foreign economic aid was allowed – when it was offered by the United States in the form of the Marshall Plan, it was rejected on ideological grounds as a capitalist ploy to undermine communism [8]. This exacerbated differences between the Western bloc that received resources to rebuild, and the Eastern bloc that could not rely on such help [9].

The promises were not kept.

An important outward signifier of the viability of communism was its commitment towards universal literacy and egalitarian education. Extensive campaigns to promote intellectual endeavors were part of the agenda from the very beginning [12]. The ideological battle was not waged solely on the economic and political fronts, but also in the spheres of culture and science; from race to space to classical music and chess, the eastern bloc was eager to show that socialism made it thrive and excel.

How much truth was in this?

While technical and scientific disciplines flourished, the arts and humanities were severely hindered by the strict censorship laws. The only permitted literary genre was “socialist realism”, which amounted to little more than state-mandated propaganda [13]. Philosophy reached its end point – nothing greater than Marx’s theory could be invented and philosophical problems were approached within the framework of dialectical materialism [14]. Likewise, the only true perspective on history was the Marxist teleology. Even world class authors such as Bulgakov [15] and Pasternak [16] did not avoid the fate of being persecuted and silenced for the contents of their works. In the end, all that was written and produced in the Soviet sphere ended up resembling the favoured brutalist architecture – static, uniform, and depressing.

The promises were, once again, not kept.

Together, these elements painted an image attractive to a wide array of people. The often-overlooked working class felt like its interests were, perhaps for the first time, considered a priority by the ruling party. The intelligentsia, for the most part, lauded the radical progressivism rooted in the humanist values of peace and equality. Yet all of this, in the long run, failed to materialize, and people were left with nothing but taunting specters of unrealized dreams.

The Dream is Over

Anyone whose goal is “something higher” must expect someday to suffer vertigo. What is vertigo? Fear of falling? No, vertigo is something other than fear of falling. It is the voice of the emptiness below us which tempts and lures us, it is the desire to fall, against which, terrified, we defend ourselves.

- Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being

It is difficult to pinpoint the exact moment when trouble began invading paradise. The sunny optimism did not evaporate overnight; indeed, for some, it stubbornly persists to this day. Yet there must have been a point when the overwhelming majority of the population saw through the empty promises at last and ceased to believe in tomorrow, opting instead for focusing on making it through today.

This moment of awakening might have arrived in different places at different times. It might have coincided with suppressed uprisings in Hungary and Poland in 1956 [17]. In some parts of the Soviet Union, it might have been marked by Stalin’s purges and the Great Famine as early as the 1930s. In Czechoslovakia, the disillusionment arrived in the turrets of tanks and to the sound of marching feet, in the summer of 1968.

The sixties were a good time to live in Czechoslovakia. The country experienced an unprecedented period of cultural flourishing. The Shop on Main Street won Czechoslovakia its first Academy Award in 1966, closely followed by another one in 1968 for Closely Watched Trains [18]. De-Stalinization and democratisation touched all spheres of cultural life, and culminated in the period of liberalisation and reformation known as the Prague Spring [19].

The reforms, made by the communist party with no subversive intention in mind, were meant to promote “Socialism with a human face”. Even so, they were considered to be too progressive and freeing by the leadership in Moscow – the threat posed to the regime by a tiny and insignificant country was deemed to be alarming enough to justify a full blown invasion.

Retrospectively, the Brezhnev Doctrine gave justification to the invasion that resulted in the untimely death of 137 individuals [20]; large scale human capital drain; torn-apart families; incalculable material destruction in the streets of the historical capital; and the tragic self-immolation of a university student Jan Palach who chose to burn along with his subjugated homeland rather than silently accept its fate [21]. It likewise sent a warning to any future prospective reformers, that they would be met with similar repercussions.

All Czechoslovakia wished for was a better future, well within the ideological framework of socialism. All it received were armed regiments from its “fraternal” countries.

Do we have a future?

A person who longs to leave the place where he lives is an unhappy person.

- Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being

Promises of a better future are made everywhere; they do not belong exclusively to totalitarian empires. The vision of the proverbial green light moves us forwards and recedes in front of us every day – we study to make money, make money to pay for the studies of our children, and the cycle repeats endlessly, leaving no time to simply enjoy the present.

Political regimes are keenly aware of this human tendency to perpetually think ahead, and both threaten and beckon us with their predictions. We see it in the contemporary world at every turn, by the stellar rise of both right and left wing populists [22].

But reality is always more multifaceted than their extreme predictions, pronounced in order to sell a political view. As the confusing amalgamation of cataclysmic environmental and social threats and unprecedented positive developments in sciences and technology shows, the future cannot be simplistically reduced to either a nightmarish dystopia or a utopian paradise. There will always be aspects of both, and it is by the virtue of human agency that we can influence which side prevails in the end.

If we truly want to work towards a better future, we won’t get it by putting all our trust in the hands of the privileged few, who are pursuing their own short-term goals and agendas. We won’t get it by believing that governments will resolve environmental degradation, world hunger, international tensions, the global economic inequality, or any other complex issue, without the conscious input of, and engagement from, their citizens.

Totalitarian communism purposefully discouraged ideologically and politically motivated actions of the people living under it. It said: “leave it to me” – and the people listened. That is why, I believe, the communist dream failed. And that is why our current dreams, in many ways similar to those of our grandparents, are bound to fail as well – unless we chase them.

References

1. Kundera, M. (1999). The Unbearable Lightness of Being (M. H. Heim, Trans.). Faber & Faber.

2. Guy, W. (2017). Anti-Roma Violence, Hate Speech, and Discrimination in the New Europe: Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. In J. Bhabha, A. Mirga, & M. Matache (Eds.), Realizing Roma Rights (pp. 145–162). University of Pennsylvania Press.

3. Pelz, W. A. (2016). War Leads to Revolution: Russia (1917), Central Europe (1918–19). In A People’s History of Modern Europe (pp. 115–126). Pluto Press.

4. Šteiner, P. (2023). Pamiatkam na nacistické perzekúcie pri Kremnicke hrozí nedôstojný zánik. SME : Historičká revue. https://historickarevue. sme.sk/c/23257839/pamiatkam-na-nacistickeperzekucie-pri-kremnicke-hrozi-nedostojny-zanik. html

5. Hauner, M. (2007). Terrorism and Heroism: The Assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. World Policy Journal, 24(2), 85–89. Smith, T. W. (1988). A Report: Nuclear Anxiety. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 52(4), 557–575.

6. Suppan, A. (2019). Hitler - Beneš - Tito: National Conflicts, World Wars, Genocides, Expulsions, and Divided Remembrance in East-Central and Southeastern Europe, 1848-2018. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press.

Roberts, G. (1994). Moscow and the Marshall Plan: Politics, Ideology and the Onset of the Cold War, 1947. Europe-Asia Studies, 46(8), 1371–1386. Weissman, A. D. (2013). Pivotal Politics—The Marshall Plan: A Turning Point in Foreign Aid and the Struggle for Democracy. The History Teacher, 47(1), 111–129.

7. Connelly, J. (1999). Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice. Central European History, 32(1), 1–33.

8. Roman, M. (2007). Racism in a “Raceless” Society: The Soviet Press and Representations of American Racial Violence at Stalingrad in 1930. International Labor and Working-Class History, 71, 185–203.

9. Kenez, P. (1982). Liquidating Illiteracy in Revolutionary Russia. Russian History, 9(2/3), 173–186.

10. Morson, G. S. (1979). Socialist Realism and Literary Theory. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 38(2), 121–133.

11. Kamenka, E. (1963). Philosophy in the Soviet Union. Philosophy, 38(143), 1–19.

12. Richmond, S. (2006). “And who are the judges?”: Mikhail Bulgakov versus Soviet censorship, 1926-1936. Russian History, 33(1), 83–107.

13. Diegel, A. (1990). Human Rights And Literature: Solzhenitsyn and Pasternak. Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, 75, 77–85. Kramer, M. (1998). The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings. Journal of Contemporary History, 33(2), 163–214.

14. Hames, P. (2000). Czech Cinema: From State Industry to Competition. Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne Des Slavistes, 42(1/2), 63–85.

Stoneman, A. J. (2015). Socialism With a Human Face: The Leadership and Legacy of the Prague Spring. The History Teacher, 49(1), 103–125.

15. Fraňková, R. (2017). Historians pin down number of 1968 invasion victims. radio.cz.https:// web.archive.org/web/20170826161237/https:// www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/historians-pindown-number-of-1968-invasion-victims

16. Zuev, D. (2023). Bodies on Fire: Self-Immolation as Spectacle in Contentious Politics. In B. Abrams & P. Gardner (Eds.), Symbolic Objects in Contentious Politics (pp. 190–212). University of Michigan Press.

17. Michael Cox. (2017). The Rise of Populism and the Crisis of Globalisation: Brexit, Trump and Beyond. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 28, 9–17.

Refugee Education Crisis:

The Hope for Future Generations

Authors: Matteo Formis & Mariola Adrián Villanueva

Illustrator: Sylwia Jackowska

In a world where more than half of 14.8 million refugee children do not receive education, creating initiatives that change the fates of future generations is an urgent need. Given their creative and innovative potential, perspectives from the Arts and Literature can inspire change and call for new, fairer policies, and artistic and cultural projects that challenge social standards and stereotypes around refugee children. In a moment of fear, challenges, and insecurity, refugee children can find in Arts and Literature a safe way out of the darkness, from which they can express themselves, promoting hope for future generations.

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”

Introduction to the Wicked Problem

The refugee education crisis represents one of our time’s most urgent humanitarian challenges. The crisis sheds light on the social and economic injustices faced by refugees, particularly impacting a new generation that is condemned not to be able to work, be independent, financially stable, and contribute to their communities. It illustrates a reality in which we are failing a whole generation of children who do not receive education, a human right fundamental for their growth and development: “School is where refugees are given a second chance and can build the skills and knowledge they need to invest in their futures”, says Filippo Grandi, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [1].

The educational gap of refugee children is an extremely pressing concern. In 2019, the United Nations (UN) stated that “more than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education”- that is, 3.7 million out of the 7.1 million refugee children worldwide [1]. The disparity between refugee children and other children in terms of access to primary education illustrates the seriousness of the problem. 63% of refugee children versus 91% of children globally have access to basic education. Furthermore, 24% of refugee adolescents manage to access secondary education compared to 84% of adolescents. Only 3% of refugee adolescents get to higher education compared to 37% worldwide [1].

“Only

[1].”

The situation is becoming more urgent as child displacement is spreading fast: the number of refugee children has more than doubled from 2005 to 2021, growing more than 132% between 2010 and 2021. In 2021, 27.000 refugee children submitted asylum applications worldwide, an increase of 6.000 applications in comparison to 2020 and also significantly exceeding pre-pandemic levels [2]. In 2023, the UNHCR revealed that more than half of 14.8 million refugee children do not receive education [3], reflecting the severity of the ongoing crisis.

Immediate action is needed to address this crisis. The UNHCR has called on governments, the private sector, donors, and educational organizations to invest in refugee education. The UN will also invest in the construction of schools, and teacher training, and will financially support refugee families [4].

In this space, innovative approaches from the Humanities can increase the visibility of this issue and call for social support, while also improving the emotional wellbeing of displaced children. We shall see how promoting initiatives from the Arts and Literature can help raise awareness of the crisis and how narrating and sharing refugees’ stories, books, movies, series, theatre or poetry can serve as changing instruments in the way we, as a society, view and address the issue of refugee education.

63% of refugee children have access to primary education.

3% of refugee adolescents get to higher education compared to 37% worldwide

- Nelson Mandela

Refugee children coming to the Netherlands

Refugee Education Crisis in the Netherlands

While the issue of refugee education is an urgent crisis worldwide, we begin close to home- the case in the Netherlands. An interview with Marieke Postma, chair of LOWAN, a Dutch nonprofit organization for refugee education, revealed valuable information about the situation of refugee children in the Netherlands (tagged at the end of this article). LOWAN is entirely subsidized by the Dutch Government and supports primary and secondary education for newcomers to the Netherlands.

Postma stressed the gravity of the refugee education crisis in the Netherlands, a country that receives an increasing influx of minor asylum seekers every year. In 2021, 2.191 unaccompanied children applied for asylum in the Netherlands, a significantly higher number than in the previous years [2]. Most children are arriving from Syria (1.078 in 2021), Eritrea, Somalia, Iraq, Morocco [2], Poland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and America, and are, on average, 15 years old [5].

In the Netherlands, all unaccompanied refugee children have the right to shelter, education, and health care [2]. Schooling, for refugee children, is entirely financed by the Dutch Ministry of Education. A small team of twelve people in the Dutch Government manages the investment of funds in the education of asylum seekers. The Government’s involvement in refugee education is still necessary- the start of the war between Russia and Ukraine has caused an increased number of displaced Ukrainian children to come to the Netherlands [5].

The Challenges of Refugee Children

The refugee children who access education in the Netherlands face many challenges. One of the main issues is their housing instability: in one year, asylum seekers move six times on average, reaching, in the most dramatic of cases, twelve times. This means that if the children move six times, the six different schools have to (hopefully) attend, communicate and coordinate with each other, which hinders a high-quality, continued education; in fact, the general outcome tends to be that “in the end, there is no education” [5]. These repeated instabilities can challenge the children’s adaptability and full integration into the country.

Syria

Eritrea Somalia

Iraq Morocco

Another factor is the uncertainty around the educational starting level of the newcomers. The abrupt disruption of their education, every time a move occurs, is a demanding factor for children, as well as for teachers. Educators are required to find out the starting level of the pupil to define the most adequate pedagogic strategies [5]. Generally, there is no background history or good contact with the parents possible to check the level of the pupil [5]. The impossibility of knowing the children’s level of skills and capabilities in education makes it difficult for organizations and schools to connect, to ensure that the pupil receives an appropriate education according to and aligned with their current educational level. Schools must also assess the children’s abilities in their mother tongue, and they do not always have the resources for this. For instance, Postma highlighted the lack of teachers in Dutch schools who speak Arabic and can support students in their mother tongue. Thus, teachers must think creatively about the starting level of the pupil [5]. This burdens the detection of educational gaps, delays, or learning difficulties in the development of the didactic abilities of newcomers. The uncertainty or even inability to identify the children’s educational levels and development, such as mathematical and language skills, is higher when the children who arrive in the country are older than 10 years old [5]. The refugee education crisis in the Netherlands can also limit the child’s understanding of bureaucratic issues, such as their applications for Burgerservicenummer (BSN) [5], and the assessments during interviews with the Immigration and Naturalization Service (IND), which evaluate all applications from foreign nationals who want to live in the Netherlands or want to become a Dutch citizen [6].

A crucial side of the refugee education crisis in the Netherlands is the emotional challenge it poses to the children of asylum seekers. The interviews with the IND system and the lawyers create a lot of stress for the children. It cannot be forgotten that the majority, if not all of the children, have left behind their country and families involuntarily, forced by a war, or violent situation, or due to the poverty, political or economic instability of their nation. This undoubtedly causes the children to struggle with emotions and to find a way to cope with a very difficult scenario at a young age. This is why many Dutch schools that receive newcomers adopt a trauma-sensitive approach and pay a lot of attention to social emotions. If needed, newcomers can also participate in creative therapy at school that supports their mental health [5].

The prejudices and stigma towards asylum seeker children are also a psychological challenge for them. Discrimination against people based on their origin and nationality may act as an additional obstacle to their integration into the country, as well as impeding future employment opportunities [7]. At school, refugee children are sometimes victims of prejudices and rejection because of their religion, culture, and country of origin, especially if they come from a country currently or recently in a war [5]. This creates disparities among the children, a lack of integration of the asylum seekers among the rest of the children in school, isolation, and difficulties in blending into society.

Due to its inherent complexity, diverse character, and interconnected factors, the refugee education crisis, as noted by the UN, is a “wicked problem”. This challenge is not an isolated one; rather, it is intricately connected to more general global problems like conflict, displaced people, poverty, political instability, inadequate infrastructure, cultural differences, and inequality. It is surrounded by uncertainty, and solutions frequently have unanticipated side effects like logistical difficulties or cultural impediments. Furthermore, a wide range of parties involved in the issue, including governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and refugees, have different interests and viewpoints approaching the issue. For instance, while governments’ priorities might lay in ensuring educational stability and adherence to national policies, NGOs may focus on providing supplementary educational programs to support and bridge the gaps for refugee children, and local communities might emphasize the need for cultural sensitivity training for teachers and resources to meet the diverse needs of the newcomers. The different interests of the institutions and parties involved inhibit finding a consistent solution. As a result, there are conflicts of values and moral conundrums, such as the argument over whether to integrate refugee children into the host country, create distinct refugee schools, or utilize the host nation’s educational institutions.

The refugee schooling issue is growing, and will continue to require resources for some time. There is no clear endpoint, highlighting the need for flexible, all-encompassing ways to handle a constantly changing complexity. It is here that we argue a Humanities-oriented approach would be useful. In addition to the emotional well-being of refugee children through creative therapy, they can also give a voice to refugee children’s experiences and act as a call to action for the education of refugee children. Here, we explore some case studies from the Arts and Literature useful in raising awareness among society about the conditions refugee children face when arriving in a new country.

Contributions from the world of Arts

In both fictional and non-fictional ways, the Arts can contribute to tackling a few of the issues of the refugee education crisis. In the words of Maxine Greene, an American educational philosopher:

“Imagining things being otherwise may be a first step toward acting on the belief that they can be changed” [8].

The reasoning underlying this is a strong belief in the semiexclusive power of the Humanistic disciplines to raise levels of awareness and understanding, and its ability to create a sense of shared consciousness.

Using the Arts in educational settings can act as an agent of social change by shifting people’s thinking about the self and others. The Arts provide the opportunity for voices to be heard, for storytelling that is impactful and meaningmaking. They can vividly portray unacceptable realities of the world [9] such as the refugee education crisis, and in this way highlight them. Even in the restricted environment of a classroom, changes have been noticed in the thinking of the self and others after “the use” [sic] of the arts. In one painting exercise, immigrant pre-service teachers, whose own early years of education were challenging, painted a child using a variety of colors, chosen to be representative of every child’s religion, race, culture, gender, and ability. Through the painting, they found themselves artistically disclosing their own experiences and challenges, and brought a new sense of understanding with them. They demonstrated their mindset regarding social change and promised their future students their right to education and a better future than they had as children. By releasing their emotions through art, the preservice teachers engaged the rest of the class in authentic listening and created empathetic bonds, which are essential for building trustworthiness in communities [9]. Thus, the Arts are a meaningful tool to call for societal change and action by harmonizing communities toward softening injustices [9]. When people consider what art does and means, they broaden their thinking and their considerations. By engaging with art, whether by creating, interpreting, or experiencing it, they often find that it improves their understanding, perspective, and appreciation of ideas, emotions, and other people’s experiences, such as the stories of refugee children.

The effort to address isolation, poverty, and refugee lives though empirical methods has been a leitmotif in the world of the Humanities. Since ancient times, the Arts have also been exploited to reflect life in a more holistic manner- even on cave walls, before the advent of paper and canvases. This dual approach has succeeded in presenting some alternative and eye-opening perspectives unique to the discipline. For instance, the project Inside Out by photographer JR, which started in 2011, transforms public spaces with large-scale portraits to make a statement about identity, community, and social issues; creating alternative realities that spark conversations and new perspectives beyond statistics and empirical approaches. To

bring visibility to the refugee education crisis, 384 45-meterlong close-up portraits of refugee children were pasted on the streets of Colombia, Mauritania, and Rwanda [10]. This powerful visual narrative illustrates how the arts can humanize displaced persons, who are often marginalized, stigmatized or reduced to a statistic. By showcasing their faces and stories, we can potentially improve our own empathy and understanding of them.

More recent contributions from the Arts also shed light on the refugee education crisis. As the civil war in Syria raged on, the refugee camp in Za’atari, in Jordan, became a permanent settlement. The Za’atari Project sprung in 2013, as a collaboration of Joel Bergner (aka Joelartista) with AptART, UNICEF, ACTED, ECHO, and the Mercy Corps. While humanitarian organizations were providing food, medical assistance, and shelter, a lack of Arts and culture was, according to the artist, making it impossible to let the voices of the refugees be heard [11]. Featuring workshops for the youngsters living in the camp, a vast act of redevelopment and decoration began. At the very core of the operation were educational topics, alongside art, to allow learning about topics such as hygiene and sanitation issues in the camp [12]. Children actively participated with their own imagination, releasing their creativity by painting murals in their limiting environment and, collectively, reflected on conflict resolution. The Za’atari Project is a collaborative art-based initiative that aims to reduce tensions between populations that might be in conflict, by promoting social cohesion, bringing color, and spreading hope to refugee children and their families. Initiatives like this can significantly enhance awareness of the importance of cohesion and education in vulnerable communities. Actively involving refugee children in the artmaking process can foster a deeper connection to their stories, increasing support for their educational needs.

According to Jonathan Jones, art has historically been a luxury good with a social conscience [13]. The strongly ideological “Bataille Réaliste” of Courbet and the more elegant depictions of Millet, together with Van Gogh’s “De Ardappeleters” and Pellizza Da Volpedo’s “Il quarto Stato” are examples extrapolated from a time-lapse of less than 60 years, starting from the 1840s. Arts seem thus to serve this idiosyncratic cause in the most appropriate of ways, because of their prominent narrative and descriptive potential.

Contributions from the world of Literature

An approach from Literature can also allow for new potential to mobilize action and raise awareness toward refugee children. A classical example is that of Charles Dickens. His legacy lays the foundation for current discussions of social reform, economic inequality, and the human condition. Even in the 19th century, Charles Dickens brought valuable insights into the troubled lives of orphans in “Oliver Twist” (1837-1839), “David Copperfield” (1850), and “Hard Times” (1854). Charles Dickens’s novels are not just stories, but critics and reflections of social, economic, and moral conditions of Victorian society in England, characterized by its suppression, inequalities, misery, hunger, and exploitation of children [14]. Dickens’ main concern, captured in his novels, was the poverty and oppression faced by Victorian children, whom he viewed as an essential part of society and spoke about their status as social victims. When his second novel “Hard Times” was written and published, schooling was not compulsory in England. Nonetheless, the school featured in the book in Coketown, directed by the utilitarian local businessman Thomas Gradgrind, is a non-fee-paying one, specially designed to accommodate students from the most humble backgrounds. Dickens’ satirical, sharply pondered way of expression explores how teachers were oftentimes unable to perform their educational tasks, due to a significant lack of adequate training. A bridge can be drawn between the nature of Charles Dickens’s novels, exposing the social injustices of Victorian orphans deprived of quality education, and our current education crisis. His artistic expression of the struggles of marginalized children and the transformative power of education, almost 200 hundred years later, can serve as a parallel to raise awareness about the reality of refugee children today.

In reaction to a rather inquisitorial publication of his book by the Westminster Review of 1854, Dickens gave a speech in 1857 in which he claimed to have seen “too many schools in which the imagination of the children was discouraged and the pupils trained as little parrots and small calculating machines” [15]. The full transcribed intervention In Support of Warehousemen and Clerks’ Schools, now known as “Schools I do not like”, is a consultable examination of degrading schooling systems, suppression of individuality, and socioeconomic disparities, together with a call to address every one of these issues. Even nearly two centuries later, Dickens’ words still undeniably remark, enhance, and emphasize the concrete necessity of an inclusive, comprehensive, and quality education for vulnerable children. The timelessness of his work also makes it well-suited to address the enduring nature of the refugee education crisis.

Having briefly discussed an example of 19th-century literature, it is now appropriate to draw attention to more contemporary examples. Gerardo M. Gonzalez memoir “A Cuban Refugee’s Journey to the American Dream: The Power of Education”, published in 2018, details how in 1962, when he was only 11 years old, moved with his from communist Cuba to the United States of America, at a time when the fates of millions of Hispanic immigrants seeking asylum in the US were worryingly uncertain. He narrates the experience as “relocating to a strange and forbidding society” [16] because of the shared distrust in the economy and ideology of Fidel Castro’s regime. Even if far from the European borders, Gonzalez’s story is a relevant one, as in his words,

“This isn’t a book about politics or the rights and wrongs of global disputes. This is a book about one person—a refugee, a boy whose childhood was ripped from him, yet who, thanks to a few caring people in the society where he grew up, became an adult who succeeded beyond anybody’s wildest expectations.” [16].

Gonzalez’s experiences and feelings are highlighted throughout the chapters of the book. He aims to transparently narrate the slow development of himself from “once a bright and happy child” [16], towards his struggle with displacement, towards finally the highest personal accomplishments. In his eventful description of June 9th, 1973, the day he received his Bachelor of Arts, he tearfully recalls “people, places, and events that had made possible my college education” [16]. Subsequent recognition and a career in scholarship allowed Gonzalez to write the very last words of the prologue of his book which, to close this passage circularly, we invite you to reflect once again on the essentially cathartic potential of the humanities when applied to such a personal issue.

“I hope my story will resonate in the mind of every person who has been forcibly relocated because of war or disputes, religion, or territory or by governments who put ideology before the needs of their people. [...] It’s about what can change the life of a child, and indeed the world – the right to an education! Education is more, much more, than learning to read, write, and do sums. Education is an investment in the greatest asset a nation possesses: its people. Education is the way to open minds and help people realize their potential” [16].

Societal impact

Research has shown that socio-demographic characteristics and stressors in the post-displacement environment (e.g., restrictions in economic opportunities, discrimination, and stigma, living in institutions, being involuntarily repatriated or internally displaced, and coming from a country that remains in conflict), significantly affect a refugee’s future career and opportunities regardless of having been given the chance of being educated [17]. Several programs and organizations worldwide such as UNICEF, Save the Children, and Refugee Education Trust (RET), have the social purpose of improving the lives of refugee children, namely setting child-friendly spaces, developing volunteer training programs, assisting refugee families, and establishing community centers where refugee children and teenagers can obtain access to basic needs such as housing and schools [17]. There are also significant approaches from the Humanities, particularly from the world of Arts and Literature, that have valid prospects of making a change in the refugee education crisis.

As we have seen, the Arts have the intrinsic capability to increase the visibility of the refugee education crisis. Another example is the movie “Green Border” [18], winner of the Special Jury Prize at the 80th Venice Film Festival, tells the story of a Syrian family on the border of Poland and Belarus. It portrays the current situation in the Białowieza Forest, between Belarus and Poland, where refugees from the Middle East and Africa are trapped in terrible conditions, looking to reach the European Union. This movie has been described as a “vital bearing of cinematic witness of what is happening in Europe right now” [18]. It serves as a timeless reminder of the cruel political systems that have enabled atrocities against refugees, humans. This movie is an artistic expression, a scream of outrage at the injustices faced by refugee families. It was a significant call to action for support of the refugee crisis and a demand for a better future for these children at the border. In addition to the power of storytelling and narratives in movies and other forms of media, the Arts can propose more potential solutions for addressing the wicked problem. For instance, art therapy projects, cultural exchange programs, photo exhibitions, or creative courses can enhance the well-being of refugee children and at the same time advocate for their right to education.

Another example is “Shadow Game” (19), a touching, basedon-reality movie about refugee children seeking asylum in Europe. Viewers can observe the real emotional challenges that refugee children face, and the movie uses a recurring theme of seeing their travels as a “game” [5]. For refugee children, perceiving their precarious situation as a game may be a useful defensive mechanism for them, a way to cope with induced trauma. By framing their experience in this way, refugee children may find a sense of control or comfort, using humor or jokes as a response strategy. As “Shadow Game” portrays, this does not diminish the gravity of their situation but certainly highlights the resilience and adaptability of children facing unimaginable challenges. In other words, this artistic work demonstrates real-life coping mechanisms used by refugee children to manage their emotions and mental health during a traumatic and scary period of their lives. By bringing up this emotional facet of the refugee children, the movie can importantly help draw attention to the need for developing more initiatives for supporting the children’s mental health. More access to therapy sessions, collective meetings, or creative workshops, with professionals in the field of psychology and child development can provide refugee children with resources to effectively cope with their trauma. These programs could improve their psychological well-being and emotional stability, and guide them to express and share their experiences with other refugee children healthier than their current coping mechanisms so that they feel less lonely and

can relate to each other in a balanced and constructive way. Oftentimes, we see how certain mass media can create the discourse of the “Other”, the refugees as invaders of a country, as foreigners who will distort the European lifestyle. In contrast, research has shown that cinematic discourse can influence policy-making in the European Union that promotes a different political approach. In other words, the development of a globalized democratic culture could take on a new political content characterized by humanism and political morality [20]. Movies, as opposed to other types of mass media, have the potential to humanize the experiences of vulnerable groups like refugees, who are usually stereotyped or wrongly accused in other media. The purpose of cinematography around the refugee education crisis is to bring the topic closer to home, to make the viewer become aware and empathize with the characters. Movies like “Green Border” are artworks that aim to destigmatize refugee people, by narrating their human, universal experiences and feelings of loss, love, hope, and survival, promoting morality, and humanism. Ultimately, they make the public reflect on an urgent societal problem, thereby raising awareness and influencing public discourse and policies toward more compassionate, politically moral, and humanist solutions.

Literature has the capacity to immerse readers into the story. According to the interviewee Marieke Postma, reading novels about refugees can offer the public a completely different perception of the refugee crisis. She believes that Literature has concrete potential to contribute to the topic by giving valuable insight to the public, with (a) detailed descriptions that evoke emotions, and (b) making the reader feel like an integral part of the story [5]. Humans are emotional creatures- it is in our nature to respond emotionally towards social injustice [21]. A persuasive strategy used in rhetoric, known as pathos, consists indeed of appealing primarily to emotions [22]. Kenneth Burke, literary theorist, poet, and novelist, stated:

“Wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric. And wherever there is meaning, there is persuasion” [23].

The use of pathos can be observed in almost all of Charles Dickens’ work, in “Oliver Twist” (1838), “David Copperfield” (1850, or “Great Expectations” (1861). Through the use of vivid descriptions, evocative characterizations, and dramatic irony, he elicits emotional reactions such as sympathy and understanding from the readers. His skillful use of emotional appeals portraying sensitive situations and struggles of less fortunate children allows readers to emotionally connect with them and develop strong reactions and attitudes towards the theme. The intense sentiments that arise from Dickens’ use of pathos in his novels can raise readers’ awareness, demanding more help and shifting the public discourse around disadvantaged children, such as refugee children, and their right to education. Other initiatives from Literature that can be relevant for addressing the wicked problem are writing workshops, book clubs, poetry readings, and creative writing classes that can encourage refugee children to share their first-hand experience but also impulse their voices to be heard and call for social change.

A Humanities-oriented approach can help in “transmitting and creating an understanding and making people realize that what we are doing is actually not right”, according to Postma [5]. The persuasive power of Arts and Literature can help raise awareness and visibility of the refugee education crisis. Their potential can increase social support for refugee children and call for change among policymakers, public and influential personas, and opinion formers. Thus, the goal is to use these artistic forms of expression to shape public opinion and regulations that will ultimately lead to a quality education system and an environment free of discrimination and prejudices for refugee children.

A future where this goal is achieved involves international promotion and the spread of Arts and Literature for the service of improving the refugee education crisis. Proposals for achieving this mission include stimulating governmental promotion for publishing novels and movies about the topic. Social activism, public cultural forums, or festivals can help advocate for their education, at the municipal, national, and international levels. Seeking support from the government is crucial for fostering the public financing of books, movies, and art exhibitions about refugee children and their education [24]. Moreover, close collaboration between governments, NGOs, and educational institutions is fundamental to contributing to realistic solutions for the refugee education crisis. Such coordinated efforts can encourage refugee children to speak up about their experiences and views regarding education, translating them into artistic forms such as writing, painting, or filming. The desired societal, political, and cultural impact is to truthfully represent refugee children as persons who must be integrated into society and education free of discrimination. Such Humanitiesoriented initiatives can ultimately influence public discourse and opinions through public influential persons, policymakers, the government and mass media.

References

1. UNHCR. (2019a). Refugee education in crisis: More than half of the world’s school-age refugee children do not get an education. https://www.unhcr. org/news/news-releases/refugee-education-crisis-more-half-worlds-schoolage-refugee-children-do-not-get

2. UNHCR Nederland. (2021). Kinderen op de Vlucht. https://www.unhcr.org/ nl/wie-we-zijn/wie-we-helpen/bescherming-individuen/kinderen-op-vlucht/

3. UNHCR. (2023). UNHCR Education Report 2023. https://www.unhcr.org/ media/unhcr-education-report-2023-unlocking-potential-right-educationand-opportunity

4. UNHCR. (2019b). Stepping up: Refugee education in Crisis. https://www. unhcr.org/steppingup/

5. Postma, M. (2023). The education of asylum seekers in the Netherlands and the purpose of LOWAN. Personal interview.

6. Immigratie- en Naturalisatiedienst. (2023). How can we help you? IND. https://ind.nl/en

7. Vereniging van Nederlandse Gemeenten. (2020). Inclusie en discriminatie op de arbeidsmarkt bij inburgering.

8. Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the arts, and social change. Jossey-Bass.

9. Mreiwed, H., Carter, M. R., & Mitchell, C. (Eds.). (2020). Art as an agent for social change (Vol. 8). Brill.

10. Inside Out. (2022). Bringing visibility to refugee children around the world! https://www.insideoutproject.net/en/news/bringing-visibility-to-refugeechildren-around-the-world

11. Musolf, G. R. (2019). Conflict and forced migration: Escape from oppression and stories of survival, resilience, and hope. Emerald Group Publishing.

12. UNHCR. (2015). 7 art initiatives that are transforming the lives of refugees. https://www.unhcr.org/innovation/7-art-initiatives-that-are-transformingthe-lives-of-refugees/

13. The Guardian News and Media. (2014). Poverty lines: Where are the poor in art today? Jonathan Johns on art. https://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2014/dec/30/art-and-poverty-whereare-poor-in-art-today

14. Hamadamin, R. O., & Ahmed, S. K. (2023). Children as social victims in Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist and David Copperfield. QALAAI ZANIST Journal, 8(1), 1135-1149.

15. Milne, I. M., Sisler, T. J., & Thomson Gale (Firm). (2005). Novels for students: Presenting analysis, context and criticism on commonly studied novels (Vol. 20). Gale. Retrieved from https://rug.on.worldcat.org/oclc/229401095

16. Gonzalez, G. M. (2018). A Cuban refugee’s journey to the American dream: The Power of education. Indiana University Press.

17. Silove, D., Ventevogel, P., & Rees, S. (2017). The contemporary refugee crisis: An overview of mental health challenges. World Psychiatry, 16(2), 130-139.

18. The Guardian News and Media. (2023). Green Border Review – gripping story of refugees’ fight for survival in the Forest.. https://www.theguardian. com/film/2023/sep/05/green-border-review-refugees-venice-film-festivalagnieszka-holland

19. Blanklevoort and van Driel (2021). Netherlands: Transmedia. Available at: https://kro-ncrv.nl/programmas/shadow-game.

20. Kalerante, E., & Tsantali, C. (2020). Developing educational discourse on refugees: From the “others” to cinema meta-language on refugee citizens. In C. Constantopoulou (Ed.), Crisis’ representations: Frontiers and identities in the contemporary media narratives (pp. 167-188). Brill.

21. Kraut, R. (1989). Aristotle on the human good. Princeton University Press.

22. Higgins, C., & Walker, R. (2012). Ethos, logos, pathos: Strategies of persuasion in social/environmental reports. Accounting Forum, 36(3), 194-208.

23. Burke, K. (1969). A rhetoric of motives. University of California Press.

24. Pommerehne, W. W., & Frey, B. S. (1990). Public promotion of the arts: A survey of means. Journal of Cultural Economics, 14, 73-95.

with Marieke PoStMa

with Marieke Postma

Crafting the Past: The Intricate Art of Forging Ancient Christian Scriptures

Author: Ron vom Scheidt

Illustrator: Eduard Prunache

Welcome to the secret world of ancient manuscript forgery! Here we embark on a journey through the shadowy art of creating convincing forgeries, starting with the most crucial step - the selection and acquisition of the right materials.

Step 1: Gathering Your Materials

The old adage “it’s what’s inside that counts” does not quite apply when it comes to forging. It is all about the material in this business. A forger’s first task is to obtain authentic-looking papyrus or parchment. Why is this important? Because the material is the first thing that experts scrutinise.

If you are thinking of ancient marketplaces or clandestine deals, think again. Believe it or not, eBay is the main source in today’s digital age. In fact the online marketplace has been a surprisingly accessible avenue for the acquisition of ancient materials [5]. You can bid on papyrus fragments that may have once graced the banks of the Nile from the comfort of your own home with just a few clicks. But remember, buyer beware! Not all that glitters is gold, or in this case, not all that is old is ancient.

Now, let us talk about the ink. When it comes to manuscript forgery, the ink recipe can make or break whether it will be labelled authentic. Ancient ink recipes often included soot, gum and other organic materials - a far cry from the chemicals in today’s pens [3]. Getting it right is a delicate dance of chemistry and history. A well-made ink will not only look the part, it will also stand up to scientific scrutiny and fool even the most seasoned of experts.

In the world of forgery, the devil really is in the details. The right papyrus and ink can turn a clever piece of writing into a priceless artefact. At least until the experts take a closer look. As we delve further into the world of forgery, it is worth remembering that it is not just about creating a forgery. It is also about creating a believable story, starting with the very fibres of the material.

Step 2: Writing Your Gospel

After acquiring the perfect papyrus and concocting the ancient ink, the next step in our forgery tutorial is like that of a screenwriter writing a blockbuster script: coming up with the text. Here comes the magic, or in our case, the mischief.

The key is the authenticity of the content. A forger has to be a linguist, historian and novelist all rolled into one. The text must not only look old, it must also sound old. This is where many would-be forgers stumble and fall. Getting the language right is crucial. It requires more than just grammatical knowledge of languages like Greek or Coptic. It is not just about avoiding modern slang, it is about capturing the essence of a longgone era. As noted in an exploration of New Testament textual criticism [1], one really has to cross the t’s and dot the i’s — one wrong word, one anachronistic phrase, and the whole house of cards comes crashing down.

Enter the lure of sensational texts. Imagine creating a text that could change history - one that suggests a radically different interpretation of a religious figure or event. The Gospel of Jesus’s Wife serves as a perfect case study [6]. This small papyrus fragment sent shockwaves through the academic and religious communities with its tantalising reference to Jesus’ marital status. So sensational was its content that it momentarily blinded some scholars, leading them to overlook inconsistencies that later proved it forged.

This step is therefore a bit of a balancing act. The forger needs to weave a narrative that is compelling enough to get noticed, but not so outlandish that it invites immediate scepticism. It is about finding that sweet spot where plausibility and sensationalism

meet. The text has to be just controversial enough to get the academic world buzzing, yet grounded enough in historical linguistics to pass a cursory examination.

In the art of forgery, the creation of the text is the place where one’s creativity and knowledge are put to the ultimate test. It requires a flair for the dramatic, as well as a deep understanding of the language, culture and religious beliefs of the period. It is not only a matter of fooling the eye, but also of capturing the imagination, leading scholars and enthusiasts alike on a joyous dance of what-ifs and maybes.

So there you have it - the second step in our guide to the forging of ancient manuscripts. Get your linguistic time machine ready and let your imagination run wild, but remember, tread carefully; the line between a successful forgery and a scholarly debacle is thinner than the ancient papyrus you are writing on.

“A forger has to be a linguist, historian and novelist all rolled into one.”

Step 3: Crafting the Forgery

So, you have your ancient looking papyrus and a story that is likely to turn heads in the world of scholarship. Now, where meticulous craftsmanship meets historical sleight of hand, we roll up our sleeves for the actual creation of the forgery.

The first hurdle to overcome at this stage is dating, which is primarily based on the style of writing. Ancient manuscripts are like time capsules, with their writing styles deeply rooted in specific historical periods. Different eras had their own distinctive writing styles [4]. The uncial script of early Christian manuscripts, the elegant minuscule of the Byzantine period - each tells a story beyond the text. Forgers often fall into the trap of anachronism, leaving telltale signs for experts to sniff out. The handwriting must not only be old, it must be appropriate to the period.

Then there is the more subtle but equally important aspect of contextual detail. Again, the devil is in the details. Understanding the cultural and religious context in which the original manuscripts were created is incredibly important [2]. This goes beyond the script - it is about the layout of the parchment, the ink, even the way the lines are justified. While there are differences between manuscripts, and not every difference is a sign of anachronism, a small inconsistency like a margin too wide for the period or an off-colour ink can raise red flags. And red flags mean more scrutiny - something we would like to avoid for our little project.

But it is not just a matter of avoiding mistakes; it is also a matter of mastering the art of ambiguity. The most successful forgeries

often leave just enough room for doubt, making it difficultbut not impossible - to read the text. This is where a forger’s creativity really comes into its own. In the smudges, the faded ink, the ‘damaged’ areas that conveniently obscure important parts of the text.

Creating a forgery, then, is a complex dance of historical accuracy and artistic licence. It requires a deep understanding of the past, a steady hand and, perhaps most important, a strong sense of how far to push the boundaries of credibility. Every stroke of the pen, every choice of word and layout weaves a narrative that must withstand the scrutiny of experts who have dedicated their lives to the study of these ancient texts.

This is the third step in your journey to create a forgery that can deceive the world, at least for a while. Just remember that while you may have the skills to create a convincing forgery, the real art of forgery lies in not getting caught.

Step 4:

Authenticating the Forgery

With your forged manuscript in hand, created with the utmost attention to detail and historical accuracy, we now embark on the most dangerous stage of our forgery journey: getting it authenticated. This is where the rubber meets the road - or rather, where the ink meets the sceptics.

Paradoxically, a scarcity of resources and a high demand for scholarly attention have strained the field of scriptural studies. The limited availability of manuscripts to study presents a unique challenge [8]. While there is an abundance of texts, artefacts and fragments in existence, only a fraction are available for scholarly study. This limitation creates an atmosphere of competition in which scholars vie for the opportunity to study these rare and precious manuscripts.

This competition also affects the informal peer review process that usually takes place prior to publication, and which in other fields is conducted through conversations with peers. The academic community is often forced to prioritise the study of manuscripts deemed to be the most important or promising, given the challenge of limited resources and grants. This focus can have the unintended consequence of reducing the level of scrutiny applied to other findings, potentially allowing forgeries to pass through the initial vetting process.

For a forger, this situation presents a nuanced set of opportunities and risks. The opportunity lies in taking advantage of the gaps created by the limited availability of manuscripts and the focused attention of scholars on particular texts. However, this same scarcity means that any new manuscript, especially one that appears to be of significant historical importance, is likely to attract considerable attention once it enters the scholarly discourse. This heightened scrutiny increases the risk of discovery of a forgery, as scholars eager for new material are likely to examine it closely. Thus, in the world of manuscript forgery, resource scarcity is a double-edged sword, offering both opportunity and increased risk of detection.

Enter the role of the media in shaping perception. In 2011, the discovery of what were called the Jordan Lead Codices was reported, with claims that these artefacts may contain the earliest Christian writings, as well as the oldest depiction

of Jesus. However, before the scholarly community could critically assess these claims, the media had sensationalised the discovery. Articles and news segments described the codices as revolutionary, suggesting they could alter our understanding of early Christian history. This premature media coverage not only captured the public’s imagination but also pressured scholars to respond to claims not yet vetted through academic scrutiny. Media outlets broadcasted the sensational nature of the find, which contributed to a rapid spread of misinformation and speculation across social networks and news platforms [7].

This media frenzy often creates a feedback loop, pressuring scientists to rush judgments or defend positions on discoveries that have not been thoroughly examined. Consequently, the Lead Codices continued to be a subject of debate and curiosity, fueled by sensational and misleading media portrayals, long after initial doubts about their authenticity were raised by experts.

A forger must be a master strategist, understanding not only the academic process but also the media landscape in this high-stakes game. The aim is to make the fake ‘sensational’ enough to get noticed, but not so outlandish that it gets dismissed out of hand. It is as in the previous steps, a delicate balance, walking a tightrope between academic interest and the sensationalism of the media.

Therefore, authenticating a fake is not just about convincing the experts. It is about managing the narrative in the public sphere. It requires a keen understanding of both the scholarly process and the media machine, knowing when to push and when to hold back. At the end of the day, the success of a forgery often depends not only on its material or textual authenticity, but also on how well it can navigate the choppy waters of academic validation and public opinion.

So if you enter this arena of authentication, be prepared. The world of scholarship on ancient manuscripts is a labyrinth of scrutiny, scepticism and, at times, sensationalism. To navigate it requires more than just a well-crafted forgery; it requires a well-crafted strategy.

Step 5: Reflecting on the Art of Deception

At the end of this exploration of manuscript forgery, it is crucial to consider how the evolution of technology may have an impact on the future of these deceptions. The advent of digital tools and artificial intelligence promises more sophisticated forgeries, likely complicating the task of authenticating ancient texts. In response, the scholarly community must expand its arsenal of detection techniques: the more sophisticated the forger, the more important it is to be vigilant and methodically sceptical about new discoveries. This dynamic interplay between forgers and scholars will undoubtedly influence our understanding of history, and as we stand on the brink of potential changes in the way historical artefacts are created and authenticated, it is clear that the field of manuscript studies must adapt rapidly to guard against the threat of forgery. This ongoing challenge underscores the importance of diligence and innovation in preserving authentic historical knowledge.

References

1. Jones, C. P. (2010). New Testament Textual Criticism. The Expository Times, 121(12), 573-584.

2. Metzger, B. M. (1981). Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Greek Palaeography. Oxford University Press.

3. Nongbri, B. (2018). God’s Library: The Archaeology of the Earliest Christian Manuscripts. Yale University Press.

4. Parker, G. (2008). Forgery and Fraud in the Ancient World. Oxford University Press.

5. Rabin, I. (2014). Provenancing Ancient Papyri. Archaeometry, 56(4), 601-616.

6. Sabar, A. (2020). Veritas: A Harvard Professor, a Con Man and the Gospel of Jesus’s Wife. Doubleday.

7. Verenna, T. S. (2011). Artifacts and the Media: Lead Codices and the Public Portrayal of History. Retrieved on April 26, 2024 from https:// bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/ver358015

8. Watson, F. (2014). Gospel Writing: A Canonical Perspective. Eerdmans.

Breaking the pattern

Author: Robert-Raul Nedelcu

Illustrator: Eduard Prunache

Shadows dance and shine along

On gilded paths of ember stones

Fates tangle in siren songs

Hope shimmers through old bones

Freedom bathes in moonlight rays

Your wings damp and still self-chained

Find the key in all clear days

Too long has resentment reigned

The looming doubts stray from your path

They twist, and turn, and burn so cold

Face your fears, stale their wrath

Why mark your mistakes in bold?

What could have been, all the what ifs

Inquiries that plague our souls

Drifted by waves, lost in reefs

Remembrance adorns your pulse

It is frightful, to step blindly

Into darker shades of blue

To dive and forget all worldly

Ideals covered in pure hue

Close your eyes, listen closely

The rhythm echoes beyond the veil

Snow tracks as seen burningly

Guide the steps through your hail

It was, and will always be you

No matter what has happened

One’s shape is forever due

To be the sole shade that mattered

I thank thee, dear past reflections

For opening tomorrow’s skyline

See you soon, brave incarnations

That climb surely as a vine

Colophon

Editorial Board 2023-24

Keerthana Umesh - Editor-in-Chief

Lucija Lubina - PR Officer

Belina Aileen S. - Organizational Officer

Graphic Design

Yingyi Chen

Monika Mineva

Illustrators

Eduard Prunache

Sylwia Jackowska

Tessa Drenth

Cover

Gyanu Lewe

Peer Review Panel

Twan Tromp, Stijn Suk, Lara Herlah, Savannah Hendrickse, Hanjo Müller, Mikel Martínez Garrido, Laimonas Bieliauskas and Rhea Morar

We thank our reviewers, our artists, Geja Duiker and the Minerva Art Academy for their work and support in publishing this issue. We also extend our gratitude to the Honours College team of the University of Groningen for their counsel and financial support.

Issue 16 / June 2024

p-ISSN 2214-608

e-ISSN 2214-6466

The Honours Review is a student publication by the Honours College of the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

For more info, visit: Website: www.honoursreview.com Instagram: @HonoursReview