الكيمياء العامة by Hossam Mohamed Abdelatef



‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 110

 

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

   W،،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬        ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

‫א‬         ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬? ‫א‬?? ‫א‬‫א‬?‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬     ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫؛‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬

 K‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

 

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

   

     ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K      ‫א‬   ،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ،   ‫א‬  K  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬        

-1-

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 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 Chemical Calculus‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KE1-1F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬.SI

UNIT

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-1F

‫ א‬QUANTITY

‫א‬

‫א‬

Kilogram

meter

 Length

‫א‬

Second

 Time

‫א‬

mole

‫א‬ Mass

mol

Kelvin

Ampere

Candle

‫א‬

 Amount of matter

‫א‬

 Temperature

‫א‬‫א‬

 Current intensity

 Luminescence intensity

‫א‬‫א‬ E‫א‬F‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1-2F

UNIT Joule

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-2F 2

J(kgm /s )

Pascal

Pa(kg/ms2)

Newton

N(kgm/s2)

Watt

W(J/s)

Volt

V(J/C)

J

‫ א‬QUANTITY

E‫א‬F‫א‬

 Energy

 Pressure  Force

‫א‬ Power

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 Potential

‫א‬‫א‬

 Volume

‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬K1

Kilo(k) = 103 Miga(M) =106 Giga(G) =109 Tetra(T) =1012  K 1 Mm1000,000m‫א‬ :  

 K36 Gs36,000,000,000s‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K2

-3

Milli (m) =10 Micro () =10-6   Nano (n) =10-9 Pico (p) =10-12  K0.21g0.00000021g‫א‬ :  

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Decimeter (dm) = 0.1m Centimeter(cm) = 0.01m

‫א‬KK‫א‬ c.g.s ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  Ks   ‫א‬   g   ‫א‬ cm ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1-3F‫א‬K‫א‬ergdyne،‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

UNIT Atmosphere Millimeter Hg bar Liter

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-3F ‫ א‬QUANTITY

‫א‬ atm mm Hg =torr  bar

  Pressure



‫א‬ ‫א‬



  Volume -3-

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Celecius Minute

  Temperature

 min

  Time

 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 

Hour day

h  d

year J

y g/cm3

dyne

 ‫א‬

Force

 ‫א‬

erg

 ‫א‬

Energy

 ‫א‬

erg

 

 

L‫א‬ Density

 3

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

1K = 1oC + 273.15‫א‬‫א‬

1L = 0.001 m3



 1mm Hg = 1torr  1bar = 105 p   1atm =101.325kpa= 760 torr =760mm Hg   1year = 365.25 d  1day = 24 h  1h = 60 min 1min = 60 s 1J = 107 erg

1Newton = 105 dyne

 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫ א‬.1

EmF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬C‫א‬Z‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬KL‫א‬mL‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬EKKKK،،،F

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -4-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

W‫ א‬.2

 EPaF‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬D‫א‬Z‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ‫א‬   EatmF ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K1 cm2 76 cm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬mm Hg،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫ א‬.3

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،EJF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K1m1 m/s2‫א‬EF1kg

 ‫א‬C‫א‬Z‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬ J‫א‬‫א‬ 

E‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬   1cal = 4.184 JWKcal= calorie

WChemical Formulas‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

  ، Structural Formula ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  mole‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  WEmpirical formula‫א‬‫ א‬.1

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 100K ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬          ‫א‬  ‫א‬ K  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K

-5-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W {11.1% H , 88.9% O

 K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬

W100‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬-W‫א‬

 0.111 H + 0.889 = 1.00

 ‫א‬ J

0.111/1 : 0.889/16 0.111 : 0.0556

 ‫א‬‫א‬ J

0.111/0.0556 : 0.0556/0.0566 1.996 : 1   2:1

‫א‬‫א‬ K 1   2 ‫א‬



 KESubscriptF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،H2O

 WMolecular formula‫א‬‫ א‬.2

      ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K

H2/3O1/3 HO1/2‫א‬K‫א‬ H8O4 H4O2  H2O‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬K‫א‬  ،

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ،mass spectrograph ‫א‬   ،  ‫א‬ ‫א‬

   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬ Kcolligative properties

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬KH2O‫א‬‫א‬،18.003g‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Z‫א‬K‫א‬

2H + O = 2 × 1 + 1 ×16 = 18  KE18 = 18.003F‫א‬‫א‬H2O‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

H4O2‫א‬‫א‬

4H + 2 OZ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   4 + 2 ×16 = 32 -6-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬ 2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 H4/2O2/2 = H2O:‫א‬‫א‬

WStructural formula‫א‬‫ א‬.3

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬،K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬     K  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  ‫؟‬C2H6O‫א‬‫א‬W1K

‫א‬‫א‬ ،C2H6O‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    KCH3CH2OH E ‫א‬F  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ CH3OCH3

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 W‫א‬

 

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2

NH3W‫א‬‫א‬،NH3W‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬

H    K107o‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

-7-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

  

NN H H

H H

 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W3

 C2H2O4.2H2O‫א‬‫א‬،C2H6O6W‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 WType of chemical compounds‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬ W   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K   ‫א‬ 

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬    ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬     K‫א‬

F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،Ionic compounds‫א‬‫א‬

polar compounds‫א‬ ‫א‬  KE    

‫א‬  ‫א‬  E ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫ א‬ ‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

‫א‬ non-polar compounds‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬  KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F

electrolytes ‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬     K non-electrolytes

‫א‬  ‫א‬  K      ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬polymers‫א‬‫א‬macromolecules

‫א‬   ،    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K    -8-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ، ‫א‬ E F ‫א‬ ‫א‬ E‫א‬ ‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،

‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    F ‫א‬    ‫א‬  KE‫א‬

WChemical equations‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Kbalanced equation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

 W‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .1

‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .2  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬  .3  K‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

 H2 , O2 , H2O‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

H2 + O2 →H2O ‫א‬ H2 + ½O2 →H2O ‫א‬

 2H2 + O2 →2H2O 

 J1

 J2

 J3

 

‫א‬‫א‬K2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

‫א‬   K‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

   ،‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

-9-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،،‫א‬‫א‬،،F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW ‫א‬

   ‫א‬  ‫א‬      KE ‫א‬   ‫א‬ H2(g) + O2(g)→

 K

H2O(ℓ)

W1

 Kliquidℓgasg

C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g)W2

 KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬graphite

   ‫א‬      ‫א‬   ‫א‬    KEF‫א‬‫א‬

 K،‫א‬E∆F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W3 

N2 + 3 H2

W‫א‬

2NH3

Fe    KK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W4

 W‫א‬

h

2Cl   Cl2  Kh‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ irreversible‫א‬‫א‬W ،‫א‬

،E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬، reversible ‫א‬

     ، ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEHF‫א‬‫א‬ - 10 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W25‫א‬‫א‬W

H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(g) -57.8 kcal mol-1

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   -57.8 kcal mol-1 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬1F 25oC H2(g) + ½ O2(g) + -57.8 kcal mol-1 → H2O(g)

 W‫א‬‫א‬

 K       ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   W‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E‫א‬H‫א‬F‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

 

W‫א‬‫א‬EHeF‫א‬W   147 N  42 He178 O11 H

 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

WNeutralization‫ א‬K

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

NaOH‫א‬HClE‫א‬F‫א‬W1 HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2 NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl + 

WRedox reactions‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K

‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ 2-

I2 + 2 S2O3

→ 2 I + S4O6

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

 W‫א‬‫א‬

I2 +2e → 2I- 11 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

2S2O32- → S4O62- +2e



Na + HCl → NaCl + ½ H2

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2  ‫א‬‫א‬

H + e → ½ H2 Na → Na+ + e

WCombustion‫א‬‫ א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) +2H2O(g) +   W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2 2Na + ½O2 → Na2O +  WDecomposition‫ א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1 N=NCl



 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2 (CH2)2O +  → CH4 + CO

 W‫א‬ K

K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬W1

H2 + Cl2 + h → 2HCl

 ‫א‬W2

Na + Cl → NaCl

- 12 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W3

C + 2H2 → CH4

‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K

F‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  K‫א‬   ‫א‬  E  

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

C7H5O2Na + HCl → C7H6O2 + NaCl

 W‫א‬

(C7H5O2)-Na+ + H+ + Cl- → C7H6O + Na+ + Cl-

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -

(C7H5O2) + H → C7H6O

 W

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

 ‫א‬W2

Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl

‫א‬F‫א‬ ‫א‬

 KE‫א‬  

WComplex formation‫א‬‫א‬ K

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ،Complexing agent  ‫א‬    ‫א‬     

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ، Complex forming ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،NH3 ‫א‬  ،F- ‫א‬ ،CN-،‫א‬    K‫א‬ ‫א‬ - 13 -

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 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ،CO   ،H2O

 KLigands‫א‬

Cu(NH3)4SO4‫א‬‫א‬W1 CuSO4 + 4NH3 → Cu (NH3)4SO4  (Fe(CN)6)3-‫א‬‫א‬ W2 Fe3+

+ 6CN- → (Fe(CN)6)3-

 W

Substitution‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ Rearrangemen t‫א‬Polymerization‫א‬Addition‫א‬

Dehydrogenation‫א‬Dehydration‫א‬Esterification

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Decarboxylation‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  :Gaseous reaction‫א‬‫ א‬.1

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K

Pi = (ni/∑ni) Pt ‫א‬‫א‬ ∑ni i‫א‬ ni ،‫א‬‫א‬ Pi 

 K‫א‬‫א‬

 WSolution reaction ‫א‬ .2

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،solvent‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬KE

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Ksolute‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬Kconcentration ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W - 14 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬E1-4F‫א‬KE‫א‬F‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬‫א‬A‫א‬ WB % =

W‫א‬‫א‬ J

100×WB/(WA+WB)

 KAWABWB

 ‫א‬100‫א‬WB=W/V٪ELF‫א‬‫א‬ Wm ‫א‬

m = 1000 ×WB/ WAMw,B

 KB‫א‬‫א‬Mw,B  WM ‫א‬

M = 1000 × WB/VMw,B

Kml‫א‬V N = 1000 × WB/V Ew,B

 WN ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬Ew,B  

 W‫א‬

XB=(WB/Mw,B)/ {(WB/Mw,B)+ (WA/Mw,A)}  KA‫א‬‫א‬Mw,A

   

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE1-4F

Unit

Symbol

g/g

Weight percent

W/V%

Weight volume percent

g/100cm Mol/L

Concentration

Molarity

- 15 -

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

 ELF

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Mol/kg

molality

g-equivalent/L

Normality

 J

Mol fraction

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

N = 10 × percent × density / Ew,B M = 10 × percent × density / Mw,B

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ELF‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W

 K1.721g cm3 ‫א‬‫א‬.80%E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

 K80%Z‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

100 cm3

 W‫א‬

→ 172.1g (H)

100 cm3 → 0.8 × 172.1g ()

137.7%Z0.8×172.1/100 ZELF‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

M = (1000×0.8×172.1)/98×100 =14.05mol L   H2SO4=2 + 32 +4×16 =98W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -1

N = 1000×0.8×172.21)/49×100 = 7.02 g equivalent L-1

‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

m = E1000×0.8×172.1)/ (172.1×0.2×98)=40mol kg-1

          - 16 -

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ .1

36000 m J0.000072 s J0.32000 g  J‫א‬ 70300 m J0.000000003 kg J6000000 bytes  J

 KE4 calF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.2

 ‫א‬7.3%H58.5%C‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.3

K ‫א‬ 4.5%H 35.8%C ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.4  K‫؟‬‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  .5

‫א‬‫א‬K 28‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ 1:2

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K25oC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .6

 K‫א‬‫ א‬.7

‫א‬‫א‬(Mo)‫א‬‫א‬ .8  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.9

‫א‬10.5g‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.10  K‫א‬80 ml

 ، 20%  ‫א‬  (H2SO4) ‫א‬       .11 K1.213 gcm-3‫א‬

K40%‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.12

 120g  ‫א‬ 30.7g‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.13  K‫א‬

   

- 17 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J1

 36 kmE72sE320.00 mgE 70.3 km E 3 ngE

 

6 Mbyte E

cal = 4.184J‫א‬  J2

 16.736Z4.184C44

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫ א‬ J3

‫א‬‫א‬100

N % = 100 – (58.5 +7.3 ) = 34.2 % 0.585 C : 0.073 H : 0.342 N

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

0.0487 C : 0.073 H : 0.0244 N 1.99 C :

 ‫א‬

2.99 H : 1 N

C2H3N W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J4

‫א‬‫א‬100

O% = 100 – (35.8 + 4.5 ) = 48 % 0.358 C : 0.045 H : 0.48OW‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

0.029 C : 0.045 H : 0.029 O 1 C : 1.5 H: 1 O :‫א‬ CH3 COO‫א‬C2H3O2 ‫א‬‫א‬ 

CH2‫א‬‫א‬ J5

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬28‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬C2H4 =2(CH2) K‫א‬CH2=CH2W‫א‬‫א‬

 25‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J6 - 18 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

T K = 25+ 273 = 298 K C(s) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g) 2 NH3(g)

 ‫א‬ J7  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J8

→ N2(g) + 3H2(g)

 ‫א‬‫א‬ J9

CH3COOH + KOH → CH3COOK + H2O M = 1000 × WB /V × Mw,B

 ‫א‬‫א‬ J10

 W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Mw,BWB M = 1000 × 10.5 / 80 × 58.5 = 2.24 mol /l

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J11

 W

N = 10 × P × d / Ew  K‫א‬‫א‬Ew‫א‬d‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬P N = 10 × 20 × 1.213 /49 = 5.02 equivalent /L

 ‫א‬ J12

XB = (WB /WW,B) / {( WB / WW,B ) + (WA / WW,A)} ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K  ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   B  E‫א‬F ‫א‬  A  

‫א‬     ‫א‬ K18   WW,A ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،40     WW,B  K‫א‬80‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬20‫א‬100 XB = (20 /40) /{( 20 /40 ) + (80 /18 )} = 0.10  m‫א‬‫א‬ J13

m = 1000 WB / WA MW,B  ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬A

m = 1000 × 30.7 / 120 × 85 = 4.41 mol kg-1  K85NaNO3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   

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     

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

-1-

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬            

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬Antoine Lavoisier‫א‬ J

   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ،1774  ‫א‬  

 K

 WJoseph Proust‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K

 WJohn Dalton ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

K‫א‬‫א‬ 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ J

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬        ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 2W1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬←H  2

W 1W 1

W 



 WDalton and Berzelius‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬     - 21 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 WE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FAvogadro‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 WE‫א‬‫א‬F Max Plank‫א‬ J

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KE2-1‫א‬‫)א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E x p e r im e n a t a l C la s s ic t h e o r y



   K‫א‬λ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E ‫א‬‫א‬ WE2-1F

F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬?‫א‬  KEQuantum

h = 6.620 × 10-34 J.s (2-1)  Knh‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  E = n h  ,

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬  WNewton 

    ،       ‫א‬   ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W

- 22 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬      ،    ‫א‬   ‫א‬

‫א‬     ،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬  ‫א‬ K‫א‬

 WEinstein 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

 ،‫א‬    cathode     ‫א‬   K‫א‬

 ‫א‬    ‫א‬   K‫א‬     ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬     ،  photons

‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ 

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،electromagnetic spectrum  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WThomson‫א‬‫א‬ J

(e = 1.26×10-8 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ K C/g)

‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 KE 2-2 ‫א‬

- + + - - + + +

   KWE2-2F

 WRutherford J

‫א‬ E2-3‫א‬‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 W‫א‬K‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

 K‫ א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

 rays

+++ +

Rutherford atom gold film

 K‫א‬‫א‬WE2-3F

 WEMillikanF‫א‬ J

F‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  KE9.1 × 10-28 g1.6 × 10-19C ‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ J

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،Mosely‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬1932‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬γ  K ‫א‬،‫א‬

 W‫א‬ ‫א‬  F ‫א‬

 ‫א‬      K‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  E‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬   ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 WIsotopes‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬    K‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 



 H ‫א‬     ‫א‬ W K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،

 K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،T‫א‬D‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Watomic number‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K

F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Wmass number‫א‬  J

 KE

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ W atomic weight ‫א‬‫א‬  J

‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ،‫א‬K12‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬Absorption‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Emission ‫א‬‫א‬، ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

     ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

K، K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬E2-1F‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-1F ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

n1 → n2,..., ∞

‫א‬

Lyman

n2 → n3,..., ∞

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 Palmer

n3 → n4,..., ∞

 ‫א‬‫א‬  Paschen - 25 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

n4 → n5,..., ∞ n5 → n6,..., ∞

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Bracket‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Pfund

 W‫א‬‫א‬Rhydberg ‫א‬ W  R H ( 1  1 ) , RH = 109,677.6 cm-1 (2-2) 2 2 2 n ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KW  1 ‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬E2-2F‫א‬K( λ = 200 nm - 800 nm )‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬WE2-2F ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

10-4 Å

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

10-2 Å

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

1Å

 

2000 Å 4000 – 8000 Å 10.000 Å

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

0.1 cm

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

100 cm

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

monochromatic‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 26 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-4F  W‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬    J

‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K (=3.14 ) h/2π‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 ν،∆E = hν‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬(JEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E = -2.18  10-18 (1/n2) , n = 1, 2, 3,... (2-3)  ∆E‫א‬،n2n1‫א‬ ∆E = -2.18  10-18 ( 1/n22 – 1/n12 ) - 27 -

(2-4)

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬n2 = ∞‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬n2‫א‬‫א‬n1

E = 2.18  10-18 (1/n12) (2-5)  Kn1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E

 WE‫א‬‫א‬F DeBroglie J

،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

  JW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

 W‫א‬

E = mc

(2-6)

WE‫א‬FK‫א‬c m E = hν = h c/

(2-7)

hν = m c2



(2-8)

 

  = h /m c

 :‫א‬ :

(2-9)  Wc‫א‬v

 = h /m v

(2-10)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E2-5F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬

  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-5F  Knλ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬2πr‫א‬‫א‬ nλ=2πr

(2-11)

- 28 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 = 2r /n =h / mv (2-12) mvr = nh /2

 :،‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬  W‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .1

mv2 / r = e2 /r

(2-14)

 EKEF‫א‬HEPEF‫א‬W(E)‫א‬‫ א‬.2 E = PE + KE (2-15) 2 2 2 = -e / r + ½ mv = -e /2r (2-16)  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .3 m v r = n h / 2  :E2-14F‫א‬v  r = n2 h2 /4  m e2 (2-18)  :‫א‬ E2-16F‫א‬r E = -2 2 m e4 / n2 h2 = -2.18 × 10-18 ( 1/n2 )

(2-19) (2-20)

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ E = 2.18 × 10-18 ( 1/n12 – 1/n22 ) (2-21) ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Heisenberg uncertainty   ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 ،‫א‬ principle

 K‫א‬

 Wquantum mechanics‫א‬  ،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

‫א‬   ‫א‬    ،   Schrodinger ‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 29 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 n = 1, 2, 3,...∞Wprinciple quantum number (n)  ‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WAzimuthal quantum number (ℓ)‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،ℓ‫א‬   ℓ =0

→

  ℓ =1

→

s ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

p ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ℓ =2

→

ℓ =3

→

d‫א‬‫א‬ f‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ℓ = n - 1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

 ℓ = n-1 = 0n = 1‫א‬

 Ks‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ℓ = 0‫א‬‫א‬  n = 3‫א‬  ℓ = n-1 = 3-1 = 2  Ks, p, d‫א‬‫א‬Kℓ = 0, 1, 2

 Wmagnetic quantum number (mℓ) ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K-ℓ,..., 0,..., +ℓmℓ = 2ℓ + 1mℓ ‫א‬‫א‬ mℓ = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5

ℓ = 2 

 K2, 1, 0, -1, -2W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬5‫א‬ Wspin quantum number (ms)‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،ms،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Kn, ℓ, mℓ , ms‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬H½ J½

‫א‬E2-3F‫א‬  K 2‫א‬ 

 Wn = 4‫א‬  

- 30 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-3F ms ±½ ±½ ±½

±½

mℓ 0 0 -1, 0, 1 0 -1, 0, 1 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 0 -1, 0, 1 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f

ℓ 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3

 n 1 2 3

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬n‫א‬ --------3s ----------3p---------3d  --------2s ----------2p

 --------1s WE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ --------4s

---------3d ----------3p -------------3s

 

----------2p --------2s --------1s 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4dW‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬s‫א‬‫א‬ J

K, y, zC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬p‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬d‫א‬‫א‬ J

 Kdps‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E2-6F‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

px py pz

xz dxy dxz dyz dz    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE2-6F 2

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬،n=2n=1‫א‬ .1

،Ems, mℓ, ℓ, nF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .2  KPauli exclusion principle‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ .3  KHund’s rule،‫א‬

‫א‬ f d p s ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ .4 .EnF‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 :‫א‬EF‫א‬Ef, d, p, sF‫א‬‫א‬ - 32 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

1s1

،?s?‫א‬‫א‬،EnF‫א‬ ‫א‬  ?1?‫א‬‫א‬



،            K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬

،paramagnetism and diamagnetism  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ W     ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬   ، parallel spin‫א‬

  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬     

 Kopposite spin‫א‬{‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   

،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Fferromagnetism‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

  KE    ‫א‬F ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   

‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 He‫א‬‫א‬

He: 1s2  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 ‫א‬  1, 0, 0, +½ W‫א‬K1, 0, 0, -½ : ‫א‬‫א‬ - 33 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬  K‫א‬       K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

  Li‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Li : 1s2 2s1

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬?s?‫א‬‫א‬،n=1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬?s?‫א‬‫א‬n=2‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Be‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Be : 1s2 2s2

 B‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ B : 1s2 2s2 2p1  E2pF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،E2sF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬ ،     ‫א‬‫א‬

  p‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K 6 p ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬

C‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

C : 1s2 2s2 2p2

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬p‫א‬‫א‬

N‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

N : 1s2 2s2 2p3

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬

 K

O‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 34 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

O : 1s2 2s2 2p4

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  Kp

F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ F : 1s2 2s2 2p5 Ne ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ne : 1s2 2s2 2p6

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،n=2،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   K ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ W ‫א‬

‫א‬ K‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬ n‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  K

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ، H+ ‫א‬   ‫א‬       ‫א‬ W1

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   E‫א‬F   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ،H-   

        ‫א‬   K‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬     ‫א‬    

 K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2

، B3+, Be2+, Li+, He، ‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬  W 3 

‫א‬   ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬W4

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬     3 ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

 NH3 ‫א‬N2‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬    K–NH2 ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W5

O2- ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬  

 KF-‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

  Na ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Na:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

- 36 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬Na+‫א‬،‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬          ‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Li+, Na+, W‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ،

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K K+, Cs+, Rb+     ‫א‬ ‫א‬  E  ‫א‬        F  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K

Na:

[Ne] 3s1

 Mg ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Mg : [Ne] 3s2

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،Mg2+   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 



‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KBe+, Mg+, Ca+, Sr+, Ba+W‫א‬

 Al‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1  

Al3+ ‫א‬‫א‬

Si‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Si : [Ne] 3s2 3p2

 P‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ P : [Ne] 3s2 3p3

  S ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ S : [Ne] 3s2 3p3

  Cl ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 37 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Cl : [Ne] 3s2 3p5

  Ar ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ar : [Ne] 3s2 3p6

 ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬     K‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬

   d ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،d, p, s W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K : [Ar] 3s2 3p6 4s1

‫א‬ ،‫א‬  ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 



‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 3d 4s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬

Ca‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ca : [Ar] 3s2 3p6 4s2

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



 K‫א‬3d4s‫א‬‫א‬

Sc‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Sc : [Ar] 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 3d ‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ d‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 4p ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ 10 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K? Kr ?‫א‬‫א‬  Kf‫א‬d‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 K21 × 1014 Hz‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.1

 K760 nm‫א‬‫ א‬.2

،3.5 × 10-10 J‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.3  K300 nm

 K‫א‬‫א‬10-20 kg‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.4

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.5  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.6

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.7

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.8

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.9

 K2.5 × 106 m/s3 × 10-10 g‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.10  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EℓF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.11  Kℓ= 5‫א‬‫א‬mℓ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.12

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.13

ms=1/2, mℓ=-1, ℓ=1, n=3 Ems=-1/2 , ℓ= 4 , n=1 Eℓ= 1 , n=1En = 4E

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K14 a- Na d- Cl

b- F e- B

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c- N f- He

 ‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  =3×108 / 21×1014 = 143 ×10-9 m = 143 nm -34

E = 6.625 ×10 ×3 ×10 / 760 ×10 = 26.15 ×10-20 J

-9

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.1

 W‫א‬ .2

 ‫א‬‫א‬ .3 E = nhc / n= E h c = 3.5 ×10-10 ×300 ×10-9 / 6.625 × 10-34 × 3 ×108 =52.8 ×107 photons

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .4 E = m c2 = 10-20 ×(3×108 )2 = 9×10-4 J

W = 109667.6 (1/n21 – 1/n22) =109667.6 ( 1/1 -1/ 42) = 102813.378 cm-1  = 1/ W = 97.26 nm W = 109667.6 (1/22 – 1/52) = 23020.196 cm-1 = 1/W = 434.21 nm

  .5

 En1 =2F .6

 En=5F .7

W = 10966.6 (1/52 -1/62) = 1340.381 cm-1 = 100 ×1340 0381 m-1  = 1/ × c = W × c =1340.381 ×3 ×108 ×102 =40.21 × 1012 Hz

 ‫א‬‫א‬ .8  En1 =1F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W = 1/ E=h = hc/ - 40 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

E = h c (W) = h c × R (1/n21 – 1/n22) =6.625 ×10-34 ×3×108 ×109667.6 × 100 (1/1 – 1/42 ) E = 2.09 ×10-18J

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .9

E = 2.18 ×10-18 (1/n21 – 1/n22) = 2.18 ×10-18 (1/1 – 1/∞) E = 2.18 ×10-18J

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

.10

= h / m v = 6.625 ×10-34 / 3 ×10-10 ×10-3 ×2.5 ×106 = 8.83 × 10-27 m ℓ = 3 ،n = ℓ Eℓ)‫א‬‫א‬ .11 0 ,1 ,2 ‫א‬‫א‬، 0, 1 , 2 ,….n-1‫א‬‫א‬

 p‫א‬ℓ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،sℓ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  d‫א‬ℓ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

mℓ = 2ℓ +1 mℓ = 2×5+1 = 11

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .12 

-ℓ , …..,0, …, +ℓ -5 ,-4 ,-3 ,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5

 ‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

.13 9 J32 J

 ‫א‬ J6 J   

a - F 1S2 2S2 2P5

b - Na 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1

 

- 41 -

   .14 F- ‫א‬‫א‬ 



Na+‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 c - N1S2 2S2 2P3 N3- , N5+ ‫א‬‫א‬

   

 d - Cl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5Cl-‫א‬‫א‬  

 

 3+

B ‫א‬‫א‬

e – B 1S2 2S2 2P1

He ‫א‬‫א‬

 f - He 1S2 2S2

- 42 -

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   J  K‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬  

- 43 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

WPeriodic Table of Elements‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬       ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ WDobereiner .1

      ،‫א‬      

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W،triads WNewlands .2

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ octaves ‫א‬  ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K، WMendeleyev-Mayer  .3

K ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ،   ‫א‬ 

،‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

E3-1F‫א‬K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬ R،R2O‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ ‫א‬  K   RO ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

‫א‬، RO4‫א‬‫א‬K R2O7‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 KWE3-1F Period I R2O 1 H=1 2 Li=7 3 Na=23 4 K= 39

II RO

III R2O3

IV RH4 RO2

Be=9.4 Mg=24 Ca=40

B=11 C=12 Al=27.3 Si=28 Ti=48

5 6

Cu=63 Rb=85

Zn=65 Sr=87

Y=88

7 8 9 10

Ag=108 Cd=112 Cs=133 Ba=137

11 12

Au=199 Hg=200

V RH3 R2O5

VI RH2 RO3

N=14 P=31 V=51

O=16 S=32 Cr=52

VII RH R2O7

VIII RO4

In=113 Di=138

F=19 Cl=35.5 Mn=55 Fe=55, Co=59 Ni=59, Cu=63 As=75 Se=78 Br=80 Zr=90 Nb=94 Mo=96 Ru=104, Rh=104 Sn=118 Sb=122 Te=125 I=127 Pd=106, Ce=140 Ag=108

Er=178

La=180 Ta=182 W=184

Tl=204

Pb=207 Bi=208 Th=231 U=240

Os=195, Ir=197 Pt=198, Au=199

W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.4

، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬  KE  ‫א‬ F ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬    KEF  E‫א‬F 

K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬،    B‫א‬ ،E‫א‬F A ‫א‬     ‫א‬

 E3-1F ‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ f ‫א‬‫א‬ d‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-1F  WA‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  EF   

‫א‬‫א‬WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

K‫א‬،n=3،‫א‬n=2،‫א‬‫א‬n=1،ns1W‫א‬ n=3    n=2  ns2np5  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

n=1  ، ns2np6 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬ ، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬، n=2،

K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

    E‫א‬ F ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KEH+, Li+, Na+, K+,…F‫א‬F ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KF-, Cl-, Br- , I- :،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WB‫א‬ J

E2A,3AF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬   - 46 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬ 3d‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،EScF

‫א‬  K3A ‫א‬   E‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬F  3d ‫א‬‫א‬ 

d-block d‫א‬‫א‬E6 J4F‫א‬‫א‬B‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ elements

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   1B ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ K‫א‬

Zn, 2B‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EAg+,Cu+,Au+F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  8 J6 K‫א‬EZn2+,Cd2+,Au+F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Hg, Cd,

Os, Ir, Pt،‫א‬‫א‬Ru, Rh, Pd‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Fe, Co, Ni8B‫א‬ Kf-block elements f‫א‬ d‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬

Ac‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬La‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K 14 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ f‫א‬

Kf ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

    ‫א‬     K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬

‫א‬،E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ n‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .1 KELiNaFLi‫א‬Na‫א‬

K‫א‬ ‫א‬    ، ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  .2

‫א‬ ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEn

K‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  .3   K  ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬  s > p > d > fW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 47 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

     ‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬     .4 K‫א‬‫א‬

WAtomic size‫א‬‫א‬

E3-2F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ A‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬        ‫א‬   ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬   

   ‫א‬  W ،‫א‬      ‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

 ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬     ،‫א‬ K‫א‬

Radius, A

0 0

Atomic Number

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-2F

 WIonization energy (I)‫א‬

K‫א‬ ‫א‬  En=1F ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 48 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬،‫א‬ 

 ‫א‬WK‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

Al(g) → Al (g) + e ; I1 = 580 kJ/mol Al+(g) → Al++(g) + e ; I2 = 1815 kJ/mol Al++(g) → Al+++(g) + e ; I3 = 2740 kJ/mol Al+++(g) → Al++++(g)+ e ; I4 = 11,600 kJ/mol

(3-1) (3-2) (3-3) (3-4)

‫א‬Al3+‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E3-2F‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  J2K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ J1

   ‫א‬  ‫א‬    J3 K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J4K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬ J5K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

Ionization Energy, kJ mol

-1

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0

Atomic Number

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-3F

- 49 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

  ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

  ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K  K‫א‬

WElectron affinity‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ X (g) + e → X (g)  (3-5) ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ E3-4F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

،Es ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .1

‫א‬  ‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ،E ‫א‬‫א‬ F ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 KE‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬،EBe, Mg, Ca, …F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ .2

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،p‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ .3

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

- 50 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Electron Affinity, kJ mol

-1

300 200 100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 0

Atom ic N um ber

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-4F WElectronegativity‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

PoulingK‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬bond energy‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ky-x‫א‬‫א‬x-y

 ‫א‬ x-y‫א‬‫א‬–‫א‬ x-y‫א‬Z‫א‬‫א‬  2DEy-y‫א‬‫א‬Hx-x‫א‬‫א‬FZ‫א‬x-y‫א‬‫א‬ 5 Electronegativity Electronegativity

4 3 2 1 0 0

Atomic Number

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE3-5F - 51 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬    ،4  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 



‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E3-5F‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -F‫א‬E+F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬،E

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W

 W

KCl-Cl ،H-Cl،Na+ Cl J ‫א‬  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬ ‫א‬ W‫ א‬.1

 ،B‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬1A2A ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬3A4A 5A ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

K‫א‬ J

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  J

K‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ J

K‫א‬

KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J - 52 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬ J

W‫ א‬.2

‫א‬  ‫א‬ E     F ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬   ،‫א‬    K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K‫א‬{W‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J K‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬ ‫א‬   E ‫א‬ F ‫א‬  ‫א‬    J

KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F W‫א‬ .3

‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

 ‫א‬   ‫א‬    K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

As3+ Sb3+ Al3+ F‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬AlO2-‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KEB3+Si4+  ‫א‬‫א‬KB4O72-‫א‬‫א‬AsO32- ‫א‬SbO2-

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬                   - 53 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫؟‬  J1

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬  J2

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J3

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J4

‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J5

C , Be, F, Li, H W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J6

N, O, B, Ne W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J7

N, O, F, Mg W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J8 F, N, Be, B W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J9

 H, Li, O, N, KW‫א‬‫א‬  J10

Li, Ca, He, S, C W‫א‬‫א‬  J11

Na, Ne, Al, P, Cl W‫א‬‫א‬  J12

O, Cl, Ar, N, H W‫א‬‫א‬  J13

K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J14

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬15  J15

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J16

- 54 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬         .1

  ‫א‬   ،‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  .2

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K

  ‫א‬   ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  .3

 W‫א‬،

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K    B ‫א‬ ‫א‬   A ‫א‬

 ‫א‬  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    1A,2A,3A,4A,5A,6A,7A  

1B,

2B,

3B,

4B,

5B,

6B,

7B,





‫א‬

 KB‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .4

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬

  ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫ א‬.5

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬  K

Li > Be > C >F > HW‫א‬ .6

Ne > N > O > BW‫א‬‫א‬ .7

F > O >N> Mg W‫א‬‫א‬ .8 F > N > B > Be ‫א‬‫א‬ .9

Li , K W‫א‬‫ א‬.10

He , S , C  - 55 -

W‫א‬‫ א‬.11

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Al W‫א‬‫ א‬.12 ArW‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.13

  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬    .14

K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

 {‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬2s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .15

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬2p‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ K+ , Na+ , Li +‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .16

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 56 -

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬                

- 57 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 WChemical bonding‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ CH3Cl ‫א‬ ،ECl-F ENa+F 

‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬ 

‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K     ‫א‬ ‫א‬

       ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   E‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  F        ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    KE‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  F ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WIonic bond‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 7A,6A‫א‬ 1A,2A,3A‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ 2Na + Cl2 → Al + 3F → 2Ca + O2 →

 WK‫א‬‫א‬

2NaCl AlF3 2CaO

(4-1) (4-2) (4-3)

‫א‬‫א‬، Na  Cl  , Al    (F  ) 3 , Ca 2 O 2 : ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،E‫א‬F ‫א‬     ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬F‫א‬





 1



  Na   Cl :  Na  : Cl :

Ne3S Ne3s 2 3p 5 Ne Ar

- 58 -

(4-4)

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Ne‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ClNa‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KAr

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K E=2.31 ×10-19 (q+ q- / r)  (4-5) q- q+nm ‫א‬‫א‬r(J)‫א‬‫א‬E  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W

K1. 81 Å  0.95 Å ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

r = 0.095 + 0.181 = 0.276 nm q+ = 1 , q- = -1 E = 2.31 × 10-19 q+ q- / r = 2.31×10-19 × (+1) × (-1) /0.276

 W‫א‬

= -8.37 × 10-19 J ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ Lattice Energy‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ Crystal lattice

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬

،Octahedral‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬   KE4-1F  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬

  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-1F

- 59 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬

 K‫א‬

  Li+(g) + F-(g) → LiF(s) +  W

 

E= K q+ q- / r

 W‫א‬ (4-6)

K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬ E

 Kq+ q-،‫א‬E ‫א‬‫א‬ NaCl MgCl MgO

-789 kJ/mol -2570 kJ/mol -3890 kJ/mol

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W

 WK‫א‬‫א‬

  r = 0.196 nm-1047k J/mol‫א‬‫א‬

r = 0.276 nm-789 kj/mol ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   250 kJ/mol  ‫א‬     ،LiF  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ W

154 kJ/mol‫א‬  ‫א‬ 161 kJ/molE  F‫א‬EF Li(s) F2 W‫א‬‫א‬LiF-328 kJ/mol‫א‬‫א‬

 K-617 kJ/mol،

 W‫א‬‫א‬LiF‫א‬W‫א‬ Li(s) → Li(g) + 161 kJ/mol

(i)

 Li(g) → Li+(g) + e + 520 kJ/mol  (ii)

 ½ F2(g) → F(g) + 77 kJ/mol 

  F(g) + e → F-(g) -328 kJ/mol F-(g) + Li+(g) → LiF(s)

+ E  

W J

W J

(iii) W J (iv)

(v) 

W‫א‬‫א‬ J

 W‫א‬ J

 W‫א‬Li(s)F2(g) LiF(s) ‫א‬‫א‬  Li(g) +½F(g) → LiF(s) -617 kJ/mol (vi)  K‫א‬E Ei-viF‫א‬ - 60 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬    ‫א‬ 

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E4-1F‫א‬K

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬d‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

1+ Li+ Na+

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-1F 2+ Be2+ Mg2+

K+

Ca2+

Kb+

Sr2+

Cs+

Be2+

3+  Al3+ 

3N3P3-

2O2S2-

1FCl-



Se2-

Br-



Te2-

I-



‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬d ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ، Cu+, Ag+, Au+ , Zn2+, Cd2+, Hg2+ , Ga3+, In3+ , Tl3+W‫א‬ 

Pseudo-noble gas ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ns2 np6 nd10 ‫א‬

، Fe3+ , Mn2+  d ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ Kconfiguration

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Cr3+ , Cr2+ , Fe2+ , Ni2+ , Co2+ , Cu2+ , Sn2+ , Pb2+  WIonic size‫א‬

  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬  

‫א‬ ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WK‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ Al3+ < Al , Ca2+ < Ca , Na+ < Na , Li+ < Li K S2- > S , O2- > O , Cl- > Cl , F- > F W

Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Cs+WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  KF- <Cl- <Br- < I-

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kisoelectronic ions‫א‬

،O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+ , Al3+W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬  

O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+W

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ .1

  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،‫א‬  ‫א‬   .2

K ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  .3

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬ .4

2Cl-   ،Ca2+  Cl-    CaCl2   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W

 K‫א‬

2Al3+ ‫א‬ SO42- Al3+  Al2(SO4)3‫א‬‫א‬ W

 K3SO42-

‫א‬ SO42-  NH4+  (NH4)2SO4 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W

 KSO42-2NH4+

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

K 2P3+ 3Mg2+‫א‬‫א‬،Mg2+  P3- ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W‫א‬

W

(4-7) 2P + 3Mg → Mg3P2  WPolyatomic ions‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ،  ، ‫א‬    K ‫א‬   ‫א‬

KE4-2F‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-2F ‫א‬

Ion

 ‫א‬

NH4+

Ammonium

H3O+

Hydronium

CO32-

Carbonate -

HCO3

Bicarbonate

NO2

Nitrite

NO3-

Nitrate

SO42-

Sulphate

S2-

Sulphite -

ClO4

 

 

 

 

 ‫א‬

 

Perchlorate -

 ‫א‬

CH3COO

Acetate

Cr2O72-

Dichromate

MnO4-

Permanganate

 

 ‫א‬  



    W covalent bond‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬           ‫א‬‫א‬  

pure covalent  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  O2 ‫א‬H2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ Cl2 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬     KHCl  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   polar covalent 

  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫؟‬‫א‬W

 K‫א‬‫א‬E4-2F‫א‬W‫א‬

- 63 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

  K  ‫א‬WE4-2F

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ، (Potential Energy= PE) ‫א‬‫א‬

   K‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   PE     ‫א‬  PE ‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ K0.74 Ǻ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K      ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬  H2     ‫א‬  K‫א‬  ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 WE4-3F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ H



H  H2

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-3F  H2 K‫א‬H2 ‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ KH-H H-F H-Cl

- 64 -

Cl-ClW‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬(-)(+)‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ H-H H+-FH--Li+ C+-OH+-CN+-OC+-NCl-Cl

 WK‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ polar molecule ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE4-4F ‫א‬

 ‫؟‬C-ON-O‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 K 3.6  3.02.6W O, N, C ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -F -F

H+ -F

-F

H+

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-4F

N-O ‫א‬K‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬

 C-O‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K3.0 – 2.6 = 1.0.‫ א‬C-O‫א‬، 3.6 - 3.0 = 0.6‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  KN-O ‫א‬‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬

- 65 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬  WE4-5F

LiF    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-5F

W Bond Energy‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  KE‫א‬F  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬  W

‫א‬    ‫א‬      CH4  ‫א‬  

‫א‬‫א‬ .1652 kJ

‫א‬‫א‬ C-H‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K1652 kJ

413 ‫א‬‫א‬K1652/4 = 413 kJ‫א‬‫א‬ C-H ‫א‬

      ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،C-H ‫א‬‫א‬   kJ 4-F‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

              - 66 -

 KE3

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Bond H-H C-C Cl-Cl N-N O-O N-Cl

E/kJ mol 432 347 239 160 146 200

-1

Bond H-C H-Cl H-N H-O N=N

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-3F E/kJ mol-1 413 431 386 459 418

Bond C=C CC N≡N O=O C-O C-N

E/kJ mol-1 614 839 941 495 358 705

  ‫א‬    ،‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   



 ‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬HCl‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ W‫א‬W‫א‬

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl(g) (4-8) ،Cl-Cl ‫א‬‫א‬     H-Cl ‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬



KH-H‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬ J‫א‬‫א‬ZEHF‫א‬‫א‬

H = ½ E (H-H) +½ E (Cl-Cl) – E (H-Cl) =½ (432+239) - 431 = -95.45 kJ

CH 2  CH 2 ( g )

(4-9)

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2‫א‬  H 2  CH 3CH 3( g ) (4-10)

FH-HC=C4(C-H)EFC-C6(C-H)‫א‬  KE

 EF‫א‬‫א‬HEF‫א‬‫א‬ZEHF‫א‬‫א‬ H = -6E(C-H) - E (C-C) + E (C=C) + 4E (C-H) + (H-H) (4-11) =-6×413 - 347 + 614 + 4× 413 + 432 = -127 kJ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ Single bond  ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬ triple bond ‫א‬double bond  K‫א‬H-H H-C

 ‫א‬C=C

C=O

C-OW

N=N

 ‫א‬ N≡N  C≡C 

- 67 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ N≡N < N=N < N-N C≡C < C=C < C-C

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WCovalent bonding theories‫א‬‫א‬

Molecular  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  EF  

  ‫א‬  Localized electron theory ‫א‬ ‫א‬ orbital theory   ،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  KValence bond theory ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬   Molecular orbital  ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬   K ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬   KAtomic orbital

  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  ،Lone Pairs ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KBonding pairs‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬K  ‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ Lewis    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kstructure  K‫א‬

W‫א‬ K

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

    ‫א‬‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  K ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

KOctet rule‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬KH:HH   H‫א‬W - 68 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬KCl:Cl Cl00Cl‫א‬W2

 KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬8‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W3 H 4H

H C

(4-12)

 W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W2 2H

H O H

 (4-13) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



4H 4W‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬ KNe ‫א‬‫א‬8Z

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W5

H + N

 (4-14)

 W‫א‬

 K‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

 KNe ‫א‬‫א‬،8Z6H2W‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K  WOdd-electron molecules‫א‬‫א‬ J

   ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ 

NO2 ‫א‬     NO ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬      WClO2‫א‬

 

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬         NO2  ‫א‬  



K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬  WIncomplete Octet‫א‬‫א‬ J

E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

    ‫א‬    electronic deficient  

 W‫א‬BF3 ‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬ F

 

 Wexpandedoctet‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬

 W I3- ‫א‬SF6‫א‬

 

 WResonance‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ Resonance forms‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬  EF‫א‬،‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KN-ON=OW،‫א‬

  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫؟‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

N O

O A

O B

 N O

 



 K‫א‬‫א‬WE4-6F

A ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ، ‫א‬‫א‬   KE4-6F ‫א‬ 

A‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KB ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E ‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ B 

KECF‫א‬N-O‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬E4-7F‫א‬ B  A‫א‬ W‫א‬  KC‫א‬

C C C C

C C

C C C

C A B    K‫א‬‫א‬WE4-7F

WGeometry of molecules‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

Valence Shell Electron Pair ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬KRepulsion

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ K ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K   .H-ClH-HE‫א‬FLinear  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 WTwo bonding pairs J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 Cl-Be-Cl‫א‬W

‫א‬‫א‬ E F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

 K Linear،180o‫א‬ Cl-Be-Cl ‫א‬‫א‬  

180o

Be Cl Cl  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-8F

W Three bonding pairs‫א‬ J

KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ BF3‫א‬ W

 Ktrigonal planar ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،120o‫א‬ 120o B F F F

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-9F

 WFour bonding pairs‫א‬ J

‫א‬  ‫א‬  E‫א‬F ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K109.5o ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬tetrahedral

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Eparaffins‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ CH4 ‫א‬W

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ - 72 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

109.5o C H

 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-10F

 :EH3F‫א‬ J

  ‫א‬   K     ‫א‬ 3  ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 tetradedral ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬، NH3‫א‬W

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Ktrigonal pyramid ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   E107o ‫א‬F  ‫א‬‫א‬ 

K

lone pair

CN H H

H 107o

 

NN H H

H    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-11F

   

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 :E‫א‬HF‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬   K     ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬، H2O  ‫א‬ W ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kbent 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E104o lone pair

O H

H 104.5o lone pair O

H  H  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-12F

W Hybridization of orbitals‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬C-H‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

‫؟‬K‫א‬2p‫א‬‫א‬2s‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬2p+2s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  F  ‫א‬  ،  ‫א‬‫א‬   Hybridization ‫א‬ 

‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   E‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬    K‫א‬ 

 KEF  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ J

،EσF‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

2p‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 2s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،sp3‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬       Ksp3 ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  

    K ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،

KEE4-13FF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬1s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 1 0 9 .5 o H y b rid iz a tio n

+ 3 2s

4sp3

1 0 9 .5 o C C H

H H HH

m e th a n e    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-13F

  CH 3CH 3 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬W

 ،EF ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬      W‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬sp3‫א‬‫א‬

 KE4-14F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-14F  W‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

K CH 2  CH 2  ‫א‬WKsp2‫א‬  E‫א‬

 K2s , 2px, 2py‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F sp z ‫א‬‫א‬         ‫א‬‫א‬ E‫א‬     ‫א‬ F

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 KEE4-15FF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

120o Hybridization

2s 3sp2 2p 4 1s

H H H

ethylene    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-15F

 W‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬ 2s‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬   sp ‫א‬‫א‬  K sp‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  2p ‫א‬  ‫א‬   . 2p z‫ و‬2p y ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ CH≡CH

‫א‬W

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KEE4-16F،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

180o Hybridization

2s 2sp 2p 2 1s

 

acetylene

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE4-16F                         - 78 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ، LiF  ‫א‬    ‫ א‬K1   K 0.6A ‫ و‬1.36A

 –‫א‬ – ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K2 K‫א‬–‫א‬ J‫א‬

K K  , H  , Na  , Li  ‫א‬‫א‬ K3 Na+ , Mg2+ , F- , O2-

‫א‬‫א‬ K4

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K5

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫؟‬ N-H C=O‫א‬‫א‬ K6 K2,12,533,5W‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K7

CH 2  CHCH 3  H 2  CH 3 CH 2 CH 3

614432413W،‫א‬،C-C  C=C H-H C-H‫א‬‫א‬  KEkJ/molF347

 PO4- , ClO2 , CH3-CH3 , NF3 W‫ א‬K8 H2S , BrF3 , POCl3 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K9

  BF3 , CO , O2 , N2 , NH3 , H2O W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K10

 CF3 CH≡CH‫א‬ CH3CH3‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K11 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K12

 

B- , Ar , C , Cl-W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

CCl4 , NO2 , H2NNH2 , CCl3H W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K13

K14

   

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 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬ K1

E=2.13 ×10-19 q+ q- / r  ‫א‬‫א‬q+ q- nm‫א‬‫א‬ r E = 2.31 × 10-19 ×(1) (-1) / (0.06 +0.136) = -11.79 × 10-19 J

 W‫א‬‫ א‬K2  

Ca NO3‫א‬‫א‬ Na2S‫א‬

(NH4)2SO4‫א‬

KHCO3‫א‬ CH3COONa‫א‬

K+ > Na+ > Li+ > H+W‫א‬‫ א‬K3

O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+W‫א‬‫ א‬K4

F- , O2- , N3- , Na+ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K5

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K6 N –H = 3.0 -2.1 =0.9 C = O = 3.5 -2.5 =1.0

 KC=O‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫ א‬K7  WE،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F

H = -8( C-H ) - 2( C-C ) + ( H-H ) + 6( C-H ) + (C-C) + (C=C) = -2(C-H) - (C-C) + ( H-H ) + ( C= C ) = -2×413- 347 + 432 + 614 = -127 kJ mol-1

 W  K8 - -

F F- N F

 

H H

H C C H H H

O P O

O Cl

 W‫א‬‫ א‬K9

- 80 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

O- P Cl

 

F Br F

H S H

 W‫א‬‫ א‬K10 F

O=O

N O H H HH H bent trigonal pyramidal

F B F

linear

linear linear trigonal planar   Ksp3‫א‬‫א‬sp‫א‬sp3‫א‬W‫א‬‫ א‬K11

 W‫א‬ K12  

N O

Cl O

CH3

 

CH3

S O

S O S

CH2

O O

CH2

O S

S O

Ar , Cl-W‫א‬‫ א‬K13

 W‫א‬ K14

 ‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬ J

 W‫א‬ J  W‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬W‫א‬ J

 

- 81 -

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬

- 57 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬   W‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬            

- 82 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

W‫א‬

–––،‫א‬

F‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬ K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬FE1:2‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W،‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬               ‫א‬ K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬،‫א‬،

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ 

  ،   ‫א‬     ‫א‬  K‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،  ‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬ 

   ،‫א‬     ‫א‬  K‫א‬     ،‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ K‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬

W‫א‬‫ א‬K1 W‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 ،‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫א‬     ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬    

K‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E5-1FKK  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 83 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

Wgas laws‫א‬‫א‬  :boyle’s law J

   EVF ‫א‬  ‫א‬    K‫א‬    

 W KET)‫א‬‫א‬EPF‫א‬

P  1/V

(T,n)

P = k1 /V

(T,n)

(5-1)  : (5-2)

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬k1    : Charles’ law J

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬،

 KEPF‫א‬ETF‫א‬‫א‬EVF‫א‬



V  T V = k2 T



(P, n) (P, n)

:

(5-3) (5-4)

 K‫א‬‫א‬k2 WAvogadro’s Hypothesis‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Vn V = K3 n

 WKEPF‫א‬ETF

(T,P)  (T,P)

(5-5) (5-5)

 W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬k3 P  T  (V,n ) (5-7)  (T,V) (5-8) Pn  (P ,V) (5-9) T n :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (5-10) PV = n R T ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬R

،ideal gas law‫א‬‫א‬ ،  ،universal gas law ‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

 ‫א‬  F ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬  

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬ - 84 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-1F ‫א‬

‫א‬

atm mm Hg

Atmosphere Millimeter Hg

L cm3 K o C mol

Liter Cubic centimeter Kelvin Centigrade mole

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Pressure

 ‫א‬

Volume

 ‫א‬

Temperature

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Number of moles

‫א‬

 :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬R‫א‬

R = PV/nT (5-11) Z F ‫א‬ ‫א‬  22.414 L  ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

 :K‫א‬‫א‬E273.16 K‫א‬،1atm

R = (1×22.414 )/(1×273.16) = 0.082 atm L /K mol

(5-12)  WDalton’s law‫א‬ J

‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،     ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   

      ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ، H2 N2 O2‫א‬  K‫א‬

 WEPtF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬، P(H2) P(N2) P(O2)W،

Pt = P(H2) + P(N2) + P(O2) F‫א‬‫א‬(5-10)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬P∞ n PO2 = {(nO2) / (nO2 + nN2 + nH2)} Pt

 WE‫א‬

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬  WGraham’s law of diffusion‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ 

 WK‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 85 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 

 W

(5-15) C ∞ 1/d  W‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬C‫א‬d 1/2

d = w/V n = w /M

(5-16) (5-17)

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬M‫א‬w PV =

(w/M)RT

d = (P/RT) M C  1/M1/2

(5-18)

 :‫א‬(5-16),(5-18)‫א‬ (5-19)

 W‫א‬(5-19),(5-15)‫א‬ (5-20)

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W B ‫ و‬A

CA/CB = (MB/MA)1/2 = (dB/dA)1/2 = tB/tA (5-21)  ،‫א‬ B  A‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ tB tA

  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    K ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬tB tA‫א‬‫א‬  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

،‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  

 ، ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

       K   ‫א‬       ‫א‬ 

  ‫א‬ ،van der Waal   ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬   

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬ 

K‫א‬‫א‬    ،‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬     W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .1  

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .2 - 86 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬ .3

 K‫א‬‫א‬ .4 W J

   ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬

 ،(V- nb)  ‫א‬ V ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K K‫א‬EF b ‫א‬n

        ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W‫א‬ ‫א‬

   E‫א‬F ‫א‬ ‫א‬   K‫א‬   ‫א‬    

 P’  ،P + P’  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    

‫א‬      ‫א‬   ‫א‬  K‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

P’  (n/V) (n/v) P’ = a n2/V2

(5-22) (5-23)

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬a

 WE‫א‬F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

PV = nRT

(5-24)

(P+ an2/V2) (V – nb) = nRT

 WE‫א‬F‫א‬ (5-25)

 K(5-24) ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ،   (5-25) ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،b a ‫א‬،

K‫א‬‫א‬

  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

critical  ‫א‬     ‫א‬   ‫א‬  

‫א‬  critical pressure, Pc, ‫א‬‫א‬،temperature, tc, - 87 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ critical volume, Vc, ‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Vv Pc Tc  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬E‫א‬ ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬ F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE

‫א‬ L‫א‬ atm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W

‫א‬‫א‬ ،oC K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ mol

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬‫ א‬K2 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ KE‫א‬F

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬0‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬         ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬

KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬  WViscosity ‫א‬ J

‫א‬ ‫א‬     K‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

‫א‬L1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Viscosity coefficient ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K1‫א‬

Kpoise ‫א‬‫א‬(

=fℓ/Av (5-26) 2 ‫א‬v cm A‫א‬cmℓ‫א‬dyne‫א‬f

W‫א‬Kcm/s

- 88 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬ .1

=r Pt/8ℓV (5-27) r (cm)t (s)‫א‬‫א‬V (cm3)

KP (dyne cm-2)‫א‬ℓ (cm) W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .2

‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬     

W‫א‬‫א‬

= d1 t1 / d2 t2 (5-28)  t2 t1،‫א‬ d2 d1 ،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  1 

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  Wsurface tension ()‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  K‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  Kdyne/cm‫א‬‫א‬  ، 1‫א‬

  ‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬ E‫א‬‫א‬F

K‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬   E3-1F     ،contact angle ( ‫א‬ ‫א‬     - 89 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Gas

 

Gas

Liquid  Solid

 Liquid Solid

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-1F

:‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

        KE3-2F ‫א‬   ، capillary rise method

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-2F

‫א‬C‫א‬‫א‬ZEF1F‫א‬‫א‬

F1 = 2  r  cos (5-29)

‫א‬ZEF2F‫א‬

F2 =  r2 h d g (5-30) K‫א‬g ‫א‬d  ‫א‬‫א‬h ‫א‬‫א‬r

‫א‬Z‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬

K≈0 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  = ½rhdg

(5-31)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E‫א‬ –‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬ - 90 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  W ‫א‬‫א‬   J

K

،‫א‬    ‫א‬   EF    ‫א‬   W ‫א‬  J

‫א‬‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬   K‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،Latent heat of boiling ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬       ‫א‬  W ‫א‬  J  ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫ א‬.3   ،‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    ،‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Miller ، ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Kindices

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.1

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .‫א‬   K‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.2

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

.‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬tetrahedral ‫א‬

W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.3

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

.‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

W‫א‬ .4

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .5

‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

  ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬    

‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   K    ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬  ‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F W‫א‬‫א‬ .6

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ 

‫א‬         ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬     ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE3-3F

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 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WE5-3F K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

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 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬

0  735 24‫א‬ K{793‫א‬  .1

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ، ‫א‬ 38,734   ، 500 ‫א‬ .2

K‫א‬ 39,135  24‫א‬ 1‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K 0,893   80 ‫א‬     0,452  ‫א‬    .3

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ،‫א‬ 10‫א‬ ‫א‬ 5‫א‬‫א‬  .4

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K6‫א‬9‫א‬‫א‬

27‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.5

27‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬  K325,6‫א‬‫א‬،

‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬  .6

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬ ، 8,5 3‫א‬   K‫א‬‫א‬،2

  ، 3,5 ‫א‬ 85‫א‬‫ א‬.7

 Ka= 0.15 L3 atm mol-2 , b= 0.012 Lmol-1W‫א‬‫א‬

،20‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .8

1,000‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،4‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬،3‫א‬0,792

  0,2‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.9

 K3‫א‬1,017‫א‬،7,3‫א‬

 

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 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K  PV / T = PoVo /To  :E P=1 atm, T= 273K)‫א‬‫א‬Po,Vo, To‫א‬‫א‬P,V, T V = (PoVo / To) (T / P) = ( 735 /760 × 0.763) / ( 24 +273 ) × 273/1 = 0.678 L

  ‫א‬‫א‬ K

PV = nRT = W/M RT W = W2 –W1 = 39.313 -38.7340 = 0.579 g

M = W /PVRT = 0.579 / 1×0.5 × 0.082 ×( 24 + 273 ) = 28.2 g

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K

PV / T = PV /T V = PV / T * T /P = 0.893 × 0.452 ×273 / 297 × 1 = 0.371 L P1V1 = n1RT‫א‬ K P2V2 = n2RT

 

P1V1 + P2V2 =(n1 +n2 ) RT P ( V1 +V2 ) = (n1 +n2 ) RT

 ‫א‬

 ،‫א‬‫א‬

P ( V1 +V2 ) = P1V1 + P2V2 P = P1V1 + P2V2 / (V1 +V2 ) = 5× 9 + 10 ×6 / (5+10) = 7.0atm

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K PV = n RT

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ P = P(H2) + P(H2O) 1atm = P(H2) + 27/760 P(H2) = 1- 27 /760 = 0.964 atm n = PH2V / RT = 0.964 × 0.0256 / 0.082 × 300 = 0.001 mol - 95 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

110

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K ( MMethan / MHydrogen )1/2 = t2 /t1 MMethan = (t2 /t1)2 × MHydrogen = ( 8.5 /3 ) × 2 = 16 g 2

  K

(P +an /v ) ( V- nb ) = nRT P = ( nRT/ V –nb) - (an2 /v2) = [ 2×0.08 ×358 / (3.5 -2 ×0.12) ] - [ 15 × 22 / (3.5)2] = 13.11 atm

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K

η /ηwater = d t / (d t ) Water = ηwater d t / dWater t Water = 0.010002 × 0.792 × 20 / 1.0000 × 480 = 0.000307 poise

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬K

 = ½rhdg = 0.5 × 0.02 × 7.3 × 1.017 × 980 = 72.76 dyne/cm

     

 

- 96 -

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬                  

- 97 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

WChemical equilibrium‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ aA + bB yY + zZ (6-1)   a,b,y,z  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،‫א‬‫א‬ Y,Z ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  A,B ‫א‬‫א‬  

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،‫א‬K‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ،VfE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WVbE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

Vf = Kf [A]a [B]b Vb = Kb [Y]y [Z]z

(6-2) (6-3)

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E6-3, 6-2F‫א‬

 K?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬?‫א‬ Vf = Vb W‫א‬‫א‬،E6-1F‫א‬‫א‬

K = Kf/Kb = [Y]y [Z]z…./[A]a [B]z (6-4)  WKK‫א‬‫א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WK → ∞ ‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Kirreversible reaction‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ aB + bB → yY

 :‫א‬‫א‬

+zZ

(6-5) ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬WK = 0 ‫א‬K‫א‬ K

 W‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،

aA + bB

← yY + zZ

(6-6)

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬    ‫א‬  

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

yY + zZ → aA + bB

- 98 -

(6-7)

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،E∞F‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 KE6-1F‫א‬،reversible reaction‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E6-1F‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬      ‫א‬ concentration (C)    ‫א‬ 

‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،[] ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ KKC‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Kpartial pressure (P)  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

P/RT = 1/V = C

(6-8)  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬V  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬T‫א‬‫א‬R

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WKP‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬E6-1F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KP =PyY Pzz / PaA PbB (6-9) ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬KY,Z,A,B‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ PY,PZ,PA,PB

 W‫א‬E6-4F‫א‬K(6-8)‫א‬‫א‬،KCKP

(PY / RT)y (PZ/RT)z /(PA /RT)a (PB/RT)b (6-10) {PyY PzZ / PAa PbB } {1/RT}(y+z) –(a+b) (6-11) (y+z) –(a+b) KP {1/RT} (6-12) n Kc (RT) (6-13)    ‫א‬ ‫א‬   n ‫א‬  Kn = (y+z) - (a+b)  KC = = = KP =

 ‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬

 WLe Chatelier Principal

  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬     E ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬F   ‫א‬?

 K?‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

     ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

 F‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬،E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 99 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

A + B

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

C + heat heat

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ A + B + heat

heat

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ N2(g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 + 22 kcal

WNH3‫א‬W1

(6-14)

KNH3‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E‫א‬F‫א‬ ،NH3   N2 + 3H2 ‫א‬‫א‬

 KNH3‫א‬‫א‬، WNO‫א‬W2

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO -43.2kcal (6-15) NO ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ W‫א‬‫א‬ K

 ‫א‬Wn = 0Ei

I2(g) + H2(g) ↔ 2HI(g) a - x b-x 2x

(6-16)

‫א‬‫א‬KH2I2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬a,bHI‫א‬‫א‬x  WE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

P(H2) = {(b-x)/(a+b)} Pt P(I2) = {(a-x)/(a+ b)} Pt P(HI) = {2x /(a+b)} Pt

(6-17) (6-18) (6-19)

 W‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ a - x + b-x +2x = a+b

 W‫א‬KP - 100 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KP = P2(HI) / P(I2) P(H2)

(6-20)  W PHI, PI2, PHI(6-20)

KP = 4x2 / (a-x)(b-x)

(6-21)

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

NO2‫א‬Wn ≠ 0Eii

N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g) a-x 2x  PN2O2 = { (a - x ) / (a+x) } Pt PNO2 = {2x / (a+x) } pt Kp = p2NO2 / PN2O4

(6-22)

(6-23) (6-24) (6-25)

 W

KP = 4x2 Pt /{(a +x) (a-x)}

(6-26)

NO2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 KKP‫א‬

 ‫א‬WW‫א‬ K

CH3COOH + C2H5OH } CH3COOC2H5 + H2O a-x /V b-x/V x/V x/V KC = [CH3COOC2H5][H2O]/[CH3COOH][C2H5OH] = x2/V2 /(a-x/V) (b-x/V) = x2 /(a-x)(b-x)

(6-27)

(6-28) (6-29) (6-30)

 K‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 WHeterogeneous reactions‫א‬‫ א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬WK‫א‬‫א‬

CaCO3(s) } CaO(s) +CO2(g)

(6-31)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W Kp = P(CaO) P(CO2) /P(Ca CO3)

 K  (6-32)

 W‫א‬‫א‬

KP = P(CO2)

(6-33)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬CaCO3

- 101 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 :‫א‬KPKC‫א‬ J1

PCl5(g) } PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) +15 kcal

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WKC‫א‬ J2

N2(g) + 3H2(g) } 2NH3(g)  KKP = 1.44×10-5‫א‬،500 K‫א‬

9.3 cm3H28.1cm3،‫א‬‫א‬ 450 K ‫א‬ J3

 KKPKC‫א‬K13.6 cm3‫א‬HI‫א‬

Na2SO4.10H2O(s) } Na2SO4(g) +10H2O(g)

  J4

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 4×10-26. atm KP

 K‫؟‬‫א‬،6 mm Hg‫א‬            

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 EFE‫א‬F‫א‬‫ א‬ J1

KP = KC RT ،Δn = 2-1 =1 KP = KC (RT)Δn ‫א‬

KP = PPCl3 PCl2 / PPCl5 KC =KP /RT = PPCl3 PCl2 / RT PPCl5  15 kcal‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

n= 2-4 = -2،‫א‬  J2

KP = KC (RT)Δn KC = KP (RT)-Δn = 1.44 × 10-5(0.082 ×500)-(-2) = 0.0242

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J3 KC = KP

KP =4x /( a- x) ( b-x)  ‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ab a = 8.0cm3 b = 9.3cm3 x = 13.5/2 = 6.6cm3 KC = 4×6.6 / (8.1 - 6.6 )(9.3 - 6.6) =6.52 KP = 6.52

 ‫א‬‫א‬  J4

n =10- 0 =10 Kp =P10(H2O) P(H2O) = ( 4×10-25)0.1 = 0.00363 atm = 0.00363 / 760 = 4.8 mmHg ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬   6 mm Hg‫א‬



4.8 mm Hg‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K

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 

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬

- 95 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

   K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬    W‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J    K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬          

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

W Electrolytes ‫א‬

    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬

KElectrolysis‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K ‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬‫א‬      K‫א‬  ions      ‫א‬‫א‬ Kanions،cations،‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،cathode‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ KE7-1F‫א‬،anode‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ anode

cathode

cation anion

   K‫א‬‫א‬WE7-1F  W Electrolytic conductance‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  KE F ‫א‬

 ‫א‬   ،‫א‬    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،    ،Scm-1    conductivity () ‫א‬  K

1cm2‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F ‫א‬‫א‬

 ، ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ERF ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  K1cm     W‫א‬‫א‬

R=/ℓA (7-1)  0cm2‫א‬ A cm ‫א‬ ℓ   cm‫א‬‫א‬ 

 ،   ‫א‬     0  = 1/  W  ‫א‬  W‫א‬،equivalent conductance () ‫א‬‫א‬   × 1000/ C

(7

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ،S cm2 equi-1‫א‬‫א‬  equivalent /L ‫א‬ C

  K‫א‬  ‫א‬       ‫א‬ ‫א‬  WE‫א‬FC‫א‬،C

 W J1

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،‫א‬       

‫א‬‫א‬∞K∞‫א‬،‫א‬

 W‫א‬،∞‫א‬

∞ = ∞ + ∞

(7-3)

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ∞ ∞   W‫א‬KCl ∞W

∞ (KCl) = ∞ (K+) + ∞ (Cl-) (7-4)  WNa2SO4∞W2 ∞ (Na2SO2) = ∞ (Na+) + ∞ (SO42-)

(7-5)

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W

 KE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬  W J2

‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ 

 K‫א‬‫א‬   ∞      K‫א‬   ‫א‬   KEαF‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

، α → 1 ،‫א‬ E‫א‬F 

K‫א‬   ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K     α  ‫א‬ 

‫א‬0‫א‬‫א‬  ،  

 KNH3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  WIonic product of water‫א‬

H2O } H + OH 1-α αα

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  (7-6)

- 106 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬، EαF ‫א‬‫א‬  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬0E1-αF K = [H ] [OH ] / [ H2O] = α2 /1-α (7-7)  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬[H2O] K [H2O] =Kw = [H+] [OH-] = α2   (7-8) ‫א‬    E ‫א‬F ‫א‬   α   K‫א‬    Kw  +

 W،‫א‬ α = ∞  (7-9) -7 2 -1 97.2×10 S cm equi ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ،‫א‬‫א‬           ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K18 oC  ‫א‬

KE7-9F‫א‬αK∞= 540 S cm2 equi-1 ،E7-3F‫א‬

‫א‬ 10-14 Kw  ‫א‬ Kα = 10-7، -14

+ 2

 :‫א‬KE7-8F

- 2

Kw = 10 = [H ] [OH ] = [H ] = [OH ] (7-11) + -7 ‫א‬‫א‬ [H ] >10 E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  0[H+] <10-7E‫א‬ F

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬pHKEpHF‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬ pH = -log [H+] (7-12)    ‫א‬ K‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

 K‫א‬pH =7،pH>7 ،pH<7

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W 

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬F

 K

 W‫א‬.0.0001M HClpH‫א‬W1 pH = -log 10 = 4 (7-13)  ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ -4

 0‫א‬‫א‬

- 107 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 :‫א‬KOH‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K0.01M KOHpH‫ א‬W2 pH = -log [H+] =-log ( Kw/ [OH-] )  (7-14) = -log 10-14 /10-2 =12

 W‫א‬‫א‬ ??‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬acid 

،‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ baseKproton donor

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ،proton acceptor??‫א‬       ‫א‬    alkalinity ‫א‬ KE  F ‫א‬ 

‫א‬ E    F ‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬   ‫א‬ 

EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K‫א‬ ‫א‬،EαF‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬EF‫א‬

 KE7-1F

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬α‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬Glass electrode‫א‬

 W0.01N ‫א‬WE7-1F

 ‫א‬

 EαF‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 

0.93

HCl‫א‬

 

0.96

H2SO4‫א‬

 

0.126

CH3COOH‫א‬

 

0.001

HCN‫א‬

WOstwald’s dilution law‫א‬‫א‬

Mono protic acids‫א‬‫א‬ J

،HA‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EVF +

HA → H + A 1-α/V α/V α/V + Ka = [H ] [A ]/ [HA] = (α/V) (α/V)/(1-α)/V - 108 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

(7-15)

(7-16) (7-17)

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

Ka = α2 /(1-α) V Ka = α2C / (1-α)

(7-18) (7-19)

E7-18F‫א‬KL‫א‬ C‫א‬ Ka

EV‫א‬F‫א‬α‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ E7-16FE7-18F‫א‬ Eα << 1F‫א‬‫א‬ K Ka Ka= α2/V = α2C

(7-20)

α = (Ka /C )1/2

(7-21)

 W

 ‫א‬α

 WαAαB،B,A

αA /αB = [(Ka)A /(Ka )B]1/2

(7-22)

 K‫א‬ Ka‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬V‫א‬BOH‫א‬ BOH → B+ + OH 1-α/V α/V α/V + Kb = [B ] [OH ] / [BOH] = (α/V) (α/V) / (1-α/ V) Kb = α2 / (1-α ) V Kb = α2 C/ (1-α )

(7-23)

(7-24) (7-25) (7-26) (7-27)  0‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E7-27FE7-26F‫א‬  Poly-protic acids‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

H3PO4‫א‬،H2SO4‫א‬K‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬KK‫א‬  +

 ‫א‬W.‫א‬

H3PO4 > H + H2PO4 K1 = [H+ ] [ H2PO4-] / [ H3PO4]

H2PO4- } H+ + HPO42K2 = [H+ ] [ H2PO42-] / [ H2PO4-] 2-

HPO4 } H + PO

(7-28) (7-29) 

(7-30) (7-31) (7-32)

- 109 -

  :  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

K3 = [H+] [ PO43-] / [HPO2-4] K1 = 7.6×10

-3

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

, K2 = 6.2 ×10-8 ,

K3 = 10-12

‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

KK3,K2‫א‬K1K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬E7-19F‫א‬E7-29F‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

[H+ ] = α C = (Ka C)1/2 (7-34) K0.1M‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW‫א‬  ‫א‬E7-34F‫א‬،Ka= K1

[H+] = (7.6 × 10-3 × 0.1) 1/2 = 0.027 g-ion /L   pH =-log (0.027) = 1.5 WpH ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  Ca(OH)2 ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،KAl(OH)3‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬ WHydrolysis of Salts‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬  E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬ JW

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

CH3 COONa + HOH } CH3COOH + NaOH -



CH3COOH } CH3COO +H NaOH → Na+ + OH -

- 110 -

(7-35)

(7-36) (7-37)

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬OH-‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬،H+‫א‬OH-‫א‬0‫א‬

KpH > 7‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬F‫א‬  ‫א‬W2

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

NH4Cl + HOH } NH4OH + HCl +

HCl → H + Cl NH4 OH } NH+4 + OH-

(7-38)

(7-39) (7-40)

: ‫א‬

‫א‬ OH- ‫א‬‫א‬،H+ ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



 KpH < 7،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  CH3 COONa ‫א‬W

Kh = [CH3COOH] [NaOH] / [CH3COONa] [H2O] (7-41) ‫א‬KHydrolysis constant‫א‬ Kh  KE7-35F‫א‬ Kh = [CH3COOH] [OH-] / [CH3COO-] [H2O]

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

(7-42)  WK‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،[OH ]=[NaOH]‫א‬‫א‬ -

     ‫א‬ 0‫א‬  ‫א‬  ،[CH3COONa] =  [ CH3COO-]

 K‫א‬

Kh = [ NH4 OH][HCl] / [ NH4Cl] [H2O]

 NH4Cl‫א‬W (7-43)

 ‫א‬

Kh = [ NH4 OH] [H+] / [ NH4Cl] [H2O] (7-44) ،V‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬α 

 K‫א‬E7-42, 7-44‫א‬F Kh

K = (α/V) (α/V) / (1-α/V) = α2 / (1-α)V K = α2 C / (1-α )

(7-45) (7-46) (7-47)

- 111 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 KKhE7-47‫א‬F

 W‫א‬pH pH      ‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬ pH   ‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬E7-42F‫א‬W‫א‬ J

Kh = [CH3COOH] [OH-] / [CH3COO-] = [CH3COOH] Kw / [CH3COO-] [H+] (7-48) Kh = Kw / Ka  Kh ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬Kw = [H+ ] [OH-]:‫א‬

‫א‬     KKa  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  Kw ‫א‬    -

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Kh = [CH3COOH] [OH ] /[CH3COO ] = [OH-] / [CH3COO-] = Kw / [H2]2 [CH3COO-] (7-49)  WE7-49FE7-48F‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬ [H+] = (Kw/Ka / [CH3COO-])1/2 = (Kw Ka / [ salt] )1/2

(7-50) (7-51)

pH = -log [H+] = -log ( kw ka / [salt ])1/2

(7-52)

 ‫א‬

EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  JW‫א‬  J +

pH = -log [H ] = -log (kw [salt] /kb )

1/2

 :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (7-53)

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E‫א‬H‫א‬

CH3COOH } CH3COO- + H+ (7-54) + CH3COONa → CH3COO + Na (7-55)  KKa ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ka = [CH3COO-] [ H+] / [CH3COOH] - 112 -

(7-56)

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬ H+  CH3COO-  Ka ‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬KCH3COO-  CH3COONa‫א‬ ‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬     ،‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬KE‫א‬CH3COO- F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  K

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW1‫א‬  KE‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ JW2‫א‬

 K‫؟‬‫א‬

 F         ‫א‬   ،   JW ‫א‬

 KE‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ W Buffer solutions‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ K‫א‬  

 K‫א‬‫א‬  

 W

 ECH3COOHHCH3COONaF‫א‬‫א‬ .1

E NH4 OH + NH4Cl F‫א‬‫א‬ .2

EH3PO3 + Na2B2O7F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ .3

EH2S + Na2SF‫א‬H‫א‬ .4

K‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬   



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ K‫א‬ pH‫א‬ 

KpH‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 113 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

CO2‫א‬ pH   HCO3-   ، pH‫א‬

 K‫א‬

 ‫؟‬‫א‬‫א‬

 HCl     K‫א‬  ‫א‬      

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ،‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ،‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   KpH‫א‬K

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ OH- NaOH

 ‫א‬ ،H3COO- ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬  OH-

‫א‬   ‫א‬     ‫א‬ ‫א‬      ‫א‬    K‫א‬ 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W Henderson’s equation‫א‬

 W‫א‬ ‫א‬ Ka = [CH3COO-] [H+ ] / [CH3COOH](7-57) [H+] = ka [CH3COOH] / [CH3COO-] [H+ ] = ka [acid] / [salt]

(7-58)

 W‫א‬‫א‬

(7-59)

 W‫א‬‫א‬

pH = pka - log [Acid] /[Salt] (7-60) K(7-60)‫א‬K‫א‬-logp‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

pH = pkw - pkb + log [base]/[salt] (7-61)  KNH4Cl+ NH4 OH ‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 WSolubility of Electrolytes‫א‬

‫א‬  AgCl‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

، g-ion/L‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬KCuS ‫א‬  BaSO4

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬    K?S? ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،   ‫א‬ 

 :‫א‬

- 114 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

AgCl(s) } AgCl(aq) → Ag+ + Cl+ (7-62)  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ AgCl(aq)‫א‬‫א‬ AgCl(s)

Solubility product ‫א‬‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬  KCl-  Ag+ ‫א‬ Ks

KKs‫א‬

= [AgCl(aq) ] / [AgCl(s)] = [Ag+] [ Cl-] = S2

(7-63) (7-64) Ks (7-65) 0‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ،[AgCl(s)] =1

 0Ks‫א‬‫א‬Cl -Ag+‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬"S"

 ‫؟‬‫א‬Mg(OH)2Ks‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW1

Mg(OH)2 } Mg2+ + 2OH(7-66) 2+ - 2 2 3 Ks = [Mg ] [OH ] = S . (2S) = 4S (7-67)  ‫؟‬Ca3(PO4)2 Ks‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ JW2 Ca3(po4)2 } 3Ca2+ + 2PO3-4 Ks = [Ca2+]3 [PO3-4]2 = (3S)3 . (2S)2 = 108 S5

(7-68) (7-69) (7-70)  W Salting out‫א‬‫א‬

    ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬ 

   ‫א‬     K‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  

 0S = 10-5g-ion/L25‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 K‫א‬0.1M

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

Ks = [Ag ] [Cl ] (7-71) + 2 - 2 -5 2 -10 = [Ag ] =[Cl ] = (10 ) =10 (7-73) :‫א‬0.1 M NaCl Ks = [Ag+] × 0.1 [Ag+] = 10-10 /10-1 = 10-9 g-ion /l

(7-74) (7-75)

EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K0.1M NaCl

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬‫א‬

    ‫א‬     ‫א‬    ،‫א‬  - 115 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬F‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

 KE‫א‬

W Theory of acid-base indicators‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



    K‫א‬      ‫א‬    ،

،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  0‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ K‫א‬

    ،‫א‬  ‫א‬   10 ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬   K0.1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ph. ph.‫א‬W

W‫א‬

HIn → In- + H+

‫א‬

(7-76)





 K‫א‬‫א‬In- ‫א‬‫א‬HIn 

 :E7-59‫א‬F

pH = pKa + log[In]/[HIn] (7-77) ‫א‬  pH=8.5Kpka = 9.5‫א‬ Ka 

pH = ‫א‬K‫א‬‫א‬ ،0.1  [In]/[HIn]‫א‬ ph. K ‫א‬،10[In] /[HIn]10.5

‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ،pH 8.5 -10.5 ‫א‬ ‫א‬        ph.

K(Ka ± 1)‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   (Ka ± 1)‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬K‫א‬

  ‫א‬  K‫א‬   pH ≠ 7  ،‫א‬‫א‬      ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ،pH = 3-5 ‫א‬     ،   ‫א‬ pH = ‫א‬،‫א‬،(M.O.)

 ‫א‬ ، pH = 7         ‫א‬ ‫א‬ K 8-10

KM.O.ph .ph. - 116 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

WAcid – base ( alkali) titrationE‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬

F‫א‬EF

Ktitration ‫א‬     ‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬ E

 conical flask،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬ Purette Pipette

  Conical flask  K‫א‬‫א‬WE7-2F

‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   KE7-2F  ،M.O.  ph. ph.  ‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،E50Fburette‫א‬

 K‫א‬    ‫א‬  ‫א‬    pipette  ‫א‬   ‫א‬  K  ‫א‬      ‫א‬    ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬

      K ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬    KE7-3F ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

F ‫א‬ ‫א‬  (strong acid vs strong base)        .1  K‫א‬ M.O. ph. ph.EE.P. ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ (week acid vs strong base)  .2  KM.O.ph. Ph.‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ph. ph.

‫א‬‫א‬ (strong acid vs week base)  .3  KM.O. ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،ph.ph.M.O. - 117 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

   pHK(week acid vs week base)  .4

3  2   ‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬    ‫א‬       .‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 

 K‫א‬‫א‬WE7-3F

- 118 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬0.5 cm2‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.1

 K700 ،2.5 cm

 K0.037 S cm-1‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬،0.1M KCl‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.2  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.3

Kb = 10-5،0. 1NH4OH J10-3M HCl J

0.01M H2SO4 J Ka = 10-5 ،0.1CH3COOH–

،0.5M CH3COONa    0.1M CH3COOH    ‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫ א‬.4  KKa = 10-5

3×10-2g/L‫א‬،Ag2CrO4‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.5

 10-5‫א‬ka،0.1M‫א‬‫ א‬.6  ka0.1M‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.7 K10-5‫א‬

Kb،0.02M NH4OH0.1NH4Cl‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬.8

 K10-5‫א‬‫א‬

     

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 ρ‫א‬‫א‬κ (Scm-1)‫א‬‫ א‬ J1

κ =1/ρ = ℓ /R A K(cm2)‫א‬AEcmF‫א‬ℓ EΩ)‫א‬ R κ = 2.5/700×0.5 = 7.14 mS cm-1

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬‫ א‬ J2

= κ × 1000 /C (Scm-1)‫א‬κ(g- equi L-1)‫א‬C

= 0.037 × 10000/ 1000= 0.37 cm2 S equi-1

 W‫א‬‫ א‬ J3  HCl J

pH = -log [ H+] = -log [a cid] = -log [0.001] = 3 Kb = 2CNH4OH J

 ‫א‬Kb‫א‬C‫א‬

 = ( Kb / c)1/2 = ( 10-5 /0.1)1/2 = 0.01  [OH-] = C ‫א‬ [OH-] =0.01 × 0.1 =0.001 Kw =[OH-] [ H+] WKw‫א‬

[ H+] = Kw / [OH-] = 10-14/ 10-3 =10-11 pH = -log 10-11 =11

 = (Ka /c)1/2 = (10-5 / 10-1)1/2 [ H+] =  C = 0.01 × 0.1 =0.001 pH = -log [ H+] = -log [ 10-3] = 3

 Ka = 2C‫א‬E

 W‫א‬‫א‬E pH = -log [ H+] = -log [0.01 ×2] = 1.69

 ‫א‬  J4

pH = pka - log [Acid] / [Salt] pH = 5 - log ( 0.1 /0.5) = 4.3

Ag2CrO4(s) → 2Ag+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) Ks = (2S)2 S = 4S3 - 120 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬  J5

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 K‫א‬S‫א‬‫א‬Ks

-2 3

Ks = 4 × ( 3 × 10 ) = 108 ×10-6

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J6

Kh = 2 C /1-

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ kh ‫א‬  

 << 1، Kh =Kw /KaW

Kh = Kw/Ka = 2C  =( Kw / Ka C )1/2 =( 10-14/(10-5 × 0.1)) 1/2 = 10-4

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J7

pH = -log [ H+] = -log (Kw Ka / Csalt)1/2 = -log (10-14 × 10-5/ 0.1)1/2 = 9.0

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J8

pH = pKw – pKb + log [Base]/[Salt] =14 -5 +log ( 0.02 /0.1) = 8.3

    

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 E1F‫א‬

 30nm‫א‬‫א‬ J1

En=2F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J2

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J3 O

EClEMgENeE

F , C, Li, O, HW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J4

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J5  

mℓ =-2 , n=4 Eℓ =2 , n=3E

 ms =1/2 , mℓ = 2, ℓ=2 , n=5Ems =-1/2 , ℓ=2 ,n=4 E

N , O , Li , H , FW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J6

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J7 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3  K432160386‫א‬،H-H, N-N , N-H‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬ J8

CH ≡CHEBF3ECH4ENO2E

 K‫א‬،‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J9

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J10

 K

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E2F‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J1

 ‫א‬‫א‬700nm‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J2 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬7.3 ×10-12

  N , O, B , Li, CW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J3

Li+ , H+, K+, Na+W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J4  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J5

 

Li+ , O2- , Be , Ne- W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J6  W‫א‬ J7

SO3EI3-ENO3-E

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J8

CCl4‫א‬‫א‬ECH2CH2‫א‬E

 CH3CH3‫א‬ECCl4‫א‬‫א‬E

 W J9

 ‫א‬‫א‬E

 ‫א‬‫א‬E  ‫א‬E  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E3F‫א‬

6000 m/s ‫א‬3g‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J1

 ‫؟‬0.03 g‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J2

F ,Be ,N ,C W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J3

F- , O2- , Mg2+, Na+

W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J4

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J5 ClEBEMgENE

 CH3CH3‫א‬،C-H‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J6

103.3, 83, 20.24 kcal mol - ،‫א‬،H-H‫א‬‫א‬C-C‫א‬‫א‬

 K1

 W‫א‬ J7

H3O+ENH+4ESO42-EPOCl3E

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J8

CH2 =CH2EH2O‫א‬ENH3‫א‬ECH4‫א‬E

 0EℓF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J9

 W‫א‬‫א‬ J10

mℓ‫א‬‫א‬En‫א‬‫א‬E

ms‫א‬‫א‬Eℓ‫א‬‫א‬E

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

  = c/W‫א‬‫א‬ J1  .‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬c

 3×108/ 320× 10-9 = 9.4×1014 Hz

n2=4‫א‬‫א‬،n1=2 J2

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 1/ W = 1 / 109667.6 (1/4 -1/16) = 4.86 × 10-5 cm  :‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J3 Ne

1S2 2S2 2P6

Mg 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 Cl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

O 1S2 2S2 2P4

Li > C > O > F > H:‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J4

 ،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J5  Z‫א‬ J

Z‫א‬ J

Z‫א‬ J ‫א‬Z‫א‬ J

F > O > N > H > LiW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J6

‫א‬‫א‬H‫א‬‫א‬ J7 H = -3(N-H) +1/2 (N≡ N) +3/2(H-H) = -3 ×386 +1/2 × 160 + 3/2 × 432 = 430 kJ/mol

 :  J8 O-N=O

F B F

H C H

H-C

C-H

‫א‬،‫א‬:‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J9

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 125 -

 J10

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 K J

‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬   ‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬  J

 0‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J CH4‫א‬W

 :

 J1

  H ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 J2

4sp3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 J3

H H C

 ‫א‬

- 126 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 n=3‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  J1

0,1,2‫א‬،ℓ=3

mℓ =2ℓ +1= 0 + 1 = 1W‫א‬‫א‬

mℓ = 2ℓ +1 = 2 × 1 + 1 = 3‫א‬‫א‬ mℓ = 2×2+1 = 5‫א‬‫א‬

mℓ =1+3+5=9:‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

E = nh : ‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J2

 ‫א‬n،‫א‬،h،‫א‬E

n= E/hc = 7.3×10-12 ×700 ×10-9 / 6.625 ×10-34 ×8 ×108 = 9.64×106 photons N > O > C > B > LiW‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J3

K+ > Na+ > Li+ > H+W‫א‬‫א‬ J4

n=2 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J5 E = -2.18 × 10-18 (1/ ∞ -1/n22 ) = 2.18 × 10-18 /4 = 0.55 ×10-18 J  W‫א‬‫א‬ J6 Li+ 1S2 O2- 1S2 2S2 2P6 Be 1S2 2S2 Ne- 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1  W J7 O

 

N O

[I I

sp3Esp3Esp3E

- 127 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬ J8 sp2E

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ J J9  K‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬ J    

- 128 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

F‫א‬EvFEmF‫א‬EF‫א‬‫א‬ J1 = 6.625 ×10-34

 = h / m vWE / 3 × 10-3 × 6000 = 3.68 × 10-35 m  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J2

E = m c2 = 0.03 ×10-6 × (3 ×108 )2 = 2.7 × 10-9 J F > N > C > Be:‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫ א‬ J3

O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+W‫א‬‫א‬ J4

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J5 N3- , N5+ N 1S2 2S2 2P3 Mg 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 Mg2+ B = 1S2 2S2 2P1 B3+ ClCl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5 CH3CH3‫א‬‫א‬C-H‫א‬‫א‬ J6  :H‫א‬‫א‬

2C +3H2 → CH3CH3 H = -6 (C-H ) – (C-C) + 3(H-H)  W‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ (C-H) = (-20.24  J83 H 3 × 103.3)/6 = H 34.3 kcal mol-1

 

 W J7

 

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J8

 W‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬  W‫א‬W‫א‬ J

 W،ℓ = 4‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J9 mℓ = 2ℓ + 1 = 2 × 4 + 1= 9 - 129 -

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 :‫א‬ J10

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:(n)‫א‬‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬‫א‬ W(ℓ)‫א‬‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W:(mℓ)‫א‬‫א‬ J

 ‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬:(ms)‫א‬‫א‬ J

- 130 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

‫א‬ c  2.998  10 8 m/s

‫א‬

m/s2

‫א‬‫א‬EF

c/mol

 ‫א‬

g  9.806 F  96485

‫א‬‫א‬

R  8 . 314 J / K . mol R  1 . 987 cal / K . mol R  0 . 082 l . atm / K . mol

‫א‬‫א‬

k  1.38  10 23 J / K

Boltzman

N  6.022  10 23 mol 1

Avogadro ‫א‬

e  1.602  10 19 C

E‫א‬F‫א‬

10

esu

34

J .s

Planck 

u  1.66  10 27 kg

 ‫א‬‫א‬

e  4.803  10

h  6.626  10

me  9.109  10 31 kg

‫א‬

m p  1.673  10 27 kg

‫א‬

m n  1.675  10 27 kg

‫א‬

e =2.71828182846

e E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

  3 .1415926535 9

 π‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 131 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

   1K=1ºC+273.16 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 Torr = 101.325 kPa  1 bar = 105 Pa 1 l =103 cm3 = 1000 ml 1 N = 105 dyne 1 J = 107 erg 1 cal = 4.184 J 1 year = 365.25 days(d) 1 day = 24 hours (h) 1 hour = 60 minutes (min) 1 minute = 60 second(s)  1 C = 3  109 esu

 

- 132 -

‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬  ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬ m Kg S N J w mol cd A Pa Cm g s Dyne Erg V Ω C L atm K

‫א‬

meter

‫א‬ SI‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

kilogram‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 Newton

‫א‬

second

‫א‬

Joule

‫א‬



‫א‬

Watt‫א‬

‫א‬

Candle

‫א‬

Pascal

‫א‬

Ampere

Centimeter

‫א‬

cgs‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

gram‫א‬

‫א‬

dyne‫א‬

‫א‬

second erg‫א‬

Volt

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

Ohm

‫א‬‫א‬

Litre

‫א‬

Coloumb  atmosphere 

Kelvin - 133 -

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

10-15

10-12

-9

-6

10-3

10-2

10-1

femto

pico nano

micro milli

centi deci

109

1012

‫א‬‫א‬

kilo

mega

giga

tetra‫א‬

 W‫א‬

1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm =106 μm

- 134 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬  

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

Α B

 σ

Ω

R κ

 Κ

 Ε

‫א‬ ‫א‬ 

  ‫א‬

 





‫א‬  



‫א‬  

‫א‬

 

 

 

 

- 135 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ EN

 

EA kJ mol-1

IE kJ mol-1

r Å

2.2

-72

1312

0.37

2373

0.5

4.003

1.0

-58

520

1.52

6.939

1.6

250

899

1.11

9.012

2.0

-23

801

0.88

10.811

2.6

-122

1086

0.77

12.011

3.0

-503

1402

0.70

14.007

3.4

-141

1314

0.66

15.999

4.0

-333

1681

0.64

18.998

2080

0.70

20.183

0.9

-53

496

1.86

22.99

1.3

230

738

1.60

24.31

1.6

-44

578

1.43

26.98

1.9

-135

786

1.17

28.09

2.2

-74

1012

1.10

30.97

2.6

-200

1000

1.09

32.06

3.2

-348

1251

0.99

35.45

1527

0.94

39.95

0.8

-48

419

2.31

39.10

1.0

154

590

1.97

40.08

1.6

-64

653

1.28

52.00

1.5

717

1.27

54.94

‫א‬

‫א‬

1.008

- 136 -

‫א‬

‫א‬ 1

‫א‬

‫א‬

H 





















 









‫א‬









 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

1.8

-24

759

1.26

55.85

1.9

-67

758

1.25

58.93

1.9

-111

737

1.24

58.71

1.9

-118

745

1.28

63.54

1.6

906

1.34

65.37

2.2

-77

947

1.21

74.92

3.0

-324

1140

1.14

79.91

1356

1.09

83.80

0.9

120

549

2.15

87.62

1.9

-126

731

1.44

107.87

Sr ‫א‬‫א‬

1.7

868

1.49

112.40

2.0

-121

709

1.40

118.69

2.1

-101

869

1.41

121.75

2.7

-295

1008

1.33

126.90

1176

1.30

131.30

0.9

503

2.17

137.34

1.7

-58

770

1.39

183.85

2.2

-205

870

1.38

195.09

2.0

-223

890

1.44

169.97

1.9

1007

1.51

200.59

2.3

-101

716

1.75

207.19

2.0

-100

703

1.46

208.98



 





 

 

 

‫א‬ 







  

 

 rZ‫א‬{ENZ‫א‬‫{א‬EAZ‫א‬‫{א‬IEZ‫א‬

- 137 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

25‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

Ka k1  4.3  10 7 , k 2  5.6  10 11

H2CO3 HCN

4.8  1010 1.8  10 5

CH3COOH

1.8  10 4

HCOOH

6.3  10 5

C6H5COOH H3BO3

7.2  10 10 107

HCl

10 9

HBr

1011

k1  5.6  10 2 , k 2  5.1 10 5 k1  6.9  10 3 , k 2  6.2  10 8 , k 3  4.8  10

(COOH)2 H3PO4

13

5.9  10 9

H3BO3 H2S

k1  8.9  10 8 , k 2  1.2  1013

Kb 1.7  10 5 4.1  10 10 5  10 4 1.7  10 9

NH4OH C6H5NH2 CH3NH2 C5H5N

- 138 -



 ‫א‬

‫א‬

E‫א‬F‫א‬

E‫א‬F‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬



 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 25‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ Ks‫א‬



3.7  10 15

Al(OH)3

5.5× 10-6

Ca(OH)2

1.2  10 11

Mg(OH)2

5× 10-3

Ba(OH)2

2.2× 10-20

Cu(OH)2

1.0  10 10

AgCl

1.5  10 16

AgI

7.7  10 13

AgBr

9.0  10 12

Ag2CrO4

8.5  10 45

CuS

-47

Hg2S

7  10 29

PbS

10-97

Bi2S3

6.3× 10-50

Ag2S

1.1  10 10

BaSO4

9.1× 10

-6

CaSO4

2.8× 10

-6

CaCO3

5.1×10-6

BaCO3

2  10 10

ZnCO3

‫א‬

 

‫א‬ ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

 ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

 

- 139 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

EF‫א‬



 ph.ph‫א‬

EF



M.O‫א‬‫א‬

EF

‫א‬‫א‬

Lithmus‫א‬

‫א‬ 

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Fluorescein ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬EDTA

 Murexide ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

 EDTA

EBT 

‫א‬‫א‬

 EDTA

‫א‬

EF

EF EF

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

 

‫א‬‫א‬ 

Mohr

Fajan 

EDTA PVC ‫א‬

    - 140 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

 K25‫א‬‫א‬ λ∞‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

349.8

38.69

Li+

50.11

Na+

73.52

K+

73.4

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬

NH4

‫א‬

+ Ba 2

‫א‬

Pb+

‫א‬

+ Zn 2

‫א‬

59.5

63.6

71.0

52.8

198.0

OH‫־‬

75.23

Cl‫־‬

78.1

Br‫־‬

76.80

I‫־‬

40.9

CH3COO‫־‬

79.8

69.3

- 141 -

‫א‬

2 2

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

SO42‫־‬

‫א‬

CO32‫־‬

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 Ho

C6H6‫א‬

-57.08

-98.35 -270.53 -217.92 -288.73 -51.20 -30.38 -23.80 -14.93 -23.52

-26.42

CH4‫א‬

-94.05

CCl4‫א‬‫א‬

54.19

-66.41 -68.32

‫א‬

 25EHo /kcal mol-1F ‫א‬‫א‬ o  ‫ א‬H

11.72

-33.25

 ‫א‬

C2H3‫א‬

-17.89

H2O‫א‬

-20.24

NaCO3‫א‬‫א‬

19.82

NaCl‫א‬‫א‬

-24.82

SiO2‫א‬‫א‬

-48.08

 CuCO3

‫א‬‫א‬

CO‫א‬ CO2‫א‬ CH4‫א‬

C2H2‫א‬

CH3CH3‫א‬ C3H8‫א‬

C6H6‫א‬

CH3OH‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬ -56.63

C2H5OH‫א‬

AgCl‫א‬‫א‬

-11.04

NH3‫א‬

AgI‫א‬‫א‬

-8.66

PbO‫א‬‫א‬

-57.80

AgBr‫א‬‫א‬

-22.06

PbS‫א‬‫א‬

6.2 -70.96 -94.45 12.50

-116

H2O‫א‬

HCl‫א‬ HBr‫א‬

HI‫א‬

SO2‫א‬

SO3‫א‬ C2H4‫א‬

HCOH

 K‫א‬F2,Br2,Cl2,O2,N2,H2 ‫א‬‫א‬ J

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J

 K‫א‬

   

- 142 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 KEF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  

 ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬

323 305 358 259 485 339 276 240 272 200 243 799 1072 607 887 941

H─Si C─N C─O C─S C─F C─Cl C─Br C─I N─F N─Cl N─Br C═O C≡O N═O C≡N N≡N

432 146 160 154 239 193 347 614 839 418 495 413 427 467 391 363 347

H‫ــــ‬H O‫ــــ‬O N‫ــــ‬N F─F Cl ‫ـــ‬Cl Br‫ــــ‬Br C‫ــــ‬C C═C C≡C N═N O═O H─C H─Cl H─O H─N H─Br H─S

- 143 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

{‫א‬‫א‬ EpowerFEbaseF

 W‫א‬

Klog‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬10‫ א‬K1

Kln‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬e = 2.71828‫ א‬K2

 K34.67‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W1

log 34.67= 1.5399 ln 34.67 = 3.546

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ –1.67  ‫א‬  ‫א‬ ‫א‬ W 2 

 K3.76

Anti log (3.76) = 5754.3993 Anti ln (-1.76) = 0.1720

‫א‬‫א‬

 log A + log B ≠ log (A+B)

 ‫א‬ G  G

log A  J log B ≠ log (A JB)

‫א‬

 Log A + log B = log (AB)

Log A - log B = log (A/B)

B log A = log (A ) 1 A

 - log A = log ( ) log 10 =1 ; ln e = 1 log 0 = ln 0 = -∞ log 1 = ln 1 = 0 ln A = 2.303 log A

‫א‬

‫א‬

‫א‬ G

‫א‬

‫א‬



 K‫א‬loglnG

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 144 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

ax2+ bx+ c = 0

 W‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬c,b,a  

x  (b  b 2  4ac ) 2a

 K‫א‬x‫א‬‫א‬  

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬x‫א‬W x 2  2x  4  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

 ax2 + bx + c = 0

 

 x + 2x - 4 = 0

 W‫א‬x  

x  (b  b 2  4ac ) 2a  (2  4  4  1 4 ) 2  1

x = -3.236 ‫ أو‬x = 1.236

 W‫א‬

K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬Scientific notation‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W ‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬{‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬EF‫א‬

 ‫א‬  K   ‫א‬      ‫א‬  ‫א‬  K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

     35.7  10 8 ‫א‬ ‫א‬    3570000000 ‫א‬W1 

 K

 35.7  109  3.57  1010 ‫א‬0.000000000357‫א‬W2

 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ 357  108   

- 145 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬ A10a +B10a = (A+B)10a

‫א‬ K1

A10a -B10a = (A-B)10a

‫א‬ K2

)

10a10b = 10(a+b 



‫א‬ K3 ‫א‬ K4

10a/10b = 10(a-b)

‫א‬ K5

 1/10a = 10-a 100 = 1 10∞ = ∞ 0a = 0

 K0.0037 ,0.00081‫א‬W1

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬W‫א‬

37104  8.1104  37  8.1104  45.1104  0.00451

 K 8 105 ,7.1103 ‫א‬W2 8  105  7.1 103  8  7.1 1053  65.8  102  6580

 W‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬



 K‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 146 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 ‫א‬

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

  W‫א‬a, nExF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K1

‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬

en a 1 x 1 ax

a  x 2

ax xn ln x

adx nx n 1 dx x e x dx 0  dx x2 dx

W(xF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ K2 ‫א‬‫א‬ x

‫א‬‫א‬ 1

1 x n 1 n 1

1 x

ln x

1 ax

        - 147 -

 ln a  x 

 

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

Scientific Idioms  A.C .

 A

EF

Ability



Abscissa

EF‫א‬

Absolute

 E‫א‬٪100F

Absorbance

EF‫א‬

Absorption

E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

Abstract



Acceptor



Activation



Activity



Adapter Adduct Adherent

E‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬F

E‫א‬F‫א‬ 

Adhesive



Adiabatic

‫א‬‫א‬

Admittance

‫א‬‫א‬

Adsorbate

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Adsorbent

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Adsorption

‫א‬‫א‬

Aeration

EF

Affinity

‫א‬ J

Against



Aliphatic



Alkali



Alkaline



- 148 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Alkaloid

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

‫א‬

Alkylation

‫א‬

Alternatively

 J

Amplifier

 EF

Analogue

 EF

Analysis



Analyst

 ‫א‬

Analyze



Analyzer

E‫א‬F

Angle

‫א‬

Angular

EF‫א‬

Anion

 E‫א‬F

Anode

 

Apparatus

 

Appendix, Appendices

‫א‬،،

Approach

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Approximate ,-ly

 EF

Aprotic

 E‫א‬F‫א‬

Aqueous



Arc

 EF

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬E1 ֿ F

Arctan Aromatic

 EF

Association

 ‫א‬–

Assumption

‫א‬‫א‬

Asymmetric

 

Athermal

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Atmosphere

 

- 149 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Atom ¸ atomic

‫א‬

 EF

Atomize , atomizer

‫א‬

Attraction

 

Auxiliary

 

Average

 EF

Axial

 

Axis ¸ axes Balance

 ‫א‬

 B

Barometer

  J  ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Base , basic

 –

Basis

 

Beaker

 

Beam

 

Bend

 

Binary

 

Boiling

 

Bond

 ‫א‬

Boundary

 EF

Buffer

 

Burette



- 150 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 C

Calculation

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

  ‫א‬  

Calculator

 

Calorie

 EF

Capacitance

 ،

Capacity

 

Capillary

EF

Cartesian

W‫א‬

Catabolism

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Catalysis

 EF‫א‬

Catalyst

 

Cathode

 EF

Cation

 EF

Cavity

 

Cell – cellular

 –

Cement

 ،‫א‬

Centrifuge

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Certain

  J

Characteristic

 EF‫א‬‫א‬،

Circle – circular

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Circuit

 ‫א‬

Circumference

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Co – axial

 ‫א‬

Coagulation

–

Coherent

  J

Coincident

 

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 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Concave

‫א‬

 

Concept

 

Conclusion

 

Configuration

 –

Consist of

 

Constant

 EF

Constituent

 

Container

 

Convection

 EF

Converge

 –

Convex

 

Coordinates

 EF‫א‬

Correction

 

Corrosion

 E‫א‬F

Counter Daily

 ‫א‬

 D

Degree

 –‫א‬

 –

 

Dehydration

 ‫א‬

Dehydrogenation

 ‫א‬

Derivation

 ‫א‬

Deviation

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Determination

 

Dissolution

 

Division

 

Divisor

 ‫א‬

Ductile

 ‫א‬

Dye

 

- 152 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Dynamics

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Dynamo

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Determinant

 EF

Denominator

 EF

Density – dense

 –

Definition

 

Details

 

Deliquescent

 –

Decimal

 –

D.C.

 

Diameter

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Diagonal

 ‫א‬‫א‬،

Distance

 

Distribution

 

Displacement

 EF‫א‬

Differentiation

 ‫א‬

Differential

 

Divide by

 

Diffusion

 ‫א‬

Dissociation

 –

Disintegration

 ‫א‬

Dialysis

 

Distillation

 

Diagram

 

Distractive

 ‫א‬

Distortion

 

Discussion

  - 153 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Diaphragm

 EF 

Domain

 EF

2‫א‬

Drop – let

 –

Donor

 

Double

 

Doctrine

 –

Document

 ،

Dozen

 12،EF

Dot – dotted

 –

Device

 

Discrete

 –

Disc – disk

 

Dispersion

 ‫א‬

 E

 –

Effervescence

 EF‫א‬

Efficiency

 –

Electrode

 

Electricity

 

Electrolyte

E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

Elevation

 ‫א‬

Ellipse

 EF

Electrolysis

‫א‬‫א‬

Emulsion

 

Emulsifier Entropy

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Deduce

Effect

 ‫א‬

 

‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ - 154 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Elasticity

‫א‬

 

Eutectic

‫א‬

Even

 EF

Erratum – errata

 –

Excess

 

Exceed

 

Exothermic

 ‫א‬

External

 

Extract

 –

Extra

 ‫א‬

Exponent

 EF–

Equation

 –

Equilibrium

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Equilibria

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Extensive

 ‫א‬

energy – energetic

 EF–

Equation

 

Equipment

 –

Essay

 

Essential test

 ‫א‬

Evaporation

 

Evolution

 –

Exact

 

Experimental

 –‫א‬

Ect. Factor

 ‫א‬

 F

Factorial

 ‫א‬–  

 EF - 155 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Faraday

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Fast

 

Field

 –

Finite

 

Flame

 

Flask

 

Fluid

  J 

Fluorescence

 EF‫א‬

Flux

 ‫א‬

Focus

 

Force

 EF

Fraction

 EF

Friction

 EF‫א‬

Frequency

 EF

Freedom

 –

Fugacity

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Fundamental Galvanic

 ‫א‬

 G

Galvanostatic

  J  ‫א‬،EF

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Gap

 

Gas – gaseous

 –

Generator

 

Geometry

 

Geometrical

 

Giga

 ‫א‬

Gradient

 EF‫א‬

Graph – graphical

 –

- 156 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Gravity

 H

Height

 

 

 ‫א‬

Hepta

 EF

Heterogeneous

 

Hexagonal

 ‫א‬

Hint

 –

Homogeneous

 

Homologous

 

Humidity

 

Hump

  J 

Hexa

 

Hybrid

 

Hybridization

 

Hydrolysis

 ‫א‬،

Hydrophobic

 

Hydrophilic

 

Hypothesis Ice

‫א‬

 

Group Halogenation

 ‫א‬

 I

Ideal

 –‫א‬‫א‬  

 

Identical

 

Identify

 

Idioms

 

Illustration

 EF

Immersion

 EF - 157 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Immiscible

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 E‫א‬F

Impedance

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Induction

 EF‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Infinite, -smal

 ‫א‬،

Inflection point

 EF‫א‬

Influence

 

Infra red

 ‫א‬‫א‬EF

Instrument

 

Integer, integral

 ،

Integration

 EF‫א‬

Intensive property

 ‫א‬

Intercept

 EF‫א‬

Interest

 ‫א‬

Internal

 ‫א‬

Intersection point

 ‫א‬

Introduction

 

Investigation

 

Ion

 EF

Irreversible

 EF

Isobare

 

Isobares

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Isotopes

 E‫א‬‫א‬F‫א‬

Isotones

 ‫א‬

Isochore

 

Isoelectric point

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Isotherm

 ‫א‬

Isotonic

 ‫א‬‫א‬ - 158 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Isomorphism Jar

 J

Joint

 L

Lamina

 E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬  

 ‫א‬–  EF‫א‬‫א‬

 

Lattice

 

Length

 

Lenses

 

Level

 

Liberation

 –

Lime

 

Liquefaction

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Liquid

 

List Macro -

‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Joule L.H.S.

 ‫א‬

 M

Magnet – magnetic

 

 ‫א‬

 –

Magnetize

 

Magnification

 

Magnify

 

Mantissa

 E‫א‬F‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Match

 –

Material

 

Mathematical

 EF

Matrix – matrices

 ، - 159 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Matter

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 

Maximum

 

Mean

 EF

Measurement

 

Mechanics

 ‫א‬

Mechanism

 

Medium – media

 –

Melting

 ‫א‬

Membrane

 

Meniscus

 

Meso

 ،

Method

 

Micro -

 ‫א‬

Migration

 

Mineral

 –

Minimum

 

Minus

 EF

Miscibility

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Miscible

 

Mixture

 

Mobile – mobility

 ‫א‬–

Model

 –

Molality

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Mole

 ‫א‬

Molecule –molecular

 –

Moment of

 KKK‫א‬

Momentum

 ‫א‬ - 160 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Monoclinic

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Multiplication

 N

Nano

 ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 

Neutral

 

Neutralization

 ‫א‬

Nomenclature

 

Normal – ity

 –

Nucleation

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Nucleus – nuclei

 –‫א‬

Numerator Octa

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Monotonic

N. B.

 ‫א‬

 O

Odd number

 EF‫א‬  EF   

Ohm

 ‫א‬

Operation– operator

  J

Optimum

 ‫א‬

Orbit – orbital

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Order

 

Ordinate

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Ore

 

Organic

 

Orientation

 

Orifice

 

Original

 

Oscillation – oscillator

 ‫א‬– - 161 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Osmosis

‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Oxidant – oxidation

 –

Ozonolysis P. m .

 ‫א‬

 P

P.S.

 ‫א‬  ‫א‬،‫א‬  

Parabola

 EF

Parachor

‫א‬‫א‬

Paragraph

 ‫א‬

Parallel

 ‫א‬

Partial

 ،

Particle

،

Partition

 –

Paste

 

Peak

 

Pentagon

 

Peptide

 ‫א‬

Percent – percentage

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Perfect

 –

Period – periodic

 –

Permanent

 

Permittivity

 EF‫א‬

Permutations

 EF

Perpendicular to

 

Phase

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Phenomenon, phenomena

 (‫א‬)

Phosphorescence

 ‫א‬

Photolysis

 ‫א‬‫א‬

- 162 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Photosynthesis

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Physics – physical

 –‫א‬

Plot

 –

Plus

 EF‫א‬

Polar – ity

 ‫א‬–

Polarization

 ‫א‬

Pole

 

Poly

 ‫א‬

Portion

 

Positive – positivity

 –

Potential

 

Practical

 

Precaution

 ‫א‬

Preceding

 

Precipitate ( ppt )

 ‫א‬

Precipitation

 

Precise – precision

 –

Predominate

 

Preparation

 

Pressure

 

Principle

 –

Printed matter

 

Prior

 

Prism

 

Probability

 ‫א‬

Problem

  J

Product

 

- 163 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Profile

 –

Progressions

 EF‫א‬‫א‬

Proof

 –

Property

 –

Proportional to

 

Protic

 

Pseudo -

 ‫א‬

Pump

 

Pure – purity

 –

Purify – purification

 ‫א‬–

Pyramid

 

Pyrolysis

 Q

Quadratic equation

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

 EF،‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Qualitative

 

Quantitative

 

Quantum ( quanta )

 EF

Quart

 

Quarter

 ‫א‬

Question

 ‫א‬

Quiescent

 

Quotient R.H.S.

‫א‬

 

Program

Quadrant

 ‫א‬

 R

Racemic mixture

EF  EF‫א‬‫א‬

‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

- 164 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Radical

‫א‬

 

Radius – radii

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Rate

 

Ratio

 

Reactance

 ‫א‬E‫א‬F‫א‬

Reactant

 

Reciprocal

 EF

Rectangle

 EF‫א‬

Reductant

 

Reduction

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Reference

 

Reflection

 ‫א‬

Refractive index

 ‫א‬

Region

 

Regular

 –

Reject – ion

  JEF J

Relation

 

Repulsion

 

Resistance

 EF

Respectively

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Results

 

Reversible

 E‫א‬F

Right angle

 ‫א‬

Role

 

Root

 

Rule Saccharides

 ‫א‬

 S - 165 -

 

 

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Salting out

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬

Saponification

 ‫א‬

Secondary

 

Sector

 –

Sequence

 

Series – serial

 ،

Set

 EF

Sigmoid

S

Sign

 

Similar – ity

 –

Simultaneous – ly

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Sine

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Single

 

Slope

 EF‫א‬

Soft – softness

 ‫א‬–

Solar

 EF

Solvation – solvent

 –‫א‬

Sonics

 ‫א‬

Sound

 

Source

 

Species

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Specimen

 

Spectrograph

 

Spectroscopy

 ‫א‬

Spontaneous - ly

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Square

 

Stability

 

- 166 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Stagnant

‫א‬

 

Standard

 

Standardization

 

Statics

 ‫א‬

Statistics

 ‫א‬

Stimulation

 

Stimulus – stimuli

 –

Stock solution

 

Structure

 

Sub

 ‫א‬

Sublimation

 ‫א‬

Subscript

 

Subset

 EF

Substance

 

Summary

 

Substituent

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 –

Sum Jsummation Supper

  J EF

Surfactant

 ‫א‬

Surroundings

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Survey

 ‫א‬

Susceptibility Tangent

 ‫א‬

( tan )

 T

Temporary

  J  ‫א‬–‫א‬‫א‬  

Tendency

 ‫א‬‫ א‬

Tension

 

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 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Tertiary

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Thermodynamics

 ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

Toxic

 

Transition ¸ - al

 ‫א‬–‫א‬

Translation

 

Triangle

 

Triple , triply 

 ‫א‬3‫א‬

Type ¸ typical

 U

Ultra

  J  ‫א‬ J–  ‫א‬

Uncertainty principle

 ‫א‬

Union Vacuum

‫א‬

 

Therm, - al

Ultimate , -ly

 ‫א‬

 V

Valence

 ‫א‬

 EF‫א‬

 E‫א‬F

Valid

 

Vapor

 

Vaporization

 ‫א‬

Variable

 EF

Variation

 

Various

 

Vector

 EF

Velocity

 

Versus ( vs. )

  J

Vibrator ¸ - al

 –

Viscosity

 

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 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

Viscous

 ‫א‬

volume, volumetric

W Wax

 –  

Weight

 

Welding

 EF

Work

 Y

Yield Zigzag line

‫א‬

 

Voltage

Yeast

 ‫א‬

 Z

Zinc

 EF  

   

 ،

Zone

 

Zymo -, zym-

 ‫א‬  

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 ‫א‬‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬‫א‬  W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬  ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬ J1  K1996،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬

 K1982،‫א‬،‫א‬،‫א‬‫א‬، J2

‫א‬  ،‫א‬ ‫א‬ ،‫א‬ ‫א‬  ‫א‬   ‫א‬   J3

 K1998،‫א‬،‫א‬

،‫א‬ ‫א‬‫א‬ J‫א‬،‫א‬ ‫א‬،‫א‬ J4 K1993،‫א‬

 W‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

1- Ralph H. Petruccii and William S. Harwood, General Chemistry, Principle and Modern Applications, Prentice-Hall, New Gersey, 1997. 2- James E. Brady and John R. Holum, Chemistry, The study of Matter and its Changes, Wiley, New York, 1993. 3- Petter Atkins and Loretta Jones, Chemistry, Matter and Change, 3rd Edition, W.H. Freedman and Co., New York, 1997. 4- James E. Brady, General Chemistry, Principles and Structure, 5th Edition, Wiley, New York, 1990. 5- David E. Goldberg, Schaum’s Outline Series, Theory and Problems of Chemistry Foundations, International Editions, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. 6- James E. Brady and John R. Holum, Fundamentals of Chemistry, 3rd Edition, Wiley, New York, 1988. 7- Raymond Chang, Chemistry, 5th Edition, International Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994. 8- R. Abu-Etta, Y. Essa and A. El-Ansary, General Chemistry, Cairo University Press, 1998. 8- P.W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, Oxford Press, Oxford, UK, 1982. 9- G.M. Barrow, Physical Chemistry, MacGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 1996. 10- Maurice Wahba, Hanna A. Rizk, Introduction to Physical Chemistry, AngloEgyptian, 1978. 11- Robert A. Alberty and Robert J. Silby, Physical Chemistry, Wiley, New York, 1992.

- 170 -

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

 ‫א‬   J2 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K Chemical Calculus‫א‬‫א‬   J17 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬   J18 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  J21 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

  J40 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   J44 J  K K K K K K K K WPeriodic Table of Elements‫א‬‫א‬   J54 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J58 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K WChemical bonding‫א‬‫א‬   J79 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J80 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   J83 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K W‫א‬

  J94 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J95 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  J98 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K WChemical equilibrium‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬   J102 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J105 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K W Electrolytes ‫א‬   J119 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J120 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  J122 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K E1F‫א‬   J123 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K E2F‫א‬   J124 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K E3F‫א‬   J125 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

  J127 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

  J129 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬   J131 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬‫א‬

  J131 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬

 110

 

 ‫א‬‫א‬

 ‫א‬ ‫א‬

  J132 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K    J132 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K 1K=1ºC+273.16

  J132 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬   J133 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬

  J134 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

  J134 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬   J134 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬   J136 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K 

  J144 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K    J170 J  K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K K ‫א‬‫א‬

             