NOLIMITS The Hotchkiss Science & Technology Magazine
Fa l l Winter 2012
FLY FISHING: THE HIDDEN SCIENCE THE FUNDING CRISIS SURROUNDING NASA THE SCIENCE BEHIND TYPOGRAPHY
HIGGS BOSON: THE GOD PARTICLE A SHATTERING DISCOVERY FROM CERN
SCIENCE @ HOTCHKISS 04 Science Club’s Maker Faire Trip
The club visits an inventor’s fair
06 Summer Research at RPI Students detail their summer work 08 Dr. George F. Cahill Jr.
Commemorating a Hotchkiss alum
ARTICLES 09 Psychopath Brains
What makes theirs different?
10 Hypnosis: Healer or Hack? Is it a viable treatment?
11 Schwann Cell Migration
Daniel Lee ‘12’s summer research
12 Elephant Intelligence
Why they are smarter than we think
14 The New Gene
Meme theory and society today
16 Chem Mysteries
The top ten unsolved mysteries
FEATURES 18 Typography
The hidden science behind text
22 Higgs Boson
Its mystery unraveled
26 NASA
The funding crisis.
28 The Science of Fly Fishing
Part-physics & part-biology
31 Works Cited
2 • No Limits • Fall 2012
FROM THE EDITORS No Limits began as a small group of students who met to share and discuss articles relating to scientific discoveries that they were interested in. Eventually, this passionate group of students, under the guidance of Mr. Jim Morrill, became a magazine and saw its first publication in 1988. Besides his involvement with No Limits, Mr. Morrill’s contributions to the Hotchkiss community have been numerous. From the establishment of Eco Day to the day to day teaching of AP Biology, Mr. Morrill’s greatest addition to Hotchkiss is our AP Environmental Science Curriculum, which he single-handedly introduced to this school. He leaves with us a legacy of one of the school’s most distinguished science faculty.
Editors-In-Chief Eric Li ‘13 & Sara Schroer ‘13
With Mr. Morrill as the club advisor, No Limits grew and flourished for over 25 years. But at the same time, the magazine never strayed far from its original intentions “to arouse your interest in science,” as Victor Chu ’89, the first editor, put it. Mr. Morrill helped to foster an environment where people interested in science at any level could just come and write about their passions and share it with the community. As time passed, the activity of the magazine diminished and publications often strayed away from the original purpose of the club. This issue marks the beginnings of a rebirth of the club. With this, we hope to bring No Limits into the 21st century while still retaining much of the club’s ideals that were fostered under Mr. Morrill. Our mission statement is to “Bridge the gap between classrooms and the real world, humanities & science, advanced student research-
Managing Editor Sejin Park ‘13
Art Editor Vivian Xiao ‘15
Contributing Writers Austin Kim ‘13 Margaret Lederer ‘13 Daniel Lee ‘12 Martie Ogle ‘14 Ashley Park ‘13 James Post ‘15
ers and beginners, and much more.” To accomplish this while still keeping the spirit of the magazine alive, we will be extending the breadth of our articles beyond science to the fields of technology, engineering, and mathematics. We will be concurrently publishing the print edition as well as an online edition to make it accessible to anyone. New articles will also be posted to our online blog and on our Facebook page so as to really share our passions and “arouse your interest in science” as readers. Of course, none of this would have been possible if it weren’t for the leadership of Mr. Morrill. Thus, with much pride and gratitude, the
Faculty Advisor Dr. Susan Park
Visit us online: hotchkissmedia.org/nolimits
Like us on Facebook: facebook.com/hotchkissnolimits
No Limits staff would like to dedicate this issue to him as an honor of
Comments may be sent to:
his significant contributions to not only the magazine itself, but also
Eric Li ‘13 eli@hotchkiss.org Sejin Park ‘13 spark@hotchkiss.org Sara Schroer ‘13 sschorer@hotchkiss.org Vivian Xiao ‘15 vxiao@hotchkiss.org
the Hotchkiss community. We hope you enjoy! The Editors
FRONT COVER Launch of Space Shuttle Endeavour. © NASA.
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 3
SCIENCE @ HOTCHKISS
MAKER FAIRE
2012
4 7
1 Eepy Bird gives a demonstration with Coke Zero and Mentos. 2 Robots from the FIRST Robotics Competition. 3 David Pogue, NYT Columnist, speaking on science in the media. 4 Stephen Wolfram discussing the use of Mathematica in education. 5 A 3D printer. 6 An AI bot named Hubo. 7 Towers made of toothpicks. 8 A 3D wood printer. 9 A life size mousetrap. Images taken by Sejin Park ‘13, Eric Li ‘13, Vivian Xiao ‘15.
4 • No Limits • Fall 2012
1
2
3
I
n the early hours of September 30th, 2012, the Science Club headed down to the New York Hall of Science in Queens, NY to attend the annual World Maker Faire. This is an event that
“celebrates arts, crafts, engineering, science projects and the Do-It-Yourself (DIY) mindset”. Every year, the world’s makers, inventors, engineers, artists, scientists, and hackers all gather at this space to showcase their work. In addition to strolling around to many exhibits, the students also had a chance to participate in handson workshops and demonstrations. In the auditorium, names such as Stephen Wolfram and David Pogue educated visitors about the uses of Mathematica, a computer algebra system, and scientific education in public television. “It was a way for me to see all of the different cool projects that people around the world are working on,” said Franton Lin ‘14, the co-head of Science Club, “we really hope for the Maker Faire to become a great
5
6
introduction trip to the club, and get people psyched about science in general.” □
8
9
Science club meets every Friday from 6:30-7:30 PM in the Science Building. The club heads are Eric Li ‘13 and Franton Lin ‘14 advised by William Fenton.
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 5
SUMMER RESEARCH
@RPI
For the month of July this past summer, a group of 9 Hotchkiss students went to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. There, they
Dou Dou ‘13 I worked in the Lakshmi lab researching on Photosystem ll in the
lived in dormitories and did research in the labs of different pro-
cells of plants, and in a bigger context of bio-solar energy trans-
fessors. For this issue, we asked each of them to discuss their
duction study. We also worked on synthesis of the manganese
experiences working in a lab environment.
water-splitting center, EPR(Electron Paramagnetic Resonance),
Jessica Chen ‘13 I studied the ability of the freshwater fern Azolla to uptake and metabolize estrogenic compounds from the water. It was im-
and the inhibition of oxygen evolution in PS ll.
Austin Kim ‘13 I worked on a biomedical engineering project that studied the
portant to environmental issues because phytoremediation is
effects of alginate-based hydrogels to mitigate spinal cord
a promising and uninvasive way to remove dangerous environ-
injury. In this study, four types of hydrogels prepared with bovine
mental pollutants from watersheds and aquifers.
serum albumin (BSA) were monitored for BSA release in artificial
Emily Silva ‘13
cerebral spinal fluid (aCSF) over the course of two weeks. The gels are injected onto a well plate through a syringe in order
This summer I worked in Dr. Corr’s lab at RPI with a masters
to replicate the administration of injectable alginate hydrogels
student, Hsin Dat Li. I was working in Biomedical engineering on
in situ. A major part of this study was to apply the release of
growing tendon fibers. We tested different variables to find the
BSA as a model for the release of small interfering RNA (siRNA).
optimal conditions and best methods for successfully growing
siRNA works in the RNA interference pathway where it prevents
the fibers. Although I will not be able to continue the research
the translation of certain proteins, effectively “silencing” them.
because I do not have the resources away from RPI, I had an
A final goal of this project is to eventually have the hydrogels
amazing experience. Everything was exciting, even the simple
carry siRNA that will use its gene silencing properties to block
tasks, because I felt like I was doing something important. I defi-
synthesis of proteins such as GFAP and disrupt formation of the
nitely plan on seriously continuing science in college, and hope-
glial scar to enhance regeneration outcomes.
fully pursuing a career in the sciences.
Meghana Koduru ‘14
Eric Li ‘13 My research at RPI involved the effective transformation of Bacil-
I worked in Dr. Patrick Maxwell’s lab on aging yeast cells. We es-
lus megaterium using electroporation. I worked under Nicholas
sentially gave the yeast cells a certain amount of food to start
Marchand in the lab of Cynthia Collins. Together we attempted
with and once they ran out, they stopped growing. At this point
to explore the method of using electroporation to insert an en-
we counted how many cells were still living and also how many
fuvirtide plasmid into the cell. Enfuviritde is an HIV inhibitor, and
could grow to form colonies if given more food. Aging yeast cells
the point of this research would be to find a cheaper more ef-
help us understand how different animals age because there are
ficient way of producing HIV medicine rather than the currently
many similarities in the genome of yeast and mammals.
expensive treatment regimen. Electroporation involves applying a high voltage shock to the cell, opening microscopic pores and allowing the plasmid to enter the cell.
6 • No Limits • Fall 2012
Priyanka Sekhar ‘13
Sejin Park ‘13
I studied stem cell alignment and differentiation during my time
My research had a very application-oriented goal: to redesign a
at RPI. The purpose of my project was to find a more efficient
sequence of peptides that is used to detect the onset of acute
way to culture stem cells for applications in the field of tissue
myocardial infarction, a lethal heart condition. To produce pep-
engineering. I used micropatterned surfaces to direct the growth
tides with better affinity to Troponin I, the protein that needs to
of the C2C12 cells. I then looked at deviations from the pattern
be detected, I took the single amino acid mutagenesis approach,
(compared to the control) to determine which micropatterned
a technique of substituting an amino acid in the sequence with
surface and what conditions allowed for the most efficient and
other naturally occurring amino acids. After synthesizing, print-
directed stem cell growth.
ing, and screening peptides, some of the new sequences were
Peter Moon ‘13
found to perform better than the original wildtype sequence. In the long run, my research will be helpful in understanding more
I studied processes in photosynthesis. My lab focused on the ac-
about protein-peptide affinity on the amino acid level. I have
tivity of the protein complex Photosystem II (PSII) and, specifical-
learned not only how to use many specific scientific instruments,
ly, a cubane manganese-based structure within this complex that
but also important lab techniques and approaches in research
oxidizes water. My work involved the synthesis and purification
and engineering in general.
simplified versions of this structure, bonded to terpyridine molecules, to be studied via Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR). Analysis of these EPR studies allowed us to observe the effects of the bonded ligands on the efficiency and structure of the synthesized manganese compounds and compare the results to EPR studies of the naturally occurring manganese catalysts in PSII.
LEFT Dou Dou ‘13 and Peter Moon ‘13 working in the Lakshmi Lab BELOW Back: Paul Oberto, Eric Li ‘13, Sejin Park ‘13, Peter Moon ‘13, Dou Dou ‘13, Austin Kim ‘13. Front: Emily Silva ‘13, Meghana Koduru ‘14, Jessica Chen ‘13, & Priyanka Sekhar ‘13. Images provided by Paul Oberto
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 7
D DR. GEORGE CAHILL BY SEJIN PARK ‘13
© Associated Press
8 • No Limits • Fall 2012
r. George F. Cahill Jr. ‘44, a prom-
is the “primary mover” in determining
inent Hotchkiss Alum in the
human starvation, which interestingly
field of medicine, passed away
parallels a diabetes patient, who lacks
on July 30, 2012 as a result of complica-
insulin, and a starving person, accord-
tions due to pneumonia at the age of 85.
ing to Dartmouth biology professor Lee
He was an unsurpassed diabetes expert
Witters.
who clarified the role of insulin in human
Dr. Cahill also found the later stages of
metabolism, especially during starvation.
prolonged starvation, in which the body
Dr. Cahill entered The Hotchkiss School
breaks down protein from the liver to use
in 1940 barely 13, the youngest in class.
as a fuel. This can be life-threatening as
He immediately distinguished himself
it impacts many vital organs and muscles.
as a bright scholar, receiving the Phillips
Dr. Cahill authored more than 300
Prize for excellence in plane geometry
scientific articles and reviews in the field
as well as being the head of the Chem-
of metabolism, many of them seminal
Physics club. After receiving his BS in
discoveries. The studies transformed sci-
biology from Yale University, he complet-
entists’ understanding of starvation and
ed medical school at Columbia College
the way insulin regulates metabolism,
of Physicians and Surgeons, where his
said Dr. Joseph Avruch, a professor of
father was on the faculty as a uro-
medicine at the Harvard Medical School,
logic surgeon. At the Peter Bent Brigham
as referenced by the New York Times in
Hospital (now Brigham and Women’s),
its August 17 tribute.
Dr. Cahill began lifelong research on the
Former headmaster George Van
metabolism of glucose and amino acids
Santvoord described Dr. Cahill as “a vig-
during feeding and fasting, as well as in
orous young man of fine physique, good
obesity and diabetes. His studies set forth
intellectual ability, and excellent char-
many of the tenets that form the basis of
acter.” Dr. Cahill’s legacy lives on in not
our classic understanding of these pro-
only his works, but also with generations
cesses, said Dr. C. Ronald Kahn, the chief
of researchers he impacted during his
academic officer at the Joslin Diabetes
teaching, administrative, and research
Center in Boston, where Dr. Cahill was
career at Harvard Medical school, Joslin
research director from 1962 to 1978.
Diabetes Center, Howard Hughes Medical
During human starvation, the body
Institute (HMMI), Dartmouth College, and
initially uses glucose as its main fuel if it
many more. Especially in Dartmouth, he
is available. If glucose supply is depleted,
is remembered as a gifted teacher who
insulin is secreted to break down gly-
“could reduce the most complex bio-
cogen into glucose. Dr. Cahill’s research,
chemical phenomena down to the under-
which often involved test subjects such
standing of a philosophy major,” wrote an
as hibernating bears or divinity students
August 14 tribute from Dartmouth.
who were paid to fast for a week, shed
In 1990, Dr. Cahill was awarded
light on the next step of metabolism. He
Alumnus of the Year at Hotchkiss to
explained that a drop in level of insulin
celebrate his illustrious career. In this
leads to breakdown of fatty acids into
issue No Limits commemorates him as a
ketones, which can cross the blood-brain
distinguished alumnus. □
barrier and feed the brain as an alterna-
Special thanks to the alumni office for pro-
tive fuel. His studies revealed that insulin
viding us with with invaluable information.
ARTICLES
PSYCHOPATH BRAINS BY ASHLEY PARK ‘13
A
ccording to a new study
light on the source of this dysfunction
chopathy. Those two structures in the
led by University of Wis-
and strategies for treating the problem.”
brain, which are believed to regulate
consin-Madison Research-
The results could explain the heart-
emotion and social behavior, seem to
ers, the images of the
less and impulsive antisocial behavior
not be communicating as they should.”
brains of those who are
of most psychopaths. The study showed
The University of Haifa conducted a
diagnosed as psychopaths and those who
that psychopaths have reduced con-
similar study on psychopath brain struc-
aren’t show significant differences. The
nections
ture. “Our findings show that people who
between
the
ventromedial
study discovered reduced
have psychopathic symp-
connectivity between an
toms behave as though
area of prefrontal cortex
they are suffering frontal
(PFC) and the amygdala.
brain damage,” said Dr.
The study took place in
Simone
Shamay-Tsoory,
a medium-security prison
who
in Wisconsin. Dr. Kent
study. The study assessed
Kiehl from the University
17 people who are diag-
of New Mexico and the
nosed as psychopathic,
MIND Research Network
but not suffering from
brought a mobile MRI
any brain damage; and
scanner to the prison
another
and scanned the prison-
als who are experienc-
ers’ brains. Then another
ing frontal lobe injury.
investigator,
Dr.
conducted
25
the
individu-
Mike
Each of the subjects
Koenigs and his graduate
underwent a computer-
student, Julian Motzkin,
ized test examining the
analyzed the brain scans.
ability
to
understand
The analysis com-
another’s thoughts and
pared the brains of 20
emotions and show em-
prisoners with a diagno-
pathy for another’s emo-
sis of psychopathy with
tions. The results showed
the brains of 20 other
that both psychopaths
prisoners who committed similar crimes but
The Joker from Batman: The Dark Knight. By Vivian Xiao ‘15.
with no brain damage and
individuals
with
were not diagnosed with psychopathy.
prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), the part of
frontal lobe damage demonstrated a sim-
UW-Madison psychology Professor
brain that controls the sentiments of
ilar difficulty of showing empathy. “Seeing
Joseph Newman claimed, “The combina-
empathy and guilt, and the amygdala,
as psychopathic behavior is similar to that
tion of structural and functional abnor-
which is responsible for fear and anxiety.
of a person with brain damage, it could be
malities provides compelling evidence
Assistant professor of psychiatry in
that it could benefit from similar forms of
that the dysfunction observed in this
the University of Wisconsin School of
treatment,” Dr. Shamay-Tsoory noted.
crucial social-emotional circuitry is a
Medicine and Public Health asserted,
stable characteristic of our psychopathic
“This is the first study to show both struc-
offenders. I am optimistic that our ongo-
tural and functional differences in the
ing collaborative work will shed more
brains of people diagnosed with psy-
□
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 9
HYPNOSIS HEALER OR HACK? BY AUSTIN KIM ‘13
W
hen one thinks of the
it appears only as a quasi-science or fancy
word
im-
magic trick. Despite this, the art of hyp-
ages of polished pen-
“hypnosis,”
nosis has actually been proven benefi-
dulums,
mesmerizing
cial to patients undergoing post-surgery
chants, or even The Professor from Gil-
rest and recovery. A study by radiologists
ligan’s Island come to mind. For centu-
at Harvard Medical School, published in
ries, hypnotism has always garnered the
2000, found that patients who received
attention of many, ranging from the de-
hypnosis before and after surgery re-
voted occult to the hopeful practitioner.
quired less medication, had fewer com-
Hypnotism began with the work of Franz
plications, and underwent drastically
Anton Mesmer in the 18th century. A sim-
shorter recovery procedures than patients
ple Austrian physician, Mesmer believed
who did not undergo hypnosis. In a 2002
that he had discovered a phenomenon he
follow-up study, the radiologists con-
dubbed Animal Magnetism. He believed
cluded that if every patient having sur-
that he could summon a healing wave of
gery were to receive hypnosis the sav-
bodily fluid controlled by the cosmos, and
ings would amount to $338 per patient.
that Animal Magnetism, which accumulat-
However, one must take caution in
ed in his own body, could be passed on to
agreeing to such a risky treatment. There
others. Mesmer therefore thought he had
is no universal licensing process for hyp-
the power to cure people in a hypnotic
nosis practitioners. Edward Frischholz, a
ritual that became known as mesmerism.
clinical psychologist in Chicago who has
In the early 19th century, James Braid,
written more than 50 papers on clini-
a Scottish surgeon, developed hypnosis
cal and experimental hypnosis, said that
which was based on Mesmer’s primi-
“hypnosis is like a surgeon’s knife: in the
tive work. By investigating and later
right hands it can be life-saving, but in the
developing
wrong it could cause harm.” (Lesley B6) □
his
own
trance-inducing
techniques, Braid created a crude form of hypnotism to be used as a rudimen“Gentle Hypnosis” ©2012 leetSpaz (Deviantart).
tary form of anesthetic during surgeries. But what role does hypnosis play in the world of modern medicine? To many,
10 • No Limits • Fall 2012
SCHWANN CELL MIGRATION BY DANIEL LEE ‘12
O
ver the summer of 2011,
However, applications of electrical
I worked in a biomedical
stimulation in the human body pose chal-
engineering lab at Rensse-
lenges because electrical signals may get
laer Polytechnic Institute
trapped in the adjacent connective tissue
that researches nerve re-
before reaching the target site. Thus, an
generation. The goal of my project was
inclusion of an electrically conductive
to investigate the migration of Schwann
biomaterial may effectively focus the
cells following electrical stimulation in
electrical cues to the injury site, allowing
a 3D, carbon nanotube-embedded con-
for a more effective treatment.
struct.
My hypothesis was that the addition of
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT)
is made up of all nerves outside the brain
in conjunction with electrical stimulation
and the spinal cord, and it serves to con-
will cause the Schwann cells to migrate
nect the central nervous system to limbs
further than samples without SWCNT. In
and organs. In the event of a peripheral
my experiment I embedded rat Schwann
nerve injury, due to a car accident, for ex-
cells in a hydrogel construct with SWCNT
ample, the severed nerve can only regen-
and stimulated these constructs for eight
erate under optimal circumstances. Nerve
hours under 50mV/mm. Then, I stained
regeneration is impeded by factors such
these constructs, imaged them using a
as cell scarring, apoptosis (programmed
light microscope, and measured the dis-
cell death), and a lack of a permissive en-
tance migrated using the images.
vironment. The role of Schwann cells is
I showed that the Schwann cells with
critical in creating this permissive envi-
both electrical stimulation and electri-
ronment for axonal regrowth.
cally conductive nanotubes displayed
Schwann cells are the support cells
further migration compared to cells with
of the PNS. They promote nerve regen-
either one cue or none.This study is a
eration by clearing scar tissue, releasing
first step in examining the feasibility of
soluble factors and expressing surface li-
using electrically conductive biomate-
gands, and thus allowing for the severed
rial for nerve injury. Future work includes
nerve to reconnect. Thus, the migration of
increasing the sample size, studying the
Schwann cells to the injury site may be
differences in the physical properties of
critical in aiding nerve regeneration. Pre-
the SWCNT-laden hydrogel due to the
vious studies in the lab has shown that
inclusion of the nanomaterial, enhancing
in a 3D construct, electrically stimulated
the dispersion of the nanomaterial within
Schwann cells migrate 68% further than
the construct, and evaluating migration
unstimulated cells.
over a wider range of electrical stimuli. □
Schwann cells growing on tubules taken by researchers at Purdue University. ©2012 Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering at Purdue University.
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 11
Elephant researchers have found that the way these animals interact with their environment and each other could be proof of intelligence.”
12 • No Limits • Fall 2012
© Prince Eleazer, National Geographic
ELEPHANT
INTELLIGENCE BY SARA SCHROER ‘13
M
ost people would include
past, they will pause and exhibit signs of
as well. Like a human, the elephant’s
humans, apes, and dol-
mourning.
brain develops over many years giving
phins on the list of most
Besides personal memory, elephants
the elephant a span of 10 years to ac-
intelligent animals. How-
appear to retain cultural memory as well.
quire knowledge. This ability to learn is
ever, a much larger mammal belongs on
This taught culture is one of the biggest
quite unique in the animal kingdom. Re-
this list as well: elephants. Through nu-
supporters of elephant intelligence. In
searchers have also found that elephants
merous studies, scientists have collected
herds that have been hunted in the past
depend on these learned behaviors rath-
both physical and behavioral evidence
display an intense fear of humans. How-
er than instinctual ones.
for their intelligence.
ever, herds that haven’t been hunted re-
More physical evidence towards el-
spond to humans in curious and friendly
ephantine intelligence is that the brain of
manner.
an elephant is highly convoluted. This in-
Elephant researchers have found that the way these animals interact with their environment and each other could be
One way scientists gauge animal in-
tricate folding increases the surface area
proof of intelligence. One of the main
telligence is through the complexity of
of the brain, as it does in other intelligent
reasons is that, like primates, elephants
their communication. Elephants interact
species such as humans and dolphins.
use tools. They grip sticks, stones, and
with each other both through body lan-
Scientists believe that there is a direct
other objects with their trunks to intimi-
guage and verbally. However, their range
correlation between the amount of brain
date enemies, scratch themselves, and
of hearing goes to a much lower decibel
folding and the intelligence of the mam-
shoo away insects. Also, elephant calves
than humans. Because of this ability, el-
mal.
will play with found objects from their
ephants can communicate at the lower
However, because elephants are dif-
environment.
frequency and make seismic “noises” that
ferent species than humans, we must
travel as vibrations in the ground.
be careful not to give their actions and
Another reason scientists believe in elephant intelligence is that they mourn
Lastly, the strongest case for elephant
intelligence our motives. Their need to
their dead. When a member of their herd
intelligence is that they are self-aware.
communicate or use tools, while funda-
dies, elephants will gather around the
They are capable of recognizing them-
mentally similar, is very different from our
dead. They will watch over the body for
selves in mirrors. If an elephant sees dirt
own need. The possibility of understand-
days, only leaving for food. Elephants are
on itself in the mirror, it will try to rub the
ing this unique intelligence would be lost
migratory animals, traveling hundreds of
smudge off.
if we tried to inflict it with our own expe-
miles a year, but when they pass a spot
Besides behavioral evidence, scientists
where a family member has died in the
have found physical proof of intelligence
rience. □
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 13
MEME
THEORY BY ERIC LI ‘13
T
hroughout the history of man, one thing has been
“What is it about the idea of god [or any meme] that gives it its stability and penetrance in the cultural environment?”
and propagates further using the cells as vectors.
passed on through generation after generation: cul-
In a more specific example, let us discuss the idea of God. In
ture. Similar to a gene, ideas that follow this type of
and of itself, it is a very, very old concept. Yet, this concept has
cultural transmission, coined “memes” are similar to
been able to withstand countless generations and now exists in
genetic transmission in that they both survive multiple genera-
various forms. But how has it been able to be passed on through
tions, so to speak.
so many people while other ideas have failed to withstand the
Coined by Richard Dawkins, the author of his 1976 book The
test of such a transfer from one generation to another?
Selfish Gene, meme comes from the Greek root Mimeme, which
The question now becomes, “what is it about the idea of god
basically means imitation. In essence, a meme is an idea, behav-
[or any meme] that gives it its stability and penetrance in the
ior, or concept that spreads from person to person within a cul-
cultural environment?” (193). As Dawkins puts it, “The survival
ture.
value of the god meme in the meme pool results from its great
Unlike genes, which modify the phenotype of an organism and are passed on physically via DNA, memes often concern a
psychological appeal. It provides a superficially plausible answer to deep and troubling questions about existence,” (193).
person’s mind, and are passed from person to person through speech or other extracellular methods. Such examples of this type of spread include tunes, ideas, fashions, and even the idea of God, all of which originated from an individual or group of individuals, and propagated throughout the course of history. What is interesting to discuss here, is the spread of such ideas and their further effects on society. Simply put, a meme “propagates [itself] in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation,” (192). If a person hears, reads about, or sees a good idea, he or she will pass it on to his friends, and this process continues, until eventually, a large group of people learns about it and it becomes a meme. The brain basically becomes a vector in which the meme is allowed to propagate, much like a virus takes over bacteria with its own phage DNA,
14 • No Limits • Fall 2012
Most of what is unusual about man can be summed up in one word: ‘culture.’ ” - Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (p.89)
Richard Dawkins speaking at a Writers Conference in Dublin.
Similarly, a cultural meme such as jeans has spread because
Going back to the meme of religion- the idea of God has
the masses have found them comfortable and convenient. Thus,
played a crucial role in societal development throughout history.
memes are spread when people find them appealing and then
Early colonial America was purely based off of this meme. Nowa-
they are shared with others. Alternately, not all ideas will be able
days, Internet memes and societal memes help to define our so-
to replicate. Such concepts are not popular in public opinion, and
ciety, its rules and ideologies, and each person as an individual.
after all: “[a meme’s] spread will depend on how acceptable it is
Inventions are probably one of the most important memes of
to the population, “(194). This type of weeding out of the bad
our society today. Inventions such as the light bulb and cars have
memes is analogous to natural selection of genes: the bad ones
lasted generations, giving proof to the survivability of memes.
simply do not propagate forward. Thus, memes really are “analo-
Memes function very similarly to genes, in that they both
gous to genetic transmission in that… it can give rise to a form of
provide a ways for things to replicate themselves. Memes are
evolution,” (189), albeit a slightly different form than the form of
special because they require absolutely no tangible vectors in
natural selection that is the characteristic of gene evolution.
order to replicate. The only vectors that are required by memes
There are also some memes that achieve short-term success in propagating themselves rapidly, but do not last for much time in
are people’s minds. When you consider what you do in everyday life, it will almost always relate back to one or more meme. □
the meme pool. Popular music is an example, satiating people’s tastes until the next great hit comes out. Then, the older song is
Richard Dawkins is a world renowned evolutionary biologist and au-
simply forgotten. It is ideas that have meme potential that influ-
thor. His books, most famously The Selfish Gene, have sold over two
ence our society as a whole and the future of our society.
million copies and been translated into over 31 languages.
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 15
10 UNSOLVED MYSTERIES
IN CHEMISTRY BY SARA SCHROER ‘13
1.
How Did Life Begin?
cloud with opposing electrostatic forces surrounds the atom’s nucleus and the electrons are constantly moving. Computers
Scientists believe the first molecule to self-
simulations can now calculate, with accuracy, the properties and
replicate was similar to RNA, beginning the
structures of molecules with relatively few electrons from quan-
process of evolution. Researchers at Georgia
tum first principles. The problem arises when the reaction’s elec-
Institute of Technology having been working
tron count exceeds a few dozen, so modeling complex reactions,
for more than a decade to understand how non-living molecules
like biomolecular processes, is still impossible.
combined to form the very first life. They have discovered that small molecules may have acted as “molecular midwives” by assisting the building blocks of genetic material in forming the first short polymers of nucleic acids and by originally matching the base pairs of the DNA double helix.
2.
3.
How Does the Environment Influence Our Genes? The control of gene activity seems to involve chemical events happening at the mesoscale, a scale greater than those of at-
How Do Molecules Form?
oms and molecules. Chromatin, the mixture of proteins and DNA
Scientists continue to disagree on what the
that makes up chromosomes, has a structure greatly influenced
most accurate representation of a molecule
by the cell. The double helix of DNA is wound around histones,
is since they are basing models on assump-
which are bundled up into higher-order structures that are still
tions and approximate data. An electron
poorly understood. The way a gene is packed into this structure
16 • No Limits • Fall 2012
determines whether or not it is active. Scientific understanding
leaf that would produce fuel from solar energy by splitting water
of this process can help in the research and use of stem cells in
into hydrogen and oxygen gas. The difficulty is finding a cheap
regenerative medicine and a greater understanding of genetic
photocatalyst that does the splitting. Currently, a cobalt-based
diseases.
catalyst is being used, but it is not ideal.
4.
How Does the Brain Think and Form Memories? Although scientists have a basic understanding of the formation of habitual re-
What is the Best Way to Make Biofuels?
8.
The creation of biofuels is, as of now, incredibly inefficient and impractical. To be
flexes and everyday declarative memories
more feasible, mostly solid biofuels would
(people, places, etc.), there are still many gaps in brain sciences.
need to be converted into liquid fuels for easy transportation
For example, we still do not understand how a memory is re-
along pipelines. This conversion would need to happen on site
called once it is stored. Learning about the chemistry of memory
(where the plants are harvested). There is, however, no general
making creates the controversial prospect of pharmacological
consensus on the proper way to perform the creation of biofuels,
enhancement of memory.
but the solution undoubtedly will be found with chemistry.
5.
How Many Elements Exist? The periodic table continues to grow as scientists use particle accelerators to crash atomic nuclei together to form new “su-
Can We Devise New Ways to Create Drugs?
9.
In the 1990s combinational chemistry was the hope of creating new medicines by
perheavy” elements. The nuclei are incred-
randomly assembling molecules and then
ibly instable and decay radioactively within a tiny fraction of a
testing to see which ones held potential – it produced virtu-
second. The studies on these new elements test the conceptual
ally nothing useful. Due to modern developments, combi-chem
limits of the periodic table – do the superheavy elements still
could make a return to biotechnological research. Scientists can
display the trends in chemical behavior that originally shaped
now refine the library of candidate molecules by using a kind of
the periodic table? Some do, but some don’t. Is there a limit to
Darwinian evolution is a test tube. Another possibility is protein
the size of the superheavy elements? Simple calculations limit
synthesis in cells to tailor new drugs.
the nuclei to 137 protons, but more sophisticated calculations show it to be limitless.
6.
Can Computers Be Made Out of Carbon?
10.
Can We Continuously Monitor Our Own Chemistry? Biosensors that use chemical reactions to monitor the concentration of glucose
In 2010, the Nobel Prize in Physics was
date back to 1960s. But increasingly, sci-
awarded for the discovery of graphene, a
entists want to create faster, cheaper, more sensitive and more
web of carbon atoms arranged in a chicken
ubiquitous chemical sensing to aid in detecting food and water
wire-like pattern. Being an electrical conductor, hollow, extreme-
contaminants, monitor pollutants in the air, and biomedical ap-
ly strong and stiff, graphene promised applications ranging from
plications, such as chemical sensors that would recognize the
high-strength carbon composites to tiny wires and electric de-
products of cancer genes circulating in the bloodstream long
vices. The problem is finding the right techniques to use this new
before normal clinical tests could diagnose it. Chemists foresee
molecule; the key might be precise atomic-scale engineering to
continuous, unobtrusive monitoring of all biochemical markers
build the molecule from the bottom up with hexagonal carbon
of health and disease to provide real-time information to sur-
rings.
geons and to automated systems for delivering remedial drug
7.
How Do We Tap More Solar Energy? We are expansively and inefficiently using solar energy since we are incapable of harvesting vast amounts. The conventional
treatments.
□
IMAGE CREDIT Solar Array © Saginaw Future (top left), Microscopic Surface of CD © Chris Supranowitz (middle left), DNA Gel Electrophoresis © Micah Baldwin (bottom left), & Chemistry Glassware © Nicholas Rigg, Getty Images (right).
photovoltaic panels made of silicon are extremely expensive, restricting their use. Biology shows us, however, that solar cells do not have to be incredibly efficiently if they can be made cheaply and abundantly. A group of scientists are creating an artificial
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 17
FEATURES
THE SCIENCE
OF TYPOGRAPHY BY VIVIAN XIAO ‘15
18 • No Limits • Fall 2012
T
ypography is the art and technique of arranging ‘type’ – letters and characters – to communicate an idea. Though not officially a branch of science, typography is essential to the study and creation of good design.
The term ‘typography’ isn’t commonly used in everyday life, but the technique of typography is used everywhere. Science textbooks, the headlines of The Record, and even history papers, all involve typography. Typography allows us to read things clearly, and good typography can convey a message ‘in between the lines.’ All typefaces have their own personality and purpose. Although a deep understanding of typography isn’t necessary to score an A+ on an English essay, typography can still be useful to enhance a piece of writing.
The Periodic Table of Typefaces The Periodic Table of Typefaces was created by graphic designer Cam Wilde. It is composed of 100 of the most popular, influential, and notorious typefaces of today and is organized into groups of typefaces: sans-serif, serif, script, blackletter, glyphic, display, grotesque, realist, didone, garalde, geometric, humanist, slab-serif, and mixed. Each cell of the table contains the name of the typeface, the symbol, the designer, and the year it was designed. The typefaces are arranged in order of relative rankings. Some typefaces were omitted to keep families of typefaces together. To find out more about the Periodic Table of Typefaces, visit http://www.behance. net/gallery/Periodic-Table-of-Typefaces/193759.
Typography in Math and Science Many science and math textbooks are often printed in similar typefaces. This is because only a few typefaces are compatible with mathematical symbols, Greek letters, and other ‘special’ texts throughout math and sciThe Periodic Table of Typefaces by Cam Wilde.
ence; these publications typically use Computer Modern or New Century Schoolbook. Such typefaces allow for
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 19
maximum clarity of numbers, letters, and symbols. TeX (pronounced ‘teck’) is a text-formatting program used for typesetting complex mathematical formulae and other technical material attractively and consistently. It is commonly used in mathematics, computer science, economics, engineering, physics, statistics, and quantitative psychology.
Typography for Essays Teachers often set guidelines for font size, line spacing, margins, and page limits for writing essays, and it can be a hassle to edit an essay to meet the right requirements. Typography can be helpful in these situations. If an essay is over the page limit, Times New Roman will shrink it down. Or, if the essay is a little too short, Verdana will stretch it out. The tracking of the text can also be adjusted by right clicking and going to font > advanced > spacing > condensed or expanded.
Typography in Graphic Design Typography is used in many different areas of graphic design, including posters, advertising and logo design. Type is combined with negative space and graphic images to form relationships between words and images. Graphic designers’ favorite typefaces include Helvetica (e.g. the Microsoft logo), Futura (e.g. the Adidas logo), Garamond (e.g. The Harry Potter books), Trajan (e.g. the movie poster of Titanic), Myriad (e.g. Apple advertisements), Franklin Gothic (e.g. the movie poster of The Dark Knight), and Gill Sans (e.g. the London Underground logo). Popular typefaces for display on screen include Lucida Grande, Verdana, and other sans serif fonts. The graphic designers’ worst nightmare is the abuse of Comic Sans MS. Some other misused and tacky typefaces include Papyrus, Brush Script, Curlz MT, and Bradley Hand.
Terminology When going into an in-depth study of typography, it is necessary
Economics of Typography Ink is expensive. When it comes to printing large amounts of text, the typeface that saves the most ink is Century Gothic, which uses 30% less ink than Arial. However, Century Gothic wastes more paper, so the best way to save money and the environment is to avoid printing. Microsoft switched their default typeface from Times New Roman to Calibri and Cambria because of their higher readability on the screen. They believed that the more pleasing that the text looks on the screen, the less tempted someone will be to print out a document.
20 • No Limits • Fall 2012
to know some key terms to identify different features of typefaces. Here are a few basics to get started. Font vs. Typeface: The most common misconception about typography is the definition of the word ‘font’. Most people would explain font as a style of letters, such as Times New Roman, Georgia, or Comic sans. However, these names refer to a specific typeface, while font refers to the collection of typeface, size, weight or style. Serif & Sans-serif: Serif refers to typefaces with a ‘decorative’ finishing stroke (called a Serif) at the end of character stems.
Sans Serif are typefaces with a lack of any Serifs.
An illustration on the anatomy of typefaces by Vivian Xiao ‘15.
Tracking and Kerning: Tracking is the adjustment of spacing between characters of a whole group of characters (in a paragraph or article), while kerning is the adjustment of spacing between individual characters. Leading: More commonly known as line spacing, leading is the vertical line spacing between lines of text. Weight: the thickness or width of strokes – light, medium, bold, heavy, ultra, etc. □
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 21
THE ATLAS DETECTOR IN THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER AT CERN
22 • No Limits • Fall 2012
THE HIGGS BOSON BY JAMES POST ‘15
P
article physics is vital to our understanding of the world. It explains and explores the building blocks of everything. This field of science gives us insight to the origin and workings of the universe. Despite particle physics’ important role in science,
however, it doesn’t attract much attention from the average person, or the media. Recently, though, the Higgs Boson has gained a great amount of publicity. Perhaps this is due to its sensational title as “The God Particle”, or perhaps it is due to the creation of CERN’s technologically advanced Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Geneva, Switzerland. The particle is known to be nature’s most elusive particle, and most important subnuclear particle. In any case, however, the Higgs should explain mass itself, and fill a large gap in what we know about particle physics. The Standard Model is a sort of chart that is used to explain particle physics. Like the Periodic Table for chemistry, it provides a foundation and structure for this field of study. Made up of particles, the model is mainly divided into up, down, bottom, top, strange, and charm quarks (some of which make up protons and neutrons), and leptons (which include electrons). It is known, however, that there are many particles missing, and spaces needing to be filled, in this model. The Higgs Boson is expected to fill a gap in our knowledge of the major forces of the universe, which are gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the strong and weak radioactive forces. In brief, it is believed that each of these forces has a respective particle called a boson, through which the forces can be transmitted, and affect matter. Despite finding the W and Z bosons corresponding to the strong and weak radioactive forces, and photons for the electromagnetic force, physicists were missing the boson for the gravitational force. It is believed that the Higgs will fill this role. (Atteberry). Peter Higgs, a British physicist after whom the Higgs Boson’s name originates, theorized about the particle in the 1960s. He postulated that there was a Higgs Field, and proposed that in this field, the Higgs boson transferred mass to a particle such as a quark, electron, W, or Z particle. (“Origins CERN Ideas,”). One analogy is often used to explain this field and how the Higgs Boson gives particles mass. Imagine a fancy cocktail party
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 23
© Energy Services Network
in a large room. Suddenly, a movie star enters the scene, and the
poses in a fraction of a second. Physivcists don’t have the
people nearest to the celebrity pack in around him, eager for
equipment to know that they’ve found it in that split second, so
conversation. Particles such as the W and Z boson particles act
they must look for what they believe the Higgs decomposes into.
as these movie stars, and the flock of people around the celeb-
Millions of measurements and tests must also be performed,
rity represent a particle’s mass. When the star passes through
because sufficient is needed to show graphical evidence of the
the Higgs Field, they gain mass. The Higgs boson particle acts
Higgs Boson (it appears as a tiny bump on the graph). (Anthony).
as the eager party guest; it is a manifestation of the Higgs Field.
Finally, on Wednesday, July 4, 2012, physicists from the LHC
Some particles, however, such as photons, attract much less
announced that they had found evidence of a particle that had
attention at the party, and act as unimportant guests. When they
the predicted mass of the Higgs Boson. With a one in a million
pass through the Higgs Field, they don’t create any ‘distortion’ in
chance that they were wrong, they knew it had to be the God
the field, which renders them massless. (“Origins CERN Ideas,”).
Particle itself. The scientific community rejoiced, and physicists
The search for the Higgs has been going on for decades. Physicists use particle accelerators to search for particles like
likened the probable discovery to the unearthing of the DNA sequence in the human body. (Perlman).
the Higgs Boson. Throughout the 1990s, CERN’s Large Electron-
Despite the excitement many scientists felt at confirming the
Positron Collider (LEP) and Fermilab, near Batavia, Illinois, have
Standard Model and our knowledge of Particle physics and the
been the sites for countless tests and experiments to find this
universe, others were somewhat disappointed. As Ian Hinchliffe,
particle (“Origins CERN Ideas,”). At LEP, it was thought that they
who leads a research team at the LHC, commented, “It would be
found traces of the Higgs Boson, but scientists weren’t sure
even more exciting [if it turned out not to be the Higgs Boson],
and the accelerator was shut down in 2000. In 2005, however,
because then it would be something we hadn’t predicted at all,
CERN’s Large Hadron Collider, was completed, and is known to
and that’s what science is all about - finding your predictions are
be the world’s largest, and highest energy particle accelerator.
wrong and starting all over again.” (Perlman).
The LHC, like other particle accelerators, attempts to create
Physicists are still working to completely confirm that this
enough energy to form new particles, using strange ‘quantum
particle is, in fact, the Higgs Boson, a process that will take
properties’. These massive underground rings fire bundles of
another few years. Unanswered questions remain. Why do some
particles in opposite directions. When these bundles collide at
particles gain plenty of mass in the Higgs field? And why do oth-
extremely high speeds, many of the particles are annihilated.
ers pass through the field without gaining any mass? (Anthony).
This annihilation releases energy, and strangely enough, this
Nonetheless, we should greatly appreciate what was announced
energy simply converts to new particles that may be completely
on July 4th of this year. In the future, we’ll surely look back
unrelated to the particles annihilated. Some particles need
on this event as a breakthrough in science and an important
more energy than others to form, however, explaining the need
moment in history. Who knows what this discovery could lead
for larger and larger particle accelerators. The more energy you
to? □
have, the more particles you can create and discover (Anthony). Even if a Higgs Boson is created in a test, however, it decom-
1995 The top quark is discovered by Fermilab in Batavia as predicted by Higgs’s mechanism. 1964 Peter Higgs predicts the particle’s existence.
2004 Fermilab places the mass of the Higgs particle between 117 GeV & 251 GeV.
2001 CERN rules out the existence of the Higgs with a mass below 115 gigaelectronvolts (GeV).
TIMELINE OF HIGGS
2008 The Large Hadron Collider becomes operational for the first time.
2007 CERN further reduces the upper limit to a mass of 153 GeV.
FEBRUARY 2012 JULY 4 2012 CERN boosts colli- CERN announces sion energy from 7 to evidence of the exis8 teraelectronvolts tence of the Higgs, (TeV), increasing sen- with a one in a milsitivity by 35%. lion chance of error.
2011 The ATLAS and CMS experiments at the LHC show hints of the Higgs at around 125 GeV.
MARCH 2012 Fermilab further places the Higgs as between 115 & 152 GeV.
Scientists at CERN and Fermilab used acelerators to smash particles together at high speeds. This collision, if done at high speeds, results in the production of smaller particles, one of which could be the Higgs Boson. The fingerprint of this particle left behind after it decays can be measured in gigaelectronvolts and will also give an indication of the mass of the particle (as heavier particles would have a higher voltage). An upper limit means that the Higgs Boson’s fingerprint is below that specified voltage. A lower limit means that the fingerprint is above that specified voltage.
24 • No Limits • Fall 2012
ABOVE The 16 particles that make up the standard model of particle physics and their dates & places of discovery. ©2009 Symmetry Magazine. RIGHT An artist’s rendition of a Higgs boson erupting from a collision of protons. © Moonrunner Design Ltd., National Geographic.
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 25
NASA’S
FUNDING CRISIS BY MAGGIE LEDERER ‘13
“As a former astronaut and the current NASA Administrator, I’m here to tell you that American leadership in space will continue for at least the next half-century because we have laid the foundation for success—and failure is not an option.” Charles Bolden, NASA Administrator
T
he
National
Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), the
which
replaced
National
Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, was created in 1958 as the Cold War and the race to the moon began. Since then, NASA has been behind a multitude of initiatives, from supporting the International Space Station to further exploration of the Solar System and beyond. In addition, NASA has dedicated itself to promoting further research in physics. Recently, the federal government severely decreased the funding for NASA. The planetary science division budget was cut down by almost 300 million dollars. The money lost by NASA is instead being used to privatize space travel, cre-
26 • No Limits • Fall 2012
ating “space taxis.” The Mars exploration
and many other probes. Beyond the
as 2017, the allure of sending a human
program was one of the most affected
Solar System, the Hubble Telescope
into space is lost. This creates a down-
programs. NASA was in talks with the
was restored and is now being used to
ward spiral for NASA: less money creates
European Space Agency (ESA) to invest
observe the most distant parts of our
slower results in an increasingly impa-
in a joint mission to Mars to bring back
galaxy. Furthermore, NASA announced
tient nation. Clearly, investing in space is
soil samples. As a direct result of this
the emergence of the new Space Launch
not necessarily a top priority right now,
budget reduction, the initiative has been
System, a uniquely American method
especially with our plunging economy
postponed indefinitely. Consequently, the
of launching rockets farther than ever
and high unemployment, but investing in
Space Shuttle program was discontinued,
before. So maybe NASA isn’t in decline,
space can create jobs and spur interest.
marking an enormous decrease in public
and this is merely the calm before the
This popularity can flourish, exposing
interest in space exploration and in NASA
resurgence of interest in space. A recent
thousands of people to an exciting new
overall. Sending humans into space is the
article in Scientific American argued
interest and a possible field of work.
most exciting aspect of space travel, and
that NASA’s space exploration program
As humans, we are inherently curious.
without it, the public’s ephemeral inter-
is actually flourishing unbeknownst to
We are driven to answer unanswerable
est is waning.
most of us, and its potential for an immi-
questions: How did we get here? What
nent groundbreaking discovery is huge if
will happen to us? Are we alone in
ample funding continuous.
this world? It is our natural instinct to
However, as Bolden said, NASA is not giving up. NASA’s vision remains “to reach for new heights and reveal the unknown
Despite attempting to highlight its
explore, and we must not ignore this. We
so that what we do and learn will benefit
human involvement, NASA, along with
need to realize that these answers won’t
all humankind.” (NASA mission statement)
many other space agencies, is work-
come easily, but we need to invest in
NASA is also working in conjunction with
ing to make rockets solely operated by
order to continue gathering the pieces of
the Next Generation Air Transportation
machinery. While it is much safer and the
an answer. □
System (NexGen) to discover more envi-
expected release date could be as soon
ronmentally friendly ways to build and launch aircrafts. NASA is continuing to be one of the global leaders in support of advancing the International Space Station. This space station relies on six astronauts, all of whom are American, who live in space for years at a time. NASA has clearly not given up on the ideas of humans in space, and even has long-term goals of sending humans to Mars and beyond. Currently, NASA is supporting the two Mars rovers, Cassini (orbits around Saturn), Juno (on its way to Jupiter),
LEFT A US flag being waved in the air as Space Shuttle Atlantis rolls to its new home at Kennedy Space Center on Nov. 2, 2012. The spacecraft, which carried out 33 spaceflights, closed out the Space Shuttle Program era with its final landing on July 21, 2011. ©2012 NASA RIGHT Skylab: U.S.’s first space station, which orbited the Earth from 1973 to 1979. Numerous experiments were conducted. ©2011 James Vaughan
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 27
THE SCIENCE OF
FLY FISHING
© Tim Harris
THE PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY OF IT
BY SEJIN PARK ‘13
R
ather than luring fish with
cision and physics of fly fishing. On one
leader, in turn, is attached to a thicker
bait, a fly-fisherman uses arti-
day, you may try ten different kinds of
and longer line, that is reeled in and
ficial man-tied flies to trick
flies—dry flies, streamers, and nymphs—
attached to the fishing rod. A common
fish into biting it. He needs
just to realize that trout jump in the air to
misconception is that casting relies on
to let his fly imitate not only the looks of
feed on everything but the flies you offer.
the fly; the truth is that you cast the line
the favorite dish of the day, but also the
However, aside from reading tempera-
while the fly just goes along for the ride.
characteristic movement and behavior of
ture, current, location, and weather—as
When casting the rod, the line is lifted
a real insect, whether it is a caddis fly or
much as they are important—the biggest
and brought over your head behind you.
mayfly nymph.
difference between a master fly-fisher-
After letting the line “load” behind your
man and a novice is the act of casting.
back while the rod stops in the air, the
You may think it is easy because
rod is brought forth in front and the
fish may seem dimwitted, but that is
Casting is the core pride of fly fishing.
line unrolls to gently place the fly on
all relative. A novice fly-fisherman will
To catch a fish, a fisherman sends out a
water. The trick to casting is effectively
soon abandon his/her sense of human
fly attached to a 7-15 feet long leader,
controlling many feet of leader and line
superiority and learn to cherish patience,
a polyamide monofilament fishing line,
so that the fly lands in a desirable spot
humbleness on the river, along with pre-
which is virtually invisible in water. The
of the river, causing gentle ripples, which
28 • No Limits • Fall 2012
leader (transparent)
line
fly rod
© Louis Cahill
Rainbow Trout © Flick Ford
It is an art that is performed on a four-count rhythm between ten and two o’ clock.”
attract fish to bite. While practicing intri-
the line as it is cast forward in front.
cate precise mechanics of casting, the
Specifically, elastic potential energy is
most common phrase a novice fisherman
what is stored in the elastic material of a
will hear is “accelerate to a sudden stop.”
fly rod. A similar situation can be found
How does that relate to the explosive
in a slingshot; if you stretch back the
power of casting? How does a graphite
band in a slingshot to propel a small rock
or bamboo rod let 9 feet of line unroll
through the air, the slingshot will then
so straight?
have potential energy. Once the band is
- Norman Maclean, A River Runs Through It (1976)
Potential & Kinetic Energy
released, that potential energy becomes kinetic energy or energy of motion, which snaps the band and transfers energy to
The key of the physics behind casting
the rock, which then flies through the
is in the “stop” at “2 o’clock,” as Norman
air. The same concept holds true for a
McLean calls it. As the line comes to a
fishing rod. Because graphite or bamboo
stop behind you before you swing for-
rods are flexible, letting the weight of
ward, potential energy is stored in the
the lines bend them as they are being
rod. That energy is then transferred into
“loaded” behind your head stores energy
No Limits • Fall 2012 • 29
Cody Cintron ‘13 mending his fishing line. Photo by Emily von Weise ‘15. in the rod. This then provides the power
not disturb the natural drift of the fly on
for a clean unrolling of lines.
the current. □
Biomimicry
Fly fishing is part-physics, part-biology, and of course, part-ecology. Mastering
When the physics of casting is done, biol-
mechanics of overhead casting and
ogy plays another key role in the success
understanding
of casting. The flies are essentially a type
increase success of your fishing trips.
of biomimicry—man-tied flies attempt
However, personal experience transcends
to imitate the visuals and behavior of
the science and adds the component
common aquatic insects. Artificial flies
of art to this unique sport. Every time
are tied with natural (eg. feathers) and
I fish with the fly fishing crew in the
synthetic materials (eg. rubber, plastic,
Housatonic River, I feel the force of load-
and mylar) to represent a wide range
ing and unrolling in the handle of my rod,
of insects. Different materials are put
see the line draw infinity signs as it sails
together to configure certain weights
through the sky, and hear the fish flop-
and behaviors of three big categories
ping on the surface or the trickling water.
of flies, depending on where they are
Only experience will teach a novice how
targeted. Dry flies float on the surface,
to truly immerse in the river, and engage
partially submerged emergers resemble
in the art of “active meditation.”
aquatic
insects
will
newly emerging insects, and nymphs, streamers, and wet flies are purpose-
This article is dedicated to Mr. Damon
fully made heavier or less buoyant to
White, who left school at the end of last
resemble insects in water. All of these
year. He introduced many students to fly-
generally imitate natural insects, though
fishing through literature.
it is the fisherman’s ability to drift and mend the lines well enough for the fly to seem natural to a fish underwater; to be effective at catching fish, the lines should
30 • No Limits • Fall 2012
WORKS CITED Table of Contents (page 2) Images from top to bottom, left to right: © Radial Info. © CERN. © Andrea Hill. © Eric Li. © NASA’s Marshall Space Center. ©2012 Alaska Salmon
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