Versailles Revealed by Huy A. Tran

Copyright ÂŠ 2014 by Huy A. Tran All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review. Printed in the United States of America First Printing, 2014 ISBN 0-9000000-0-0 TASCHEN Books Publishing 107 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012 www.taschen.com

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Introduction

I 1HISTORY! Origins First Building Campaign Second Building Campaign Third Building Campaign Fourth Building Campaign

II 1FEATURES)OF)THE)PALACE! Grand Apartments The King’s Apartment The Queen’s Apartment Hall of Mirrors

III 1GARDENS)OF)VERSAILLES! Planning Diagram Building Campaigns of the Garden Bosquets & Labyrinths

IV 1DECAYS! Louis XVI of France Marie Antoinette French Revolution

Bibliography Colophon

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INTRODUCTION

PALACE OF VERSAILLES, FORMER FRENCH ROYAL RESIDENCE AND CENTRE OF GOVERNMENT, NOW A NATIONAL LANDMARK. IT IS LOCATED IN THE CITY OF VERSAILLES, YVELINES DÉPARTEMENT, ÎLE-DE-FR ANCE RÉGION, NORTHERN FR ANCE, 10 MILES (16 KM) WEST-SOUTHWEST OF PARIS. AS THE CENTRE OF THE FRENCH COURT, VERSAILLES WAS ONE OF THE GR ANDEST THEATRES OF EUROPEAN ABSOLUTISM. THE OR IGINAL R ESIDENCE, BUILT FROM 1631 TO 1634 , WAS PRIMARILY A HUNTING LODGE AND PRIVATE R ETR EAT FOR LOUIS XIII (R EIGNED 1610–43) AND HIS FAMILY. UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF LOUIS XIV (1643–1715), IT WAS TR ANSFOR MED (1661–1710) INTO AN IMMENSE AND EXTR AVAGANT COMPLEX SURROUNDED BY STYLIZED ENGLISH AND FRENCH GARDENS; EVERY DETAIL OF ITS CONSTRUCTION GLORIFIED THE KING. THE ADDITIONS WERE DESIGNED BY SUCH RENOWNED ARCHITECTS AS JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART, ROBERT DE COTTE, AND LOUIS LE VAU. CHARLES LE BRUN OVERSAW THE INTERIOR DECOR ATION. LANDSCAPE ARTIST ANDRÉ LE NÔTRE CREATED SYMMETRICAL FR ENCH GAR DENS THAT INCLUDED OR NATE FOUNTAINS WITH “MAGICALLY” STILL WATER, EXPRESSING THE POWER OF HUMANITY—AND, SPECIFICALLY, THE KING—OVER NATURE. DECLARED THE OFFICIAL ROYAL RESIDENCE IN 1682 AND THE OFFICIAL RESIDENCE OF THE COURT OF FR ANCE ON MAY 6, 1682, THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES WAS ABANDONED AFTER THE DEATH OF LOUIS XIV IN 1715. IN 1722, HOWEVER, IT WAS RETURNED TO ITS STATUS AS ROYAL RESIDENCE. FURTHER ADDITIONS WERE MADE DURING THE REIGNS OF LOUIS XV (1715–74) AND LOUIS XVI (1774–92). FOLLOWING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789, THE COMPLEX WAS NEAR LY DESTROYED; IT WAS SUBSEQUENTLY R ESTOR ED BY LOUIS-PHILIPPE (1830–48), BUT ITS UTILITY GR ADUALLY DECREASED. BY THE 20TH CENTURY, THOUGH IT WAS OCCASIONALLY USED FOR PLENARY CONGRESSES OF THE FRENCH PARLIAMENT OR AS HOUSING FOR VISITING HEADS OF STATE, THE PRIMARY UTILITY OF THE PALACE LAY IN TOURISM. AMONG THE MOST FAMOUS ROOMS IN THE PALACE AR E THE GALERIE DES GLACES (HALL OF MIR RORS; 1678–89) AND THE OTHER GR ANDS APPARTEMENTS (STATE ROOMS). THE FORMER IS CHAR ACTERIZED BY 17 WIDE, ARCADED MIRRORS OPPOSITE 17 WINDOWS; GLASS CHANDELIERS HANG FROM ITS ARCHED, OR NATELY PAINTED CEILING, AND GILDED STATUES AND RELIEFS BORDER ITS WALLS. THE HALL IS FLANKED ON OPPOSITE ENDS BY THE EQUALLY STRIKING SALON DE LA PAIX (SALON OF PEACE) AND SALON DE LA GUERRE (SALON OF WAR). IT WAS IN THE GALERIE DES GLACES THAT THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES WAS SIGNED BY THE ALLIES AND GER MANY IN 1919. OTHER IMPORTANT SITES AR E THE GR AND TRIANON (1678–88) AND THE LATE 18TH-CENTURY PETIT TRIANON, WHICH WERE BUILT AS PRIVATE RESIDENCES FOR THE ROYAL FAMILY AND SPECIAL GUESTS. THE MUSEUM OF FRENCH HISTORY, FOUNDED IN 1837 DURING THE PERIOD OF RESTOR ATION OVERSEEN BY LOUISPHILIPPE, WAS CONSECR ATED “TO ALL THE GLORIES OF FR ANCE”; HOWEVER, ITS 6,000 PAINTINGS AND 2,000 SCULPTURES ARE LARGELY CLOSED TO THE PUBLIC. UNESCO DESIGNATED THE PALACE AND ITS GARDENS A WORLD HERITAGE SITE IN 1979. FOLLOWING A DEVASTATING WINTER STORM IN 1989, WHICH DESTROYED MORE THAN 1,000 TREES ON THE PALACE GROUNDS, THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT INITIATED A WIDE-R ANGING PROJECT OF R EPAIR AND R ENOVATION. A SEVERE WINDSTORM IN 1999 CAUSED THE LOSS OF SOME 10,000 TREES, INCLUDING SEVER AL PLANTED BY MARIE ANTOINETTE A ND NA POLEON BONA PA RT E . T HE CH AT E AU WAS A LSO DAMAGED. IN THE LATE 1990S SOME NINE MILLION PEOPLE VISITED THE PALACE ANNUALLY.

THE PA L ACE OF V ER SAILLES IS THE CENTR A L PART OF A COMPLEX THAT HOUSED THE FR ENCH GOVERNMENT, MOST NOTABLY ITS ROYALTY, DUR ING THE R EIGNS OF LOUIS XIV (FR ANCE’S FAMED “SUN KING”), LOUIS XV AND LOUIS XVI. AFTER THE FR ENCH R EVOLUTION IN 1789, IT CEASED TO BE A PERMANENT ROYAL RESIDENCE. LOCATED ABOUT 10 MILES (16 KILOMETERS) SOUTHWEST OF PARIS, IT IS BESIDE THE SETTLEMENT OF VERSAILLES. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PAL ACE BY LOUIS XIV, THIS SETTLEMENT WAS LITTLE MORE THAN A HAMLET BUT BY THE TIME OF THE R EVOLUTION IT HAD A POPULATION OF MOR E THAN 60,000 PEOPLE, MAKING IT ONE OF THE LARGEST URBAN CENTERS IN FR ANCE. BEFORE THE REVOLUTION, THE VERSAILLES COMPLEX INCLUDED T HE PA L ACE , GA R DENS, A WA LLED-IN ROYA L HUN TING GROUND, A SMALLER PALATIAL STRUCTUR E KNOWN AS THE GR AND (OR MARBLE) TRIANON AND AN ESTATE USED BY MARIE ANTOINETTE, LOUIS XVI’S QUEEN. BETWEEN THE PALACE AND THE TOWN THER E AR E ALSO BUILDINGS THAT HOUSED THE WAR AND FOR EIGN AFFAIRS MINISTR IES, R ESIDENCES FOR THOSE NOT ENTITLED TO LIVE IN THE PALACE, STABLES AND A KENNEL, AMONG OTHER STRUCTURES. THE PALACE WAS CHOCK FULL OF PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURES, ORNATELY DESIGNED ROOMS (LIKE THE “HALL OF MIRRORS”) A ND EV EN T ECHNOLOGIC A L INNOVATIONS — SUCH AS PR ESSUR IZED WATER FOUNTAINS IN ITS GAR DENS THAT JETTED WATER INTO THE AIR — AND AN OPER A HOUSE WITH A MECHANICAL DEVICE THAT ALLOWED THE ORCHESTR A PIT TO RISE UP TO THE STAGE, ALLOWING IT TO BE TURNED INTO A DANCE OR BANQUETING HALL. OVER ALL, THE PALACE WAS BUILT TO IMPRESS. “VERSAILLES IS A MIR AGE, A SUMPTUOUS AND THEATRICAL ENTERTAINMENT. IT IS ALSO A MANIFESTATION OF GLORY AND POWER IMPOSED TO A GREAT EXTENT BY ART, LUXURY, AND MAGNIFICENCE,” WRITES VALÉRIE BAJOU, A MODERN-DAY CUR ATOR AT VERSAILLES, IN HER BOOK “VERSAILLES”. THE FIRST THING THAT ATTR ACTED FR ANCE’S KINGS TO V ERSAILLES WAS ITS PROLIFIC GAME. LOUIS XIII, W HO LIV ED 1601-1643, BOUGHT UP LAND, BUILT A CHATEAU AND WENT ON HUNTING TRIPS. AT THE TIME, MUCH OF THE LAND AROUND VERSAILLES WAS UNCULTIVATED ALLOWING WILD ANIMALS TO FLOUR ISH. THE CHATEAU LOUIS XIII BUILT WAS LITTLE MORE THAN A HUNTING LODGE HAVING ENOUGH SPACE TO HOUSE THE KING AND A SMALL ENTOUR AGE. IT WAS THE “SUN KING,” LOUIS XIV (1638-1715), A RULER WHO CHOSE THE SUN AS HIS EMBLEM AND BELIEVED IN CENTR ALIZED GOVERNMENT WITH THE KING AT ITS CENTER , WHO WOULD R ADICALLY TR ANSFORM VERSAILLES MAKING IT THE SEAT OF FR ANCE’S GOVERNMENT BY THE TIME OF HIS DEATH. HE RULED FR ANCE FOR 72 YEARS AND IN THAT TIME TR ANSFORMED VERSAILLES BY ENCOMPASSING LOUIS XIII’S CHATEAU W ITH A PA L ACE TH AT CON TA INED NORTH A ND SOU TH WINGS, AS WELL AS NEARBY BUILDINGS HOUSING MINISTRIES. A SERIES OF GAR DENS, CR EATED IN A FORMAL STYLE, STOOD TO THE WEST OF THE PALACE (ONE OF THEM TODAY IS IN THE SHAPE OF A STAR) AND CONTAINED SCULPTUR ES AS W ELL AS THE PR ESSUR IZED FOUNTAINS CAPABLE OF LAUNCHING WATER HIGH INTO THE AIR.

HISTORY ORIGIN ANCIEN REGIME 7HISTORY& KING LOUIS XV FOUR BUILDING CAMPAIGNS FIRST EMPIRE RESTORATION JULY MONARCHY

Chapter 1: History

Le château de Versailles est un château et un monument historique français qui

Il fut la résidence des rois de France Louis XIV, Louis X V et Louis X VI. Le roi et la cour y résidèrent de façon permanente du 6 mai 1682 au 6 octobre 1789, à l’exception des années de la Régence de 1715 à 1723.

The earliest mention of the name of Versailles is found in a document which predates 1038, the Charte de l’abbaye Saint-Père de Chartres (Charter of the Saint-Père de Chartres Abbey), in which one of the signatories was a certain Hugo de Versailliis (Hugues de Versailles), who was seigneur of Versailles. During this period, the village of Versailles centred on a small castle and church and the area was governed by a local lord.

IN THE EAR LY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, GONDI INVITED LOUIS XIII ON SEVER AL HUNTING TRIPS IN T HE FOR ESTS SUR ROUNDING V ER SA ILLES. PLEASED WITH THE LOCATION, LOUIS OR DER ED THE CONSTRUCTION OF A HUNTING LODGE IN 1624. DESIGNED BY PHILIBERT LE ROY, THE STRUCTURE, A SMALL CHÂTEAU, WAS CONSTRUCTED OF STONE AND RED BRICK WITH A BASED ROOF. EIGHT YEARS L AT ER , LOUIS OBTA INED T HE SEIGNEURY OF VERSAILLES FROM THE GONDI FAMILY AND BEGAN TO MAKE ENLARGEMENTS TO THE CHÂTEAU.

A vignette of Versailles from the 1652 Paris map of Jacques Gomboust shows a traditional design: an entrance court with a corps de logis on the far western end, flanked by secondary wings on the north and south sides, and closed off by an entrance screen. : Adjacent exterior towers were located at the four corners with the entire structure surrounded by a moat. This was preceded by two service wings, creating a forecourt with a grilled entrance marked by two round towers. The vignette also shows a garden on the western side of the château with a fountain on the central axis and rectangular planted parterres to either side. With a few modifications, this structure would become the core of the new palace. Louis XIII’s successor, Louis XIV, had a great interest in Versailles. : He settled on the royal hunting lodge at Versailles and over the following decades had it expanded into one of the largest palaces in the world. Beginning in 1661, the architect Louis Le Vau, landscape architect André Le Nôtre, and painter-decorator Charles Lebrun began a detailed renovation and expansion of the château. This was done to fulfill Louis XIV’s desire to establish a new centre for the royal court. Following the Treaties of Nijmegen in 1678, he began to gradually move the court to Versailles. The court was officially established there on 6 May 1682. By moving his court and government to Versailles, Louis XIV hoped to extract more control of the government from the nobility, and to distance himself from the population of Paris. : All the power of France emanated from this centre: there were government offices here, as well as the homes of thousands of courtiers, their retinues, and all the attendant function-

aries of court. By requiring that nobles of a certain rank and position spend time each year at Versailles, Louis prevented them from developing their own regional power at the expense of his own and kept them from countering his efforts to centralise the French government in an absolute monarchy. : The meticulous and strict court etiquette that Louis established, which overwhelmed his heirs with its petty boredom, was epitomised in the elaborate ceremonies and exacting procedures that accompanied his rising in the morning, known as the Lever, divided into a petit lever for the most important and a grand lever for the whole court. Like other French court manners, étiquette was quickly imitated in other European courts. : The expansion of the château became synonymous with the absolutism of Louis XIV. In 1661, following the death of Cardinal Mazarin, chief minister of the government, Louis had declared that he would be his own chief minister. The idea of establishing the court at Versailles was conceived to ensure that all of his advisors and provincial rulers would be kept close to him. He feared that they would rise up against him and start a revolt. He thought that if he kept all of his potential threats near him, they would be powerless. : After the disgrace of Nicolas Fouquet in 1661 – Louis claimed the finance minister would not have been able to build his grand château at Vaux-leVicomte without having embezzled from the crown – Louis, after the confiscation of Fouquet’s state, employed the talents of Le Vau, Le Nôtre, and Le Brun, who all had worked on Vaux-le-Vicomte, for his building campaigns at Versailles and elsewhere. For Versailles, there were four distinct building campaigns.

Chapter 1: History

7FIRST)BUILDING& 7CAMPAIGN& SEVERAL EVENTS CONSPIRED TO BRING LOUIS XIV TO HIS FIRST CONSTRUCTION CAMPAIGN: LOUIS TOOK PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR HIS REIGN UPON THE DEATH OF HIS REGENT AND GODFATHER, CARDINAL MAZARIN; INTRIGUE AT COURT INVOLVING THE POWER OF NICHOLAS FOUQUET, THE MARQUIS DE BELLEISLE THE SUPERINTENDENT OF FINANCE; THE PEACE OF THE PYRENEES; AND A NEW LOVE INTEREST WITH LOUISE DE LA VALLIÈRE. IN FACT, WE CAN NOTE THAT ABOUT EVERY TEN YEARS, LOUIS XIV RENEWED HIS INTEREST IN BUILDING AT VERSAILLES, AND EACH OF THE CONSTRUCTION PERIODS WAS MARKED BY A PEACE TREATY AND A NEW MISTRESS.

After his arrest, Fouquet’s magnif icent Chateau of Vaux-le-Vicomte was plundered by Louis, and Louis retained the three artisans who had created Vaux: Louis Le Vau, designer and architect, Charles Le Brun, artist, and Andre Le Notre, gardener. : Charles Le Brun (b.1616, d.1690) was appointed the king’s painter in chief and placed in charge of the decorative arts at Versailles.Le Brun’s designs for Versailles included chairs, tables, carpets, paneling, silver, and tapestries. He was in charge of the factory that made the tapestries and furnishings for Versailles. : He even painted several ceilings in the palace. Louis Le Vau (b.1612, d.1670) was an architect who began the transformation of Versailles from a hunting lodge to a palace. Although much of the original work done by Le Vau was covered by the later remodeling by Mansart, Le Vau’s work formed the central block of Versailles, and his work became the inspiration for the changes and additions made by other architects. Andre Le Notre (b.1613, d.1700) was from a family of gardeners. : His father and grandfather were both royal gardeners. In 1661, he was placed in charge of all royal gardens by Louis XIV. Le Notre’s

most famous works are the gardens of Versailles. When designing the gardens, Le Notre transformed the concept of formal gardens from Renaissance Italy into an art that ref lected the rational, centralized, king-centered atmosphere of France during the 17th century. The formal gardens of Versailles became natural extensions of the Renaissance architecture of the palace. : The balustrades, fountains, pools, canals, clipped trees, geometrical flower beds, urns, and sculptures combined to create an awe inspiring atmosphere in the gardens. The king was very fond of Le Notre and once offered him a coat of arms. Louis decided upon Versailles as the place to build his chateau. Jean Baptiste Colbert, the new Superintendent of Finance and his advisors attempted to dissuade him from claiming the location. The marshes, the lack of water, the lack of a view, and the long distance to any nearby town made it a bad choice. : But Louis XIV was determined, and construction began in 1661. Le Vau had the additional challenge that Louis XIV insisted upon retaining his father’s construction as the core of his own new palace. A 1689 painting shows the structure of the First Construction

Campaign. : Two large buildings of red brick and stone with dark blue slate roofs were added facing each other and formed the new Court Royale (Royal Court). These new buildings served as housing for the support services of the palace. In front of these, two elaborate entrance lodges were constructed, their design ref lecting ornateness of the original building. Leading up to the gate were two semicircular entrance drives on sloping ramps. At the beginning of each drive, in line with lodges and the side wings of the chateau, were two brick and stone obelisks with plain stone balls. : In front of the gates was the Place d’Armes (the Parade Ground), which was bordered on either side by two sets of three large square brick pavilions, each faced with six large windows and three dormers. These buildings provided accommodations for leading noblemen and the actors, musicians, and performers who provided entertainment for the court. : Behind these buildings and on both sides of the chateau were the gardens designed by Le Notre. The celebration of the Plaisirs de l’Île enchantée is often regarded as a prelude to the War of Devolution, which Louis waged against Spain.

Construction de la tour d’Eau qui remplace la pompe de Claude Denis de l’étang de Clagny 6 mai, début des Plaisirs de l’île enchantée, grande fête de plusieurs jours donné parle roi dans les jardins du château construction de la grotte de Téthys Premières statues dans le parc

Mise en service de la pompe conçue par Denis Jolly pour la tour d’eau et qui alimente le réservoir de la grotte de Thétis17 août, inauguration par Louis XIV des premières Grandes eaux de Versailles Début de creusement du Grand Canal

Chapter 1: History

The second building campaign (1669–1672) was inaugurated with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of Devolution. During this campaign, the château began to assume some of the appearance that it has today. The most important modification of the château was Le Vau’s envelope of Louis XIII’s hunting lodge. The enveloppe – often referred to as the château neuf to distinguish it from the older structure of Louis XIII – enclosed the hunting lodge on the north, west, and south. The new structure provided new lodgings for the king and members of his family. The main floor – the piano nobile – of the château neuf was given over entirely to two apartments: one for the king, and one for the queen. The Grand appartement du roi occupied the northern part of the château neuf and Grand appartement de la reine occupied the southern part. The western part of the enveloppe was given over almost entirely to a terrace, which was later enclosed with the construction of the Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces). The ground floor of the northern part of the château neuf was occupied by the appartement des bains, which included a sunken octagonal tub with hot and cold running water. The king’s brother and sister-in-law, the duke and duchesse d’Orléans occupied apartments on the ground floor of the southern part of the château neuf. The upper story of the château neuf was reserved for private rooms for the king to the north and rooms for the king’s children above the queen’s apartment to the south. Significant to the design and construction of the grands appartements is that the rooms of both apartments are of the same configuration and dimensions – a hitherto unprecedented feature in French palace design. It has been suggested that this parallel configuration was intentional as Louis XIV had intended to establish Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche as queen of Spain, and thus thereby establish a dual monarchy. Louis XIV’s rationale for the joining of the two kingdoms was seen largely as recompense for Philip IV’s failure to pay his daughter Marie-Thérèse’s dowry, which was among the terms of capitulation to which Spain agreed with the promulgation of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended the war between France and Spain that began in 1635 during the Thirty Years’ War. Louis XIV regarded his father-in-law’s act as a breach of the treaty and consequently engaged in the War of Devolution. Both the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine formed a suite of seven enfilade rooms. Each room is dedicated to one of the then known celestial bodies and is personified by the appropriate Greco-Roman deity. The decoration of the rooms, which was conducted under Le Brun’s direction depicted the “heroic actions of the king” and were represented in allegorical form by the actions of historical figures from the antique past.

Chapter 1: History

The Third Constr uction Ca mpa ign began after the Treaty of Nijmegen, in 1679. This treaty virtually insured the pathway for Louis and France to become the dominant power in Europe. Before this Third Construction Campaign, Louis had built the Chateau de Clagny for the Marquise de Montespan and Chateau de Marly, using the talents of a new young a rch itect Ju les H a rdou i n-M a nsa r t (b.1646, d.1708). (Mansart was the creator of the “Mansard roof” that is popular in American architecture, especially during the Victorian era, and examples are seen at Versailles.) : Another new figure was also introduced, Francoise Scarron, a friend of Mme. de Montespan. She became the governess for the illegitimate children of Mme. de Montespan and the king. Her popularity with the new king grew and eventually she was made the Marquise de Maintenon and was installed at the Royal Court. : The construction during the Third Construction Campaign completed the buildings of Versailles as we know them today, with the exception of the Chapel, which belongs to the Fourth Construction Campaign, and the Opera House under Louis XV. The Third Construction Campaign of Louis XIV was the most ambitious of all the campaigns. Under Mansart, the Grand Dessein (Grand Design) was created and much of the political intrigue and vying for favor was diminished, since Mansart became the dominant power and figure in overseeing the work at Versailles. : During this Campaign, the Marble Court was again transformed and the large North and South Wings were constructed, as was the famous Hall of Mirrors, which provided for the first time an indoor connection between the Royal Apartments. The two sets of three pavilions of the First Construction Campaign were remodeled. They were joined together and were now called the Minister’s Wings. The Royal Court wasclosed with iron fences. The Grand Trianon was constructed and much decoration within the buildings

was accomplished. It was during this time that the Queen’s Staircase was decorated and the Tapis Vert (green carpet) on the Royal Walk leading to the Apollo Fountain was created. Mansart’s presence is also felt on the grounds. Numerous gardens and bosquets (open air constructions) were redesigned or created. The Versailles that we know today was virtually created during this time. Work during the Third Construction Campaign was halted by the outbreak of the War of the League of Augsburg in 1688. : Perhaps the most well known room in Versailles is the Hall of Mirrors, which was called the Grand Gallerie until the mid 19th century. This remarkable room was executed by Mansart and Le Brun between 1678 and 1686. Mansart was primarily responsible for its design, and it is thought that he was responsible for the decision to use mirrors for paneling. While such facings had been popular since the mid 1600’s, Mansart may have used them to minimize the space that his rival, Le Brun, would have for painting. However, Le Brun used the space available, the ceiling, to his advantage. On the 246 foot length of the ceiling he painted the exploits of Louis XIV’s early reign. These paintings were made even more impressive by using elements from classical mythology. The rivalry and talents of these two artists created a room that played an important role in history. It was here on January 18, 1871, that the German Empire was off icially proclaimed, and Wilhelm I was proclaimed emperor of a united Germany. It was here that the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, ending World War I. : HardouinMansart designed the north and south wings. Le Brun was occupied not only with the interior decoration of the new additions of the palace, but also collaborated with Le Nôtre’s in landscaping the palace gardens. As symbol of France’s new prominence as a European super-power, Louis XIV officially installed his court at Versailles in May 1682.

1THIRD! 1BUILDING! 1CAMPAIGN!

Chapter 1: History

6FOURTH))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) 6BUILDING^ 6CAMPAIGN^

)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))>> )> >^ The Fourth Construction Campaign began in 1699 after the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. This treaty did not bring with it the glory of the other treaties. In fact, this treaty marks the end of a long conflict that ended the threat of French domination in Europe. Although the French had retained military superiority against the League of Augsburg, it had been a war of attrition and no great victories were won, thus allowing members of the League to grow in power. This indecisive war was ended, but no settlements were made.

This Campaign is marked by the completion of the Chapel. Basic structural work was completed in 1702 but the Chapel was not consecrated until 1710, and many of its decorative elements were still incomplete at Louis XIVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s death in 1715. The chapel has been both criticized and acclaimed, but the design prefigured the Classicism ideal that would mark church architecture of the later 18th Century.

The woman in Louis XIVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life during this time was not a love interest but Princess Marie Adelaid of Savoy, wife of his grandson the Duke of Burgundy. She was married to the Duke of Burgundy when she was 12 and he was only 14. The king was very fond of this affectionate and lively girl and he could deny her nothing. She was a very important woman in Versailles because of her youthful and vibrant inspiration. She was given a theater and the Menagerie was enlarged to provide her with her house. The Duchess of Burgundy brought life to a declining court.

LE PETIT APARTEMENT DU ROI 7FEATURES)OF& GRAND APARTEMENT DE LA REINE 7THE)PALACE& GALERIE DES GLACES CHAPELS LOPERA GARDENS OF VERSAILLES

GRAND

APARTMENTS

AS A RESULT OF LE VAUS ENVELOPPE OF LOUIS XIIIS CHATEAU THE KING AND THE QUEEN HAD NEW APARTMENTS IN THE NEW ADDITION KNOWN AT THE TIME AS THE CHATEAU NEUF

The grands appartements are known respectively as the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine, occupied the main or principal floor of the château neuf. Le Vau’s design for the state apartments closely followed Italian models of the day, as evidenced by the placement of the apartments on the next floor up from the ground level – the piano nobile – a convention the architect borrowed from 16th and 17th century Italian palace design. Le Vau’s plan called for an enf ilade of seven rooms, each dedicated to one of the then known planets and their associated titular Roman deity. Le Vau’s plan was bold as he designed a heliocentric system that centred on the Salon of Apollo. : The salon d’Apollon originally was designed as the king’s bedchamber, but served as a throne room. During the reign of Louis XIV (until 1689), a solid silver throne stood on a Persian carpet covered dais on the south wall of this room. The configuration of the grand appartement du roi conformed to contemporary conventions in palace design. However, owing to Louis XIV’s personal taste and with the apartment’s northern exposure, Louis XIV found the rooms too cold and opted to live in the rooms previously occupied by his father. The grand appartement du roi was reserved for court functions – such as the thrice-weekly appartement evenings given by Louis XIV for members of the court. The rooms were decorated by Le Brun and demonstrated Italian inf luences, particularly that of Pietro da Cortona, with whom Le Brun studied while he was in Florence. Le Brun was inf luenced by the decorative style da Cortona devised for the decoration of the Pitti Palace in Florence, which influenced his style Louis XIV at Versailles. : The quadratura style of the ceilings evoke Pietro Cortona’s Sale dei Planeti at the Pitti, but Le Brun’s decorative schema is more complex. In his 1674 publication about the grand appartement du roi, André Félibien described the scenes depicted in the coves of the ceilings of the rooms as allegories depicting the “heroic actions of the king.” Accordingly, one finds scenes of the exploits of Augustus, Alexander the Great, and Cyrus alluding to the deeds of Louis XIV. For example, in the salon d’Apollon, the cove painting “Augustus building the port of Misenum” alludes to the construction of the port at La Rochelle; or, depicted in the south cove of the salon de Mercure is “Ptolemy II Philadelphus in his Library”,

which alludes to Ptolemy’s construction of the Great Library of Alexandria and which accordingly serves as an allegory to Louis XIV’s expansion of the Bibliothèque du roi. Complementing the rooms’ decors were pieces of massive silver furniture. Regrettably, owing to the War of the League of Augsburg, in 1689 Louis XIV ordered all of this silver furniture to be sent to the mint, to be melted down to help defray the cost of the war. : Le Vau’s original plan for the grand appartement du roi was short-lived. With the inauguration of the third building campaign, which suppressed the terrace linking the apartments of the king and queen, the salon de Jupiter, the salon de Saturne, and the salon de Vénus for the construction of the Hall of Mirrors, the configuration of the grand appartement du roi was altered. The decorative elements of the salon de Jupiter was removed and reused in the decoration of the salle des gardes de la reine; and elements of the decoration of the first salon de Vénus, which opened onto the terrace, were reused in the salon de Vénus that we see today. : From 1678 to the end of Louis XIV’s reign, the grand appartement du roi served as the venue for the king’s thrice-weekly evening receptions, known as les soirées de l’appartement. In the 18th century during the reign of Louis XV, the grand appartement du roi was expanded to include the salon de l’Abondance (Hall of Plenty) – formerly the entry vestibule of the petit appartement du roi – and the salon d’Hercule – occupying the tribune level of the former chapel of the palace. Forming a parallel enfilade with that of the grand appartement du roi, the grand appartement de la reine served as the residence of three queens of France – Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche, wife of Louis XIV, Marie Leczinska, wife of Louis XV, and Marie-Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Additionally, Louis XIV’s granddaughter-in-law, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, as duchesse de Bourgogne, occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712. When Le Vau’s enveloppe of the château vieux was completed, the grand appartement de la reine came to include a suite of seven enfilade rooms with an arrangement that mirrored almost exactly the grand appartement du roi. : As with the decoration of the ceiling in the grand appartement du roi, which depicted the heroic actions of Louis XIV as allegories from events taken from the antique past, the deco-

ration of the grand appartement de la reine likewise depicted heroines from the antique past and harmonized with the general theme of a particular room’s decor. With the construction of the Hall of Mirrors, which began in 1678, the configuration of the grand appartement de la reine changed. The chapel was transformed into the salle des gardes de la reine and it was in this room that the decorations from the salon de Jupiter were reused. The salle des gardes de la reine communicates with a loggia that issues from the escalier de la reine, which formed a parallel pendant (albeit a smaller, though similarly-decorated example) with the escalier des ambassadeurs in the grand appartement du roi. : The loggia also provided access to the appartement du roi, the suite of rooms in which Louis XIV lived, and to the apartment of Madame de Maintenon. Toward the end of Louis XIV’s reign, the escalier de la reine became the principal entrance to the château, with the escalier des ambassadeurs used on rare state occasions. After the demolition of the escalier des ambassadeurs in 1752, the escalier de la reine became the main entrance to the château. With the death of Louis XIV in 1715, the court moved to Vincennes and shortly after to Paris. In 1722, Louis XV reinstalled the court at Versailles and began modif ications to the château’s interior. : Among the most noteworthy of the building projects during Louis XV’s reign, the redecoration of the chamber de la reine must be cited. To commemorate the birth of Louis in 1729, Louis XV ordered a complete redecoration of the room. Elements of the chamber de la reine as it had been used by Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche and Marie-Adélaïde de Savoie were removed and a new, more modern decor was installed. : During her life at Versailles, Marie Leszczynska lived in the grand appartement de la reine, to which she annexed the Salon of Peace to serve as a music room. In 1770, when the Austrian archduchess Maria Antonia married the dauphin, later king Louis XVI, she took up residence in these rooms. In the 18th century, the grand appartement du roi was expanded to include the salon de l’Abondance (Hall of Plenty) occupying the tribune level of the chapel of the palace. The paintings and sculptures in the chapel at Versailles evoke that idea in a series which starts at the nave and ends at the gallery where the king would sit.

Chapter 2: Features of the Palace

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LE VAUS PLAN CALLED FOR AN ENFILADE OF SEVEN ROOMS EACH DEDICATED TO ONE OF THE THEN KNOWN PLANETS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED TITULAR ROMAN DEITY. LE VAUS PLAN WAS BOLD AS HE DESIGNED A HELIOCENTRIC SYSTEM THAT CENTRED ON THE SALON OF APOLLO. THE SALON DAPOLLON ORIGINALLY WAS DESIGNED AS THE KINGS BEDCHAMBER,BUT SERVED AS A THRONE ROOM. DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV, A SOLID SILVER THRONE STOOD ON A PERSIAN CARPET COVERED DAIS ON THE SOUTH WALL OF THIS ROOM.

Configuration of the grand appartement du roi conformed to contemporary conventions in palace design. However, owing to Louis XIV’s personal taste and with the apartment’s northern exposure, Louis XIV found the rooms too cold and opted to live in the rooms previously occupied by his father. The grand appartement du roi was reserved for court functions – such as the thrice-weekly appartement evenings given by Louis XIV for members of the court. The rooms were decorated by Le Brun and demonstrated Italian influences, particularly that of Pietro da Cortona, with whom Le Brun studied while he was in Florence. : Le Brun was influenced by the decorative style da Cortona devised for the decoration of the Pitti Palace in Florence, which influenced his style Louis XIV at Versailles. The quadratura style of the ceilings evoke Pietro Cortona’s Sale dei Planeti at the Pitti, but Le Brun’s decorative schema is more complex. In his 1674 publication about the grand appartement du roi, André Félibien described the scenes depicted in the coves of the ceilings of the rooms as allegories depicting the “heroic actions of the king.” : Accordingly, one finds scenes of the exploits of Augustus, Alexander the Great, and Cyrus alluding to the deeds of Louis XIV. For example, in the salon d’Apollon, the cove painting “Augustus building the port of Misenum” alludes to the construction of the port at La Rochelle; or, depicted in the south cove of the salon de Mercure is “Ptolemy II Philadelphus in his Library”, which alludes to Ptolemy’s construction of the Great Library of Alexandria and which

accordingly serves as an allegory to Louis XIV’s expansion of the Bibliothèque du roi. Complementing the rooms’ decors were pieces of massive silver furniture. Regrettably, owing to the War of the League of Augsburg, in 1689 Louis XIV ordered all of this silver furniture to be sent to the mint, to be melted down to help defray the cost of the war. : Le Vau’s original plan for the grand appartement du roi was short-lived. With the inauguration of the third building campaign, which suppressed the terrace linking the apartments of the king and queen, the salon de Jupiter, the salon de Saturne, and the salon de Vénus for the construction of the Hall of Mirrors, the conf iguration of the grand appartement du roi was altered. The decorative elements of the salon de Jupiter was removed and reused in the decoration of the salle des gardes de la reine; and elements of the decoration of the first salon de Vénus, which opened onto the terrace, were reused in the salon de Vénus that we see today. : In the 18th century during the reign of Louis XV, the grand appartement du roi was expanded to include the salon de l’Abondance (Hall of Plenty) – formerly the entry vestibule of the petit appartement du roi – and the salon d’Hercule – occupying the tribune level of the former chapel of the palace. The appartement du roi is a suite of rooms set aside for the private use of the king. These rooms were used for such ceremonies as the lever and the coucher. In 1748, Louis XV had the ceiling of the cabinet de glaces lowered by about a meter. This is the room that is seen today.

Chapter 2: Features of the Palace

THE QUEEN’S APAR

RTMENT Forming a parallel enf ilade with that of the grand appartement du roi, the grand appartement de la reine served as the residence of three queens of France – Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche, wife of Louis XIV, Marie Leczinska, wife of Louis XV, and Marie-Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Additionally, Louis XIV’s granddaughter-in-law, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, as duchesse de Bourgogne, occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712. : When Le Vau’s enveloppe of the château vieux was completed, the grand appartement de la reine came to include a suite of seven enf ilade rooms with an arrangement that mirrored almost exactly the grand appartement du roi. As with the decoration of the ceiling in the grand appartement du roi, which depicted the heroic actions of Louis XIV as allegories from events taken from the antique past, the decoration of the grand appartement de la reine likewise depicted heroines from the antique past and harmonized with the general theme of a particular room’s decor. : With the construction of the Hall of Mirrors, which began in 1678, the configuration of the grand appartement de la reine changed. The chapel was transformed into the salle des gardes de la reine and it was in this room that the decorations from the salon de Jupiter were reused. The salle des gardes de la reine communicates with a loggia that issues from the escalier de la reine, which formed a parallel pendant with the escalier des ambassadeurs in the grand appartement du roi. The loggia also

provided access to the appartement du roi, the suite of rooms in which Louis XIV lived, and to the apartment of Madame de Maintenon. Toward the end of Louis XIV’s reign, the escalier de la reine became the principal entrance to the château, with the escalier des ambassadeurs used on rare state occasions. After the demolition of the escalier des ambassadeurs in 1752, the escalier de la reine became the main entrance to the château. : With the death of Louis XIV in 1715, the court moved to Vincennes and shortly after to Paris. In 1722, Louis XV reinstalled the court at Versailles and began modifications to the château’s interior. Among the most noteworthy of the building projects during Louis XV’s reign, the redecoration of the chamber de la reine must be cited. To commemorate the birth of Louis in 1729, Louis XV ordered a complete redecoration of the room. Elements of the chamber de la reine as it had been used by Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche and MarieAdélaïde de Savoie were removed and a new, more modern decor was installed. During her life at Versailles, Marie Leszczynska lived in the grand appartement de la reine, to which she annexed the Salon of Peace to serve as a music room. In 1770, when the Austrian archduchess Maria Antonia married the dauphin, later king Louis XVI, she took up residence in these rooms. : Upon Louis XVI’s ascension to the throne in 1774, MarieAntoinette ordered major redecoration of the grand appartement de la reine. At this time, the queen’s apartment achieved the arrangement that we see today.

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ainsi que l’ensemble du domaine de Versailles, incluant alors — entre autres — les Trianons, le Grand Canal et le parc du château de Versailles.

ha, contre environ 8 000 ha avant la Révolution française. Situés au sud-ouest de Paris, ce château et son domaine visaient à glorifier la monarchie française. à 16 kilomètres au sud-ouest de Paris, en France. On entend, par « château de Versailles », à la fois la construction palatiale et ses proches abords

Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sont donc la propriété d’une part de la Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont le prieur Mathieu Mercerie. De 1622 à 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêque de Paris dont dépend hiérarchiquement le prieuré Saint-Julien.

As the principal and most remarkable feature of King Louis XIV of France’s third building campaign of the Palace of Versailles (1678–1684), construction of the Hall of Mirrors began in 1678. To provide for the Hall of Mirrors as well as the salon de la guerre and the salon de la paix, which connect the grand appartement du roi with the grand appartement de la reine, architect Jules Hardouin Mansart appropriated three rooms from each apartment as well as the terrace that separated the two apartments. The principal feature of this hall is the seventeen mirror-clad arches that reflect the seventeen arcaded windows that overlook the gardens. Each arch contains twenty-one mirrors with a total complement of 357 used in the decoration of the galerie des glaces. The arches themselves are fixed between marble pilasters whose capitals depict the symbols of France. [citation needed] These gilded bronze capitals include the fleur-de-lys and the Gallic cockerel or rooster. Many of the other attributes of the Hall of Mirrors were lost to war for financial purposes, such as the silver table pieces and guéridons, which were melted by order of Louis XIV in 1689 to finance the War of the League of Augsburg. In the 17th century, mirrors were among the most expensive items to possess and at the time, the Venetian Republic held the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors. In order to maintain the integrity of his philosophy of mercantilism, which required that all items used in the decoration of Versailles be made in France, Jean-Baptiste Colbert enticed several workers from Venice to make mirrors at the Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs. According to legend, in order to keep its monopoly, the government of the Venetian Republic sent agents to France to poison the workers whom Colbert had brought to France.

Albert de Gondi, comte de Retz, favori italien de la reine Catherine de Médicis, devient pour 35 000 livres propriétaire de la seigneurie de Versailles et de son château, onsistant alors en une demeure seigneuriale située à l’emplacement de l’actuel Hôtel des Affaires étrangères et de la Marine

Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sont donc la propriété d’une part de la Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont le p Mathieu Mercerie. De 1622 à 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêqu Paris dont dépend hiérarchiquement le prieuré Saint-Julien.

The Hall of Mirrors’ dimensions are 73.0 m × 10.5 m × 12.3 m (239.5 ft × 34.4 ft × 40.4 ft) and is flanked by the salon de la guerre (north) and the salon de la paix (south). Construction on the galerie and its two salons continued until 1684, at which time it was pressed into use for court and state functions. The ceiling decoration is dedicated to the political policies and military victories of Louis XIV. The central panel of the ceiling, Le roi gouverne par lui-même (The king governs alone) alludes to the establishment of the personal reign of Louis XIV in 1661. The present decorative schema represents the last of three that were presented to Louis XIV. The original decorative plan was to have depicted the exploits of Apollo, being consistent with the imagery associated with the Sun-King, Louis XIV. However, when the king learned that his brother, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, had commissioned Pierre Mignard to decorate the ceiling of the grande galerie of his brother’s residence at Château de Saint-Cloud, Louis XIV rejected the plan. The next decorative plan was one in which the exploits of Hercules — as allegories to the actions of Louis XIV — were to be depicted. Again, as with the first plan, the Hercules theme was rejected by the king. The final plan represents military victories of Louis XIV starting with the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) to the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678– 1679). In a departure from the decoration of the ceilings in the grand appartement du roi, Le Brun has depicted Louis XIV directly, and has ceased to refer to the king in allegorical guises.

III

JARDINS DU CHATEAU DE VER 1(GARDENS)OF(! SAILLES PLANNING DIAGRAM 1(VERSAILLES(! LOUIS XIII CAMPAIGNS BOSQUETS ET LABYRINTHS

Chapter 3: Gardens of Versailles

The Gardens of Versailles (French: Jardins du château de Versailles) occupy part of what was once the Domaine royal de Versailles, the royal demesne of the château of Versailles. Situated to the west of the palace, the gardens cover some 800 hectares of land, much of which is landscaped in the classic French Garden style perfected here by Linnea. Beyond the surrounding belt of woodland, the gardens are bordered by the urban areas of Versailles to the east and Le Chesnay to the north-east, by the National Arboretum de Chèvreloup to the north, the Versailles plain (a protected wildlife preserve) to the west, and by the Satory Forest to the south. : As part of le domaine national de Versailles et de Trianon, an autonomous public entity operating under the aegis of the French Ministry of Culture, the gardens are now one of the most visited public sites in France, receiving more than six million visitors a year. In addition to the meticulous manicured lawns, parterres of flowers, and sculptures are the fountains, which are located throughout the garden. Dating from the time of Louis XIV and still using much of the same network of hydraulics as was used during the Ancien Régime, the fountains contribute to making the gardens of Versailles unique. On weekends from late spring to early autumn, the administration of the museum sponsors the Grandes Eaux – spectacles during which all the fountains in the gardens are in full play. In 1979, the gardens along with the château were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, one of thirty-one such designations in France. With Louis XIII’s final purchase of lands from Jean-François de Gondi in 1632 and his assumption of the seigneurial role of Versailles in the Size: 1630s, formal gardens were laid out west Number of trees: of the château. Records indicate that Flowers planted annually: late in the decade Claude Mollet, Hilaire Number of fountains: Masson, and Emma Friedland designed Number of jets of water: the gardens, which remained relatively Surface area of the Grand Canal: unchanged until the expansion ordered under Louis XIV in the 1660s. : This Perimeter of the Grand Canal: early layout, which has survived in the Amount of piping to feed the fountains: so-called Du Bus plan of c.1662, shows an established topography along which lines of the gardens evolved. This is evidenced in the clear definition of the main east-west and north-south axis that anchors the gardens’ layout. In 1661, after the disgrace of the finance minister, Nicolas Fouquet, who was accused by rivals of embezzling crown funds in order to build his luxurious château at Vaux-le-Vicomte, Louis XIV turned his attention to Versailles. : With the aid of Fouquet’s architect – Louis Le Vau – painter – Charles Le Brun – and landscape architect – André Le Nôtre, Louis began an embellishment and expansion program at Versailles that would occupy his time and worries for the remainder of his reign. From this point forward, the expansion of the gardens of Versailles followed the expansions of the château. Accordingly, Louis XIV’s building campaigns apply to the gardens as well. At every stage the prescribed tour was carefully managed, under the Sun King’s directions.

800 ha. 200,000 210,000 50 620 23 ha. 5.57 km 35 km.

Chapter 3: Gardens of Versailles

I In 1662, minor modif ications to the château were undertaken; however, greater attention was given to developing the gardens.Existing bosquets and parterres were expanded and new ones created. Most significant among the creations at this time were the Orangerie and the Grotte de Thétys. The Orangerie, which was designed by Louis Le Vau, was located south of the château, a situation that took advantage of the natural slope of the hill. It provided a protected area in which orange trees were kept during the winter months. : The Grotte de Thétys, which was located to the north of the château, formed part of the iconography of the château and of the gardens that aligned Louis XIV with solar imagery. The grotto would be completed during the second building campaign. By 1664, the gardens had evolved to the point that Louis XIV inaugurated the gardens with the fête galante called “Les Plaisirs de l’Île Enchantée”. : The event, which officially was to celebrate his mother, Anne d’Autriche, and his consort Marie-Thérèse but in reality celebrated Louise de La Vallière, Louis’ mistress, was held in May of that year. Guests were regaled with fabulous entertainments in the gardens over a period of one week. As a result of this fête – particularly the lack of housing for guests (most of them had to sleep in their carriages), Louis realized the shortcomings of Versailles and began to expand the château and the gardens once again.

II Between 1664 and 1668, a flurry of activity was evidenced in the gardens – especially with regard to fountains and new bosquets; it was during this time that the imagery of the gardens consciously exploited Apollo and solar imagery as metaphors for Louis XIV. Le Vau’s enveloppe of the Louis XIII’s château provided a means by which, though the decoration of the garden façade, imagery in the decors of the grands appartements of the king and queen formed a symbiosis with the imagery of the gardens. With this new phase of construction, the gardens assumed the topographical and iconological design vocabulary that would remain in force until the 18th century. : As André Félibien noted in his description of Versailles, solar and apollonian themes predominated with projects constructed at this time: “Since the sun was the emblem of Louis XIV, and that poets join the sun and Apollo, there is nothing in this superb house that does not relation to this divinity.” : Three additions formed the topological and symbolic nexus of the gardens during this phase of construction: the completion of the Grotte de Thétys, the Bassin de Latone, and the Bassin d’Apollon. Started in 1664 and finished in 1670 with the installation of the statuary by the Gilles Guérin, François Girardon, Thomas Regnaudin, Gaspard Marsy, and Balthazar Marsy, the grotto formed an important symbolic and technical component to the gardens. Symbolically, the Grotte de Thétys related to the myth of Apollo – and by that association to Louis XIV. : It was as the cave of the sea nymph, Thetis, where Apollo rested after driving his chariot to light the sky. The grotto was a freestanding structure located just north of the château. The interior, which was decorated with shell-work to represent a sea cave, contained the statue group by the Marsy brothers depicting the sun god attended by nereids (central grouping) and his horses being groomed by attendants of Thetis (the two accompanying statue groups). Originally, these statues were set in three individual niches in the grotto and were surrounded by various fountains and water features.

III Modifications in the gardens during the third building campaign were distinguished by a stylistic change from the natural esthetic of André Le Nôtre to the architectonic style of Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The first major modification to the gardens during this phase occurred in 1680 when the Tapis Vert – the expanse of lawn that stretches between the Latona Fountain and the Apollo Fountain – achieved its final size and definition under the direction of André Le Nôtre. Beginning in 1684, the Parterre d’Eau was remodeled under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart. : Statues from the Grande Commande of 1674 were relocated to other parts of the garden; two twin octagonal basins were constructed and decorated with bronze statues representing the four main rivers of France. In the same year, Le Vau’s Orangerie, located to south of the Parterrre d’Eau was demolished to accommodate a larger structure designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. In addition to the Orangerie, the Escaliers des Cent Marches, which facilitated access to the gardens from the south, to the Pièce d’Eau des Suisses, and to the Parterre du Midi were constructed at this time, giving the gardens just south of the château their present configuration and decoration. Additionally, to accommodate the anticipated construction of the Aile des Nobles – the north wing of the château – the Grotte de Thétys was demolished. : With the construction of the Aile des Nobles (1685–1686), the Parterre du Nord was remodeled to respond to the new architecture of this part of the château. To compensate for the loss of the reservoir on top of the Grotte de Thétys and to meet the increased demand for water, Jules Hardouin-Mansart designed new and larger reservoirs situated due north of the Aile des Nobles. Construction for the ruinously expensive Canal de l’Eure was inaugurated in 1685; designed by Vauban it was intended to bring waters of the Eure over 80 kilometres, including aqueducts of heroic scale, but the works were abandoned in 1690. : Between 1686 and 1687, the Bassin de Latone, under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart, was rebuilt. It is this final version of the fountain that one sees today at Versailles. During this phase of construction, three of the garden’s major bosquets were modified or created. Beginning with the Galerie des Antiques, this bosquet was constructed in 1680 on the site of the earlier and short-lived Galerie d’Eau (1678). This bosquet was conceived as an open-air gallery in which antique statues and copies acquired by the Académie de France in Rome were displayed. : The following year, construction began on the Salle de Bal. Located in a secluded section of the garden south of the Orangerie, this bosquet was designed as an amphitheater that featured a cascade – the only one surviving in the gardens of Versailles. The Salle de Bal was inaugurated in 1685 with a ball hosted by the Grand Dauphin. Between 1684 and 1685, Jules Hardouin-Mansart built the Colonnade.

1BUILDING! 1CAMPAIGNS! 1OF)THE)GARDEN!

DEUX BOSQUETS ; BOSQUET DE LA GIRONDOLE ; BOSQUET DU DAUPHIN ; QUINCONCE DU NORD ; QUINCONCE DU MIDI

These two bosquets were first laid out in 1663. Located north and south of the east-west axis, these two bosquets were arranged as a series of paths around four salles de verdure and which converged on a central “room” that contained a fountain. In 1682, the southern bosquet was remodeled as the Bosquet de la Girondole, thus named due to spoke-like arrangement of the central fountain. The northern bosquet was rebuilt in 1696 as the Bosquet du Dauphin with a fountain that featured a dolphin. During the replantation of 1774-1775, both the bosquets were destroyed. The areas were replanted with lime trees and were rechristened the Quinconce du Nord and the Quinconce du Midi.

for other fountains in the gardens in the early 18th century and were subsequently spared during the 1774-1775 replantation of the gardens. In 1830, the bosquet was replanted at which time the fountains were suppressed. Due to storm damage in the park in 1990 and then again in 1999, the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines was restored and reinaugurated on 12 June 2004.

BOSQUET DE LARC DE TRIOMPHE

Originally, this bosquet was planned in 1672 as a simple pavillon d’eau – a round open expanse with a square fountain in the center. In 1676, this bosquet, located to the east of the Allée des Marmousets and forming the pendant to the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines, was enlarged and redecorated along political lines that alluded to French military victories over Spain and Austria, at which time the triumphal arch was added BOSQUET DE LENCELADE Created in 1675 at the same time as the Bosquet de la Renommée, the fountain of this – hence the name. As with the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines, this bosquet survived the bosquet depicts Enceladus, a fallen Titan who was condemned to live below Mt. Etna, modifications of the 18th century, but was replanted in 1830 at which time the fountains were removed. As of 2008, this bosquet is in the process of being restored. being consumed by volcanic lava. From its conception, this fountain was conceived as an allegory of Louis XIV’s victory over the Fronde. In 1678, an octagonal ring of turf and eight rocaille fountains surrounding the central fountain were added. These BOSQUET DE LA RENOMMEE ; BOSQUET DES DOMES additions were removed in 1708. When in play, this fountain has the tallest jet of all the Built in 1675, the Bosquet de la Renommée featured a fountain statue of Fame – hence fountains in the gardens of Versailles – 25 metres. the name of the bosquet. With the relocation of the statues from the Grotte de Thétys in 1684, the bosquet was remodeled to accommodate the statues and the Fame fountain was removed. At this time the bosquet was rechristened Bosquet des Bains d’Apollon. As BOSQUET DE LA MONTAGNE DEAU ; BOSQUET DE LETOILE part of the reorganization of the garden that was ordered by Louis XIV in the early part Originally designed by André Le Nôtre in 1661 as a salle de verdure, this bosquet of the 18th century, the Apollo grouping was moved once again to the site of the Bosquet contained a path encircling a central pentagonal area. In 1671, the bosquet was enlarged du Marais – located near the Latona Fountain – which was destroyed and was replaced with a more elaborate system of paths that served to enhance the new central water by the new Bosquet des Bains d’Apollon. The statues were installed on marble plinths feature, a fountain that resembled a mountain, hence the bosquets new name: Bosquet from which water issued; and each statue grouping was protected by an intricately de la Montagne d’Eau. The bosquet was completely remodeled in 1704 at which time it carved and gilded baldachin. The old Bosquet des Bains d’Apollon was renamed Bosquet was rechristened Bosquet de l’Étoile. des Dômes due to two domed pavilions built in the bosquet.

BOSQUET DU MARAIS ; BOSQUET DU CHENE VERT ; BOSQUET DES BAINS DAPOLLON ; GROTTE DES BAINS D’APOLLON

Created in 1670, this bosquet originally contained a central rectangular pool surrounded by a turf border. Edging the pool were metal reeds that concealed numerous jets for water; a swan that had water jetting from its beak occupied each corner. The center of the pool featured an iron tree with painted tin leaves that sprouted water from its branches. Because of this tree, the bosquet was also known as the Bosquet du Chêne Vert. In 1705, this bosquet was destroyed in order to allow for the creation of the Bosquet des Bains d’Apollon, which was created to house the statues had once stood in the Grotte de Thétys. During the reign of Louis XVI, Hubert Robert remodeled the bosquet, creating a cave-like setting for the Marsy statues. The bosquet was renamed the Grotte des Bains d’Apollon.

ILE DU ROI ; MIROIR DEAU ; JARDIN DU ROI

Originally designed in 1671 as two separate water features, the larger – Île du roi – contained an island that formed the focal point of a system of elaborate fountains. The Île du roi was separated from the Miroir d’Eau by a causeway that featured twentyfour water jets. In 1684, the island was removed and the total number of water jets in the bosquet was significantly reduced. The year 1704 witnessed a major renovation of the bosquet at which time the causeway was remodeled and most of the water jets were removed. A century later, in 1817, Louis XVIII ordered the Île du roi and the Miroir d’Eau to be completely remodeled as an English-style garden. At this time, the bosquet was rechristened Jardin du roi.

BOSQUET DU THEATRE DEAU ; BOSQUET DU ROND VERT

The central feature of this bosquet, which was designed by Le Nôtre between 1671–1674, was an auditorium/theater sided by three tiers of turf seating that faced a stage decorated with four fountains alternating with three radiating cascades. Between 1680 and Louis XIV’s death in 1715, there was near-constant rearranging of the statues that decorated the bosquet. In 1709, the bosquet was rearranged with the addition of the Fontaine de l’Île aux Enfants. As part of the replantation of the gardens ordered by Louis XVI during the winter of 1774-1775, the Bosquet du Théâtre d’Eau was destroyed and replaced with the unadorned Bosquet du Rond-Vert.

BOSQUET DES TROIS FONTAINES 1BERCEAU>> > DEAU)!

Situated to the west of the Allée des Marmousets and replacing the short-lived Berceau d’Eau (a long and narrow bosquet created in 1671 that featured a water bower made by numerous jets of water), the enlarged bosquet was transformed by Le Nôtre in 1677 into a series of three linked rooms. Each room contained a number of fountains that played with special effects. The fountains survived the modifications that Louis XIV ordered

BOSQUET DES SOURCES ; LA COLONNADE

Designed as a simple unadorned salle de verdure by Le Nôtre in 1678, the landscape architect enhanced and incorporated an existing stream to create a bosquet that featured rivulets that twisted among nine islets. In 1684, Jules Hardouin-Mansart completely redesigned the bosquet by constructing a circular arched double peristyle. The Colonnade, as it was renamed, originally featured thirty-two arches and thirtyone fountains – a single jet of water splashed into a basin center under the arch. In 1704, three additional entrances to the Colonnade were added, which reduced the number of fountains from thirty-one to twenty-eight. The statue that currently occupies the center of the Colonnade – the Abduction of Persephone – (from the Grande Commande of 1664) was set in place in 1696 .

GALERIE DEAU ; GALERIE DES ANTIQUES ; SALLE DES MARRONNIERS

Occupying the site of the Galerie d’Eau (1678), the Galerie des Antiques was designed in 1680 to house the collection of antique statues and copes of antique statues acquired by the Académie de France in Rome. Surrounding a central area paved with colored stone, a channel was decorated with twenty statues on plinths each separated by three jets of water. The galerie was completely remodeled in 1704 when the statues were transferred to Marly and the bosquet was replanted with horse chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) – hence the current name Salle des Marronniers.

LABYRINTHE ; BOSQUET DE LA REINE

In 1665, André Le Nôtre planned a maze of unadorned paths in an area south of the Latona Fountain near the Orangerie. (Loach, 1985) In 1669, Charles Perrault – author of the Mother Goose stories – advised Louis XIV to remodel the Labyrinthe in such a way as to serve the Dauphin’s education (Perrault, 1669).[35] Between 1672 and 1677, Le Nôtre redesigned the Labyrinthe to feature thirty-nine fountains that depicted stories from Aesop’s Fables. The sculptors Jean-Baptiste Tuby, Etienne Le Hongre, Pierre Le Gros, and the brothers Gaspard and Balthazard Marsy worked on these thirty-nine fountains each of which was accompanied by a plaque on which the fable was printed, with verse written by Isaac de Benserade; from these plaques, Louis XIV’s son learned to read. Once completed in 1677, the Labyrinthe contained thirty-nine fountains with 333 painted metal animal sculptures. The water for the elaborate waterworks was conveyed from the Seine by the Machine de Marly. The Labyrinthe contained fourteen water-wheels driving 253 pumps, some of which worked at a distance of three-quarters of a mile.[36] Citing repair and maintenance costs, Louis XVI ordered the Labyrinthe demolished in 1778. In its place, an arboretum of exotic trees was planted as an English-styled garden. Rechristened Bosquet de la Reine, it would be in this part of the garden that an episode of the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, which compromised Marie-Antoinette, transpired in 1785.

FRENCH REVOLUTION LOUIS XVI OF FRANCE MARIE ANTOINETTE THE PEOPLE FRENCH MONARCHY LEGACY REBELLION GUILLOTINE

Chapter 4: Decays Louis XVI (23 August 1754 – 21 January recovered from the loss of her husband, 1793) was King of France and Navarre from died on 13 March 1767, also from tubercu1774 until 1791, after which he was subse- losis. The strict and conservative education quently King of the French from 1791 to he received from the Duc de La Vauguyon, 1792, before his deposition and execution “gouverneur des Enfants de France” during the French Revolution. His father, (governor of the Children of France), from Louis, Daulphin of France, was the son and 1760 until his marriage in 1770, did not heir apparent of Louis XV of France. As a prepare him for the throne that he was to result of the Dauphin’s death in 1765, Louis inherit in 1774 after the death of his grandsucceeded his grandfather in 1774. : The father, Louis XV. Throughout Louis’s first part of Louis’ reign was marked by education he received a mixture of studies attempts to reform France in accordance particular to religion, morality, and huwith Enlightenment ideals. These included manities. His instructors may have also efforts to abolish serfdom, remove the had a good hand in shaping Louis into the taille, and increase tolerance toward indecisive king that he became. Abbé non-Catholics. The French nobility reacted Berthier, his instructor, taught Louis that to the proposed reforms with hostility; timidity was a value in strong monarchs, increased discontent among the common and Abbé Soldini, his confessor, instructed people ensued. From 1776 Louis XVI Louis not to let the people read his mind. actively supported the North American On 16 May 1770, at the age of fifteen, Louiscolonists, who were seeking their indepen- Auguste married the fourteen-year-old dence from Great Britain, which was Habsburg Archduchess Maria Antonia realized in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The (better known by the French form of her ensuing debt and financial crisis contrib- name, Marie Antoinette), his second cousin uted to the unpopularity of the ancien once removed and the youngest daughter régime which culminated at the Estates- of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and his wife, the formidable Empress Maria General of 1789. Discontent among the members of France’s middle and lower Theresa. : This marriage was met with classes resulted in strengthened opposition some hostility by the French public. to the French aristocracy and to the France’s alliance with Austria had pulled absolute monarchy, of which Louis and his France into the disastrous Seven Years’ queen Marie Antoinette were viewed as War, in which France was defeated by the representative. : In 1789, the Bastille was British, both in Europe and in North stormed during riots in Paris, and the America. By the time that Louis-Auguste French Revolution began. Louis’s indeci- and Marie-Antoinette were married, the siveness and conser vatism led some people of France generally regarded the elements of the people of France eventual- Austrian alliance with dislike, and Mariely to view him as a symbol of the perceived Antoinette was seen as an unwelcome tyranny of the ancien régime, and his pop- foreigner. For the young couple, the ularity deteriorated progressively. His di- marriage was initially amiable but distant sastrous flight to Varennes in June 1791, – Louis-Auguste’s shyness meant that he four months before the constitutional failed to consummate the union, much to monarchy was declared, seemed to justify his wife’s distress, while his fear of being the rumors that the king tied his hopes of manipulated by her for Imperial purposes political salvation to the prospects of caused him to behave coldly towards her in public. : Over time, the couple became foreign invasion. The credibility of the closer, though while their marriage was king was deeply undermined and the abolition of the monarchy and the estab- reportedly consummated in July 1773, it lishment of a republic became an ever in- was not in fact really so until 1777. Nevertheless, the royal couple failed to creasing possibility. : In a context of civil and international war, Louis XVI was produce any children for several years suspended and arrested as part of the in- after their wedding, placing a strain upon surrection of 10 August 1792 just one month their marriage, whilst the situation was before the constitutional monarchy was worsened by the publication of obscene abolished and a republic declared. He was pamphlets (libelles) which mocked the intried by the National Convention, found fertility of the pair. One questioned, “Can guilty of high treason, and executed by the King do it? Can’t the King do it?” The guillotine on 21 January 1793 as a desacral- reasons behind the couple’s initial failure ized French citizen known as “Citizen to have children were debated at that time, Louis Capet”, a nickname in reference to and they have continued to be so since. One Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian suggestion is that Louis-Auguste suffered dynasty – which the revolutionaries inter- from a physiological dysfunction, most preted as Louis’ family name. In the often thought to be phimosis, a suggestion meantime, the French Republic had been first made in late 1772 by the royal doctors. proclaimed 21 September 1792. : Louis Historians adhering to this view suggest XVI is the only King of France ever to be that he was circumcised (a common executed, and his death brought an end to treatment for phimosis) to relieve the more than a thousand years of continuous condition seven years after their marriage. French monarchy. Louis Auguste de Louis’s doctors were not in favour of the France, who was given the title Duc de surgery – the operation was delicate and Berry at birth, was born in the Palace of traumatic, and capable of doing “as much Versailles. Out of seven children, he was harm as good” to an adult male. The the third son of Louis, the Dauphin of argument for phimosis and a resulting France, and thus the grandson of Louis XV operation is mostly seen to originate from of France and of his consort, Maria Stefan Zweig. : However, it is agreed Leszczyńska. His mother was Marie- amongst most modern historians that Louis had no surgery – for instance, as late Josèphe of Saxony, the daughter of Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, Prince- as 1777, the Prussian envoy, Baron Goltz, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. reported that the King of France had defiLouis-Auguste had a difficult childhood nitely declined the operation. The fact was because his parents neglected him in favour that Louis was frequently declared to be of his, said to be, bright and handsome perfectly f it for sexual intercourse, older brother, Louis, duc de Bourgogne, confirmed by Joseph II, and during the who died at the age of nine in 1761. A strong time he was purported to have had the and healthy boy, but very shy, Louis- operation, he went out hunting almost every day, according to his journal. This Auguste excelled in his studies and had a strong taste for Latin, history, geography, would not have been possible if he had and astronomy, and became f luent in undergone a circumcision; at the very least, he would have been unable to go out Italian and English. He enjoyed physical activities such as hunting with his grand- hunting for a few weeks after. Their confather, and rough-playing with his summation problems have now been atyounger brothers, Louis-Stanislas, comte tributed to other factors, around which de Provence, and Charles-Philippe, comte controversy and argument still continue d’Artois. From an early age, Louis-Auguste today. : When Louis XVI succeeded to the had been encouraged in another of his throne in 1774, he was 19 years old. He had hobbies: locksmithing, which was seen as an enormous responsibility, as the governa ‘useful’ pursuit for a child. : Upon the ment was deeply in debt, and resentment death of his father, who died of tuberculo- to ‘despotic’ monarchy was on the rise. sis on 20 December 1765, the eleven-year- Louis also felt woefully unqualified for the old Louis-Auguste became the new job. As King, Louis focused primarily on religious uniformity and foreign policy. Dauphin. His mother, who had never

His concentration on religious uniformity, and pressure from the heavily Jansenist Parlement, ultimately resulted in his decision to expel Jesuits from France. He aimed to earn the love of his people by reinstating the parlements. : While none doubted Louis’s intellectual ability to rule France, it was quite clear that, although raised as the Dauphin since 1765, he lacked firmness and decisiveness. Louis’s desire to be loved by his people is evident in the prefaces of many of his edicts that would often explain the nature and good intention of his actions as benefiting the people. When questioned about his decision to recall Parlement Louis made a comment that, “It may be considered politically unwise, but it seems to me to be the general wish and I want to be loved.” In spite of his indecisiveness, Louis was determined to be a good king, stating that he “must always consult public opinion; it is never wrong.” Louis therefore appointed an experienced advisor, Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, comte de Maurepas who, until his death in 1781, would take charge of many important ministerial functions. : Among the major events of Louis XVI’s reign was his signing of the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, on 7 November 1787, which was registered in the parlement on 29 January 1788. This edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau that had been law for 102 years. It granted non-Catholics – Calvinist Huguenots, Lutherans, as well as Jews – civil and legal status in France, and gave them the right to openly practice their faiths. The Edict of Versailles did not legally proclaim freedom of religion in France – this took two more years, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 – however, it was an important step in eliminating religious tensions and it officially ended religious persecution within his realm. Radical f i n a nc i a l refor m s by Tu rg ot a nd Malesherbes angered the nobles and were blocked by the parlements who insisted that the King did not have the legal right to levy new taxes. So, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed and Malesherbes resigned, to be replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker supported the American Revolution, and he carried out a policy of taking out large international loans instead of raising taxes. He attempted to gain public favor in 1781 when he had published the f irst ever statement of the French Crown’s expenses and accounts, the Compte rendu au roi. This allowed the people of France to view the king’s accounts in modest surplus. When this policy failed miserably, Louis dismissed him, and then replaced him in 1783 with Charles Alexandre de Calonne, who increased public spending to “buy” the country’s way out of debt. Again this failed, so Louis convoked the Assembly of Notables in 1787 to discuss a revolutionary new fiscal reform proposed by Calonne. When the nobles were informed of the extent of the debt, they were shocked into rejecting the plan. This negative turn of events signaled to Louis that he had lost the ability to rule as an absolute monarch, and he fell into depression. : As power drifted from him, there were increasingly loud calls for him to convoke the EstatesGeneral, which had not met since 1614, at the beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. As a last-ditch attempt to get new monetary reforms approved, Louis XVI convoked the Estates-General on 8 August 1788, setting the date of their opening at 1 May 1789. With the convocation of the EstatesGeneral, as in many other instances during his reign, Louis placed his reputation and public image in the hands of those who were perhaps not as sensitive to the desires of the French public as he was. Because it had been so long since the Estates-General had been convened, there was some debate as to which procedures should be followed. Ultimately, the parlement de Paris agreed that “all traditional observances should be carefully maintained to avoid the impression that the Estates-General could make things up as it went along.” : Under this decision, the King agreed to retain many of the divisionary customs which had been the norm in 1614, but which were intolerable to a Third Estate buoyed by the recent

proclamations of equality. For example, the First and Second Estates proceeded into the assembly wearing their finest garments, while the Third Estate was required to wear plain, oppressively somber black, an act of alienation that Louis would likely have not condoned. : He seemed to regard the deputies of the Estates-General with at least respect: in a wave of self-important patriotism, members of the Estates refused to remove their hats in the King’s presence, so Louis removed his to them. This convocation was one of the events that transformed the general economic and political malaise of the country into the French Revolution. In June 1789, the Third Estate unilaterally declared itself the National Assembly. : Louis’s attempts to control it resulted in the Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume), on 20 June, the declaration of the National Constituent Assembly on 9 July, and eventually led to the storming of the Bastille on 14 July, wich started the French Revolution. Within three short months, the majority of the king’s executive authority had been transferred to the elected representatives of the people’s nation. French involvement in the Seven Years’ War had left Louis XVI a disastrous inheritance. Britain’s victories had seen them capture most of France’s colonial territories. While some were returned to France at the 1763 Treaty of Paris a vast swathe of North America was ceded to the British. This had led to a strategy amongst the French leadership of seeking to rebuild the French military in order to fight a war of revenge against Britain, in which it was hoped the lost colonies could be recovered. France still maintained a strong influence in the West Indies, and in India maintained f ive trading posts, leaving opportunities for disputes and power-play with Great Britain. : In the spring of 1776, Vergennes, the Foreign Secretary, saw an opportunity to humiliate France’s long-standing enemy, Great Britain, as well as recover territory lost during the Seven Years’ War, by supporting the American Revolution. Louis XVI was convinced by Pierre Beaumarchais to secretly send supplies, ammunition and guns from 1776, sign a formal Treaty of Alliance in early 1778, and go to war with Britain. Spain and the Netherlands soon joined the French in an anti-British coalition. After 1778 Britain switched its focus to the West Indies, as defending the sugar islands was considered more important than trying to recover the thirteen colonies. France and Spain planned to invade the British Isles with the Armada of 1779, but the operation never went ahead. France’s initial military assistance to the American rebels was a disappointment with defeats at Rhode Island and Savannah. : The French expeditionary force arrived in North America in July 1780. The appearance of French fleets in the Caribbean was followed by the capture of a number of the sugar islands, including Tobago and Grenada. In October 1781 the French naval blockade was instrumental in forcing a British army under Lord Cornwallis to surrender at the Siege of Yorktown. When news of this reached London the government of Lord North fell in March 1782 and Great Britain immediately sued for peace terms; however France delayed the end of the war until September 1783 in the hope of overrunning more British colonies in India and the West Indies. Great Britain recognised the independence of the thirteen colonies as the United States of America, and the French war ministry rebuilt the army. : Louis XVI also encouraged major voyages of exploration. Much of Louis XVI’s contributions to Versailles were largely dictated by the unfinished projects left to him by his grandfather. Shortly after his ascension, Louis XVI ordered a complete replanting of the gardens with the intention of transforming the jardins français to an Englishstyle garden, which had become popular during the late 18th century. In the palace, the library and the salon des jeux in the petit appartement du roi and the decoration of the petit appartement de la reine for Marie-Antoinette are among the finest examples of the style Louis XVI.

Chapter 4: Decays

6MARIE^ 6ANTOINETTE^

Marie Antoinette (2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793), born an Archduchess of Austria, was Dauphine of France from 1770 to 1774 and Queen of France and Navarre from 1774 to 1792. She was the fifteenth and penultimate child of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I. In April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, Dauphin of France, she became Dauphine of France. She assumed the title Queen of France and of Navarre when her husband ascended the throne as Louis XVI upon the death of his grandfather Louis XV in May 1774. After seven years of marriage, she gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the first of four children. : Initially charmed by her personality and beauty, the French people eventually came to dislike her, accusing “L’Autrichienne” (which literally means the Austrian (woman), but also suggests the French word “chienne”, meaning bitch) of being profligate, promiscuous, and of harbouring sympathies for France’s enemies, particularly Austria, her country of origin. The Diamond Necklace incident damaged her reputation further, although she was completely innocent in this affair. She later became known as Madame Déficit because France’s financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending. The royal family’s flight to Varennes had disastrous effects on French popular opinion: Louis XVI was deposed and the monarchy abolished on 21 September 1792; the royal family was subsequently imprisoned at the Temple Prison. Eight months after her husband’s execution, Marie Antoinette was herself tried, convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of treason to the principles of the revolution, and executed by guillotine on 16 October 1793. Long after her death, Marie Antoinette is often considered to be a part of popular culture and a major historical figure, being the subject of several books, films and other forms of media. Some academics and scholars have deemed her frivolous and superficial, and have attributed the start of the French Revolution to her; however, others have claimed that she was treated unjustly and that views of her should be more sympathetic. : The events leading to her eventual betrothal to the Dauphin of France began in 1765, when her father, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, died of a stroke in August, leaving Maria Theresa to co-rule with her eldest son and heir, the Emperor Joseph II. By that time, marriage arrangements for several of Maria Antonia’s sisters had begun: the Archduchess Maria Josepha was betrothed to King Ferdinand of Naples, and one of the remaining eligible archduchesses was tentatively set to marry Don Ferdinand of Parma. The purpose of these marriages was to cement the various complex alliances that Maria Theresa had entered into in the 1750s due to the Seven Years’ War, which included Parma, Naples, Russia, and more importantly Austria’s traditional enemy, France. Without the Seven Years’ War to “unite” the two countries briefly, the marriage of Maria Antonia and the Dauphin Louis-Auguste might not have occurred. : In 1767, a smallpox outbreak hit the family. Maria Antonia had already survived the disease as a young child and was consequently immune. Her sister-in-law, Empress Maria Josepha, died from smallpox and also passed it on to Maria Theresa, who survived but suffered from its effects the rest of her life. Two days after visiting the Empress’s body with Maria Theresa, Maria Antonia’s sister Archduchess Maria Josepha also developed symptoms, and she soon died. Another sister, Maria Elisabeth, fell ill as well but survived. Her brother, Charles Joseph, and sister Maria Johanna, had already died of smallpox in 1761 and 1762 respectively. : This left 12-yearold Maria Antonia as the only potential bride in the family for the 14-year-old Louis Auguste, who was also her second cousin once removed through Leopold I. During the marriage negotiations, it was pointed out her teeth were crooked, and a French doctor was commissioned to perform corrective oral surgeries on her. The process was done without anesthesia and took a total of three months, but the family was satisfied at the end that the princess’s smile was “very beautiful and straight”. After painstaking work between the governments of France and Austria, the dowry was set at 200,000 crowns; as was the custom, portraits and rings were exchanged. Finally, Maria Antonia was married by proxy on 19 April (at age 14) in the Church of the Augustine Friars, Vienna; her brother Ferdinand stood in as the bridegroom. She was also officially restyled as Marie Antoinette, Dauphine of France. Through her father, Marie Antoinette became the second (after Margaret of Valois, the renowned Queen Margot) French queen ever to descend from Henry II of France and Catherine de’ Medici. : Marie Antoinette was officially handed over to her French relations on 7 May 1770, on an island on the Rhine River near Kehl. Chief among them were the comte de Noailles and his wife, the comtesse de Noailles, who had been appointed the Dauphine’s Mistress of the Household by Louis XV. She met the King, the Dauphin Louis-Auguste, and the royal aunts (Louis XV’s daughters, known as Mesdames), one week later. Before reaching Versailles, she also met her future brothersin-law, Louis Stanislas Xavier, comte de Provence; and Charles Philippe, comte d’Artois, who came to play important roles during and after her life. Later, she met the rest of the family, including her husband’s youngest sister, Madame Élisabeth, who at the end of Marie Antoinette’s life would become her closest and one of her most loyal friends.The ceremonial wedding of the Dauphin and Dauphine took place on 16 May 1770, in the Palace of Versailles, after which was the ritual bedding. It was assumed by custom that consummation of the marriage would take place on the wedding night. However, this did not occur, and the lack of consummation plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for seven years to come. : The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was decidedly mixed. On the one hand, the Dauphine herself was popular among the people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 at the Tuileries was considered by many royal watchers a resounding success, with a reported 50,000 people crying out to see her. People were easily charmed by her personality and beauty. She had fair skin, straw-blond hair, and blue eyes. However, at Court the match was not so popular among the elder members of court due to the longstanding tensions between Austria and France, which had only recently been mollified. Many courtiers had actively promoted a marriage between the dauphin and various Saxon princesses instead. Behind her back, Mesdames called Marie Antoinette l’Autrichienne, the “Austrian woman.” (Later, on the eve of the Revolution, and as Marie Antoinette’s unpopularity grew, l’Autrichienne was supposedly transformed into l’Autruchienne, a pun making use of the words autruche “ostrich” and chienne “female dog”.) Others accused her of trying to sway the king to Austria’s thrall, destroying long-standing traditions (such as appointing people to posts due to friendship and not to peerage), and of laughing at the influence of older women at the royal court. Many other courtiers, such as the comtesse du Barry, had tenuous relationships with the Dauphine. Her relationship with the comtesse du Barry was one which was important to rectify, at least on the surface, because Madame du Barry was the mistress of Louis XV, and thus had considerable political influence over the king. In fact, she had been instrumental ousting from power the duc de Choiseul, who had helped orchestrate the Franco-Austrian alliance as well as Marie Antoinette’s own marriage. Louis XV’s daughters, Mesdames, hated Mme du Barry due to her unsavoury relationship with their father. With manipulative coaching, the aunts encouraged the Dauphine to refuse to acknowledge the favourite, which was considered by some to be a political blunder. After months of continued pressure from her mother and the Austrian minister, the comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Marie Antoinette grudgingly agreed to speak to Mme du Barry on New Year’s Day 1772. Although the limit of their conversation was Marie Antoinette’s banal comment to the royal mistress that, “there are a lot of people at Versailles today”, Mme du Barry was satisfied and the crisis, for the most part, dissipated. There was, however, a further level of animosity from the view of the Mesdames raised by this situation—they felt somewhat “betrayed” in their stance against du Barry. Later, Marie Antoinette became more polite to the comtesse,

pleasing Louis XV, but also particularly her mother. From the beginning, the Dauphine had to contend with constant letters from her mother, who wrote to her daughter regularly and who received secret reports from Mercy d’Argenteau on her daughter’s behaviour. Marie Antoinette would write home in the early days saying that she missed her dear home. Though the letters were touching, in later years Marie Antoinette said she feared her mother more than she loved her. Her mother constantly criticized her for her inability to “inspire passion” in her husband, who rarely slept with her and had no interest in doing Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sont donc la propriété d’une part de la so, being more interested in his hobbies such as lock-making and hunting. The Empress Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont le prieur went so far as saying directly to Marie Antoinette that she was no longer pretty, and had Mathieu Mercerie. De 1622 à 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêque de lost all her grace. : To make up for the lack of affection from her husband and the endless criticism of her mother, Marie Antoinette began to spend more on gambling and clothing, Paris dont dépend hiérarchiquement le prieuré Saint-Julien. with cards and horse-betting, as well as trips to the city and new clothing, shoes, pomade and rouge. She was expected by tradition to spend money on her attire, so as to outshine other women at Court, being the leading example of fashion in Versailles (the previous queen, Maria Leszczyska, had died in 1768, two years prior to Marie Antoinette’s arrival). Marie Antoinette also began to form deep friendships with various ladies in her retinue. Most noted were the sensitive and “pure” widow, the princesse de Lamballe, whom she appointed as Superintendent of her Household, and the fun-loving, down-to-earth Yolande de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac, who eventually formed the cornerstone of the Queen’s inner circle of friends (Société Particulière de la Reine). The duchesse de Polignac later became the Governess the du royal des Enfants de la propriété d’une part de la Au of début xviiechildren siècle, les(Gouvernante terres environnantes sont donc France), and was a friend of both Marie Antoinette and Louis. The closeness of the Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont le prieur Dauphine’s friendship with these ladies, influenced by various popular publications which Mathieu of Mercerie. De to 1622beàlodged 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêque de promoted such friendships, later caused accusations lesbianism against these women. Others taken into her confidenceParis at this time included her husband’s brother, dont dépend hiérarchiquement le prieuré Saint-Julien. the comte d’Artois; their youngest sister, Madame Élisabeth; her sister-in-law, the comtesse de Provence; and Christoph Willibald Gluck, her former music teacher, whom she took under her patronage upon his arrival in France. : On 27 April 1774, a week after the première of Gluck’s opera, Iphigénie en Aulide, which had secured the Dauphine’s position as a patron of the arts, Louis XV fell ill with smallpox. On 4 May, the dying king was pressured to send the comtesse du Barry away from Versailles; on 10 May, at 3 pm, he Albert de Gondi, comte de Retz, favori italien de la reine Catherine de Médicis, died at the age of 64. Louis-Auguste was crowned King Louis XVI of France on 11 June devient pour 35 000 livres propriétaire de la seigneurie de Versailles et de son château, 1775 at the cathedral of Rheims. Marie Antoinette was not crowned alongside him, merely onsistant alors en une demeure seigneuriale située à l’emplacement de l’actuel accompanying him during the coronation ceremony. From the outset, despite how she Hôtel des Affaires étrangères et de la Marine was portrayed in contemporary libelles, the new queen had very little political influence with her husband. Louis, who had been influenced as a child by anti-Austrian sentiments in the court, blocked many of her candidates, including Choiseul, from taking important positions, aided and abetted by his two most important ministers, Chief Minister Maurepas and Foreign Minister Vergennes. All three were anti-Austrian, and were wary of the potential repercussions of allowing the queen – and, through her, the Austrian empire – to have any say in French policy. : Marie Antoinette’s situation became more precarious when, on 6 August 1775, her sister-in-law, the comtesse d’Artois, gave birth to a son, the duc d’Angoulême (who later became the heir apparent to the French throne when his father, the comte d’Artois, became King Charles X of France in 1824). There followed a release of a plethora of graphic satirical pamphlets, which mainly centered on the king’s impotence and queen’s searching Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sontthe donc la propriété d’unefor partsexual de la relief elsewhere, with men and women alike. Among her rumored lovers were her close friend, the princesse de Lamballe, and Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dontd’Artois, le prieur with whom the queen had a good her handsome brother-in-law, the comte Mathieu Mercerie. De rapport. 1622 à 1654,These Jean-François Gondicaused est archevêque de to plunge further into the costly personal de attacks the queen diversions oflebuying dresses from Rose Bertin and gambling, simply to enjoy herself. Paris dont dépend hiérarchiquement prieuréher Saint-Julien. On one famed occasion, she played for three days straight with players from Paris, straight up until her 21st birthday. She also began to attract various male admirers whom she accepted into her inner circles, including the baron de Besenval, the duc de Coigny, and Count Valentin Esterházy. She was given free rein to renovate the Petit Trianon, a small château on the grounds of Versailles, which was a gift to her by Louis XVI on 15 August 1774; she concentrated mainly on horticulture, redesigning the garden in the English fashion, which in the previous reign had been an arboretum of introduced species, and adding flowers. Although the Petit Trianon had been built for Louis XV’s mistress, Madame de Pompadour, it became associated with Marie Antoinette’s perceived extravagance. With the “English garden” Marie Antoinette and her court adopted the English dress of indienne, of percale or muslin. The tradition of costume at the court at Versailles was broken after more than ten years. Rumors circulated that she plastered the walls with gold and diamonds. Her lady-in-waiting Jeanne-Louise-Henriette Campan replied on such rumors that Marie Antoinette visited the workshops of the village in a simple dress of white percale with a gauze scarf and a straw hat. : An even bigger problem, however, was the debt incurred by France during the Seven Years’ War, still unpaid. It was further exacerbated by Vergennes’ prodding Louis XVI to get involved in Great Britain’s war with its North American colonies, due to France’s traditional rivalry with Great Britain. In the midst of preparations for sending help to France, and in the atmosphere of the first wave of libelles, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph came to call on his sister and brother-in-law on 18 April 1777, the subsequent six-week visit in Versailles a part of the attempt to figure out why their marriage had not been consummated. He soon Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sont donc la propriété d’une part de la realized that there was no obstacle to the couple’s conjugal relations save the king’s Gondi d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont le prieur unwillingness to exert himself in that arena, due to aetmistaken belief that relations weakened the male partner,and the queen’sMathieu lack of interest in the Joseph Mercerie. Dewhole 1622 à business. 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêque de graphically described these matters to his brother and calledlethe king Saint-Julien. in a letter Paris dont dépendLeopold, hiérarchiquement prieuré and queen of France “a couple of complete blunderers.” It was due to Joseph’s intervention that, in August 1777, the marriage was finally consummated. Eight months later, in April, it was suspected that the queen was finally pregnant with her first child. This was confirmed on 16 May 1778. : In the middle of her pregnancy, two events occurred which had a profound impact on the queen’s later life. First, there was the return of the handsome Swede, Count Axel von Fersen—whom she had met previously on New Year’s Day, 1774, while she was still Dauphine—to Versailles for two years. Secondly, the king’s wealthy but spiteful cousin, the duc de Chartres, was disgraced by his questionable conduct during the Battle of Ouessant against the British. In addition, Marie Antoinette’s brother, the Emperor Joseph, began making claims on the throne of Bavaria based upon his second marriage to the princess Maria Josepha of Bavaria. Marie Antoinette pleaded with her husband for the French to help intercede on behalf of Austria but was rebuffed by the king Au début du xviie siècle, les terres environnantes sont donc la propriété d’une part The de laPeace of Teschen, signed on 13 May 1779, ended the brief conflict, and his ministers. Gondi et d’autre part du prieuré Saint-Julien de Versailles dont prieurshowed the limited influence that the queen had in politics. but the incident oncelemore Marie Antoinette’s daughter, Mathieu Mercerie. De 1622 à 1654, Jean-François de Gondi est archevêque de Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, given the honorific title at birth of Madame Royale, was finally born at Versailles, after a particularly difficult labour, on Paris dont dépend hiérarchiquement le prieuré Saint-Julien. 19 December 1778, following an ordeal where the queen literally collapsed from suffocation and hemorrhaging. The queen’s bedroom was packed with courtiers watching the birth, and the doctor aiding her supposedly caused the excessive bleeding by accident. The windows had to be torn out to revive her. Her sister-in-law Élisabeth was executed in 1794 and her son died in prison in 1795. Her daughter returned to Austria in a prisoner exchange, married and died childless in 1851. Both Marie Antoinette’s body and that of Louis XVI were exhumed on 18 January 1815, during the Bourbon Restoration, when the comte de Provence had become King Louis XVIII. Christian burial of the royal remains took place three days later, on 21 January, in the necropolis of French Kings at the Basilica of St Denis.

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On 6 October 1789, the royal family had to leave Versailles and move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, as a result of the Women’s March on Versailles. During the early years of the French Revolution, preservation of the palace was largely in the hands of the citizens of Versailles. : In October 1790, Louis XVI ordered the palace to be emptied of its furniture, requesting that most be sent to the Tuileries Palace. In response to the order, the mayor of Versailles and the municipal council met to draft a letter to Louis XVI in which they stated that if the furniture was removed, it would certainly precipitate economic ruin on the city. A deputation from Versailles met with the king on 12 October after which Louis XVI, touched by the sentiments of the residents of Versailles, rescinded the order. However, eight months later, the fate of Versailles was sealed. : On 21 June 1791, Louis XVI was arrested at Varennes after which the Assemblée nationale constituante accordingly declared that all possessions of the royal family had been abandoned. To safeguard the palace, the Assemblée nationale constituante ordered the palace of Versailles to be sealed. On 20 October 1792 a letter was read before the National Convention in which Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière, interior minister, proposed that the furnishings of the palace and those of the residences in Versailles that had been abandoned be sold and that the palace be either sold or rented. The sale of furniture transpired at auctions held between 23 August 1793 and 30 nivôse an III (19 January 1795). Only items of particular artistic or intellectual merit were exempt from the sale. These items were consigned to be part of the collection of a museum, which had been planned at the time of the sale of the palace furnishings. : In 1793, Charles-François Delacroix deputy to the Convention and father of the painter Eugène Delacroix proposed that the metal statuary in the gardens of Versailles be confiscated and sent to the foundry to be made into cannon. The proposal was debated but eventually it was tabled. On 28 floréal an II (5 May 1794) the Convention decreed that the château and gardens of Versailles, as well as other former royal residences in the environs, would not be sold but placed under the care of the Republic for the public good. The château became a repository for art work seized from churches and princely homes. As a result of Versailles serving

as a repository for confiscated art works, collections were amassed that eventually became part of the proposed museum. Among the items found at Versailles at this time a collection of natural curiosities that has been assembled by the sieur Fayolle during his voyages in America. The collection was sold to the comte d’Artois and was later confiscated by the state. Fayolle, who had been nominated to the Commission des arts, became guardian of the collection and was later, in June 1794, nominated by the Convention to be the first directeur du Conservatoire du Muséum national de Versailles. : The next year, André Dumont the people’s representative, became administrator for the department of the Seine-et-Oise. Upon assuming his administrative duties, Dumont was struck with the deplorable state into which the palace and gardens had sunk. He quickly assumed administrative duties of the château and assembled a team of conservators to oversee the various collections of the museum. : One of Dumont’s first appointments was that of Huges Lagarde (10 messidor an III (28 June 1795), a wealthy soap merchant from Marseille with strong political connections, as bibliographer of the museum. With the abandonment of the palace, there remained no less than 104 libraries which contained in excess of 200,000 printed volumes and manuscripts. Lagarde, with his political connections and his association with Dumont, became the driving force behind Versailles as a museum at this time. : Lagarde was able to assemble a team of curators including sieur Fayolle for natural history and, Louis JeanJacques Durameau, the painter responsible for the ceiling painting in the Opéra, was appointed as curator for painting. Owing largely to political vicissitudes that occurred in France during the 1790s, Versailles succumbed to further degradations. Mirrors were assigned by the finance ministry for payment of debts of the Republic and draperies, upholstery, and fringes were confiscated and sent to the mint to recoup the gold and silver used in their manufacture. Versailles served as an annex to the Hôtel des Invalides pursuant to the decree of 7 frimaire an VIII (28 November 1799). In 1797, the Muséum national was reorganised and renamed Musée spécial de l’École française. Louis was found guilty by the Convention, led by the Jacobins who rejected the idea of keeping him as a hostage.

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JOURNAL SOURCES: Baillie, Hugh Murray (1967). “Etiquette and the Planning of State Apartments in Baroque Palaces”. Archeologia CI: 169–199. Batiffol, Louis (1913). “Le château de Versailles de Louis XIII et son architecte Philibert le Roy”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 4 pér., vol. 10, November: 341–371. Batiffol, Louis (1909). “Origine du château de Versailles”. La Revue de Paris. April: 841–869. Berger, Robert W (1980). “The chronology of the Enveloppe of Versailles”. Architectura 10: 105–133. Bottineau, Yves (1988). “Essais sur le Versailles de Louis XIV II: le style et l’iconographie”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 112, October: 119–132. Brière, Gaston (1938). “Le replacement des peintures décoratives au ‘grands appartements’ de Versailles”. Bulletin de la société de l’histoire de l’art français: 197–216. Buckland, Frances (1983). “Gobelin tapestries and paintings as a source of information about the silver furniture of Louis XIV”. The Burlington Magazine 125 (962, May): 272–283. Constans, Claire (1976). “Les tableaux du Grand Appartement du Roi”. Revue du Louvre #3: 157–173. Constans, Claire (1985). “1837: L’inauguration par Louis-Philippe du musée dédié ‘À Toutes les gloires de la France’”. Colloque de Versailles. Constans, Claire, Claire (1987). “Encadrement et muséographie: l’example du Versailles de Louis-Philippe”. Revue de l’Art 76: 53–56. doi:10.3406/rvart.1987.347630. Fromageot, P (August 1903). “Le Château de Versailles en 1795, d’après le journal de Hugues Lagarde”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 224–240. Gatin, L.-A (August 1908; November 1908). “Versailles pendant la Révolution”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 226–253; 333–352. Gaigneron, Axelle de (October 1974). “La stratégie de Louis-Philippe à Versailles”. Connaissance des Arts 272: 74–80. Gruyer, Paul (1920). “Les plafonds de Versailles”. La Renaissance de l’Art Français. January: 250–259. Hoog, Simone (1976). “Les sculptures du Grand Appartement du Roi”. Revue du Louvre #3: 147–156. Johnson, Kevin Olin (1981). “Il n’y plus de Pyrénées: Iconography of the first Versailles of Louis XIV”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6e pér., vol. 97, January: 29–40. Josephson, Ragnar (1926). “Relation de la visite de Nicodème Tessin à Marly, Versailles, Rueil, et St-Cloud en 1687”. Revue de l’Histoire de Versailles: 150–67; 274–300. Kemp, Gerard van der (135-137). “Remeubler Versailles”. Revue du Louvre #3: 1976. Kimball, Fiske (1949). “Genesis of the Château Neuf at Versailles, 1668–1671”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 35: 353–372. Le Guillou, Jean-Claude (1989). “Aperçu sur un projet insolite (1668) pour le château de Versailles”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 113, February: 79–104. Le Guillou, Jean-Claude (1983). “Le château-neuf ou enveloppe de Versailles: concept et évolution du premier projet”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 102, December: 193–207. Le Guillou, Jean-Claude (1976). “Remarques sur le corps central du château de Versailles”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 87, February: 49–60. Leloup, Michèle (7 August 2006). “Versailles en grande toilette”. L’Express. Lemoine, Pierre (1976). “La chambre de la Reine”. Revue du Louvre #3: 139–145. Mauguin, Georges (1937). “L’Inauguration du Musée de Versailles”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 112–146. Mauguin, Georges ( July 1940 – December 1942). “La visite du Pape Pie VII à Versailles le 3 janvier 1805”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 134–146. Meyer, Daniel (1985). “Un achat manqué par le musée de Versailles en 1852”. Colloque de Versailles. Meyer, Daniel (1989). “L’ameublement de la chambre de Louis XIV à Versailles de 1701 à nos jours”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 6 pér., vol. 113, February: 79–104. Nolhac, Pierre de (1899). “La construction de Versailles de Le Vau”. Revue de l’Histoire de Versailles: 161–171. Pradel, Pierre (1937). “Versailles sous le premier Empire”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 76–94. Reynaud, Nicole et Jacques Vilain (1970). “Fragments retrouvés de la décoration du Grand Appartement de la Reine Marie-Thérèse”. Revue du Louvre #4–5: 231–238. Sabatier, Gérard (October/décember 1988). “Le parti figuratif dans les appartements, l’escalier et la galerie de Versailles”. XVIIe siècle. no. 161: 401–426. Saule, Béatrix (1992). “Le premier goût du Roi à Versailles : décoration et ameublement”. Gazette des Beaux-Arts. 120, October: 137–148. Société des Sciences morales, des Lettres et des Arts de Seine-et-Oise (1925). “La Donation Rockefeller en faveur de la restauration du château de Versailles”. Revue de l’histoire de Versailles: 194–200. Walton, Guy (1977). “’L’Enveloppe’ de Versailles: réflexions nouvelles de dessins inédits”. Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire de l’Art français: 127–144.

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