ARCHITECTURE & HUMANITY
First published 1994 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Reprinted 1995 and 1997 Š 1994 Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch Typeset in Garamond by Florencetype Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon Printed and bound in Great Britain by Redwood Books, Trowbridge, Wiltshire All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Conway, Hazel. Understanding architecture: an introduction to architecture and architectural history/Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Architecture. 2. Architecture and society. I. Roenisch, Rowan. II. Title. NA2500.C62 1994 720-dc20 93-47002 ISBN 0-415-10465-3 0-415-10466-1 (pbk)
Publication Information: Book Title: Understanding Architecture: An Introduction to Architecture and Architectural History. Contributors: Hazel Conway - author, Rowan Roenisch - author. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1994. Page Number: xi.
ARCHITECTURE & HUMANITY Introduction to Architectural History and Modern Living Place
by Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch
Table of Contents
Foreword
12
Chapter 1
21
Appendix
49
Introduction
15
Chapter 2
31
Glossary
50
Timeline
18
Chapter 3
35
Bibliography
52
Chapter 4
39
Index
54
Chapter 5
40
Chapter 6
42
Chapter 7
43
Chapter 8
45
Contents
11
Foreword
A
ny book which helps in an understanding of architecture has my support. This is a difficult task, so when some of its complexities are unravelled easily, lucidly and without pretension, then I express my unfettered enthusiasm. This is a book which makes no apologies for being aimed at students and at anyone who is interested in the subject of architecture. There is so much indifference about the nature of our built environments, how they happened, what sustains them and revitalises them and why some of them decay as they lose their sense of purpose or being. Our environments are a reflection of ourselves-we are all contributors no matter how small or modest, because we are all users of buildings. It is this last fact which becomes important in the late twentieth century. The public and semi-public realms of our urban and suburban environments have so often been dominated by agencies other than the user and the citizen. This book suggests that the balance of influence in a democratic society should be redressed. The issues of participation, civic pride, vandalism, litter, all demonstrate an attitude to the places where we live and work, whether they contribute to our well-being or whether they detract and debilitate. Some of the obvious non-caring attitudes could so easily be turned into a sense of responsibility if people knew a little more about the meaning and intention involved and understood more about why and how things happen. The aim of this book is to make these complex issues clearer. We are faced with the problems of urban congestion, pollution and resource exhaustion. These are not peculiar to the late twentieth century. What is unique to this period is the capacity and the technolog y to overcome these problems in the face of vested interests, if there is the will. Architecture should express our aspirations and our sense of optimism about the future, without losing a sense of historical continuity. Architecture is only part of our environment and if this is to be life-enhancing, it has to take account of settings and the spaces between buildings. The great spaces of our cities are like the living rooms of a great house, but so many are spoiled and cluttered unnecessarily.
Foreword
12
It goes without saying that architecture is a public art and architects should have a social responsibility. They are taught to look at environments holistically. So often the needs and complexities of urban design go far beyond the scope and influence of any single discipline, yet arguments about our urban fabric degenerate into shallow exchanges on style and taste. They represent a superficial cosmetic, when the scale and nature of the problem demand a much more rigorous and searching analysis of not only how things should be built, but what should be built. Many of the mistakes that were made in the recent past will have to be redressed and perhaps the governmental machinery to achieve what is needed will have to undergo radical change. These are challenging times for our urban environments, and their destinies depend on the understanding of the ordinary citizen. This book attempts to elucidate that understanding.
Colin Stansfield Smith
Foreword
13
Introduction
Introduction
15
T
his book has evolved out of the ideas and experience of architecture that we have gained over many years and it is impossible to mention by name all the many people who have helped us in this. For more than a decade we worked together as colleagues in what was then the School of Art History of Leicester Polytechnic. It was the head of that department, Mary Stewart, who encouraged the development of our passion for architecture with her insight, wit and criticism. While we were
exploring the form that this book should take, we discussed our ideas with many people and we would particularly like to thank Anthea McCullough and David Saile for their constructive criticisms. We should point out, however, that the responsibility for the contents of this book rests entirely with the authors. John Newman and Peter Ho well both spent time encouraging our efforts and we would like to express our thanks to them for this. We would also like to thank Neil Jackson for his comments and help
on American sources of information. In gathering together the illustrations which form an essential part of this book we have often been accompanied, in all types of weather, by tolerant friends and family who sometimes might have preferred other destinations. Many organisations and institutions have gone out of their way to answer queries, provide help and lend us photographs; we would particularly like to thank Craig Anders, Neil Bingham, Brian Ford, Sir Norman Foster & Partners, Donald
Gimson, Edward Hollamby, Michael Hopkins & Partners, Alan Love, George Michel, Richard Rogers Partnership, Alan Short, lan Spencer, Colin Stansfield Smith, Tesco Stores Ltd and the owners of Downton Castle. We would also like to thank the School of Arts and Humanities, De Montfort University, for generously contributing a grant towards the cost of illustrations.
Introduction
17
EUR
Architectural Timeline Greek 700 BC-323 BC The Doric column was first developed in Greece and it was used for great temples.
600 B.C.
470 B.C.
Romanesque 500 to 1200 AD
As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque architecture with arches emerged.
Hellenistic
Roman 44 BC-476 AD
Early Christian & Medieval
When Greece was at the height of its power in Europe and Asia.
The Romans borrowed heavily from the earlier Greek and Hellenistic styles, but their buildings were more highly ornamented.
European architecture moved from the rectangular basilica forms to the classically inspired Byzantine style.
340 B.C.
50 B.C.
323 BC-146 BC
200 B.C.
100 A.D.
373 to 500 AD
230 A.D.
Han Dynasty 200 BC Korea
ASIA The new religion of Buddhism first came to China from India.
Three Kingdoms 37 BC Korea
Shang Dynasty
370 A.D.
500 A.D.
650 A.D.
800 A.D.
The Unified Shilla 668 to 935 AD Korea
Asuka & Nara 600 to 700 AD Japan
The Kondo, in the style of Chinese worship halls, is a twostory structure of post-and-beam construction.
16 to 11 BC China
Edo 160 to 170 AD Japan
The city of Edo was repeatedly struck by fires, leading to the development of a simplified architecture that allowed for easy reconstruction.
T imeline
18
Art Nouveau 1890 to 1914 AD
Art Deco 1925 to 1937 AD
ROPE Art Nouveau buildings often have asymmetrical shapes, arches and decorative surfaces with curved, plant-like designs.
Baroque
Greek Revival 1790 to 1850 AD
These classical buildings and homes often feature columns, pediments and other details inspired by Greek forms.
Gothic 1100 to 1450 AD
Innovative builders created the great cathedrals of Europe.
930 A.D.
Renaissance 1400 to 1600 AD
A return to classical ideas ushered an “age of “awakening” in Italy, France, and England.
1600 to 1830 AD
In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in opulent and dramatic churches with irregular shapes and extravagant ornamentation.
Rococo
Zigzag patterns and vertical lines create dramatic effect on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings.
Beaux Arts Neo-Gothic 1895 to 1925 AD
Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity, and elaborate ornamentation.
1650 to 1790 AD
Victorian
During the last phase of the Baroque period, builders constructed graceful white buildings with sweeping curves.
Industrialization brought many innovations in architecture.
1840 to 1900 AD
1905 to 1930 AD
In the early twentieth century, medieval Gothic ideas were applied to modern skyscrapers.
Arts & Crafts Movement 1860 to 1900 AD
Arts and Crafts was a late 19th-century backlash against the forces of industrialization.
1070 A.D. 1200 A.D. 1350 A.D. 1480 A.D. 1600 A.D. 1700 A.D. 1800 A.D. 1900 A.D. 2000 A.D. Present
Chosun 1392 to 1910 AD Korea
The Momoyama
Brooklyn Bridge
1573 to 1603 AD Japan
Given the spiritual role of Buddhism in helping to bring about the fall of the two kingdoms, the religion flourished.
1863 AD
American Colonial
New York Public Library 1897 AD
1600 to 1780 AD
Sung Dynasty 1000 AD China
The Muromachi
1333 to 1573 AD Japan
European settlers in the New World borrowed ideas from their homelands to create their own breed of architecture.
Statue of Liberty 1884 AD
People wanted their pagodas to be tall and thin, with high spires.
Baltimore Cathedral
20th Century Trends 1900 to Present.
AMERICA 1806 AD
The century has seen dramatic changes and astonishing diversity. Twentieth century trends include Art Moderne and the Bauhaus school coined by Walter Gropius, Deconstructivism, Formalism, Modernism, Structuralism, and Postmodernism.
T imeline
19
Chapter 1
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Architecture in Europe
“The city of London, tho’ handsomer than Paris, is not so handsome as Philadelphia. Their architecture is in the most wretched stile I ever saw, not meaning to except America where it is bad, nor even Virginia where it is worse than in any other part of America, which I have seen.” – Jefferson to John Page
Europe
21
Europe The
Charles A. Dana Fine Arts Building (detail, arch), Agnes Scott College
Korinthos, Temple of Apollo, doric order, Zdenek Kratochvil, 2004-09-13
architecture of cathedrals, basilicas and abbey churches is the architecture of those church buildings which are usually of large size, including most cathedrals, and follow one of several branching traditions of form, function and style that stem initially from Early Christian traditions of the Roman Empire. Cathedrals in particular, as well as many abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. They also tend to display a higher level of contemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church does not have. Such a cathedral or great church is generally one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of abbey churches are among the most renowned works of architecture on the planet. These include St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome; Notre Dame de Paris, Cologne Cathedral, Salisbury Cathedral, Prague Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, the Abbey of St Denis, Paris; the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome; the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna; St Mark’s Basilica, Venice; West-
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minster Abbey, London, Saint Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow, Washington National Cathedral, Gaudí’s incomplete Sagrada Familia in Barcelona and the ancient church of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, now a museum.
Pennsylvania Railroad’s Union Station in Pittsburgh by I. Peterson Numerology of Dome Skylights
Teatro Dom Pedro V, which was erected by the Portuguese community of Macau in honour of the reigning king.
The earliest large churches date from the Roman Empire. As Christianity and the construction of churches and cathedral spread throughout the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Different styles of architecture developed and their fashion spread, carried by the establishment of monastic orders, by the posting of bishops from one region to another and by the travelling of master stonemasons who served as architects. The styles of the great church buildings are successively known as Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, various Revival styles of the late 18th to early 20th centuries and Modern. Overlaid on each of the academic styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a particular country or region that they appear, regardless of style, in the architecture of churches designed many centuries apart.
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Spain A
rchitecture in Spain is an exotic mix of early Moorish influences, European trends, and surreal modernism. These links and resources will help you plan your
architecture tour through Spain. The oldest works of architecture in Spain of which remains are left go back to the
Must–See Buildings in Barcelona
megalythical culture, approximately 3000 b.C. Anyhow, they are probably not exactly what you expect to find here. Lots of Roman monuments are conserved too , among the most
1. La Sagrada Familia
important being the great aquaeduct of Segovia and the
by Antoni Gaudí, 1882 - present, Barcelona
Roman Theater of Mérida . La Sagrada Familia in Barcelona is one of Antoni Gaudí’s most
La Sagrada Familia by Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona, Spain Photo © Rainer Walter Schmied/ iStockPhoto.com
Absolutely stunning is what Moors have left in this country.
impressive works. This enormous church, as yet unfinished,
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is one of the most visited
is a summary of everything that Gaudí designed before. The
sights by tourists, the other of course being Granada’s Al-
structural difficulties he faced and errors he committed in
hambra which is perfectly conserved in its original condition.
other projects are revisited and resolved in Sagrada Familia.
The Spanish Moors created a style of their own that differs
A notable example of this is Gaudí’s innovative “leaning
in many aspects from their traditional architecture which
columns” (that is, columns which are not at right angles to
you may find in Africa and introduced several novelties.
the floor and ceiling). Previously seen in Parque Güell, leaning
This style is called Caliphal style. The Christians who lived in
columns form the structure of Sagrada Familia’s temple.
Muslim territory were called Mozarabes, and so is called their
When designing the temple, Gaudí invented an extraordinary
particular architectonical style which combines Visigothic
method for determining the correct angle for each of the
construction technics and caliphal style . After the country
leaning columns. He made a small hanging model of the
was reconquered from the Muslims, Moorish architects who
church, using string to represent the columns. Then he turned
stayed developed another new style combining their tradi-
the model upside down and... gravity did the math.
tional architecture with Romanesque and Gothic elements, the Mudejar style.
The ongoing construction of Sagrada Familia is paid for by tourism. When Sagrada Familia is complete, the church will
While most of Spain was occupied by the Moors, there exist-
have a total of 18 towers, each dedicated to a different reli-
ed still Visigoth kingdoms in the country’s north. There you
gious figure, and each one hollow, allowing the placement of
can find important monuments of Visigoth and Romanesque
various types of bells which will sound with the choir.
styles , of the latter in particular along the “Way of Saint James”. In 12th century Gothic style was introduced in Spain , arriving to its greatest importance during 13th. century when the cathedrals of Burgos , Toledo and Leon were built. Gothic in Spain combines frequently with Mudejar-elements. Plateresque style is the Spanish variation of Renaissance style. The word comes from “plata”, silver, indicating that it is much richer in ornamentation than for instance Italian Renaissance style . One of the most representative monuments is the University of Salamanca . Baroque in Spain falls together with the country’s perhaps most glorious epoch. Two opposite approaches may be observed: the works of Juan Herrera are remarkably austere (e.g. Monastery “El Escorial” , close to Madrid) while Churriguera used extremely rich ornamentation. In Galicia exists another variation of baroque style, the so-called Barroco Compostelano , with Santiago de Compostela as its center. In Modernism Spain played again a highly important role.
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3. Agbar Tower by Pritzker Prize-Winning Architect Jean Nouvel The architectural style of Sagrada Familia has been called
Jean Nouvel drew inspiration from Spanish architect Antonio
“warped Gothic,” and it’s easy to see why. The rippling con-
Gaudí when he designed the cylindrical Agbar Tower in
tours of the stone façade make it look as though Sagrada
Barcelona, Spain. Like much of Gaudí’s work, the Agbar Tower
Familia is melting in the sun, while the towers are topped
is based on the catenary curve - a parabola shape formed
with brightly-colored mosaics which look like bowls of fruit.
by a hanging chain. Jean Nouvel explains that the shape
Gaudí believed that color is life, and, knowing that he would
evokes the mountains of Montserrat surrounding Barcelona,
not live to see completion of his masterpiece, left colored
and also suggests the shape of a rising geyser of water.
drawings of his vision for future architects to follow.
The Agbar Tower is often described as phallic, earning the structure an assortment of off-color nicknames. Because of its unusual shape, the Agbar Tower has been compared to
Casa Milà Barcelona, or La Pedrera, by Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona, Spain Photo © Dainis Derics/iStockPhoto.com
Sir Norman Foster’s “Gherkin tower” in London.
2. Casa Milà Barcelona
The Agbar Tower is constructed of reinforced concrete sheathed
by Antoni Gaudí, 1906 to 1910, Barcelona
with red and blue glass panels, reminiscent of the colorful tiles on buildings by Antonio Gaudí. At night, the Agbar Tower
Agbar Tower in Barcelona, Spain, Jean Nouvel, architect Photo © Philippe Ruault, courtesy Ateliers Jean Nouvel
Casa Milà Barcelona, or la Pedrera, by Antoni Gaudí is an
is brilliantly illuminated with LED lights shining from more
apartment building with wavy walls. The final secular design
than 4,500 window openings. Glass blinds are motorized.
of the Spanish surrealist Antoni Gaudí, Casa Milà Barcelona is
They open and close automatically to regulate temperature
an apartment building with a fanciful aura. Wavy walls made
inside the building.
of rough-chipped stone suggest fossilized ocean waves. Doors and windows look like they are dug out of sand. A comical
Measuring 473.75 feet (144.4 meters) tall, the Agbar Tower
array of chimney stacks dances across the roof. This unique
has 38 storeys, including four underground levels.
building is widely but unofficially known as La Pedrera (the Quarry). In 1984, UNESCO classified Casa Milà as a World Heritage site. Today, Casa Milà is used for cultural expositions.
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Must–See Buildings in Bilbao
Foral de Bizkaia, Thomas Krens, Director of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, met repeatedly with officials, signing a preliminary agreement to bring a new Guggenheim Museum to Bilbao. An architectural competition led to the selection of
Guggenheim Bilbao
California-based architect Gehry, known for his use of unor-
by Architect Frank Gehry Bilbao, Spain
the urban environment. Gehry’s proposal for the site on the
thodox materials and inventive forms, and his sensitivity to Nervion River ultimately included features that embrace
Well before the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao opened its doors to the public on October 19, 1997, the new museum was making news. The numerous artists, architects, jour-
The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain by architect Frank Gehry http://www.guggenheim.org/ bilbao/history
both the identity of the Guggenheim Museum and its new home in the Basque Country. The building’s glass atrium refers to the famous rotunda of Frank Lloyd Wright’s New
nalists, politicians, filmmakers, and historians that visited
York Guggenheim, and its largest gallery is traversed by
the building site in the mere four years of its construction
one of the main gateways to the city. In 1992 Juan Ignacio
anticipated the success of the venture. Frank Gehry’s limestone,
Vidarte, now Director General of the Guggenheim Bilbao,
glass, and titanium building was hailed by architect Philip
was formally appointed to oversee the development of the
Johnson as “the greatest building of our time” and the
project and to supervise the construction. Groundbreaking
pioneering collaboration between the Solomon R. Guggenheim
took place in 1993 and in 1997 a gala dinner and reception,
Foundation and Basque authorities was seen to challenge
attended by an international audience and Spain’s Queen
assumptions about art museum collecting and programming.
Sofia and King Juan Carlos I, celebrated the inauguration
Bilbao’s Puente de La Salve, a vehicular bridge serving as
of the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. Located on the Bay of Biscay, Bilbao is the fourth largest city in Spain, one of the country’s most important ports, and a center for manufacturing, shipping, and commerce. In the late 1980s the Basque authorities embarked on an ambitious redevelopment program for the city. By 1991, with new designs for an airport, a subway system, and a footbridge, among other important projects by major international architects such as Norman Foster, Santiago Calatrava, and Arata Isozaki, the city planned to build a first-class cultural facility. In April and May of 1991 at the invitation of the Basque Government and the Diputación
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Important Styles in Spain
has survived wars and other catastrophes to become the
1. Gothic Architecture
courthouses, hospitals, castles, bridges, and fortresses
Churches and Synagogues/ Arches/ Ribbed Vault/ Flying Buttresses/ Stained Glass Windows
oldest synagogue in Europe still used as a place of worship. By the 1400s, the Gothic style was so predominant that builders routinely used Gothic details for all types of structures. Secular buildings such as town halls, royal palaces, reflected Gothic ideas. Gothic architecture is not merely about ornamentation. The Gothic style brought innovative new construction techniques
If ever architecture expressed spiritual ideals, it would be in the lofty Gothic structures of medieval Europe and Great Britain. From the remarkable Saint-Denis in France to the
that allowed churches and other buildings to reach great heights. One important innovation was the use of pointed arches. Earlier Romanesque churches had pointed arches, but build-
Altneuschul (Old-New) Synagogue in Prague, Gothic was a
ers didn’t capitalize on the shape. During the Gothic era,
style that humbled man and glorified God. Yet, with its inno-
tures amazing strength and stability. In Gothic buildings, the
vative engineering, the style was a testament to human ingenuity.
weight of the roof was supported by the arches rather than the
The earliest complete Gothic structure is the ambulatory of
walls. This meant that walls could be thinner.
builders discovered that pointed arches would give struc-
the abbey of Saint-Denis in France. Built between 1140 and Royaumont Abbey in Asnières-surOise, France Photo © flickr member Panoramas
Modeled after Louis IX’s palace chapel in Paris, the Sainte-Chapelle in Riom, France is a masterwork of Gothic design. Photo © Delius / iStockPhoto Gargoyle on Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris / Photo © Monica Lau / Getty Images
1144, the church became a model for most of the late 12th-
Earlier Romanesque churches relied on barrel vaulting. Gothic
century French cathedrals, including those at Chartres and
builders introduced the dramatic technique of ribbed vaulting.
Senlis. However, features of the Gothic style are found in earlier buildings in Normandy and elsewhere. Jews were not
While barrel vaulting carried weight on continuous solid walls,
permitted to design buildings in Medieval times. Jewish places
ribbed vaulting used columns to support the weight. The ribs
of worship were designed by Christians who incorporated
also delineated the vaults and gave a sense of unity to the structure.
the same Gothic details used for churches and cathedrals.
You can see the ribbed vaulting in the ceiling above this cloister at Royaumont Abbey in Asnières-sur-Oise, France.
The Old-New Synagogue in Prague was an early example of Gothic design in a Jewish building. Constructed in 1279,
In order to prevent the outward collapse of the arches, Goth-
the modest building has pointed arches, a steep roof, and
ic architects began using a revolutionary “flying buttress”
on the gable, two small “eyelid” windows. The interior has
system. Freestanding brick or stone supports were attached
a vaulted ceiling and octagonal pillars. Also known by the
to the exterior walls by an arch or a half-arch.
names Staronova and Altneuschul, the Old-New Synagogue
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In this view of the Sainte-Chapelle in Riom, France, you can
Art Nouveau buildings have many of these features:
see the broad masonry buttresses extending from the stone pillars to the main wall of the cathedral. The Sainte-Chapelle
•Asymmetrical shapes
in Riom is modeled after Louis IX’s palace chapel in Paris.
•Extensive use of arches and curved forms
Since the walls themselves were no longer the primary sup-
•Curved glass
ports, Gothic buildings could include large areas of glass.
•Curving, plant-like embellishments
Huge stained glass windows and a profusion of smaller win-
•Mosaics
dows created the effect of lightness and space. The stained
•Stained glass
glass window shown here is from Notre Dame Cathedral
•Japanese motifs
in Paris. Construction on Notre Dame took centuries and spanned the Gothic era.
Other Names for Art Nouveau: As it moved through Europe, Art Nouveau went through several
Cathedrals in the High Gothic style became increasingly
phases and took on a variety of names.
elaborate. Over several centuries, builders added towers, pinnacles, and hundreds of sculptures.
•Style Moderne, in France •Style Nouille (Noodle Style), in France
In addition to religious figures, many Gothic cathedrals are
•Jugendstil, in Germany
heavily ornamented with strange, leering creatures. These
•Sezession, in Austria
gargoyles are not merely decorative. Originally, the sculptures
•Stile Liberty, in Italy
were waterspouts to protect the foundation from rain. Since
•Arte Noven, in Spain
most people in Medieval days could not read, the carvings took on the important role of illustrating lessons from the from
Examples:
the scriptures. In the late 1700s, architects decided that gargoyles and other lavish sculptures were tasteless. Notre
•The Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri, by Louis Sullivan
Dame Cathedral in Paris and many other Gothic buildings were
and Dankmar Adler
stripped of their ornaments. The gargoyles were restored to
•Parque Güell in Barcelona, Spain by Antoni Gaudí
their perches during a careful restoration in the 1800s.
•Majolika Haus in Vienna, Austria by Otto Wagner •The Marquette Building in Chicago, Illinois, by William Holabird
Gothic buildings were based on the traditional plan used by
and Martin Roche with Coydon T. Purdy
basilicas. However, single units were integrated into a unified
•The Municipal House in Prague, Czech Republic
spatial scheme.
Gothic Floor Plans Gothic buildings were based on the traditional plan used by basilicas. However, single units were integrated into a unified spatial scheme. Shown here is the floor plan for the Barcelona Cathedral and Cloisters.
2. Art Nouveau Architecture During the late 1800s, many European artists, graphic designers, and architects rebelled against formal, classical approaches to design. They believed that the greatest beauty could be found in nature.
Floor plan of Barcelona Cathedral Illustration: ArtToday.com
3. Deconstructivism Picture Dictionary of Modern Architecture: Deconstructivism
Art Nouveau (French for “New Style”) was popularized by
Deconstructivism, or Deconstruction, is an approach to
the famous Maison de l’Art Nouveau, a Paris art gallery
building design that attempts to view architecture in bits and
operated by Siegfried Bing. Art Nouveau art and architecture
pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled.
flourished in major European cities between 1890 and 1914.
Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have no visual logic.
In the United States, Art Nouveau ideas were expressed in
They may appear to be made up of unrelated, disharmonious
the work of Louis Comfort Tiffany, Louis Sullivan, and
abstract forms. Deconstructive ideas are borrowed from the
Frank Lloyd Wright.
French philosopher Jacques Derrida.
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Reims Cathedral - Notre-Dame de Reims Photo Š Claudio Giovanni Colombo / iStockPhoto
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Architecture in Asia
Introducing Asian traditional forms of living places from the past to modern era. How the each Asian countries has changed their lifestyle and what surroundings would make them change their architectural forms will be shown in this chapter.
Asia
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Asia Art
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
produced by the Korean people traditionally has shared aesthetic concepts, motifs, techniques and forms with those of their neighboring countries, China and Japan. Yet despite its many similarities, the art of Korea has developed a distinctive style of its own. Korean art has seldom displayed the grandeur and aloofness of the Chinese nor the decorative sophistication of the Japanese. In terms of technical perfection and precision, Korean artists have generally been considered inferior to their immediate neighbors. The strength of Korean art rests in its simplicity and spontaneity. The architecture of Korea provides an excellent example of these traits. In addition to Buddhism, which was the main inspiration for many of the nation’s architectural feats, the Chinese philosophies of um (yin in Chinese) and yang, geomancy, Taoism and Confucianism also influenced Korean architecture. Koreans easily integrated the philosophical and religious principles of these teachings into their own work and applied their own interpretation of them into their own architectural plans and lay-out. Nature has always been regarded as an element of utmost importance in Korean architecture. Numerous Buddhist temples scattered across the country attest to Korea’s outstanding tradition of Buddhist art. They were frequently located in only those mountains famed for their scenic beauty. What is unusual about ancient Korean architecture is that it never attempted to resist or compete with the natural environment. It unanimously attempted to harmonize its
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structures with the natural surroundings. In the popular scheme for temple buildings in ancient Korea, sanctuaries, chapels and lecture halls were most often arranged in a compound at the foot of a mountain or in a valley in such a way that they were practically hidden by the trees and shrubs. Conspicuousness and ostentatious display were traditionally avoided in Korean architecture.
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
In selecting the site for a building of any function, whether a private dwelling or a public facility, such as a palace or a temple, Koreans tended to attach special meaning to the natural surroundings. They never considered a place good enough for a building of any type unless it commanded an appropriate view of “mountains and water.” This pursuit of constant contact with nature was not based only on aesthetics. The principles of geomancy was based on the idea that for humankind to achieve its proper unfolding, both intellectually and emotionally, it needed the support of nature. Geomantic principles were thus applied in selecting dwelling sites for both the living and the dead. A structure was invariably positioned to face a stream with a mountainous area at its back side. Ideally, the mountain had to have “wings” at both ends so that it could embrace the structure which, in keeping with um-yang considerations, had to have a stream flowing in front. Efforts were made to avoid having man-made construction disrupt this natural contour of the terrain. Traditional Korean architecture was seldom inclined toward ostentatiousness in scale or ornamentation. Rooms were of relatively small in size and simply decorated. The lack of inner space was made up in the outer courts. The exterior spaces were regarded as being more important than the interior. This is because Korean buildings were usually composed of many smaller integrated structures that were connected by courtyards and gates. Korean architects also favored the natural patterns of wood grains, just as potters were concerned with bringing out the inherent or natural characteristics of the clay. Typical of this long-cultivated preference for simplicity in decoration was the sarangch’ae or master’s salon which was commonly found in the house of a Confucian scholar-bureaucrat living during the Choson Dynasty (1392-1910). Situated in the “outer” quarter of the house, a cultured gentleman of respectable demeanor was never supposed to be superfluous in decorating this room. A few pieces of wooden furniture of simple design would suffice as it was mainly used for reading and for scholarly pursuits. His taste for simplicity would often be emphasized by a small landscape painting rendered in ink and some pieces of pottery.
Architecture in Asia
33
Korea S
hilla defeated Paekche in 660 and Koguryo in 668
the time, reveals that stone pagodas replaced wooden ones
to unify the Korean Peninsula for the first time under
which had previously been favored by the “one pagoda”
what is known as the Unified Shilla (668-935). Given
style. The wooden structures now visible at Pulguksa were
the spiritual role of Buddhism in helping to bring about the
mostly constructed in the latter part of the Choson period
fall of the two kingdoms, the religion flourished, and along
(1392-1910), as the originals were destroyed in the course
with it, its architecture and art forms. Many architectural
of frequent foreign invasions. Musoljon, the lecture hall;
masterpieces were created during this period, Pulguksa
Pirojon, the hall of Vairocana; Kwanumjon, the hall of the
temple and its grotto shrine, Sokkuram, being the most rep-
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, and the corridors were all
resentative examples. The development of Buddhist archi-
restored in 1972.
tecture also brought with it the development of other forms of architecture, including palatial and residential types. An
Sokkuram Grotto, a man-made shrine in Mt. T’ohamsan, is
example of palace architecture of this period is Tonggung
the greatest artistic masterpiece of the grotto movement
palace, in Kyong ju, where a garden pond called Anapchi has
which ran across the whole East Asia, originating in India.
been excavated and restored.
A perfect image of Buddha is enshrined in it. An annex of Pulguksa temple, Sokkuram Grotto was deliberately located
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
More than 50 major temples are mentioned in historical
to look out over the East Sea. It is comprised of an anteroom
records. More than 10 of them, including Pulguksa temple,
connected by a small passageway to a large rotunda. Although
are still in operation, although their wooden structures have
it is not a temple in the traditional sense, it contains all of
been rebuilt. The most artistically constructed is Pulguksa
the elements and features generally found in the halls that
temple, which was completed in 774, with Kim Tae-song
compose a temple. Eight guardians of Buddhism are carved
as the master builder. Located on the western slope of Mt.
in relief on the walls of the antechamber; likewise, four
T’ohamsan, the temple sits on longitudinal plateaus of both
Lokapalas are also carved in relief on both sides of the door
natural and dressed stones, each of which varies in size
leading to the rotunda. The Sakyamuni Buddha is seated at
to fit together beautifully. Stone railings run the length of
the center of the rotunda, and images of 11 bodhisattvas and
the plateaus. There once was a lotus pond in front of the
10 disciples of Buddha are carved in relief along the wall.
temple, symbolically separating it from the secular world.
Statues of bodhisattvas are housed in niches in the upper
The temple proper is approached by two sets of staircases
part of the wall under the domed ceiling, which is decorated
called bridges. The bridges in the east lead to the Tabot’ap
with relief work. The wooden supper structure in front of the
and Sokkat’ap pagodas, and in Taeung jon, the main hall, the
grotto was added in 1964 when the grotto was repaired.
visitor will find an image of the Sakyamuni Buddha. Those
Shilla’s palace construction is best represented by Tonggung
in the west lead to Kungnakchon, the hall in which an image
palace, the palace of the crown prince. The site of the
of Amita Buddha is housed. Tabot’ap and Sokkat’ap are the
palace was excavated in 1976 to reveal the location of a
two most beautiful and representative examples of Shilla
pavilion called Imhaejon and Anapchi pond.
pagodas. The “two pagodas” style, which was prevalent at
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he Choson Dynasty suppressed Buddhism in favor
architecture, as well as other fields of art, underwent a period
of Confucianism. Under such circumstances, the
of decline, all of which was characterized by redundancy and
construction of temples declined drastically, while
superfluous decoration. Exemplary structures from this latter
the construction of Confucian shrines and private and public
Choson period include the Injongjon hall of Ch’angdokkung
Confucian academies flourished. A simpler system of column-
palace, the Chunghwajon hall of Toksugung palace and Tong-
head bracketing was generally favored in the highly Confucian
daemun, the East Gate of Seoul.
society, though the multicluster bracket style was still used
Picture 1: Han ok. 20090919-001 4x3.5” by Kim Hyun Ji. www.naver. com/image/hanok.jpg
in some buildings. Kungnakchon of Muwisa temple, Kuksajon
Choson period town walls are best exemplified by ones con-
and Hasadang of Songgwangsa temple and Haet’almun gate
structed around Seoul which were built in 1396, and rebuilt in
of Togapsa temple are examples of the column-head bracket
1422. The walls around Suwon were completed in 1796. The
style. The Namdaemun gate of Seoul, the Taeungjon hall of
Seoul City wall included four major gates at each compass
Pongjongsa temple and the Namdaemun gate of Kaesong rep-
point and four smaller ones in between each of them. The
resent the multicluster bracket style of the early Choson period.
vast majority of the Choson palaces were destroyed during
In the aftermath of a series of foreign invasions, a new
the Japanese invasions of 1592-1598. Most of the wooden
architectural style with wing-like brackets emerged during the
palace buildings now extant in Seoul were reconstructed
mid-Choson period. Simpler and more economical than the
during the middle and late Choson periods. The multicluster
column-head style, it was well-suited to the difficult financial
bracket style was used in most of the major palace structures,
situation the nation was experiencing caused by repeated
the audience halls and entrance gates, and the wing-like
wars and conflicts. However, palace buildings and important
bracket style, in minor structures, such as houses and pavilions.
temple facilities continued to be built with the more ornate
Few palace buildings were built in the column-head style.
multicluster brackets, as is evident in the Myong jong jon hall in Ch’anggyonggung palace, the Kumganggyedan hall
The roofs of the palace gates are hipped while the roofs of the
of T’ongdosa temple, the P’alsangjon of Popchusa and the
main structures are hipped and gabled. Decorative ceramic
Kak’wangjon of Hwaomsa temple. Public buildings built in
figures in the shape of dragons and other animal heads are at
the wing-like bracket style include the chongjon hall and the
each end of the ridges and rows of chapsang, which are clay
Yongnyongjon hall of Chongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine.
figures derived from a popular Chinese story, line the sloping
Toward the end of the 17th century, the Sirhak or “Practical
ridges to guard against evil spirits.
Learning” school of Confucianism came into being. It greatly influenced the arts, encouraged scientific studies and inspired
The ceilings of the major buildings are finished with check-
an awareness of nationalism throughout the 18th century.
ered panels or with highly decorated canopies that hide the
As Western thought and culture surged into the country,
framework of the roofs. Brackets and ceilings are colorfully painted, and the areas where the tie beams and pillars meet are decorated with carved corbels.
Architecture in Asia
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Symbolism in Traditional Patterns
K
oreans interpreted natural phenomena in a way that became expressed in their traditional patterns. They imbued these natural objects with special symbolism and shaped them into symbolic patterns in hopes of achieving their earthly wishes.
which divided the world into three separate strata. T’aeguk, which was regarded as the essential entity of the cosmos, was represented by interlocking um and yang as comma-shaped elements. It can be seen on the Korean national flag. T’aeguk connotes the harmonious balance of um (female, negative) and yang (male, positive) elements. Another favorite pattern associated with cosmology was p’algwae, or hexagram. P’algwae stands for the eight primary elements in nature: heaven, earth, metal, fire, earthquake, wind, water, and mountain. The p’algwae was a fool for divining the affairs of the world, praying for happiness and preventing bad luck.
For instance, birds, butterflies, and insects always appeared in pairs. This reflected the cosmic principle of um (yin) and yang, or the harmony between the male and female elements, at the same time expressing the desire for everlasting conjugality. Fruits with many seeds such as pomegranates, grapes, or watermelons symbolized fertility. Pine trees and cranes stood for longevity and creeping vines for perpetuity, while depictions of tigers were often used for warding off evil spirits. The attributes of natural objects were all deeply involved with people’s lives. A good example is the “four gentlemen” motif-the apricot, orchid, chrysanthemum, and bamboo. These items’ natural properties were considered to embody the cardinal principles of a virtuous life. Other motifs like water and rock were no exception. Korea’s ancestors observed not only the pellucid quality of water but also the perpetuity of its flowing. They also they also perceived rocks as being immortal.
Pre-historic Period The San guo chih, one of the earliest sources documented about ancient Korea written in Chinese, recorded the existence of three types of prehistoric dwellings in Korea: pit houses, log houses and elevated houses. Only the remains of pit houses have been identif ied, however. Pit houses consisted of a 20-150 cm deep pit and a superstructure of grass and clay supported by a tripodlike frame made of timber to provide protection from the wind and rain. Pit houses of the Neolithic period had circular or oval pits about 5-6 meters in diameter with a hearth at the center. Most of the early ones were located on hills. As these dwellings moved down nearer to rivers, the pits became rectangular in shape as well as larger, with two separated hearths.
Another important thought behind such traditional patterns is the philosophy of resigning oneself to one’s fate. In ancient Korean society, people interpreted natural phenomena as precursory signs or the agency of Heaven governing present and future human affairs. The geometrical petroglyphs and rock-cut graffiti are deeply involved with their reverence for natural phenomena and immutable cosmic laws. Reification of the cosmic order in ornaments is seen in the crown decorations of the Three Kingdoms era and of the Unified Shilla period. A bird feather symbolized heaven; a deer antler, earth; and a tree, the link between heaven and earth. From these elements, we can glimpse ancient cosmic principles
Modern Period
E
very new visitor to Seoul will recognize that the teeming capital city is a fascinating showcase of architectural trends and styles. They represent not only Korea’s indigenous cultural background, but also imported designs, schemes and techniques from different traditions and ages. The city’s ever-changing skyline speaks for the speed with which Korea has developed in recent decades, as well as its struggle to accomplish modernization amid the tides of Western culture and civilization. The city offers a kaleidoscopic view of the works of innumerable architects and engineers from both ancient and modern periods. Modern high-rises stand side by side ancient royal palaces, private houses, temples, shrines and gates. The impact of Western architecture began to hit Korea during the last decades of the 19th century when Korea began to sign treaties with foreign governments. In 1900, a British architect, at the request of the ruling family of the Choson Dynasty, designed a royal residence in Renaissance style within Toksugung palace, which is located in downtown Seoul. The two-story stone edifice, which was completed in 1909 and later had been used as the National Museum, was one of many Western-style buildings erected by foreigners in Seoul and major provincial cities around the turn-of-the-century. Architecture was a segment of Korean life that underwent the most obvious transformation during this period of political turmoil, as foreign powers in Korea attempted to build new structures that would fulfill both a practical and symbolic function. Buildings from that time include the Gothic-style Myongdong Cathedral (1898), the Renaissance-style Bank of Korea’s headquarters (1912), the Seoul Railroad Station (1925), the Romanesque-style Seoul Anglican Church (1916) and the Seoul City Hall (1925).
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Log houses were built by laying logs horizontally one on top of one another. The interstices between the logs were filled with clay to keep the wind out. Similar houses are still found in mountainous areas as like Kangwon-do province. Elevated houses, which probably originated in the southern regions, are believed to have first been built as storage houses to store grains out of the reach of animals and to keep them cool. This style still survives in the two-story pavilions and lookout stands erected in melon patches and orchards around the countryside.
Western-style buildings continued to emerge in Seoul, impressing its residents with their novel appearances and unfamiliar conveniences, until the 1930s. Western architects and engineers built many of them, especially churches and offices for foreign legations, but the Japanese gradually took over the construction as their political power increased. The Japanese put up a number of new buildings for public offices, banks, schools and commercial buildings, mostly in classical Western styles modified to suit taste.
development of Korean architecture and have been a point of continuing academic debate. Some structures of special note in Seoul include Kim Chung-op’s Samillo Building, significant because it introduced new technology in the 1970s; Om Tok-mun’s Sejong Cultural Center; Pak Chun-myong’s 63-story Daehan Life Insurance Building; and Kim Su-gun’s Kyongdong Presbyterian Church and the Olympic Stadium, showing the influence of the lines of Choson ceramics.
The late 1930s to the 1950s was a dark period in the history of modern architecture in Korea. Japan was engaged in prolonged warfare and Koreans were suffering from the extreme economic deprivation and harsh political control as a result. Architectural activity was virtually stagnant until after the Korean War.
After the era of Kim Su-gun and Kim Chung-op, there came an age of experimentation and diversity in Korean architecture. Some of the most notable examples are Kim Seok-chul’s Seoul Arts Center, Kim Won’s Kugaktang and Yun Sung-jun’s High Court Complex, Hwang Il-in’s City Airport Terminal and Cho Sung-ryong’s Athlete’s Apartments at the Olympic village.
In the early years of modern architecture’s development, Koreans gained new ideas and skills from Western architects and engineers while they worked on important construction projects. Some young engineers were employed by the Japanese government and a few were successful enough to open their own firms later on. Among these early pioneers were Pak Kil-yong, who designed the Hwashin Department Store building, and Pak Tong-jin, who designed the main building of Korea University. These architects, who were active in the early 1930s, are two of the most significant figures in the history of modern Korean architecture as they were the first Korean designers of important structures about whom there is any recorded history. Traditionally, Korean architecture relied upon the system of apprenticeship. Likewise, carpenters and masons were trained under master technicians. Formal education in Western architectural concepts and engineering was first introduced to Korea in 1916.
In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large part, to the opening up of the market to foreign architects. Moreover, forced to keep abreast with international trends, Koreans have been coming up with ways to combine the traditional Korean sense of aesthetics and beauty with the international tastes and the functional demands of contemporary life. Needless to say, one of the greatest tasks of the architectural community is to protect the country’s great architectural legacy by achieving a harmonious relationship between the ancient styles and modern structures.
Contemporary Architecture
K
orean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction efforts, with the return of two ambitious young architects of great talent from overseas--Kim Chung-op from France and Kim Su-gun from Japan. The office-residence of the French Embassy in Seoul by Kim Chung-op, and the Liberty Center by Kim Su-gun, both constructed in the early 1960s, were a refreshing addition to Seoul’s architectural environment. Both artists were influenced by the brutalism of Le Corbusier, but their different approaches have contributed greatly to the
Architecture in Asia
37
Chapter 4
38
Landmark Architectures
Architectures are taking in quite big part of decorating cities. To know the city, it’s important to learn its landmark architectures and their stories behind.
L andmark
39
Landmark Buildings An
architecture that is inspired by a human’s capability to autonomously navigate an environment based on visual landmark recognition is presented. It consists of pre-attentive and attentive stages that allow visual landmarks to be recognized reliably under both clean and cluttered backgrounds. The pre-attentive stage provides an efficient means for real-time image processing by selectively focusing on regions of interest within input images. The attentive stage has a memory feedback modulation mechanism that allows visual knowledge of landmarks in the memory to interact and guide different stages in the architecture for efficient feature extraction and landmark recognition. The results show that the architecture is able to reliably recognise both occluded and non-occluded visual landmarks in complex backgrounds. There comes a new category of architecture, which can be considered as the highest once, because landmark architecture is those which are famous, and stand out proudly among others. Only famous architects, designers, or artists were able to create such things, that amaze people and easily recognizable around the world. ‘Landmark’ can be defined in many ways; Marker, sight, attraction, sign, pointer, milestone, breakthrough, momentous, revolutionary, innovative, ground-breaking,
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radical, pioneering historic, significant, icon, image, symbol, logo, representation, famous, popular, celebrated, eminent, recognized, well-known, renowned, prominent. Landmarks are usually easily-noticed and remembered, which are distinguished from the others. The outstanding appearance makes the presence greatly visible. The factors affecting lamdmark are:
• Scale: height, total area? • Design: outstanding? • Location: revealed, view not blocked? • Function: significance, contribution? • Landscape: surrounding area? • Public and People: popular, great advertising, usually visited?
L andmark Architectures
41
San Francisco to build the Golden Gate Bridge because the San Francisco-
Concept for a Bridge Across the Golden Gate Strait
Oakland Bay Bridge, which was being promoted during the same time period, had already received the limited funds available.
In 1916, more than four decades after railroad entrepreneur Charles Crocker’s call for a bridge across the Golden Gate Strait* (Strait) in 1872, James H. Wilkins, a structural Bulletin, captured the attention of San Francisco City Engineer
Golden Gate Bridge Design
Michael M. O’Shaughnessy. O’Shaughnessy began to consult
In 1921, Joseph B. Strauss hired Charles A. Ellis to head up
a number of engineers across the Country about feasibility
his staff and soon advanced him to Vice President, Strauss
and cost of building a bridge across the strait. Most speculated
Engineering Corporation, in charge of bridge design and
that a bridge would cost over $100 million and that one
construction supervision. In 1925, he had Ellis arrange for
could not be built. But it was Joseph Baermann Strauss that
Prof. George F. Swain of Harvard University and designer of
came forward and said such a bridge was not only feasible,
New York’s Manhattan Bridge Leon S. Moisseiff to serve on a
but could be built for $25 to $30 million.
Board of Consultants for the project.
On June 28, 1921, Strauss submitted his preliminary sketches
Both men reviewed Strauss’s original plans for a symmetrical
to O’Shaughnessy and Edward Rainey, Secretary to the Mayor
cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge and found them to be
of San Francisco, the Honorable James Rolph. The cost
practical from an engineering standpoint and capable of
estimate for his original design, a symmetrical cantilever-
being built. In November 1925, Moisseiff expressed concern
suspension hybrid span was $17 million.
about the hybrid design and submitted to Strauss his Report
engineer and newspaper editor for the San Francisco Call
on Comparative Design of a Stiffened Suspension Bridge over It took O’Shaughnessy a year and one-half to release the
the Golden Gate Strait at San Francisco, CA, which describes
cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge design to the public.
a design contrasting from the cantilever-suspension hybrid
During this time, Strauss went about promoting the idea of
bridge design—a suspension span design.
a bridge, using his original design, in communities throughout northern California. Strauss dedicated himself to convincing
The suspension span concept did not immediately become the
civic leaders that the span was not only feasible but it
leading design for the bridge as Strauss continued to campaign
could be paid with toll revenues alone. His energies paid
for a bridge using his original symmetrical cantilever-suspension
off, as once his design was made public by O’Shaughnessy
hybrid design as late as 1929.
in December 1922, the public voiced little opposition, even though it was described as “ugly” by the local press.
Illustration 1: Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, U.S.A.
Strauss was the steadfast believer who organized the political, financial, and promotional efforts to build the Bridge. The time was right to span the Strait as population centers were growing and traffic congestion at the ferry docks was becoming intolerable. By 1929, motor vehicle travel via ferry had exploded, with demand exceeding available capacity. But there were no federal or state funds available to build a bridge because the construction of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge had already received the limited federal funds available. The time was right to span the Strait and link linking the city of San Francisco and the County of Marin. Population centers were growing, and traffic congestion at the ferry docks was becoming intolerable. There was no federal or state funding
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On August 15, 1929, the Board appointed prominent engineers
contracts and proposal forms. He worked tirelessly until
Moisseiff, O.H. Ammann, and University of California, Engineering
December 5, 1931, when Strauss insisted he take a vacation.
School, Berkeley, CA, Professor Charles Derleth, Jr., to serve
Three days before his vacation was over, Ellis received a letter
as the Advisory Board of Engineers, alongside Chief Engineer
from Strauss instructing him to turn all his work over to his
Strauss. Strauss also appointed Ellis to work with the Advisory
assistant Clarahan, and to take an indefinite unpaid vacation.
Board of Engineers, serving as its Secretary. For reasons still not clear today, Strauss fired Ellis. Ellis had lost The timing of the change from the original Strauss proposal to
his place in the history receiving no credit for his critical role
a suspension bridge design is not precisely known, but it was
in the design of the landmark Bridge. He went on to join the
accomplished sometime between the release of Moisseiff’s
engineering faculty at Purdue University in 1934, from where
November 1925 report and the first meeting of the Advisory
he retired as Professor Emeritus of the Division of Structural
Board of Engineers on August 27, 1929. Further, The Golden
Engineering in 1947. He passed away on August 29, 1949.
Gate Bridge, Report of the Chief Engineer, September 1937, by Strauss, provides no details on the transition from his originally proposed symmetrical cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge to the Moisseiff-inspired suspension span design that was eventually built, and simply states, “... In the interval which had elapsed any advantages possessed by the cantilever-suspension type bridge had practically disappeared and on recommendation of the Chief Engineer, the cantilever-suspension type was abandoned in favor of the simple suspension type.” On March 1, 1930, with final design underway and after overseeing test borings at the construction site, Ellis returned to Chicago to work on refining the design and estimates, while continuing to consult with Advisory Board of Engineers members Moisseiff and Ammann. Ellis was responsible for directing the thousands of calculations required, for the computation of stresses, the preparation of stress sheets, as well as the development of the specifications,
Art Deco Design Theme The original plans submitted by Chief Engineer, Joseph B. Strauss, called for a hybrid cantilever and suspension structure across the Golden Gate. This plan was generally regarded as unsightly, and a far cry from the elegant, understated lines that define the Bridge today. After Strauss submitted his first design, Consulting Engineer, Leon S. Moisseiff, theorized that a long span suspension bridge could cross the Gate. A suspension structure of this length had never been tried before. Even after Moisseiff and Strauss began to refine the new design, it wasn’t until Consulting Architect Irving F. Morrow joined the project that the art deco styling began to take shape. Morrow simplified the pedestrian railings to modest, uniform posts placed far enough apart to allow motorists an unobstructed view. The light posts took on a lean, angled form. Wide, vertical ribbing was added on the horizontal tower bracing to accent the sun’s light on the structure. The rectangular tower portals themselves decrease on ascent, further emphasizing the tower height. These architectural enhancements define the Golden Gate Bridge’s art deco form. It is this form which is known and admired the world over.
L andmark Architectures
43 2
Washington T
he architecture of the Space Needle is the result of
At approximately 605 feet (184 m), the Space Needle was
a compromise between designs of two architects,
the tallest building west of the Mississippi River at the time
Edward E. Carlson and John Graham. The two leading
it was built by Howard S. Wright Construction Co., but is now
ideas for the World Fair involved businessman Edward
dwarfed by other structures along the Seattle skyline, among
Carlson’s sketch of a giant balloon tethered to the ground
them the Columbia Center, at 967 feet (302 m).[citation needed]
(see the gently sloping base) and architect John Graham’s
Unlike many other similar structures, such as the CN Tower in
concept of a flying saucer (see the halo that houses the
Toronto, the Space Needle is not used for broadcasting purposes.
restaurant and observation deck). Victor Steinbrueck introduced the hourglass profile of the tower. The Space Needle was built to withstand wind velocities of 200 mph, double the requirements in the building code of 1962. An earthquake registering 6.8 on the Richter Scale jolted the Needle enough in 2001 for water to slosh out of the toilets in the damage during earthquakes of magnitudes below 9. Also
History of Space Needle
made to withstand Category 5 hurricane-force winds, the
Edward E. Carlson, chairman of the 1962 World’s Fair in
restrooms. The Space Needle can escape serious structural 600
Space Needle sways only 1 inch per 10 mph (16 mm per 10 km/h) of wind speed. 500
For decades, the “hovering disk” of the Space Needle was home to two restaurants 500 feet (152 m) above the ground: 400
the Space Needle Restaurant, which was originally named Eye of the Needle, and Emerald Suite. These were closed in 2000 to make way for SkyCity, a larger restaurant that
300
features Pacific Northwest cuisine. It rotates 360 degrees in exactly forty-seven minutes. In 1993, the elevators were replaced with new computerized versions. The new elevators
200
descend at a rate of 10 mph. On December 31, 1999 (New Year’s Eve), a powerful beam of light was unveiled for the first time. Called the Legacy Light or Skybeam, it is powered
100
by lamps that total 85 million candle power shining skyward from the top of the Space Needle to honor national holidays and special occasions in Seattle. The concept of this beam
0
Towers Height Comparison 1. CN Tower, Toronto 2. Willis Tower, Chicago 3. Stratosphere, Las Vegas 4. Space Needle, Seattle.
was derived from the official 1962 World’s Fair poster, which depicted such a light source although none was incorporated
Seattle, originally had an idea for erecting a tower with a restaurant at the World’s Fair. Carlson was then president of a hotel company and not previously known for art or design, but he was inspired by a recent visit to the Stuttgart Tower of Germany. John Graham, an architect who had won praise for designing Northgate Mall in Seattle soon became involved. Graham’s first move was to make the restaurant featured in the plans revolve, in the same manner as a tower he had previously designed for the Ala Moana Shopping Center in Honolulu. The proposed Space Needle had no land on which to be built. Since it was not financed by the city, land had to be purchased that was within the fairgrounds. It was thought that there would be no land available to build a tower and the search for one was nearly dead when in 1961, a 120 foot by 120 foot (37-by-37 m) plot that contained switching equipment for the fire and police alarm systems was discovered and sold to the investors for $75,000. At this point, only one year remained before the World’s Fair would begin.
into the original design. It is somewhat controversial because of the light pollution it creates. Originally planned to be turned on 75 nights per year, it has generally been used fewer than a dozen times per year. It did remain lit for twelve days in a row from September 11, 2001 to September 22, 2001 in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. The same 1962 World’s Fair original poster showed a grand spiral entryway leading to the elevator, but this, too, was omitted from the final building plans.[citation needed] The stairway was recently realized with a new two-story Pavilion Level enclosed in glass.[citation needed] Some feel that this level’s design
Four famous towers—CN Tower, Willis Tower, Stratosphere Las Vegas, Space Needle—from central/western United States and Canada. Profiles used to compare size.
resembles that of a nautilus. There are 832 steps in all from the basement to the restaurants on the observation deck.
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It was privately built and financed by the “Pentagram
console was located in the base of the Space Needle, com-
Corporation” which consisted of Bagley Wright, contractor
pletely enclosed in glass to allow observation of the musician
Howard S. Wright, architect John Graham, Ned Skinner, and
playing the instrument. It was also capable of being played
Norton Clapp. In 1977 Bagley, Skinner and Clapp sold their
from a roll, just as a player piano would be. The stentors of the
interest to Howard Wright who now controls it under the
carillon were located in the bottom part of the disc, and were
name of Space Needle Corporation. The earthquake stability
audible over the entire fairgrounds, and beyond.
of the Space Needle was ensured when a hole was dug 30 feet (10 m) deep and 120 feet (40 m) across, and 467 concrete
In 1974, author Stephen Cosgrove’s children’s book Wheedle
trucks took one full day to fill it. The foundation weighs almost
on the Needle postulated a furry creature called a Wheedle
6,000 tons and there are 250 tons of reinforcing steel in
who lived on top of the Space Needle and caused its light
the base. With this concrete base weighing the same as the
to flash. Its closing quatrain is: There’s a Wheedle on the
above-ground structure, the Needle’s center of gravity is just
Needle/I know just what you’re thinking/But if you look up
5 feet (1.5 m) above ground level. The structure is bolted to
late at night/You’ll see his red nose blinking. The Wheedle
the foundation with 72 bolts, each one 30 feet (10 m) long.
had since become a fixture of Seattle, becoming for a time
With time an issue, the construction team worked around
the mascot of the Seattle SuperSonics who played in nearby
the clock. The top dome housing the top five levels (including
Key Arena (originally The Coliseum), before departing for
the restaurants and observation deck) was perfectly balanced
Oklahoma City. In 1982, the SkyLine level was added at a
so that the restaurant could rotate with the help of one tiny
height of 100 ft (33 m). While this level had been depicted in
electric motor, originally 1 hp (0.8 kW), later replaced with a
the original plans for the Space Needle, it was not built until
1.5 hp (1.1 kW) motor. With paint colors named Orbital Olive
this time. Today, the SkyLine Banquet Facility can accommodate
for the body, Astronaut White for the legs, Re-entry Red for
groups of 20–360 people. Renovations were completed
the saucer, and Galaxy Gold for the roof, the Space Needle
in 2000 that cost nearly five times the original price ($21
was finished in less than one year. It was completed in April
million). Renovations between 1999 and 2000 included
1962 at a cost of $4.5 million.
the SkyCity restaurant, SpaceBase retail store, Skybeam installation, Observation Deck overhaul, lighting additions and
Skyline of Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. space_needle002.jpg/ Canon EOS 30D
The last elevator car was installed the day before the Fair
repainting. In 2000, celebrations and a fireworks show were
opened on April 21. During the course of the Fair nearly
canceled due to perceived terror threats against the structure.
20,000 people a day rode the elevators to the Observation
On May 19, 2007, the Space Needle welcomed its 45 millionth
Deck. The 20,000 mark was never reached, missed by fewer
visitor. The guest, Greg Novoa of San Francisco, received a
than 50 people one day. At the time of construction, it was
free trip for two to Paris which included a VIP dinner at the
the tallest building in the West, taking the title from the
Eiffel Tower. Every year on New Year’s Eve, the Space Needle
Smith Tower across town that had held that title since 1914.
celebrates with a fireworks show at midnight that is synchro-
During the World’s Fair, a carillon was installed in the Space
nized to music. The 2007/2008 show stopped, restarted,
Needle, and played several times a day. The carillon recreated
then stopped again with the rest of the pyrotechnics needing
the tones of a total of 538 bells, and was built by the Schulmerich
to be detonated by hand. The pyrotechnics crew blamed the
Company under the name “Carillon Americana”. The operator’s
problem on a corrupted file in the customized software they use to control the timed detonations. In May 2008, the Space Needle received its first professional cleaning since the opening of the 1962 World’s Fair. The monument was pressure washed by Kärcher[14] with water at a pressure of 3,000 psi and a temperature of 194 degrees Fahrenheit. No detergents were used in consideration of the Seattle Center and the EMP building.
L andmark Architectures
45
New York A Race for the Tallest Building At the beginning of the 20th century, the race for the tallest
Art Deco The Chrysler building is one of the last skyscrapers in the Art
building in the world started and the Chrysler Building was the
Deco style. The gargoyles depict Chrysler car ornaments and
first building to top the then tallest structure, the Eiffel Tower
the spire is modeled on a radiator grille. Since it was restored
in Paris. New York would keep the tallest building in the world
in 1996 it glitters again like it must have in the 1930s.
until 1974, when the Sears Tower was built in Chicago. And the building’s Art Deco interior is even more magnificent For Walter P. Chrysler, from the car manufacturer, building
than its exterior. The marble floors and many Art Deco patterns
the tallest building in the world was a status symbol. The
such as on the stylish elevator doors make the Chrysler Building
Chrysler building was in a race with the Bank of Manhattan
one of New York’s most beautiful office towers.
(now 40 Wall Street) for obtaining the title of tallest building in the world. It looked like the Bank of Manhattan would win the race, with an expected height of 282 meter (927ft) against around 230 meter for the Chrysler building. But the spire of the Chrysler building was constructed in secret inside the tower. Just one week after the Bank of Manhattan had reached its top, the spire of the Chrysler building was put in place, making it 318 meter (1045ft) high, thus beating the Bank of Manhattan as the tallest building in the world. It would not keep this title for long: one year later the Empire State Building was erected. The Chrysler building is one of the last skyscrapers in the Art Deco style. The gargoyles depict Chrysler car ornaments and the spire is modeled on a radiator grille. Since it was restored in 1996 it glitters again like it must have in the 1930s. And the building’s Art Deco interior is even more magnificent than its exterior. The marble floors and many Art Deco patterns such as on the stylish elevator doors make the Chrysler Illustration of Chrysler Building Some rights reserved by www.letmecolor.com
Building one of New York’s most beautiful office towers.
Popularity The building’s design by architect William van Alen was largely dismissed by contemporary architecture critics, who claimed the spire’s design was kitsch and the tower nothing more than a folly. But ever since its construction the popularity of the building has grown constantly, both among New Yorkers and architecture critics. It is now regarded as one of America’s greatest buildings, and the Chrysler Building is often on the cover of architectural books and magazines.
The building’s design by architect William van Alen was largely dismissed by contemporary architecture critics, who claimed the spire’s design was kitsch and the tower nothing more than a folly. But ever since its construction the popularity of the building has grown constantly, both among New Yorkers and architecture critics. It is now regarded as one of America’s greatest buildings, and the Chrysler Building is often on the cover of architectural books and magazines.
Chapter 4
46
N
E
W
Y
O
R
K
Timeline for Buildings 1923 Arena Building
1930 Daily News Building
1924 Aalsmeer House
1930 Johns Hopkins University Hall
1924 Maybeck Studio
1930 Karl Marx Hof
1924 Nebraska State Capitol
1930 Khuner Villa
1924 Schroder House
1930 Kiefhook Housing estate
1924 Worker’s Club
1930 McGraw-Hill Building t
1924 Wyntoon
1930 Stockholm Exhibition, 1930
USSR Pavilion at Paris
1930 Tugendhat House
1926 Gregory Farmhouse
1931 Butler House 1931 Empire State Building 1932 Halsingborg Concert Hall 1932 Rockefeller Center 1933 Durand Apartment Project
1926 P. Lovell House 1926 Schocken Department Store 1926 Van Nelle Factory 1927 House at Weissenhof 1927 Maison de Verre 1927 Melnikov House 1927 Rusakov Club 1927 Turun Sanomat Building 1927 Viipuri Library 1927 Villa Stein 1927 Weissenhof Apartments 1927 Weissenhof Row Houses 1928 Barcelona Pavilion
1928 Chrysler Building 1928 H. Lange House Chrysler Building Info Architect: William Van Alen Location: New York, New York map Date: 1928 to 1930 Building Type: Skyscraper, commercial off ice tower Construction System: Steel frame, metal cladding Climate: Temperate Context: Urban Style: Art Deco
1928 Lovell House 1928 Town Hall Hilversum 1928 Villa Savoye 1928 Zuyev Club 1929 PSFS Building 1929 Paimio Sanatorium 1929 Salginatobel Bridge 1930 Boots Pharmaceutical Factory
Notes: Stainless steel metal ornamented top. Automobile-derived ornamental details. Elegant lobby.
L andmark Architectures
47
Appendix • Glossary • Bibliography • Index
49
Glossary ARCHITECTURE IN SCOTLAND
ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE IN AMERICA
ARCHITECTURE in Scotland, nearly up to the Act of Union of 1707, is as distinct
THE colonization by Englishmen of the eastern seaboard of North America, in the
from English architecture as the latter is from, say, Danish or Spanish architec-
seventeenth century, had the effect of transplanting English architecture to the
ture. While there are broad analogies with England and occasional incursions
new world. In the earliest period of colonization, conditions scarcely permitted of
of English influence, Scottish architecture is marked by a strong persistence of
buildings being conceived as anything but crude means of shelter and defence,
native types, a taste in ornament quite different from that of any English school,
but from the middle of the seventeenth century architectural standards were
and a direct, though far from passive, relationship to the domestic architec-
recognized and cultivated. They were, and long remained, English standards
ture of the Loire school in France. For this independence the reasons are clear
pure and simple. Up to the Revolution of 1775-83 it is not possible to discern
enough. Feudalism survived far longer in Scotland than in England.
any autonomous vitality in American architecture. A remote provincial outcrop of the English school, there was no local leadership of any consequence and a total
The central authority was weaker and the need for the defensible house re-
dependence on contacts with England through the immigration of craftsmen and
mained. The Scottish Reformation came a generation later than the English; the
the circulation of books.
Dissolution of the Monasteries was organized less systematically than under Henry VIII. Scotland, moreover, had few external cultural relationships. Although
This state of affairs continued till the Revolution. Then a distinctly American point
her political relationships during the sixteenth century were often of European
of view began to emerge, owing its expression, in the first instance, to the fact
importance, her geographical position minimized her capacity to share the
that one of the chief revolutionary leaders, Thomas Jefferson, was an amateur
culture of the Continent, while from England she was divided by long-standing
architect of distinction. Largely as a result of his influence America became imme-
political hatreds. Scotland, indeed, had fewer opportunities than any European
diately accessible to the Neo-classical ideas of the end of the eighteenth century,
country, except Ireland, for contacts with the main streams of artistic influence
and this tendency continued far into the nineteenth. While this meant that French
flowing from Italy, Germany, and France. The result was a somewhat delayed
influence was, even apart from political considerations, eminently acceptable,
development and a vigorous tendency to convert old forms to new purposes, to
most of the leading architects were Englishmen by origin, and American architec-
make the utmost of such foreign ideas as did come to hand and sometimes to borrow
ture up to 1830 can fairly be considered as a branch of the
from early Scottish architecture themes which seemed to fit the contemporary occasion.
English school - a branch, however, with a rapidly gathering vitality of its own.
In the broad ebb and flow of architectural history, Scotland does, to be sure,
The Seventeenth Century: Williamsburg
present a rough parallel to England. At 1530 (a less convenient starting-point
The first substantial houses built by the colonists were timber-frame structures,
in Scotland than in England) we find our interest directed at once to the building
frequently on the Tudor model. Such houses had become general in Massachu-
affairs of the Scottish Court. Soon afterwards we enter a somewhat barren
setts by 1640. All are gabled, boarded externally, with immense chimney-stacks.
stretch of about twenty years during which there is virtually no architectural
Brick-building was being practised well before the middle of the century, and
initiative. Then, round about 1560, we notice, in Scotland as in England, the
in Virginia some remarkable examples survive. They include St Luke’s Church,
rapid formation of a new national school under the patronage of a newly risen
Isle of Wight County ( 1682), the unique instance of an English Gothic church in
class -- no longer the old nobility, but a class of rich or well-to-do landowners in
America, built entirely of brick, with crowstepped eastern gable and brick tracery,
the country, and a prosperous merchant class in the towns. If we do not find, in
close in style to English work of an earlier date in Essex. Of brick houses, easily
Scotland, anything equivalent to the ‘prodigy houses’ of Elizabethan England,
the finest survivor is Bacon’s Castle, Surrey County (c. 1670), a house purely Jaco-
it is because the great Scottish families had neither the cultural horizon nor
bean in plan, with shaped gables and massive end chimney-stacks. Though not
the convertible wealth of the English; and further, no doubt, because the grand
large, it must have been among the distinguished houses of its time, and records
incentive of the English builders was missing -- for the Queen of Scots was by
for us the highest architectural level of the early days.
religion and upbringing almost a stranger in her own realm and could never, perhaps, even had her reign been prolonged, have been, as Elizabeth was, the
A landmark in the architectural history of the American colonies comes with the
inspiration of great feats of architecture. The greater Scottish houses and the
establishment, in 1699, of Williamsburg as the capital of Virginia and the erection
lesser are therefore similar both in plan and style; the range of design is narrow.
of its public buildings. Laid out on a simple but handsome town-plan, the chief buildings were the Capitol, the Governor’s House, and William and Mary College.
Glossar y
50
Baroque: This is a stylistic development of classical architecture, where the building is overlaid with ornamental work, often including statuary and illusionistic painted murals and ceilings. It developed in 16th-century Italy, and was widespread throughout Europe in the 17th. The most floridly grand style of architecture. See Rococo broken pediment: a pediment with a gap in the middle. cella: the enclosed room in a classical temple. CIAM: Congrès internationaux d’architecture moderne (international congresses of modern architecture), a series of meetings held between 1928 and 1956, dominated by Le Corbusier, at which resounding declarations were made in an attempt to determine what the agenda for modern architecture should be. classical: 1. pertaining to ancient Greece and Rome: classical architecture is in a style derived (ultimately) from the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome; 2. specifically of Greek architecture: pertaining to the 5th century bc. clerestory: A clerestory (pronounced ‘clear-story’) window is a high-level window, especially in a church. Constructivism: a revolutionary movement in Russian art and architecture in which abstract geometric shapes predominated, as did the colours black, white and red. Deconstructivism: This was a term fashionably applied to architecture in the 1990s, deriving from Constructivism on one hand, and Deconstructionist philosophy on the other.
Glossar y
51
Bibliography
BORISAVLEVIĆ MILUTIN Les Théories de l’Architecture, Paris, Payot, 1926. The
FOCILLON HENRI The Art of the West in the Middle Ages. Jean Bony, ed. Vol 1:
author’s uncertain interpretative criteria are revealed in his Prolégomènes à
Romanesque Art; Vol II: Gothic Art. London: Phaidon, 1963.
une Esthétique Scientifique de l’Architecture, Paris, Fischbacher, 1923. GALL ERNST, OLIVE COOK, TRANS Cathedrals and Abbey Churches of the FELDMAN VALENTIN L’Esthétique Française Contemporaine, Paris, F. Alcan, 1936.
Rhine. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1963.
PELLIZZARI ACHILLE I Trattati attorno le Arti figurative in Italia e nella penisola
HOLT ELIZABETH, ED. A Documentary History of Art. Vol. I. NewYork: Doubleday
iberica, vol. I, Naples, Perrella, 1915; vol. II, Genoa, “Dante Alighieri” [undated].
Anchor Books, 1957.
SCHLOSSER-MAGNINO JULIUS Die Kunstliteratur, Vienna, Schroll & Col, 1924.
KIDSON PETER, PETER MURRAY, AND PAUL THOMPSON A History of English Architecture. Harmondsworth and NewYork: Penguin Books, 1965, 13-151.
VENTURI LIONELLO History of Art Criticism, New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1936. KOSTOF, SPIRO, WITH REVISIONS BY GREG CASTILLO A History of Architecture: SCOTT GEOFFREY The Architecture of Humanism, New York, Charles Scribner’s
Settings and Rituals. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Sons, 1925; New York, Doubleday Anchor Books, 1954. (Originally London, 1914.) KRAUTHEIMER RICHARD “Introduction to an ‘Iconography of Medieval ArchitecADAMS HENRY Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres. New York: Collier Books, 1963.
ture”. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 ( 1942), 1-33.
BISHOP MORRIS The Middle Ages. NewYork: American Heritage Press, 1970.
NEALE J. M., AND B. WEBB WILLIAM DURANDUS Bishop of Mende, on the Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments. London, 1843.
BUCHER FRANCOIS “Micro-architecture as the Idea of Gothic Theory and Style”, Gesta 15 ( 1976), 71-89.
PEVNSER NICHOLAS An Outline of European Architecture. Baltimore and Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1963, 1-171.
BUSCH HARALD, AND BERND LOHSE, EDS. Gothic Europe. London: B.T. Batsford, 1959. PORTER ARTHUR K. MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE Its Origins and Development. 2 CALKINS ROBERT Monuments of Medieval Art. Ithaca: Cornell Univeristy Press: 1989.
vols. New York: The Baker and Taylor Company, 1909.
CONANT KENNETH J. CAROLINGIAN and Romanesque Archtecture 800-1200.
PICA AGNOLDOMENIER Nuova Architettura Italiana. Milan, 1936.----- Nuova
The Pelican History of Art. Harmondsworth and NewYork: Penguin Books, 1978.
Architettura nel Mondo. Milan, 1936.
CROSSLEY P “Medieval Architecture and Meaning: the Limits of Iconography”.
ARCHITECTURE. CLUB Recent English Architecture 1920-1940. London, 1947.
The Burlington Magazine 130 (1988), 116-21.
A collection of sixty-five photographs of English architecture between the wars selected by the Architecture Club.
DEHIO GEORG., AND G. VON BEZOLD Die kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. 2 vols., 5 atlases. Stuttgart: A. Bergströsser, 1887- 1901.
JEAN BADOVICI L’ Architecture vivante Le moment architectural en U.R.S.S. Paris, 1930.
DUBY GEORGE The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society 980-1420. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.
PIERO BARGELLINI and ENRICO FREYNIE Nascita e Vita dell’ Architettura Moderna. Florence, 1947. In this book on the “’Birth and Life of Modern Archi-
ETTINGHAUSEN RICHARD, AND OLEG GRABAR Art and Achitecture of Islam 650-
tecture’” the history of the modern movement is traced from Carlo Sodoli, a
1250. The Pelican History of Art. Harmondsworth and NewYork: Penguin Books, 1987.
Venetian monk of the early eighteenth century, who is described as the spiritual
FLETCHER B. A. History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. 19th ed.
father of architectural rationalism. Chapters are devoted to Walter Gropius, Le
London: Butterworths, 1987.
Corbusier, and Alvar Aalto among others.
B ibliography
52
WALTER CURT BEHRENDT Modern Building. London, 1937. MARTIN S. BRIGGS Building To-day. London, 1944. SHELDON CHENEY The New World Architecture. London, 1930. A. W. J. GARETSEN EIBINK, and J. P. L. HENDRIKS Hedendaagiche Architecture in Nederland. Amsterdam, 1937. MAXWELL FRY Fine Building. London, 1944. SIEGFRIED GIEDION Space, Time, and Architecture. Cambridge, U.S.A., 1941. WALTER GROPIUS The New Architecture and the Bauhaus. London, 1935. LUDWIG HILBERSHEIMER Großstadtarchitektur. Stuttgart, 1927. OLIVER HILL Fair Horizon Buildings of Today. London, 1950. HENRY-RUSSELL HITCHCOCK Romanticism and Reintegration. New York, 1929. HENRY-RUSSELL HITCHCOCK and PHILLIP JOHNSON Modern Architecture. New York, 1932. EL LISSITZKY Die Rekonstruktion der Architektur in der Sowjetunion. Leipzig, 1930. IR. J. B. VAN LOGHEM Vers une architecture réelle. Amsterdam, 1932. J. L. MARTIN, BEN NICHOLSON, and N. GABO (Edited by) Circle-International survey of Constructive Art. London, 1937. Consists of four sections (1) Painting, (2) Sculpture, (3) Architecture, and (4) Art and Life. The section on architecture includes fifty-two plates of illustrations mostly of work of the early thirties and essays on ‘The Condition of Architecture and the Principle of Anonymity’, by J. M. Richards, ‘Town Planning’, by Maxwell Fry, ‘Architecture and Material’, by Marcel Breuer, ‘Routes of Housing Advance’, by Richard J. Neutra, “’Colour in Interior Architecture’”, by Alberto Sartoris, ‘The State of Transition’, by J. L. Martin, and “’Construction and Aesthetics’”, by Sigfried Giedion. Among the essays in the section on ‘Art and Life’ are ‘Art Education and State’, by Walter Gropius, ‘A Note on Biotechnics’, by Karel Honzíg, and ‘The Death of the Monument’ (extract from ‘The Cul ure of Cities’), by Lewis Mumford. ERIC MENDELSOHN Three Lectures on Architecture. San Francisco, 1943.
B ibliography
53
Index A
B
Aalto, Aino, 76, 78
Albers, Josef, 49 - 50, 52 n., 55
Bacardi Company, Santiago,
Beech Aircraft, Inc., 235
Aalto, Alvar, 74 - 84, 86, 105,
ALCOA Building, Pittsburgh, 106
Cuba, 66, 73
Fair, 197
137, 156, 165
Alexander, Robert E., 90
Bacon, Edmund, 139, 166
University of Paris, 44
anti-Americanism of, 82
Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, 48
quoted, 167
Breuer, Marcel, 49, 51 - 53,
influence of, 84, 164
Algeciras, Spain, market at,
Baghdad, 84
92 - 101, 106, 166 - 167,
Aalto, Elissa, 83
208, 209, 210
University of, 55 - 56
168, 176, 227
Abramovitz, Max, 103 - 104,
Alloys, tensile strength of, 237
Baghdad Opera House, 9
Brick and brickwork, 54, 60,
106, 108
Alloz Aqueduct, Spain, 209
Baker, Everett M., house,
65, 77 - 78, 113, 137, 140,
pictures of, 105, 109
Aluminum, 106, 127, 130 -
M.I.T., 78
142, 213
Adam, Robert, 159, 161
131, 151, 234 - 235, 237
Banks, 123 - 124, 131, 134
Bridges, 203, 204, 205, 207 -
Adler, Dankmar, 2, 5
Aluminum Company of
Banque Lambert, Brussels,
208, 223 - 224, 229
Adler & Sullivan, 2, 4, 9
America of- fices, Davenport,
133 - 134
Briey-en-Forêt, France, 40
Admiralty Research Laboratories,
Iowa, 106
“ Barcelona” chair, 62, 157
Brise-soleils (see Sunshade
Paris, 29
American architecture, 2, 53,
Barcelona Exposition of 1929,
devices)
AEG Turbine Factory, 33, 48
85, 95, 111, 131, 133
61 - 62
Bristol, England, exhibition
AFL-CIO Medical Center,
European influences on, 46,
Barnes, Edward Larrabee,
pavilion at, 94
Philadelphia, 182
52, 63 - of Technology)
166, 168
British Cement and Concrete
Agroman, S. A., 208
Arp, Jean, 55, 170, 202
Barnsdall, Aline, house, 16 -
Association, 95
Aguirre, José Maria, 208, 210
Art, 227
17, 87
“ Broadacre City,” 16
Ahmedabad Art Museum, 41
architecture and, 196, 198
Baroque, 154, 160 - 161
Bronze, 71 - 72
Ain, Gregory, 90, 166
Art brut, 146
Barr, Alfred, Jr., 112, 155 - 156
Brooklyn Bridge, 203
Air conditioning, 68, 78, 99,
Art nouveau, 2, 29, 49, 60
Barrington, Ill., 167
Brooklyn Veterans Hospital, 122
106, 127, 182, 189
“new,” 145
Bartos, Armand F., 170
Brown, Elliott, 121
Air control, 183 - 184
Art of This Century Gallery, 170
Bassett, Edward Charles, 133
Brown, William S., 121, 124
“Air Foam House,” 170
Arve River bridge, 204, 207
Bassov, N. D., 105
Brunner Memorial Prize, 176
Airplane hangars, 224, 225,
Asada (architect), 189
Baudoin ( architect), 100
Brussels World’s Fair, United
226, 236
Auditorium Building, Chicago, 2, 4
Bauhaus, 46 - 51, 57, 63 - 64,
States Pavilion, 110, 117 - 118
Airport buildings, 134, 137,
88, 92 - 94, 120, 170
Bunriha (“Secessionists”), 187
145 - 147, 149, 152, 200,
founding of, 49
Bunshaft, Gordon, 102 - 103,
203, 207, 213, 217
influence of, 52 n., 167 - 168, 187
108, 120 - 134, 160, 176
permanent headquarters of, 50
pictures of, 109, 121
revolt from, 175
Burnham & Root, 2
Bauhaus building, Dessau,
Butterfly roofs, 96
47, 50 Bayer, Herbert, 49 - 50, 52 n. Beauty, 180, 185, 227 Beaux-Arts, 8, 47, 51, 103, 110 - 111, 119, 180, 187 Bee Ridge Presbyterian Church, 178
Index
54
C
D
E
F
G
Calder, Alexander, 112, 142
Danusso, Arturo [407, 408]
Eames, Charles [449-450]
Fadigati, Vasco 213, [412, 413]
Gaudi, Antonio 51 - 53, 148,
Cambridgeshire, England, 52
Darby, Abraham 14
Ebert, Wils [125]
Feininger, Lyonel 69
[78-80]
Campenema, Gustavo, 195
Dastugue, M. [191]
Eckmann, Otto 45
Figini, Luigi 210, [410]
Gautier, Théophile 13
Candela, Antonio, 217
Deilmann, Harald [335]
Eiermann, Egon 183, [342]
Fiocchi, Annibate 215, [237,
Gesellius 204
Candela, Felix, 29, 149, 188,
Deitrick, William H. [258]
Eiffel, Gustave 20, [24, 25]
409, 410]
Gibberd, Frederick [271]
208, 214, 217 - 220, 221 - 222
Delaporte 167
Ekholm, P. A. 195
Fischer, Theodor 176
Gibson, Alexander [273]
Cantilevers, 15, 51, 54, 81,
Dischinger 139, 140
Elling, P. 174
Fisker, Kay 198, 199, [373-375]
Giedion, Sigfried 34, 69, 71
83, 88, 90, 95, 112 - 113,
Dondel, J. C. [191]
Elzas, A. [316]
Flachat, Eugène 19
Gisel, Ernst 190, [355, 356]
124, 126 - 127, 134, 143,
Drew, Jane 167, [302]
Emery, Pierre-André 167
Flagg, Ernst R. [36]
Goff, Bruce 231
166, 183, 189, 210, 213,
Dubois, G. P. 188
Endell, August 45, [67]
Fornaroli, Antonio [407, 408]
Gori, Enzo and Giuseppe 213,
218, 224, 228, 235
Dubuisson, Jean 165, [294, 295]
Eriksson, Nils Einar 191, [365]
Frette, Guido 210
[405, 406]
Carcassonne, France, 182, 185
Dudley, Dud 14
Ervi, Aarne 207, [392]
Freyssinet, Eugène 139, 161, [241]
Gottlob, Kay [372]
Carlu, Jacques, 111
Dudok, W. M. 170, [304]
Eschenmoser, J. 188
Fry, Maxwell 71, 154, 155,
Gravereaux, Raymond [297]
Carports, 10
Düttmann, Werner [452]
167, [120, 121, 265, 302]
Gropius, Walter 43, 54, 59,
Carré, Louis, house, 84
Duiker, J. 170, [313-315]
Fuller, Buckminster 150, 151,
65, 67 - 74, 106, 107,
Carson Pirie Scott, Chicago, 5
Dumail, Félix [295]
[259, 260]
108, 109, 114, 122, 124,
Casa Manana Theater, Fort
Dutert, Ferdinand 21, [28, 282]
126, 128, 130, 131, 132,
Worth, 231, 68
Dyckerhoff & Widmann 140
133, 150, 153, 154, 176,
Concordia College, 142, 160
177, 179, 201, 206, 231,
Concrete, 73, 100, 134, 189, 205
[2, 4, 113-126, 178-180, 209,
Nervi’s use of, 266
222, 265, 321, 442, 443]
Niemeyer’s use of, 197 Wright’s use of, 12 (See also Reinforced concrete) Contcrete blocks, Wright’s use of, 16 Concrete-shell construction (see Shell structures) Concrete slabs, 152 Conerete-vault construction, 149
Index
55