IAFOR Journal of Education – Volume 12 – Issue 3: Studies in Education

iafor journal of education studies in education

Volume 12 – Issue 3 – 2024

Editor: Pearl Subban

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Volume 12 – Issue 3 – 2024

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic Forum

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Editor Pearl Subban Monash University, Australia

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan

IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Joseph Haldane

Publications & Communications Coordinator: Mark Kenneth Camiling Publications Manager: Nick Potts

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Volume 12 – Issue 3 – 2024

Published December 10, 2024

IAFOR Publications © 2024 ISSN: 2187-0594

ije.iafor.org

Cover image: MZStock, Shutterstock

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 12 – Issue 3 – 2024

Edited by Pearl Subban Monash University, Australia

The Impact of Debate Lessons, Powered by Generative AI, on Student Learning 13

Seow Yongzhi

Beyond One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Teaching Multicultural Classrooms in 41

South African Schools

Pfuurai Chimbunde

Boitumelo Benjamin Moreeng

Health Promoting Indicators and Measures in an Educational Context 59

Migle Helmersen

May Olaug Horverak

The 3Cs in Volunteerism: Proposing a Model of Service-Learning in Education 79

Edwin B. Estrera

Shaping Purpose-Driven Learning Through Creative Writing 105

Kalai Vaani Rajandram

Judith Nesamalar Tharumaraj

Effect of Students’ Personal Agency on Academic Compliance: An 125 Experimental Study

Anagha M Nambisan

Shailja Rana

University Leaders’ Views on Independent Campus Curriculum as 147 Educational Reforms in Indonesian Islamic Universities

Muhammad Nasir

Muhammad Khairul Rijal

Syarifah Kurniaty Kahar

Fathur Rahman

Anis Komariah

Adaptability to Clouds of Change: Study of Engineering Students Pursuing 173 Technical Education in Online Mode

Vikrant Dhenge

Maithili Paikane

Harsh Deshpande

Teacher Agency in Reproducing Translanguaging Practices as Social 203 Justice Strategy to Decolonize ELT

Harjuli Surya Putra

An Integrated Framework for an Educational Early Warning System with Mentor Matching

D. V. D. S. Abeysinghe

M. S. D. Fernando

Cultural Interface in Action: A Case Study of Philippine Indigenous Educational Policy

Giselle Lugo Miole

Navigating a Path of Uncertainty: Profiling Novice Teachers as Adaptive Leaders

Edwin Darrell De Klerk

June Monica Palmer

Evaluating AI-Generated Language as Models for Strategic Competence in English Language Teaching

Phuong-Anh Nguyen

Sociology of Education: Exploration of Stakeholders Experiences of Inclusive Education in Schools

Abdul-Jaleel Saani

Improving Secondary School Mathematics Teachers’ Effective Lesson Implementation through Lesson Study

Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba

Abbi Lemma Wedajo

Faith Maina

Adula Bekele Hunde

Reviewers

Rethinking education – Opportunities, challenges and innovations

As education systems across the globe continue to navigate the evolving challenges of the 21st century, the themes emerging from recent research offer vital insights into how the future of education can be reshaped. The papers presented in this issue explored the impact of technology on learning, the importance of mentoring, the role of cultural competence, the integration of Indigenous knowledges, and the potential of artificial intelligence in the classroom. These studies offer critical perspectives on how contemporary education can better address the diverse needs of students and educators, fostering more inclusive, dynamic, and sustainable learning environments.

One of the most significant shifts observed in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic is the widespread adoption of online learning. The transition to remote education prompted a reevaluation of traditional classroom models, presenting new opportunities and challenges. A study focusing on the impact of place of residence on English language acquisition during online learning found that while geographic location does not significantly influence language outcomes, it had a marked effect on student social and psychological well-being. This underscores the importance of considering the social dimensions of learning, particularly in online environments where students may experience feelings of isolation. As we move forward, it is crucial that educational institutions not only enhance digital literacy but also address the emotional and psychological needs of learners fostering a holistic approach to online education.

Another key theme is the identification and support of at-risk students. In many higher education systems, students face a multitude of challenges that may lead to early dropout, ranging from socioeconomic issues to academic struggle. The development of educational early warning systems (EEWS) has emerged as a potential solution to predict and mitigate these risks. The integration of mentoring frameworks like EEWS, as proposed in the study on the GRADGROOM framework, offers a promising approach to personalized student support. Additionally, by matching students with mentors who can guide them through academic and personal challenges, universities can increase retention rates and ensure that more students graduate. This concept speaks to the importance of personalized, proactive interventions in higher education where student success is not only a matter of academic performance but also of social and emotional development.

The challenges of teaching diverse multicultural student populations also demand attention. As classrooms become increasingly diverse, education must be equipped with the skills to engage with students from varying cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The study conducted in South Africa highlights the need for teachers to be culturally responsive, suggesting that teacher training programs should be redefined to better prepare educators for these challenges. Professional learning communities are presented as a means to enhance teacher competencies, emphasizing the importance of ongoing professional development in fostering inclusive

teaching practices. This finding aligns with broader global trends where educators are called upon to embrace diversity not as a challenge, but as an opportunity for enriching educational experiences.

In similar vein, the integration of Indigenous knowledge systems into mainstream education as explored in the study on Indigenous peoples’ education in the Philippines, emphasizes the importance of a rights-based approach to education. This shift from assimilationist models to a more interface model of education, petitions for the inclusion of indigenous perspectives, thereby providing a more holistic and inclusive curriculum. This study contributes to the broader conversation on decolonizing education, ensuring that all students, particularly those from marginalized communities have the opportunity to learn in environments that recognize and respect their cultural heritage.

The concept of academic compliance has been explored particularly in the context of India's higher education system. Traditionally viewed as a behaviour mandated by authority, academic compliance is increasingly understood as a function of student agency. By promoting a sense of personal responsibility and empowerment, educational institutions can foster greater engagement and improved academic performance. The findings from the study on the influence of personal agency on academic compliance suggest that students who are encouraged to take ownership of their learning, are more likely to meet academic expectations. This insight reinforces the idea that education should not really be about compliance but about cultivating self-motivated, lifelong learners.

Technology's role in education is not limited to facilitating online learning. The potential of artificial intelligence (AI) particularly tools like ChatGPT, to enhance language learning and communication strategies is also being explored. A study on the use of AI to model communication strategies, and language learning, highlights the potential of AI to serve as a valuable pedagogical tool, providing students with targeted models of communication that extend beyond traditional textbooks. This presents exciting possibilities for the future of language education, where AI can offer personalized or dynamic learning experiences that are responsive to individual student needs. Finally, the importance of social and emotional learning in schools is gaining increasing recognition.

A program implemented in Norwegian secondary schools demonstrates the positive impact of social and emotional learning on students’ well-being particularly in terms of capacity for action, social and emotional competence, and stress management. As education systems strive to equip students with the skills necessary for responsible citizenship and life mastery, the integration of SEL into curricula will be essential. This approach aligns with global movements toward promoting not only academic success, but also the overall health and well-being of students.

In conclusion, the studies presented in this issue offer a compelling vision for the future of education. As we navigate a post pandemic world and confront the complexities of teaching diverse student populations, it is clear that the future of education lies in fostering inclusive,

culturally responsive and personalized learning environments. By leveraging technology embracing Indigenous knowledge systems and supporting students social and emotional development, we can create educational spaces that empower students to thrive both academically and personally. As educators, policymakers and researchers, we must continue toexploreandimplementinnovativesolutionsthataddresstheever-evolvingneedsofstudents, in a rapidly changing world.

Pearl Subban, Monash University Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education – Studies in Education

Notes on Contributors

Article 1

The Impact of Debate Lessons, Powered by Generative AI, on Student Learning

Seow Yongzhi

Seow Yongzhi is an education officer in Singapore, presently teaching at Broadrick Secondary School. He received his MA for East Asian Studies from Yale University, and his postgraduate diploma in education from the National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological University. Mr Seow's research focuses on learner-centred pedagogies, inquiry-based learning, and conceptual understanding in Humanities subjects at the secondary level.

Email: seow_yongzhi@moe.edu.sg

Article 2

Beyond One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Teaching Multicultural Classrooms in South African Schools

Dr Pfuurai Chimbunde

Pfuurai Chimbunde is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the Faculty of Education, Department of Social Science and Commerce Education at the University of the Free State in South Africa. His research interests include curriculum studies, history education, decolonial studies, and teacher education.

Email: chimbundep@gmail.com

Dr Boitumelo Benjamin Moreeng

Boitumelo Benjamin Moreeng is the Head of the Social Science and Commerce Education Department in the Faculty of Education at the University of the Free State, South Africa. His research interests include curriculum studies, history education, and teacher education.

Email: moreengbb@ufs.ac.za

Article 3

Health Promoting Indicators and Measures in an Educational Context

Dr Med. Migle Helmersen (earlier Gamperiene)

Migle Helmersen has specialty and PhD in occupational/social medicine from the University of Oslo. She has extensive experience in outpatient, clinical and research work from both the University of Oslo and the Labor Research Institute (AFI/OsloMet). Thematically, her research has focused on health-promoting theories and practices, sick leave, ability to work, coping and organizational work environment in population. The field of research was expanded with a focus on health promotion in kindergartens and schools with a focus on youth mental health, coping and prevention of exclusion in the future.

E-mail: migle.helmersen@uia.no

Dr May Olaug Horverak

May Olaug Horverak has master’s degrees in special needs education and English linguistics, and a PhD in English linguistics and didactics. She has a background as a child welfare worker, teacher and headmaster. Currently, she works as a senior researcher at NORCE–Norwegian Research Centre. She has led many research and development projects concerning the topics of language learning, mastery, motivation and health promotion in school.

Email: mayh@norceresearch.no

Article 4

The 3Cs in Volunteerism: Proposing a Model of Service-Learning in Education

Edwin B. Estrera

Edwin B. Estrera is a full-time Assistant Professor at the University of the Philippines Cebu, where he teaches Social Science courses in both the High School and Master of Education Programs. He earned his bachelor’s degree in Political Science and his master’s degree in Social Studies from the same university. Currently, he serves as the Coordinator of the Master of Education Program and as the Gender and Development Focal Person for the High School Program. His research interests include curriculum and instruction, social studies education, service-learning in education, and the public education system.

Email: ebestrera@up.edu.ph

Article 5

Shaping Purpose-Driven Learning Through Creative Writing

Dr Kalai Vaani Rajandram

Kalai Vaani Rajandram is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Taylor’s University, Malaysia. With over 20 years of experience in the education industry, her approach to education is a dynamic and student-centred one. Her expertise is in narrative reality, with a keen interest in understanding how language is used to construct gender, identity and culture. Her current research is multidisciplinary, spanning across language and literature, anthropology and sociology. Guided by a constructivist paradigm, her broad scope approach to language teaching and learning is a co-constructed one that subsists on shared and negotiated meanings.

Email: KalaiVaani.Rajandram@taylors.edu.my

Judith Nesamalar Tharumaraj

Judith Nesamalar Tharumaraj is a Lecturer in the School of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Taylor’s University, Malaysia. She brings a wealth of experience to her academic endeavours, having spent seven years in the corporate sector, where she advanced to a managerial position before transitioning to academia. Since then, she has dedicated herself to academic practice for 14 years. Her research interests include professional development, TESL, communication skills, and 21st-century skills. She is passionate about equipping learners with the tools and competencies needed for the ever-evolving educational landscape.

Email: JudithNesamalar.Tharumaraj@taylors.edu.my

Article 6

Effect of Students’ Personal Agency on Academic Compliance: An Experimental Study

Anagha M Nambisan

Ms Anagha M Nambisan is a Masters in Psychology from University of Delhi, India with specialization in the field of Organizational behavior. Her research interests include Social Psychology, Positive Psychology and Educational Psychology. She is currently associated in a research project with Defence Institute of Psychological Research (Delhi) which explores the performance of scientists in defense research. She has also worked in research areas pertaining to Gender studies and presented papers in noted Universities of India, including University of Delhi and Amity University, Gwalior.

Email: manikandannambisan@psychology.du.ac.in

Dr Shailja Rana

Shailja Rana, PhD, is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, India. She has a specialization in the field of Organizational Behavior. She has also completed the International Career Coach Certification (ICCC) from the Career Development Alliance, USA. With over 8 years of teaching experience, her academic and research interests include Applied Social Psychology, Human Resources Management and Workplace Counseling. She has facilitated workshops on work-life balance, competency assessment and coping styles. She is also a member of the American Psychological Association (APA), the International Association of Applied Psychology (IAAP) and the National Positive Psychology Association (NPPA).

Email: srana@psychology.du.ac.in

Article 7

University Leaders' Views on Independent Campus Curriculum as Educational Reforms in Indonesian Islamic Universities

Dr Muhammad Nasir

Muhammad Nasir is a Professor of the Islamic Education Curriculum at the Faculty of Education and Teacher Training and is currently the Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs at the Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris State Islamic University of Samarinda. He earned his Doctoral Degree in Curriculum Development from the Indonesian University of Education. His areas of interest are curriculum and material development, Islamic education, and education management.

Email: muhammadnasir@uinsi.ac.id

Muhammad Khairul Rijal

Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris Samarinda, Indonesia

Email: m.khairul.r@uinsi.ac.id

Syarifah Kurniaty Kahar

University of Newcastle, Australia

Email: syarifah.kahar@uon.edu.au

Fathur Rahman

Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris Samarinda, Indonesia

Email: fatur.rahman@uinsi.ac.id

Anis Komariah

Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris Samarinda, Indonesia

Email: anis.komariah@uinsi.ac.id

Article 8

Adaptability to Clouds of Change: Study of Engineering Students Pursuing Technical Education in Online Mode

Vikrant Dhenge

Mr Vikrant Dhenge is an Assistant Professor of Social Sciences in the Department of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Nagpur. With a teaching experience of three years, Mr Dhenge is conducting his doctoral research on citizens’ quality of life in smart cities showcasing his commitment to advancing urban development and sustainability. His research expertise lies in Smart Cities, Urban Governance, Urban Policy Evaluation, and the dynamic role of Internet and Social Media in contemporary society, especially in online education. With a commitment to interdisciplinary scholarship, Vikrant Dhenge contributes to advancing understanding in these critical areas, blending theoretical insights with practical implications. His work underscores the intersection of internet, technology and social systems, addressing challenges in urban policy and governance.

Email: vdhenge@iiitn.ac.in

Dr Maithili Paikane

Maithili Paikane is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur. A Gold Medalist and Doctorate in English Literature, she acquired her PhD degree for research work in the area of Indo-British Literature. She has a teaching experience of 25 years in the academic field and 8 years of experience as an Interlocutor, Aviation English Language Experts and Aviation English Trainer for Air Traffic Controllers. Her research interests include Comparative literature, Communication Skills, Medical Humanities, Educational Psychology, Aviation English, Translation and Film Studies. She has authored seven books, published 10 book chapters and research papers on Teacher Training and Development, Understanding student psychology, menopausal communication and partition literature.

Email: maithilipaikane@hss.vnit.ac.in

Harsh Deshpande

Mr Harsh Deshpande is an undergraduate law student at Nagpur University. His academic interests span Jurisprudence, Administrative Law, and Legal Language, among other fields. Beyond his core legal studies, Mr Deshpande exhibits a multidisciplinary curiosity, particularly in the domain of language and communication. He is deeply interested in examining the role of the internet and social media in shaping language acquisition among undergraduate students, with a specific focus on the transformative period of the COVID-19 pandemic. His research interests aim to uncover how these digital platforms influenced linguistic patterns, learning behaviors, and educational outcomes during a time of global disruption.

Email: harshdshpnd2002@gmail.com

Article 9

Teacher Agency in Reproducing Translanguaging Practices as Social Justice Strategy to Decolonize ELT

Harjuli Surya Putra

Harjuli Surya Putra is currently a doctoral student in Applied English Linguistics at Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, and is a Lecturer at College of Foreign Languages, STBAPIA Medan, Indonesia. Currently, his research interests include translanguaging in education, linguistic landscape and multilingualism, and teacher agency and professional development.

Email: harjuli82@gmail.com

Article 10

An Integrated Framework for an Educational Early Warning System with Mentor Matching

D.V.D.S. Abeysinghe

Dharani Sandunika Abeysinghe, a postgraduate student at the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, is the first author of a study. With a BSc in Computer Science from Eastern University, she has specialized in cloud computing in her postgraduate studies. She is a full-time lecturer at General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, Sri Lanka. She is an enthusiastic researcher in e-learning, information security, cloud computing, and machine learning. She also has interests in image processing, medical disease diagnosis, and IoT. Her research outputs have significantly contributed to various fields, and she is motivated to continue her work to contribute to society.

Email: dharani.21@cse.mrt.ac.lk

Dr M.S.D. Fernando

Shantha Fernando is a Professor at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Moratuwa. He obtained his BSc Eng. and MPhil from the University of Moratuwa, and his PhD from the Delft University of Technology. His early research focused on low-bandwidth networking, proxying architectures and message distribution, and subsequently, on computer and network security, covering the areas such as operating system and server security, network security, IT security policies, distributed firewalls, and emergency

response and readiness. His pioneering research in e-learning, learning management systems, adaptive course development, learning objects, and blended university education, had a significant contribution to the current status of blended learning environment in many Sri Lankan universities.

Email: shantha@uom.lk

Article 11

Cultural Interface in Action: A Case Study of Philippine Indigenous Educational Policy

Dr Giselle Lugo Miole

Giselle Miole is a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Tokyo and United Nations University - Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability under the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Fellowship program. They completed their PhD in International Studies at Waseda University in 2024. Their research involves policy and pedagogical studies on Indigenous peoples, gender and climate change literacy. Previously, they worked as a postgraduate assistant member at the G7 Gender Equality Advisory Council in 2023, and taught critical race and gender studies at Soka University.

Email: miole@g.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Article 12

Navigating a Path of Uncertainty: Profiling Novice Teachers as Adaptive Leaders

Dr Edwin Darrell De Klerk

Edwin Darrell de Klerk is an Associate Professor in Education Management and Leadership in the School for Professional Studies in Education at North-West (Mahikeng Campus), South Africa. His research interests predominately focus on policy studies and transformative practices for whole-school leadership development. He also researches matters regarding autonomy, pre-service teachers' development, and transformative social justice issues. Foucauldian studies are also an area of interest.

Email: darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za

Dr June Monica Palmer

June Monica Palmer is an Associate Professor in Education Management and Leadership in the Department of Postgraduate Studies in Education at the Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa. Her research interests include transformative learning and leadership, transformative social justice leadership, pre-service teachers' leadership development, middle leadership, inclusive learning pedagogies, and social-emotional learning. She has reviewed several journal articles for international journals and acts as an external examiner for multiple universities in South Africa. She is a committee member of the Faculty of Humanities (Internationalisation and Research Ethics Committee) and a department representative in the Humanities Faculty Research Diversity Centre.

Email: jpalmer@cut.ac.za

Article 13

Evaluating AI-Generated Language as Models for Strategic Competence in English Language Teaching

Phuong-Anh Nguyen

Phuong-Anh Nguyen is an English language lecturer at Hanoi University (HANU), Vietnam. After earning her MA in TESOL in the UK, she has focused on teaching undergraduate courses in Academic English, English Lexicology, and Sociolinguistics, while also contributing to teacher training initiatives under Vietnam’s National Foreign Language Project. Since 2021, she has served as a lecturer and academic tutor for the joint HANU–University of Canberra graduate diploma and MA program in TESOL, working on units such as Oral Communication, Language in Social Context, and Discourse Studies. In addition, she actively develops ESL materials, including gamified tasks for the speaking app Eduling Speak and a published book on the IELTS Speaking test.

Email: anhnp@hanu.edu.vn

Article 14

Sociology of Education: Exploration of Stakeholders Experiences of Inclusive Education in Schools

Dr Abdul-Jaleel Saani

Abdul-Jaleel Saani, PhD, is a specialist in Educational Sociology. He is passionate about inspiring students through challenged-based learning. He has taught for more than a decade at the pre-tertiary level. He has an extensive teaching career at the tertiary level, currently working as a Lecturer at the Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast, Ghana, where he has been since 2020. His research interests include teacher-student social interaction, teacher compensation, school culture, gender and sexuality issues in education, education and social stratification, sociology of special and inclusive education, and sociology of school deviance and control.

E-mail: abdul-jaleel.saani@ucc.edu.gh

Article 15

Improving Secondary School Mathematics Teachers’ Effective Lesson Implementation through Lesson Study

Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba

Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba is an academic staff of the department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies at College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Jimma University, Ethiopia. He received MA degree in Curriculum and Instruction and BEd degree in Pedagogical Sciences both from Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. He served as a secondary school teacher and principal, primary and secondary teacher educator, higher diploma leader, and Continuous and Distance Education Office Coordinator at College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Jimma University. He authored and co-authored over five articles in reputable journals. His research interest includes teacher continuous professional development, teaching methods,

early childhood education, curriculum and instruction, and multicultural education and diversity management.

Email: temesgeny2@gmail.com

DrAbbi Lemma Wedajo

Abbi Lemma Wedajo, is an academic staff member of the department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies, College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Jimma University, Ethiopia. He obtained a PhD in Education from Andhra University, India; MA in Curriculum and Instruction from Addis Ababa University; BEd Degree in Geography from Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He received a Post Graduate Certificate in Instructional Design and Performance Improvements from Arizona State University, USA. He served as an instructor, researcher, college level registrar coordinator, university level quality assurance directorship, and dean of the college. He authored and co-authored over 11 publications. His research interests include curriculum, teacher education, continuous professional developments, diversity management, and technology integration.

Email: abbi.lemma@ju.edu.et

Dr Faith Maina

Faith Maina is a professor in the Department of Curriculum & Instruction at Texas Tech University. She is a teacher educator and curriculum studies specialist. Her research interests include cultural and language diversity in the classroom, issues of culturally responsive teaching and preparing teachers for diverse classrooms. She holds a PhD from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver Canada, a master’s degree from Trent University, Ontario Canada and a Bachelor of Education degree from Kenyatta University, Nairobi Kenya. She is also a recipient of the Carnegie African Diaspora Fellowship (2018) and Fulbright Scholar (2011) awards.

Email: faith.maina@ttu.edu

DrAdula Bekele Hunde

Adula Bekele Hunde, PhD, is a researcher at the University of Oslo (Norway), department of Teacher Education and School Research. He served as an Associate Professor of Curriculum andInstructionatKotebeUniversityofEducationandJimmaUniversity,Ethiopia.Heobtained his PhD from the University of Verona (Italy) in Education and Lifelong Learning Sciences, his MSc in Educational Science and Technology: Track Curriculum and Instruction from the University of Twente, The Netherlands, and his Postgraduate Certificate in Learning Design and Performance Improvement from Arizona State University, USA. He authored and coauthored over 25 articles. He has served in different academic positions ranging from directors to Vice President. His research interest includes AI, professional development, and lifelong learning.

Email: science.adula2020@gmail.com

The Impact of Debate Lessons, Powered by Generative AI, on Student Learning

Seow Yongzhi Ministry of Education, Singapore

Abstract

Humanities education in Singapore at the secondary level emphasises the inquiry-based learning pedagogical approach to engage students, inculcate critical thinking skills, and achieve the necessary knowledge and skills outcomes stipulated by the national curriculum. Inquirybased learning is structured by a Humanities inquiry cycle involving four steps and can take various forms in the classroom. In this paper, I explore the use of debate as an active learning tool to enact inquiry lessons in Social Studies, framed by the inquiry cycle and leveraging Generative AI tools. I ran 5 debates for two Grade 9 classes comprising 79 students over two schooling terms (20 teaching weeks). Student speakers were assigned for each debate, and all students formed teams to do research with the help of AI tools such as Chat GPT and Microsoft CoPilot. Through student preparatory work, student survey data, and teacher observations, I find that debates are powerful devices to build excitement and spark joy amongst students but require a high degree of preparatory work and active student management by the teacher to achieve desired knowledge outcomes. As a teaching tool, debates can deepen reflection and foster critical thinking on specific topics, and debate lessons foster a positive learning environment that celebrate learning and improve student outcomes.

Keywords: debate, inquiry-based learning, Generative AI, social studies

The Humanities classroom is a space to encourage deep discourse and cultivate critical thinking amongst inquiring students and develop their interest in learning about society and the world around them. Topics in Humanities at the secondary level (Grades 7-10), contra those of the natural sciences, tend to be open-ended and encourage a wide range of perspectives, and are thus highly amenable to discursive frameworks such as debate and deliberation. In Singapore’s secondary schools, Humanities education includes the disciplinary areas of History, Geography, Literature, Economics, and Social Studies.

This paper explores the use of debate as a teaching and learning tool for Social Studies in the Secondary 3 (Grade 9) classroom, as part of inquiry-based pedagogy, powered by Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI). The paper is organised as follows: the Literature Review introduces the subject of Social Studies in Singapore, the role of inquiry-based learning, and the promise of Generative AI; the Research Design outlines how the debate lessons were conceived and the collection of data to study the impact of these lessons; the Findings and Discussion provides analysis of the data in the context of extant research to answer the research question; and the Implications suggest how the paper’s findings can contribute to policy, practice, and further research.

Literature Review and Theory

Social Studies is a compulsory half-unit subject, introduced in 2001. According to the syllabus document produced by the Curriculum Planning and Development Division (CPDD) of Singapore’s Ministry of Education (MOE), Social Studies aims to develop students as “informed, concerned, and participative citizens” who can “understand the interconnectedness of Singapore and the world they live in … and appreciate the complexities of the human experience” (CPDD, 2023, p. 13). To this end, the syllabus is organised around three broad “Issues” based on the core concepts of “citizenship and governance”, “identity and diversity”, and “globalisation”, which are then further partitioned into sub-topics to be taught and assessed (CPDD, 2023, p. 23–24). Broadly speaking, Social Studies as a subject inculcates conceptual understanding of society in Singapore and the world through the exploration of current issues, encourages students to analyse different viewpoints within varied sources of information to make informed judgments about the issue at hand, and simultaneously cultivates critical thinking and writing skills amongst students.

Inquiry-based learning is positioned as the central pedagogy for the teaching of Social Studies in Singapore at the secondary level. Inquiry-based learning is structured around an “inquiry cycle” (Figure 7, in Appendix A) that serves as a touchpoint for all Humanities public school teachers in Singapore. The cycle consists of four stages: sparking curiosity (through the inquiry question), gathering data (relevant to the inquiry question), exercising reasoning (analysis of the data), and reflective thinking (to form a considered judgement on the basis of data collected). This inquiry framework is consistently cascaded from government policymakers to public school teachers through a veritable range of communication mediums: from the syllabus documents written by the CPDD, to meetings and conferences hosted by “Networked Learning Communities” (NLCs), to courses and workshops run by CPDD and the Academy of Singapore

Teachers (AST). Through professional conversations and praxis, inquiry-based learning as structured by the four-stage inquiry cycle has become the sine qua non of Humanities education in Singapore.

Whilst the Singapore Ministry of Education’s curriculum team centres the inquiry framework as a common approach for all Humanities teachers, the Ministry also encourages flexibility and divergent pedagogical practices by cautioning that “[inquiry-based] learning is not easily reduced to particular pedagogical strategies or techniques” (CPDD, 2023, p. 100). In other words, the broad inquiry-based approach may be prescribed, but specific teaching tools and techniques are left to the individual teacher’s discretion. Inquiry is defined as a “classroom ethos” characterised by questioning techniques and student-centred learning. Students are ideally immersed in learning about and solving real-world problems through effective collaboration (Costes-Onishi et al, 2020). The teacher moves that facilitate such an experience include creating flexible and open classrooms that give students choices for their learning, stimulating student curiosity about the inquiry topic, and substituting teacher talk for student interaction and sharing (Murdoch, 2015). To this end, discussion-based lesson activities such as debate and deliberation are especially germane to the inquiry process.

How does inquiry-based teaching approaches affect student outcomes? Saunders-Stewart’s review of the literature finds that extended inquiry-based learning can engender a positive attitude towards learning in Science-based disciplines (Ornstein, 2006; Saunders-Stewart et al. 2012, p. 20, citing Kyle, Bonnstetter, & Gadsden, 1988; Shymansky et al., 1983, 1990). Sima Aghazadeh’s literature review of multiple empirical studies suggests that the strongest outcome of “inquiry-related” approaches in Humanities education is the improvement to student motivation, interest, and joy of learning (Aghazadeh, 2020, p. 25). Two studies are directly relevant to this paper’s focus on secondary-level students (Grades 7-10) doing inquiry in the Humanities. One study, by Brush and Saye (2008), studied problem-based inquiry in history education. They collected data via classroom observation of 45 students in two Grade 11 history classes, as well as semi-structured interviews from 12 students and 2 teachers for the same classes. It reported high student engagement with the central problem as measured by classroom observations and the exit interviews (Brush & Saye, 2008, p. 36). One limitation of this study is that there is no baseline by which student engagement is measured against, meaning that no conclusion can be drawn on whether the inquiry-based approach is more effective at engaging students in comparison to non-inquiry-based approaches. Another study, by Summers and Dickinson (2012), conducted a longitudinal study on student outcomes in Social Studies at two US high schools. Using assessment data on social studies exams at Grades 8, 10, and 11, they found that “students who received PBI instruction significantly outscored the students who received traditional social studies instruction” (Summers & Dickinson, 2012, p. 97). The study is useful at providing evidence for the positive impact of inquiry-based approaches on student outcomes in the Humanities and can be augmented with data on the mechanisms by which such approaches achieve better student outcomes.

Debate is defined as an “organised public argument on a specific topic” (Shuster & Meany, 2005, p. 44). It is organised as an activity defined by rules of speaking and time limits, and

public in having an audience. Debate requires that speakers engage each other rationally through “argumentation and refutation, supported by reasoning, research, and evidence”, and the element of refutation also requires speakers to listen and take notes from opponents. (Berek & Losos, 2014, p. 50). The positive impacts of debate on students include improving interest in the subject, knowledge outcomes, and communication skills. Berek and Losos, who conducted debate lessons for 8th grade students in the USA, remark: “Students who rarely open their mouths in class come alive. Students who are bored with the curriculum are challenged…” (Berek and Losos, 2014, p. 51), highlighting debate’s power as a tool for differentiated instruction to achieve knowledge outcomes. Riyanda and Gunawan, who studied the effects of debate lessons on 11th grade students in Indonesia, find via qualitative and quantitative evidence that debate performs well as a tool for inquiry-based learning in cultivating higher order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and creative thinking (Riyanda & Gunawan, 2018). However, conducting debate lessons has drawbacks: it is time-consuming for teachers to introduce the rules, students to do pre-debate research, and to run the debate lesson itself (Berek & Losos, 2014, p. 55). Additionally, the actual debate may not cover all the key learning points for the particular chapter which need to be taught in the syllabus. Consequently, the teacher needs to take more time consolidating students’ learning, which may detract from the smooth delivery of the entire curriculum.

Can the challenge of high time demands facing debate lessons be resolved with the advent of Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI)? Generative AI, popularised with the introduction of Chat GPT in 2022, is characterised by the (i) use of deep learning models to generate humanlike responses to (iii) complex and varied prompts (Lim et al., 2023, p. 2). Generative AI has been hailed as “transformative” and a tool of the “future of education” that brings about both opportunities and threats (Lim et al., 2023, p. 3). The key advantage of Generative AI is that it can rapidly source information and organise the information together in a coherent manner based on the prompt given by the user, although the information has varying levels of reliability and may not cite its sources. Drawbacks of Generative AI include potential misinformation, the provision of information for nefarious purposes, and its ability to confound assessment tools such as entrance exams for schools, workplaces, and professional qualifications (Lim et al., 2023). Specific to literacy and writing tasks for students in secondary schools, teachers warn that there is a danger that AI simply replaces rather than facilitates students’ learning: “The use of AI technology, like any technology, should be used to support the writing process, rather than replace it” (Maher & Young, 2023, p. 128). Consequently, teachers need to implement strong pedagogical strategies and classroom routines to ensure that AI will complement and support students’ learning, rather than substitute or supplant students’ own work.

Nevertheless, it is undeniable that Generative AI has enormous potential to resolve chokepoints for complex lesson activities. In the case of debate lessons, Generative AI can simplify and shorten the preparatory process amongst students, which makes debate a more viable teaching tool within limited curriculum time. Debate is germane to the four-stage inquiry process: debate motions are framed around an inquiry topic, preparing the case is an exercise in gathering data,

the actual debate requires students to exercise reasoning, and the audience and adjudicators come to a final conclusion based on reflective thinking.

Research Design

Introduction to the Research Design

The research question investigates how debate impacts student learning in Social Studies. To evaluate the effectiveness of debate as an inquiry-based learning approach, I ran five debates for two Grade 9 classes, comprising 79 students, over two schooling terms (20 teaching weeks). The impact of this treatment was measured through student preparatory work, anonymous student surveys collecting data on student preferences, mechanisms for learning, and postlesson behaviour, and teacher observations of student performance throughout the debates. Quantitative data was analysed through descriptive statistics, and qualitative data was analysed to make inferences on student interest and behavioural choices.

Planning the Debates

Curricular Planning

For debate lessons to fit within curriculum time, teachers must be cognisant of ends and means. Learning outcomes are drawn from the central syllabus document produced by the Singapore Ministry of Education’s curriculum division, and then specified on a timeline by individual school subject departments’ “Scheme of Work” (SOW). Teachers thus draw out the specific instructional objectives to be achieved, pick out relevant topics, and then frame the debate lessons to elicit the corresponding knowledge and skills outcomes (Table 6, in Appendix A).

Lesson Planning

I decided to use the World Schools debate format rather than the British Parliamentary debate format, in order for students to work in bigger teams for research and to sustain a coherent argument throughout the debate.1 Planning a full cycle of a “debate lesson” involves (A) introducing the debate motion, (B) splitting the class into different teams: Proposition and Opposition, (C) giving students time and resources to do research on the debate motion, (D) conducting the student debate, and (E) consolidating student learning through assessment and feedback. Each step in preparing for the debate lesson mapped cleanly on the four-stage Humanities Inquiry Cycle.

1 The World Schools debate format features two teams of speakers (Proposition and Opposition). Debate motions may be on principles or policy. There are three substantive speakers and one reply speaker on each team. The British Parliamentary debate format features four teams of speakers, based on the British Parliament (Opening Government, Opening Opposition, Closing Government, Closing Opposition). Debate motions are typically on policy. There are two speakers on each team.

Lesson Implementation

Lessons in the school are taught in periods of 35 minutes. For the first cycle of debate lessons, the debate format and topics were introduced to the students via a worksheet. All students were divided into teams. Students were introduced to ChatGPT and given sample prompts to feed into ChatGPT to generate a debate case for their team. The prompt worksheet can be found in the Appendix B. Each team wrote up a “debate preparation” sheet on Google Docs with the help of ChatGPT and picked members to be speakers for the student debate. A two-period lesson (1 hr 10 min) was allocated for the actual student debate, with selected students serving as the chairperson and timekeeper. Student speakers were at the front, and student observers watched as audience members and took notes on the debate. The teacher observed and tracked the debate and gave feedback to the teams via oral adjudication and the scribed notes.

In total, I implemented five cycles of debate lessons for two Grade 9 classes, which had 39 and 40 students (Table 5, in Appendix A). The first four debates were intra-class debates, and the fifth debate was an inter-class debate. The fifth debate motion was designed to be similar to the fourth motion to ensure familiarity and increase the quality of the inter-class debate.2 The first cycle of debate lessons consequently took four teaching periods: one period for introduction to the debate format, one for preparation via Generative AI, and two for the actual student debate with a consolidation. Subsequent cycles of debate lessons would take two periods, as the preparation could be done as flipped learning. Consequently, the five debate cycles implemented took up 12 teaching periods across 20 teaching weeks. None of the debates were used for summative assessment, that is to say, students were not formally graded.

Collecting Data: Student Surveys, Student Work, and Teacher Observations

Student Surveys

To investigate the effects and efficacy of debate lessons, I designed a student survey to capture students’ views of debate lessons in comparison with typical lessons. The survey was anonymised to reduce distortion from social desirability bias, but required students to indicate their class in order to increase participation rate. Survey responses were collected from 67 students in Secondary 3, from two classes of 79 students. Survey questions focussed on the student experience: whether they enjoyed the debate lesson (to assess efficacy in achieving joy of learning), whether it led to students discussing the topics after class (to assess efficacy in sparking curiosity), and what they learned from the debate lesson (to assess knowledge outcomes). Survey questions can be found in Appendix C.

Student Work

Evidence of student learning was assessed through the team preparation sheets (Appendix B), student survey responses (Appendix C), and the oral speeches delivered by students in the student debates.2 Feedback was provided to students throughout the debate lesson cycle, including both process feedback on how to improve the use of Generative AI or how to speak

audibly and clearly, and substantive feedback on the students’ written and oral arguments in relation to the desired knowledge outcomes.

Teacher Observations

Teacher colleagues were invited to observe the debate lessons. English, Humanities, and Form Teachers for the class were invited to view the debates and support their students. No formal feedback was collected. Nevertheless, colleagues’ informal feedback, coupled with my own observations as the planner and teacher for each debate lesson cycle, added insight into the strengths, constraints, and pain points in using debate as a teaching tool for inquiry-based learning in Social Studies.

Findings and Discussion

Debate Lessons’ Impact on Student Interest

Are debates effective at increasing students’ interest in the topic, and by extension the Humanities subject (Berek and Lasos, 2014)? On the question to elicit joy of learning: “Did you enjoy the debate lesson?” on a linear scale of 1-5, with 1 being “Did not enjoy the lesson at all” and 5 being “Enjoyed the lesson tremendously”, with 67 student responses, the median score is 4 and the mean score is 4.22 (Figure 1). We can subdivide the student responses between 36 student speakers and 31 student observers. The mean score for student speakers is 4 and student observers is 4.48 (Table 1). This positive finding provides substantial empirical support for Berek and Lasos’ (2014) assessment that debates are a powerful tool for motivating and empowering learners in Humanities education.

Figure 1

Survey Results for Impact of Debate Lessons on Joy of Learning

Table 1

Respondent Group

The greater level of engagement for student observers is surprising, since we should expect that the positive impact of debate lessons in facilitating active learning is greater for student speakers. One plausible explanation is that student observers feel less performance stress and can more fully enjoy the lesson. Nevertheless, the finding that most students enjoyed the debate lesson, and this effect is stronger for observers, is doubly encouraging. It demonstrates that debate lessons can inculcate a strong joy of learning, and that student observers are not left out or disengaged as compared to student speakers.

Are debate lessons, based on the inquiry framework, more effective than non-inquiry based lessons? On the comparative question of whether students preferred the “normal” lesson or the “debate” lesson: “Do you prefer the ‘normal’ lesson or ‘debate’ lesson?”, on a linear scale of 1-5, with 1 being “Normal lesson is much better” and 5 being “Debate lesson is much better”, with 67 student responses, the median score is 4 and the mean score is 3.97 (Figure 2). The mean score for 36 student speakers is 3.81 and for 31 student observers is 4.16 (Table 2). This positive result supports the hypothesis that an explicit inquiry-based approach succeeds at engaging students and immersing students actively in constructing their own knowledge (Costes-Onishi et al., 2020). Additionally, the above empirical evidence that inquiry-based debate lessons are comparatively more engaging than non-inquiry based lessons close the scholarly lacuna left by Brush and Saye (2008)’s study. The additional finding that student observers preferred debate lessons to a greater degree than student speakers may again reflect that student observers are under less performative pressure as compared to student speakers.

Figure 2

Survey Results for “Normal” versus “Debate” Lesson

Survey Results for “Normal” versus “Debate” Lesson (Linear Scale)

Why do students prefer either lesson type? The comparative question of “normal lesson” versus “debate lesson”, on a linear scale, was followed up by an open-ended question, “What makes you prefer a normal lesson OR a debate lesson? Explain your view briefly.” (Table 7, in Appendix A). Students who preferred “normal” lessons highlighted that “normal” lessons targeted the syllabus objectives more directly, whereas “debate” lessons can be stressful and might lead to personal disagreements between students. Conversely, students who preferred “debate” lessons emphasised the fun and interactive nature of debates, which increased collaboration between students and engagement with the topic.

On the question of whether the debate lesson had a lasting effect on student interest: “Did you talk about your debate after the lesson with your parents or friends?” on a linear scale of 1-5, with 1 being “I did not talk about the class debate at all” and 5 being “I shared a lot about the class debate with family and/or friends”, with 67 student responses, the median score is 3 and the mean score is 2.79 (Figure 3). The mean score for 36 student speakers is 3.19 and for 31 student observers is 2.32 (Table 3). Generally, results for lasting effect are weaker and more mixed compared to the interest sparking during the lesson itself, which suggests that interest in the topic after the debate lesson atrophies rapidly. This is not surprising since secondary school students take a large number of academic subjects and are also involved in extracurricular activities and other social engagements. Intriguingly, for this question, the scores for student

speakers and student observers are reversed: debate lessons have a greater lasting impact on student speakers, who report being more likely to talk about the debate lesson with parents and friends. This is expected, since student speakers are more invested in the debate itself and the outcomes of the debate, and likely had a more intense learning experience.

Figure 3

Survey Results for Lasting Effect of Debate Lessons on Student Interest

Table 3

Survey Results for Lasting Effect of Student Interest (Linear Scale) Respondent

Finally, on the question of whether students were motivated to learn more about the topic in the syllabus: “How motivated are you to find out more about [Social Studies] Chapter 2: Functions and Role of Government after the debate lesson?”, on a linear scale of 1-5, with 1 being “Not motivated” and 5 being “Very motivated”, with 67 student responses, the median score is 4 and the mean score is 3.85 (Figure 4). The mean score for 36 student speakers is 3.83 and for 31 student observers is 3.87 (Table 4). Most students report a greater interest in learning more about the relevant content chapter within the subject syllabus. This supports the argument provided by Berek and Lasos (2014) that inquiry-based learning propels stronger student outcomes by dint of boosting interest, with the causal mechanism that students who are more interested in the subject matter invest time and effort to retain and extend their knowledge about the subject even after the lesson.

Figure 4

Survey Results for Impact of Debate Lessons on Student Willingness to Learn More

Table 4

Survey Results for Impact of Debate Lessons on Student Willingness to Learn More (Linear Scale)

In sum, the survey results demonstrate that debate lessons have a powerful effect in cultivating student interest, sparking the joy of learning, motivating students to share their learning and find out more. Student observers, having the less stressful task, reported being happier with the debate lessons and wanting more of the same relative to student speakers, and remarkably were just as engaged and enthused as the student speakers. However, the debate lessons had a deeper and more lasting impact on student speakers, who were more motivated to share their experiences from the debate to family and friends after the lessons. Survey results are unlikely to be seriously affected by social desirability bias as the student survey was run anonymously with no identifying information collected.

Debate Lessons’ Impact on Student Learning

Summers and Dickinson (2012) conclude through their analysis of longitudinal data that problem-based inquiry learning can improve student outcomes and posit that these salutary effects arise through “global connections and real–work aspects” (Summers & Dickinson,

2012, p. 85). Their study did not test the hypothesis. Is this the only mechanism by which inquiry might boost student learning? The survey asked student speakers what helped them learn best from the debate lesson, with various pre-set options provided. A majority of students agreed that the stronger mechanisms for learning were “Doing research on the debate topic” (61.1%), “Watching other debaters’ speeches” (59.3%), and “Seeing multiple perspectives on one topic” (51.9%). The results are reported below (Figure 5).

5

Survey Results on What in Debate Lessons Helped Student Speakers to Learn

Preparation

These survey findings indicate that the preparation and research stage in the debate lesson cycle is important in building up students’ knowledge. Students indicated doing research as the key component of their learning, even though the research was assisted by Generative AI tools, which suggests that AI can complement student learning when used in the right ways. This finding is especially reassuring in light of the concerns of Generative AI as substituting for rather than complementing and supporting student learning in the literature and popular media (Lim et al, 2023).

However, one important caveat is that student learning tapping on Generative AI is not uniformly distributed. Instead, whether AI improves and strengthens students’ knowledge, or simply short-circuits students’ thinking process, depends heavily on students’ attitude towards learning. This is visible from the students’ debate preparation sheets written up during the preparation stage of the debate lesson cycle. Some groups use Generative AI to deliver a firstcut of potential arguments for their debates before proceeding to refine those arguments and pick out good examples, whereas other groups simply had AI do all of the work and made minimal effort to refine and improve upon the AI product (Figure 6).

Figure

Figure 6

Variance in Student Preparation and Refinement Beyond AI Work

Minimal student refinement, wholly or mostly AI work

Some student refinement, largely AI work

Significant student refinement, beyond AI work

How did students refine and improve upon the AI product? At the basic level, students subdivided the AI points between their speakers and highlighted key points from the AI work. At the intermediate level, students also summarised the key points and anticipate opponents’ arguments using AI, to construct a stronger case. At the maximal level, students prepared specific rebuttals for anticipated arguments, and also introduced their own examples based on the school experience – one student quoted from the school principal’s speeches!

Debates

Five student debates were conducted for each Grade 9 class: four intra-class and one interclass. This gave every student the opportunity to be on a team and allowed more than half of each class to have the opportunity to participate as a debate speaker. Student speakers and observers alike tracked the debate by taking notes, although only speakers were permitted to use their electronic “Personal Learning Device” (PLD) – a Google Chromebook provided for every student in the school. Every debate was tracked by the teacher, who gave feedback to the class via oral adjudication, and to the student speakers via written notes (Figure 8, in Appendix A). The final, inter-class debate was video-recorded and uploaded online as a celebration of the students’ learning, and a resource for student revision.2 None of the debates were used for summative assessment.

Concretely, what did students take away from the debate lessons? The survey responses indicate that students had learning points relating to process, knowledge, and skills outcomes (Table 8, in Appendix A). In terms of process, students opined that they learned what a debate was and how to do a debate. In terms of knowledge, students learned about the functions and roles of government in relation to the topics, such as “I learned what an autocratic government was an its examples” and “The government main role is not to only provide food for the people but to care for the citizens’ needs, including hunger like preserving safety and security and

ensuring the wellbeing of citizens”. The alignment of these takeaways to the syllabus knowledge outcomes reflects the design of debate motions meant to elicit research and thinking on the syllabus content. In terms of skills, students learned to collaborate in teams, make oral speeches to an audience, and think critically and flexibly to respond to opponents’ arguments. Students also reflected on the nature of perspective-taking, and realised that different people may have different points of view and may reasonably disagree: “Everyone can have different opinions and reasons for how they think towards the same situation.” Broadly speaking, both student speakers and observers had their own takeaways, although observers were much more likely to highlight audibility issues while speakers identified learning points relating to public speaking.

Constraints and Trade-Offs for Debate Lessons

One major constraint for debate lessons is the time constraint, as identified in the Literature Review and by the students themselves. Debate lessons narrow in on a specific topic and do not provide comprehensive coverage of the chapter. Hence, the trade-off in choosing to invest time in debate lessons is well-rounded student knowledge of the chapter. This trade-off is mitigated in three ways: (1) a clear teacher consolidation of the debate lesson to achieve the remaining knowledge outcomes from the chapter, (2) increased student interest in the subject that encourages them to do self-directed learning, and (3) flipped learning to allow students to learn the remaining material on their own.

Another constraint relates to the management of students’ use of technology, such as their PLD and Generative AI. A student was caught using the AI to research irrelevant topics. While experimenting with AI can be encouraged, students should nevertheless be managed to stay on task during the lesson time. As we progressed with multiple debate lesson cycles, students became more familiar with routines relating to use of technology, which enabled them to stay on task more often to achieve the desired learning outcomes.

A third constraint relates to student collaboration. Some students report shouldering the burden of preparatory work while their team-mates coasted on their coattails or had difficulty selecting their student speakers when most of the group were not keen to present. While this can be partly managed by the teacher through a skilful assignment of student groups or imposing of logical consequences for slacking off, ultimately it falls to students themselves to develop effective communication skills and take ownership of their work.

Implications

Do student debates powered by Generative AI achieve better learning outcomes? This study has provided empirical evidence that inquiry-based debate lessons elicit greater student interest in the subject in contrast to non-inquiry-based lessons. for Humanities education. The study has also identified multiple mechanisms by which inquiry-based learning improves student outcomes: (1) Higher student interest creates a positive learning culture and improves students’ motivation to study; (2) Preparatory work through research and discussion facilitates

perspective-taking and critical thinking; (3) Engagement in debate activities facilitates perspective-taking and critical thinking.

This study has clear implications for pedagogical policy and practice in Humanities education. For policymakers, this study provides support for inquiry-based learning as the central pedagogy for Humanities education in Singapore, as inquiry-based approaches can succeed in eliciting the joy of learning and improving student outcomes. For teachers, this study recommends integrating Generative AI with inquiry-based lessons, subject to careful management and clear routines to avoid pitfalls such as distractions from use of technology or substitution of critical thinking.

What are some angles for future research on the impact of inquiry-based learning on student outcomes? One approach is to delve more deeply into the mechanisms by which inquiry improves student outcomes: for example, by employing principal component analysis to identify causal mechanisms, or by employing multivariate regression and instrumental variable analysis to compare the relative efficacy of each mechanism. Another approach could be to investigate the difference between inquiry- and non-inquiry lessons more rigorously through experimental research designs. There is also further scope for studying the impact of debates on student learning beyond inquiry: by examining how debates can differentiate instruction by process and by product (Hall 2003; Tomlinson 2005; Tomlinson 2017), and how debates can promote “active learning” by centring the student as a self-directed learner throughout the process from research to delivery (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Brame, 2016; Felder & Brent, 2009; Handelsmand & Pfund, 2007). In conclusion, debates and inquiry-based learning writ large are salutary approaches that enrich and enliven the Humanities classroom, and merit scholarly attention to uncover and understand their impacts.

Acknowledgement

The Humanities debate lessons were planned and implemented in a public secondary school in Singapore. The project was presented to the Humanities department of the school in March 2024, and refined based on valuable feedback and inputs from teacher colleagues.

References

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Corresponding author: Seow Yongzhi

Email: seow_yongzhi@moe.edu.sg

Appendices

Appendix A: Figures and Visuals

Figure 7

Inquiry-Based Learning Framework (CPDD, 2023, p. 98)

Table 5

Syllabus Objectives and Debate Motions (CPDD, 2023, p. 28)

Chapter in Social Studies

Syllabus

Knowledge Outcomes (Students will be able to understand:)

2.1 Functions of government The functions and roles of government in working for the good of society.

Core Concepts

Debate Motion

2.2 Roles of government

3.1 Challenges in deciding what is good for society

3.2 Managing trade-offs

3.3 Principles shaping governance

The challenges of determining what is good for a society, with decisions guided by the principles of governance. The challenges of determining what is good for a society, with decisions guided by the principles of governance.

Functions of government

• Makes and passes laws

• Implements and enforces laws

• Interprets and applies laws

Roles of government

• Maintains law and order

• Ensures economic and social well-being of citizens

• Promotes and protects a country’s national interests

Challenges in deciding what is good for society

• Differing needs and interests

• Differing priorities

• Unequal sharing of costs

Managing trade-offs

Principles shaping governance

• Having good leadership

• Anticipating change and staying relevant

• A stake for everyone, opportunities for all

• Practising meritocracy

(1) THBT

It is better to have an autocratic government in times of crisis.

(2) THBT

The Government’s main role is to make sure no one goes hungry.

(3) THBT

The Government should build waste management facilities, regardless of objections from nearby residents.

(4) THBT

Meritocracy works well for Singapore’s education system.

(5) THBT

Meritocracy works well in Singapore.

Table 6

Humanities Inquiry Cycle and Debate Lessons (CPDD, 2023, p. 124–133)

Stage of Inquiry Cycle

(1) Sparking curiosity

(2) Gathering data

Descriptor of Stage (MOE, 2023, p. 126)

Develop questions about societal issues, question pre-existing beliefs and assumptions.

Identify multiple sources, locate useful and relevant information.

(3) Exercise reasoning Evaluate usefulness and reliability of sources, consider multiple perspectives, reach informed conclusions supported by evidence.

Debate Lesson

(A) Teacher designs a debate motion aligned to the syllabus that is balanced and intriguing.

Teacher teaches the relevant chapter and concepts.

(B) Teacher assigns students to debate teams.

(B) Students do in-depth research on the motion with help from Generative AI on the debate motion.

(C) Students do in-depth research on the motion with help from Generative AI.

(C) Students prepare arguments and rebuttals based on their team (Proposition / Opposition).

(D) Student speakers debate each other and respond critically to differing arguments.

(D) Student observers track each speaker’s argument and write their own views of the topic.

(4) Reflective thinking Reflect on both the process and the knowledge gained.

(E) Student observers conclude which team had the stronger arguments.

(E) Student speakers reflect on their own performance.

(E) Teacher gives oral adjudication (feedback) on the debate.

Table 7

Survey Results for “Normal” versus “Debate” Lesson (Open-Ended)

Preference (Score Range)

‘Normal’ Lesson (1-2)

Neutral/Mixed (3)

Reason (sic)

(Observer) I personally feel that a normal lesson would allow for much more significant focus than a debate lesson on academics.

(Speaker) Debate lesson is ok. So far it is like argumentative case but fun in a way but takes up some of our time I guess. Normal lessons are also fun and ok, because the lessons are interesting and examples are clear and entertaining. But in my opinion, I prefer debate ONLY if I am sitting at a corner or I am like keeping track of time. This is because I feel like if you are unfair and if a teacher kind of allows it, it might create conflicts between students. (Whole night I have been thinking abt this).

(Speaker) I enjoy normal lessons, and it is less stressful to the debaters (when sharing) and audience (when judging).

(Observer) I prefer both because if lessons you can know a bit more indepth then if debate you would be able to know briefly but in a fun and interactive way

(Speaker) A debate lesson was fun but was very nerve-wracking talking in front of the class

‘Debate’ Lesson (4-5)

(Observer) Debate lessons are more fun, which increases attentiveness, allowing us to absorb information much much more easily.

(Observer) debate lessons are more effective in self revision and applying ss in real life

(Observer) Debate lesson because it’s fun and I can enjoy watching the debaters argue

(Speaker) I preferred a debate lesson because of the interaction. I was able to learn more things from others and I was able to ask for help from my teammates.

Table 8

Survey Results on Learning Points and/or Takeaways (Open-Ended)

Type of Takeaway Learning Points and/or Takeaways (sic)

Process outcomes (how debates work)

(Speaker) Always oppose your enemies when their point is unstable. Expand and ask unexpected possibilities.

(Speaker) debate lessons allow me to learn things in a more interesting and fun way because during the debate, proposition and opposition can disagree and throw questions at each other.

(Speaker) trying to think on the spot. when [redacted student name] oppose the speech on the speaker they were unable to answer on the spot so i thinking improving my creativity would be great and beneficial.

(Observer) one takeaway is that you should always prepare the most so that we have enough content to say for 4 minutes

(Observer) A debate is all about going back and forth, debaters expressing their conflicting views.

(Observer) speak loud

Knowledge outcomes (syllabus content)

(Speaker) I learned what an autocratic government was an its examples

(Speaker) i learned more about whether it is better to have an autocratic government in times of crisis and government’s main role is to make sure no one goes hungry

(Speaker) the governments duty is to make sure citizens are fed :)

(Speaker) The government main role is not to only provide food for the people but to care for the citizens needs,including hunger like preserving safety and security and ensuring the wellbeing of citizens.

(Observer) That autocratic government means having only one person in power

(Observer) I learnt that autocracies are much easier to control and maange and enact decisions faster while democracies are more patient, slower, with more brainwork to ensure their decision is the best decision.

(Observer) Giving food to the people is not the sole purpose of the government

Skills outcomes (collaborating, thinking, and speaking)

(Speaker) we needed teamwork to work properly. Without communication, our team would not have been able to complete the script in time for presentation.

(Speaker) being confident

(Speaker) There are many perspectives on a certain matter, there is no right or wrong

(Speaker) Everyone can have different opinions and reasons for how they think towards the same situation.

(Observer) one learning point is the fact that a simple question can have multiple answers with many ways to explain

(Observer) Prepare well and think from different perspectives.

(Observer) discussing with my classmates about a social topic can deepen my understanding towards our society

Samples of Written Notes Tracking the Debate by the Teacher

Appendix B: Generative AI Prompt Worksheet (Google Doc)

Appendix C: Student Survey on Debate Lessons

The student survey was done using Google Forms. Question types are based on the options provided by Google Forms. The survey was conducted after the second cycle of debate lessons, in the first schooling term. The survey did not collect names, to reduce social desirability bias in student responses.

Student Survey Design

Question

Class

Were you on the debate team?

Did you enjoy the debate lesson?

If you were a DEBATER, what helped you learn from the debate experience?

Question type Options for response

Multiple Choice

Multiple Choice

Linear Scale

Checkboxes

• Class A

• Class B

• Yes, I debated (or prepared) on a team.

• No, I was a supporter / audience member.

1: Did not enjoy the lesson at all

5: Enjoyed the lesson tremendously

• Doing research on the debate topic.

• Discussing with my team mates.

• Preparing my debate speech.

• Watching other debaters’ speeches.

• Seeing multiple perspectives on one topic.

• Other (fill in)

Do you prefer the ‘normal’ lesson or ‘debate’ lesson?

What makes you prefer a normal lesson OR a debate lesson?

Explain your view briefly.

What is one learning point or takeaway from the debate lessons? Describe briefly.

Linear Scale

1: Normal lesson is much better

5: Debate lesson is much better

Open-Ended (Paragraph)

Open-Ended (Paragraph)

Did you talk about your debate after the lesson with your parents or friends?

How motivated are you to find out more about SS Chapter 2: Functions and Role of Government after the debate lesson?

OPTIONAL: Share any feedback (questions, concerns, and/or suggestions) for SS lessons.

Linear Scale 1: I did not talk about the class debate at all 5: I shared a lot about the class debate with family and/or friends

Linear Scale 1: Not motivated 5: Very motivated

Open-Ended (Paragraph) The dataset can be made available upon request.

Beyond One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Teaching Multicultural Classrooms in South African Schools

Pfuurai

Chimbunde University of the Free State, South Africa

Boitumelo Benjamin Moreeng University of the Free State, South Africa

Abstract

Teaching diverse student populations with varying cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds is fraught with opportunities and challenges. In this paper, we examined the prospects and complexities in teaching multicultural classes and how teachers’ competencies could be improved. This conceptual paper uses the case of South Africa to respond to two questions: What are the opportunities and challenges in teaching multicultural classes and how can teachers’ proficiencies be enhanced? Using document analysis, the study deploys Gay’s (2000) cultural responsiveness theory which argues that teachers must understand and value the diverse cultural backgrounds of learners and adapt teaching practices to meet their needs. Understanding the possibilities and complexities that teachers face in their teaching could unlock new avenues in teacher-education programmes. Findings replicate that while teaching multicultural classes is crucial for nationwide integration, teachers lack the necessary training and preparation to teach multicultural classes, hence have limited pedagogical approaches and face communication and classroom management challenges. Considering these findings, the paper suggests a re-look to redefine teacher training and recommends employing professional learning communities to augment existing teacher competencies. The study contributes to discourses on how teachers’ practices can be recalibrated to suit the educational needs of diverse learners.

Keywords: challenges and opportunities; multicultural classrooms; professional learning communities; teachers’ competencies; South Africa

Teaching diverse student populations with varying cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds is fraught with opportunities and challenges. Previous research shows that adapting to the diversity of students is a major component of modern education for both teachers and schools (Smythe, 2023). As such, a growing body of literature is available that unpacks the intricacies of this educational phenomenon in many countries and adds to our understanding on how teachers reimagine and rework their professional practices to accommodate students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Aziz, 2024; Crystal et al., 2024; Lawson, 2024).

For instance, Karadağ and colleagues (2021) conducted a Turkish study that examined the degree of proficiency needed in social studies teachers to teach in multicultural classrooms to determine their multicultural competencies. The study’s conclusions demonstrated how inadequate teachers were in addressing the requirements of the culture of the learners at the classroom level. That affirms the criticality of teachers’ acquaintance with culturally responsive pedagogies that can address diversity issues. In the United States of America, KumiYeboah and Amponsah (2023) report on a comprehensive study that explored three issues: the challenges of facilitating cross-cultural collaborative learning for students from diverse cultural backgrounds; the teachers’ perspectives of culturally responsive pedagogy in online education; and how they incorporate culturally responsive pedagogy strategies in the online learning environment. The study concluded that teachers who taught physical science had difficulties in including culturally diverse materials in their online courses. The report advocated additional discussion on the best ways to support teachers in effectively engaging with students online. The study conducted by Crystal and colleagues (2024) is noteworthy as it investigated whether Bedouin Arab preservice teachers who taught in Jewish schools in Israel could benefit from an integrative learning pedagogy in terms of improving communication and understanding across cultural boundaries and fostering tolerance toward the other. The research demonstrated how the teachers’ perspectives were affected by the integrated learning methodology, leading them to reassess their biases, reduce their anxiety, and develop greater tolerance for others. This highlights the criticality of examining strategies in addition to those provided in teacher education programmes which can assist teachers to navigate the opportunities and challenges of teaching diverse students. In a related but earlier study, Rodriguez and colleagues (2023), examined pre-service teachers’ opinions and views about instructing culturally and linguistically diverse students in a multicultural school setting using the contexts of the United States and South Africa. The study provided more insights into a few strategies that can be used to support in-service and pre-service teachers in teaching students from a variety of cultural and language backgrounds.

Although these studies have helped to clarify the need for interculturally competent teachers, many of them still believe they are unprepared to work with students from other backgrounds, both linguistically and culturally (Crystal et al., 2024; Gedik-Bal, 2023; Keles et al., 2024; Lawson, 2024; Romijn et al., 2021). Despite extensive research that reports on the criticality of the need for teachers to accommodate children whose cultural beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours deviate from those of the dominant culture, it is notable that not much is known empirically about studies that reflect and discuss teachers’ cultural understanding and the

growth of their intercultural competencies. This dearth of studies in this regard obscures our understanding of teachers’ opportunities and obstacles in teaching multicultural classes and how their competencies can be re-aligned and enhanced. This conceptual study plugs this gap. Two questions underpin the study:

1. What are the opportunities and challenges faced by teachers teaching multicultural classes?

2. How can teachers’ cultural competencies be enhanced?

By exploring the opportunities and challenges found in multicultural classes and how the teachers’ competencies can be bettered, the study hopes to provide novel insights into how teachers’ practices can be recalibrated to suit the educational needs of diverse learners and concurrently may provide teacher educators with important insights into how to train teachers to work in classrooms with a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The study is structured as follows: after this introduction is the literature review which contextualises the study, followed by the unpacking of Gay’s (2000) theory which informed the study and then describe how the data was generated and analysed before presenting the findings and their discussions and implications. Then conclude the paper with some insights on the way forward.

Literature Review

Context to the Study

In the globalised world of today, classrooms serve as miniature versions of the entire globe. Diverse student populations with varying cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds characterise South African schools. Historically, during the apartheid era, there were “19 racially based education departments in South Africa, each serving different racially defined groups of learners” (DoE, 2001, p. 7). Even after the downfall of colonisation and apartheid, South Africans continue to “see themselves in the racial categories of the apartheid era, in part because these categories have become the basis for post-apartheid redress, in part because they retain cultural meaning in everyday life” (Seekings, 2008, p. 1). Basically, the population of South Africa is made up of Africans, Coloureds, Indians and Whites (Posel & Casale, 2011), resulting in 12 official languages that includes sign language (Chimbunde et al., 2024) though English and Afrikaans dominate the other African languages, spoken at home by most of the African population. Using a democratic approach, the Constitution of South Africa states that “everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable” (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, Section 29(2)). That proclamation extends the challenges that teachers face given the tapestry of languages found in South Africa.

Considering that language is a carrier of culture, the several languages in use in the country characterise the South Africa’s multicultural classroom environments. In addition, the Constitution recognises the right to equality regardless of any distinction or difference and gives no room to any form of discrimination, which, by implication, promotes a full recognition

of diversity (Cross, 2004). Furthermore, South Africa is a rainbow nation (Chimbunde et al., 2024) composed of a complex and diversified cultural landscape, formed by colonialism, apartheid, and immigration, which challenges teachers and teacher education (Rodriguez et al., 2023). This diversity is represented in the country’s classrooms, where children of all racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural origins learn together. It is estimated that in South Africa, 2.5 million citizens, or around 5% of the overall population, are foreign-born (Hanna, 2023). This highlights that with increased mobility, societies have seen a shift in the population and a rise in cultural variety; as a result, many children nowadays come from immigrant or ethnic minority families (Keles et al.,2024). Consequently, multicultural classrooms in South Africa are tainted with linguistic diversity as students speak various Indigenous languages such as isiZulu, isiXhosa, Afrikaans, and Sepedi in addition to English and Portuguese. Students also come from different cultural backgrounds, including African, European, Asian, and mixed-race cultures. These races reflect the country’s diversity.

The legacy of colonialism and apartheid, which continues to affect students’ lives and cause some to suffer from intergenerational trauma and others to enjoy historical privileges, adds to the variety of the classroom. However, no teacher enters the classroom to spread hatred or teach in a racist manner (Gedik-Bal, 2023). As such, teachers in this complicated situation must be culturally sensitive, adaptive, and devoted to inclusive and equitable education. Interestingly, these approaches are not innate abilities of teachers, rather they need to be cultivated during their training and or nurtured as they engage in their teaching practices in schools. Since South African classrooms are diverse, this offers academics and professionals a chance to consider the benefits, challenges, and potential of developing inclusive, pluralistic learning settings where students from all backgrounds can succeed (Kurian, 2023). Understanding and valuing students’ diverse backgrounds, experiences, and knowledge systems is essential for effective teaching in multicultural South African schools. While this understanding is noted in several studies conducted across nations (Karadağ et al., 2021; Keles et al., 2024; Lawson, 2024; Williams et al., 2019), there is a general agreement that teachers are confronted with educational challenges each time they face a multicultural class because teacher preparation in this regard is far from comprehensive (Aziz, 2024). Given this inadequacy in teacher preparation, it is easy for practicing teachers to accidentally offend or, at worst, prejudice students from cultural backgrounds other than their own (Goh, 2012). This underscores the need to undertake professional development that effectively equips in-service teachers with the competencies required to interact with these learners in multicultural classrooms while simultaneously preparing pre-service teachers for the opportunities and pitfalls of diverse classrooms (Gedik-Bal, 2023; Romijn et al., 2021).

What is under-researched in these studies is the nature of the opportunities and problems South African teachers face and how they can be dealt with. This study fills this scholarship lacuna by exploring the opportunities and challenges that teachers face in teaching multicultural classes and how their competencies can be enhanced, with the view to go beyond the one-sizefits-all approach that teacher education programmes offer.

Multicultural Classrooms in Other Contexts

The paintings of multicultural classrooms are not confined to South African schools but are evident across many nations. As argued by Coyle and colleagues (2023), the educational landscape in the world is undergoing extraordinary changes, including displacement, migration, and global people mobility, necessitating the need for teachers to reinvent classroom practices to satisfy the various learners’ educational demands. For example, Spanish is typically sidelined in American classrooms, which fuels conflict and reflects the complicated issue of learner diversity, which includes discrepancies in ethnicity, class, gender, religion, linguistics, physicality, and other areas (Gay, 2002). In their study, Crystal and colleagues (2024) report that Israel is a heterogeneous country with diverse religions, languages, races, and cultures, which can contribute to tensions, inequity, alienation, lack of conversation, and mutual rejection. Similarly, in Dutch educational institutions, the histories and cultures of marginalised groups are typically introduced as a brief footnote to the standard curriculum, and social biases are rarely discussed (Abacioglu et al., 2023). This helps to maintain the status quo of inequality and prevents minoritised groups from having equal growth opportunities. Another study by Degaga and Mekuria (2023) acknowledges that “it is well known by the Ethiopians that Ethiopia is culturally, linguistically, ethnically, and religiously a country of diversity and pluralism” (p. 5). According to Jonsdottir and Einarsdóttir (2024) in the last two decades, there are now many more Icelanders from a variety of language and cultural backgrounds in Ireland because “in 1995 approximately 1.8% of the population had a culturally diverse background, but by 2020 the number had grown to 15.2%” (p. 127). Taken together, these studies provide foundational insights into the prevalence of diversity found in the education systems in the world. As such, students with narrow or distorted worldviews should not be commended given this diversity. Considering this, teachers need to meet their diverse needs, failure of which the culturally diverse demographics of today’s classrooms is likely to produce regular value conflicts. However, this comes against the backdrop of the inadequacy of teacher education programmes as reported by many authors (Crystal et al., 2024; Gedik-Bal, 2023; Lawson, 2024; Romijn et al., 2021) who affirm that many teachers continue to feel unprepared to work with students from different origins in terms of language and culture, although the need for their interculturally competent has been acknowledged. This justifies the need for a few internal initiatives to improve the teachers’ intercultural competency, which is the contribution of this study.

Theoretical Framing

We frame our understanding from Gay’s (2000) cultural responsiveness (CR) theory which emphasises how critical it is for teachers to recognize and value the varied cultural origins of their pupils and modify their methods to suit the requirements of all kids. Three fundamental assumptions underpin the theory: 1. upholding rigorous expectations and learning standards while offering suitable scaffolds and learner supports; 2. leveraging students’ pre-existing knowledge, experiences, and assets through the implementation of a curriculum that integrates their cultural knowledge and connections; and 3. fostering students’ capacity to identify and question societal injustices (Buzzetto-Hollywood, 2023; Comstock et al., 2023). Several

fundamental principles are embedded in CR teaching, for example, the value of holding all students to high academic standards, the growth of their cultural competency (assisting them in appreciating and understanding both their own and the perceived dominant culture), and the critical understanding of the power relationships based on ethnicity and cultural background in society at large (Buzzetto-Hollywood, 2023; Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Seen this way, CR teaching is a research-based teaching strategy that emphasises valuing and recognising the values and life experiences which students bring to the classroom. This suggests that when teaching multicultural classes, teachers must engage students in the subject matter, empower them with significant cultural references to support their sense of self, and encourage social justice, critical thinking, and reflective reasoning. This theory is a good fit for this study premised on its ability to unpack the cradle of the teachers’ challenges and how teachers can navigate the teaching trajectory in multicultural classrooms characterised by racial, linguistic, cultural and socio-economic diversity. The theory will provide foundational insights into the way forward given that teacher training programmes are far from addressing the challenges the teachers encounter in their teaching practices.

Methodology

To glean insights into the opportunities and challenges of teaching multicultural classes, the study used documents such as books and journal articles, which were useful because the findings were unaffected by our influence (Morgan, 2022). The documents were helpful in exploring the opportunities and challenges of teaching multilingual classes. We combed and examined the literature in various electronic databases, including ERIC, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and Science Direct, using the phrase “opportunities and challenges of teaching multicultural courses” as search words. More than 30 journal articles appeared. We selected only 10 articles for thematic analysis based on their relevance to the paper’s focus. We screened by reading abstracts. The documents were useful since they offered us a method of tracking the opportunities and challenges encountered in teaching multicultural classes. To analyse the data, we employed thematic analysis as explained by Braun and Clark (2013). Codes and patterns were identified after articles were meticulously selected and carefully reviewed. The coding method comprised locating elements within the data that led to different themes and provided the details required to address the research questions. We employed colour coding, whereby concepts or terms that recur often were categorised according to their colour. Every article was printed out, with descriptive labels attached and various reoccurring themes were colour coded. This improved the general overview of the data, which made it simpler to concentrate on themes and ideas that related to the two study questions. The University of Free State’s Faculty of Education Ethics Committee waived ethical requirements for the study.

Findings and Discussions

The study investigated the opportunities and challenges faced by the teachers teaching multicultural classes and established how teachers’ competencies could be enhanced. We employed documents from various electronic databases and thematically analysed the findings. The study revealed that while multicultural classes have strength in diversity, teacher education

programmes could not adequately prepare the teachers to teach diverse students. These results confirm the need to use professional learning communities to complement initial teacher education programmes. Hereunder, are the findings presented as themes.

Opportunities in Teaching Multicultural Classes

A striking finding from the analysis of articles was that there is strength in diversity. Teaching and learning in a multicultural class offer an opportunity for this strength to blossom as learners from different cultures share their experiences and best practices which other learners and teachers can also emulate and solidify their competencies in accepting and tolerating often taken-for-granted minority perspectives and cultures. As Gedik-Bal (2023) contends “it is not admirable when students form limited or myopic perspectives of the world” (p. 37).Consequently, building an equitable, peaceful, and democratic society requires that the learners and their teachers become willing participants to understand and learn about different cultures. Acknowledging the possibility of diverse cultural backgrounds inside the classroom can help achieve this. In the context of South African classes, whites, coloureds, blacks, and Indians learn in one class in some schools, allowing them to fit anywhere in the global context. This corroborates the works of Güven and colleagues (2022), who argue that multicultural teaching and learning helps people accept and acknowledge the various cultures and ethnic distinctions in their community as well as their own; cultivating cultural and ethnic literacy; fostering self-awareness and healthy identity development in the person; and producing peaceful people. In concurrence, the CR theory affirms that teaching in such classes fosters in pupils a critical understanding of the power relations based on race and culture in the greater community, as well as a value and comprehension of both their own and the perceived dominant culture (Buzzetto-Hollywood, 2023). Not only learners benefit from learning in a multicultural class but also the teachers who teach these students. By valuing diverse cultures, teachers safeguard their own identities and coexist peacefully in the same classroom with students from various cultural backgrounds. This affirms the CR theory which argues that teachers must engage learners to empower them with significant cultural references to support their sense of self and encourage social justice, critical thinking, and reflective reasoning. We thus, argue along with Keles and colleagues (2024) that in contrast to victimisation, prejudice, discrimination, and loneliness, socially inclusive classes can foster a sense of safety, belonging, and positive cross-group connections. An inclusive classroom not only embodies equity but also the real South African community because it is essential for maintaining forward-thinking growth and promoting national integration through peacebuilding.

Challenges South African Teachers Face in Multicultural Classes

Limited Pedagogical Approaches

This study found that teacher education programmes do not adequately train teachers to teach multicultural classes. According to Aziz (2024), there are too few teacher preparation programs that effectively prepare candidates to teach a diverse range of learners from different backgrounds, integrate a multicultural teaching praxis, interact with multicultural families, and

flourish in multicultural communities. Furthermore, a lot of research has shown how difficult it is for current teacher preparation programmes to adequately prepare teachers for classrooms that are becoming more and more diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, and language (Williams et al., 2019). Instead, fieldwork is often required for pre-service teacher education programs, and at least one multicultural education course is usually offered. This one-size-fits-all approach to teaching persists, neglecting the unique needs and experiences of students from diverse backgrounds. This issue is not confined elsewhere but is also problematic in South African schools. As reported by Aziz (2024), teachers in South Africa are finding it difficult to handle the difficulties presented by students from different origins and cultures when put together in the classroom. According to Aziz (2024), teachers in many South African schools are not fully trained to work with students from diverse backgrounds. As such, South African teachers easily but unintentionally offend or, at worst, prejudice students from cultural backgrounds other than their own given the visibility of the lingering effects of social ills like racial discrimination, societal injustices and disparities, previous prejudices, oppressive practices, and gender inequality (Gedik-Bal, 2023; Goh, 2012). Taken together, the finding shows the deficit in teacher training programmes in South Africa, which needs to be re-worked.

Communication Barriers

An emerging source of unhappiness with teaching and learning that has affected students, teachers, and teacher candidates is the growing number of learners from varied language backgrounds (Williams et al., 2019). Because of this, many teachers continue to believe they are unprepared to work with students from different linguistic backgrounds (Gedik-Bal, 2023; Romijn et al., 2021). This is because of their training that has been focused on a one-size-fitsall approach, neglecting that these diverse needs of learners are personal requirements. The study reveals that while having different languages is inevitable in South African schools, teachers may face considerable linguistic challenges in these classes. Given that South Africa has 16 official languages (Chimbunde & Kgari-Masondo, 2022), cultural disparities in communication techniques, body language, and attitudes can lead to misunderstandings and disputes. Teachers teach learners who may speak different languages at home, which is not consistent with the language of teaching and learning. For example, Chimbunde and colleagues (2024b) report that learners from varied cultural and linguistic origins in South Africa are often required to break away from their languages and adopt the expectations of the dominant group to succeed in school. In most cases, the learners are supposed to adapt to class norms rather than the class to their diversity. As such, learners who speak, for instance, Venda, isiZulu, and Xhosa may struggle to understand concepts taught in English and participate less in class discussions. Gay (2002) confirms that placing learners in situations where they are expected to comply in this way while engaging in academic pursuits puts them in a difficult situation. Additionally, teachers may find it also difficult to convey complex concepts to learners who have limited English proficiency. No communication can therefore happen between the learners who speak the language other than the one prescribed by policy and those who speak the official language. Policies in the majority of South African schools require teachers to speak in the approved language, yet occasionally they must switch codes to be understood. So, using the prescribed language in a multilingual class is problematic and if not addressed, might result

in misconceptions and breakdowns in communication during lessons. Consequently, as argued by Rodriguez and colleagues (2023) students from historically marginalized communities who are linguistically diverse encounter an education system that is, at best, ineffective, disjointed, and irrelevant or, at worst, a concerted attempt to marginalize, mistreat, and disenfranchise.

Class Management

Given that learners in South African schools differ in terms of religion, politics, race, and creed (Makoelle, 2014), teachers might find it difficult to uphold discipline and control behaviour in such a diverse classroom. Student backgrounds and levels of self-discipline may differ, as well as their socioeconomic status. Behaviour expectations in the classroom can also be impacted by cultural variances. In South African schools, this diversity is evident as learners are either of white, black, coloured or Asian origin. The study argues that their culture varies and how they behave differs but expected to behave the same under the stewardship of a teacher. It will be the role of the teacher to ensure that a learning environment is maintained that is devoid of conflict. Teachers face challenges in maintaining discipline and managing the learners. There are many different hurdles when working with diverse learners. Meeting each student’s unique learning needs in a method that suits them best may prove to be the most challenging task. Managing a larger class such that every student is getting the most out of it might be difficult. It is thus crucial to vary the teaching methods and set aside time regularly to address the issue of classroom management.

Enhancing Teacher Competencies for Teaching Multicultural Classes

Hereunder, we provide some strategies that teachers can employ to navigate the challenges posed by learning environments consisting of diverse learners. However, we hasten to say that addressing every learner as a member of a single, homogenous culture is neither feasible nor appropriate. It is an imaginary idea. Consequently, training teachers in abilities, attitudes, and frameworks necessary to teach all students from a variety of backgrounds is always necessary. Although it does not claim to be exhaustive, this study clarifies some foundational strategies and techniques that teachers can consider helpful in bettering their practices in handling multicultural classes.

Use of Professional Learning Communities

Studies reviewed showed that teacher training programmes alone have failed to equip teachers adequately on how to conduct lessons in multicultural classes (Gedik-Bal, 2023; Romijn et al., 2021). This raises a critical question: how then can these teachers be empowered, given they are neither at universities nor undergoing teacher training? The only best alternative is to arrange for these teachers to engage in workshops and seminars using professional learning communities found in their schools. Professional Learning communities are thought of as groups of teachers who work together to improve student’s educational experiences by holding frequent interactive discussions, trying out different teaching methods, and critically analysing their own experiences to improve both their individual and group teaching abilities. For this

study, Professional Learning Communities are communities of teachers who come together to learn from one another as a group through discussions, reflections on practices, and the use of students’ work to enhance instruction and learning to increase student achievement in multicultural classrooms (Chimbunde et al., 2024b). Having noted that all skills cannot be learned during the teacher education programmes though limited as evidenced by literature (Aziz, 2024), the onus rests with the teachers to organise themselves into professional learning communities to go beyond the one-size-fits-all approach that teacher programmes offer. These communities are intended to serve as spaces where teachers can regularly, continuously, and methodically examine their practices. This enables them to discuss their advantages and disadvantages with peers, work together to solve practice-related issues, and adopt fresh concepts for the good of students (Chimbunde et al., 2024b). This aligns with reflective teaching, where teachers evaluate their practices with the aim to improve their teaching.

Training on Intercultural Competence

One construct that professional learning communities may work on as a strategy is to train teachers on intercultural competence. This is defined as the capability of engaging with persons from various cultural or linguistic backgrounds appropriately and successfully. To have that, Gedik-Bal (2023) proposes the employ of cultural intelligence which he argues offers a feasible framework for fostering intercultural competence. Gedik-Bal (2023) defines cultural intelligence as an individual’s ability to perform well in a range of cultural circumstances. It also stresses the significance of adapting one’s behaviour to the needs of the cultures with which one interacts. Using the three key tenets of CR theory, we argue intercultural competence focuses on the types of support provided to students to affirm their cultural backgrounds and identities (Lawson, 2024). When teachers possess this kind of intercultural competence, they may leverage each student’s cultural background, experiences, frames of reference, and learning preferences to tailor learning experiences that play to and build upon their strengths. Lawson (2024). advises that teachers need to recognize students’ cultural heritage, create, and impart culturally based lessons that support learning for learners, connect the school and home experiences, use different techniques to engage learners of all backgrounds, recognize the cultural backgrounds of their students and support them in resisting oppressive systems, emancipating them, and challenging ideas that assume control over them (Gay, 2000). In doing so, teachers will be integrating diverse cultures in their teaching, where local contexts are taken into consideration. The intercultural approach is helpful because when students learn in a manner that is interconnected with other people’s culture and their culture, learning becomes relevant, meaningful and highly appealing.

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy

When teachers are equipped with intercultural competence, the next step is to have them trained on how to adopt culturally responsive pedagogy. For clarity, Goodwin and Long (2023) following Gay (2002), describe culturally responsive pedagogy as teaching that includes the capacity to incorporate various pupils’ experiences and cultural knowledge into instructional strategies. Teachers who are sensitive to cultural differences develop cross-cultural

communication skills, implement culturally relevant lesson plans and teaching strategies, demonstrate cultural sensitivity, and foster a safe and friendly learning environment (Gay, 2002). Here, the teachers emphasize the need to provide students with significant cultural references to support their sense of self, encouraging fairness and inclusiveness, piquing students’ interest in the topic, and promoting social justice, critical thinking, and reflective reasoning. Introducing more ethnic practices into the classroom that could benefit all children is one possible strategy to address this issue (Abacioglu et al., 2023). We thus identify with Comstock et al., 2023), who claim that teachers must have a culturally responsive disposition that includes teachers’ perceptions of themselves as effective teachers, their attitudes about pupils, cultural diversity, and their abilities as teachers. First, teachers must be endowed with cultural competence, which is “the ability to help students appreciate and celebrate their cultures of origin while gaining knowledge of and fluency in at least one other culture” (Ladson-Billings, 2014, p. 75). This is important because culturally responsive teaching has many advantages, such as raising expectations, improving student needs, resolving inequalities and removing obstacles from the classroom, encouraging a more equal and level playing field, learner empowerment, strengthening student engagement, and offering new chances for students to shine (Buzzetto-Hollywood, 2023). We agree with Lawson (2024) who contends that culturally relevant pedagogy is a student-centred approach that examines student achievement, supports children in adopting and affirming their cultural identities, and opposes the inequities that schools and other institutions maintain. For that reason, the teachers in South African schools must be trained in culturally responsive pedagogy and employ a range of methods while integrating multicultural contexts throughout their instruction. They might use a range of materials, multicultural resources, and instructional techniques that are related to various learning styles (Jonsdottir & Einarsdóttir, 2024). That will assist learners not only in developing cultural knowledge but also reflect on multicultural attitudes such as the willingness to respect others, the significance of tolerance, and the necessity to become open-minded to diverse points of view.

Implications for Broader Context

This study is significant not just for South African teachers but also for teachers worldwide, as it has illustrated how diversity poses challenges and opportunities. We note that although schools in South Africa have diverse learners in terms of their culture, language, and life experiences, they are not exceptional instances as many learning institutions globally share comparable circumstances. Using findings from South Africa, diversity must be viewed as a strength rather than a threat. As such, the study underscores the need for context-specific approaches that acknowledge the complexities of cultural dynamics within educational settings. Countries in similar contexts must therefore adopt culturally sensitive approaches in teaching, acknowledging the significance of appreciating and integrating a range of cultures into educational policies and practices (Gay, 2002). This is predicated on the idea that knowledge and skills that are rooted in the lived experiences and frame of reference of diverse learners are easier to acquire, more relevant, and highly appealing. For this to happen, teachers working with diverse populations must select and present content to students in ways that connect it with students’ interests, their local languages, cultures and experiences. It is the duty

of the teachers therefore, to create inclusive learning environments that emphasize the valuing of culturally appropriate knowledge, ways of knowing and understanding, where students from all backgrounds feel valued and supported in their academic pursuits. By acknowledging and valuing students’ diverse cultures, teachers can foster inclusive environments that promote equity, social justice, and academic success for all students, which is good for the whole world.

Conclusions and Recommendations

This paper, using the South African context, set out to explore the challenges and opportunities embedded in teaching multicultural classes and then reflect on how to improve teacher competencies in this regard. Since the 1994 general elections, significant changes have been made to South Africa’s public education system. All children can now attend school, and students from a wide range of racial, cultural, and religious backgrounds are enrolling in multicultural classes. In stark contrast to most studies that concentrate on the challenges that teachers face in teaching multicultural classes, we interrogated the neglected side and explored the opportunities that these classes offer both to the teacher and the learners. We conclude that there is strength in this diversity as having learners from different cultures is a good foundation for establishing a just, tranquil, and democratic society in the future. An inclusive classroom not only embodies equity but also the real South African community. By extension, we argue that teachers are vital in promoting democracy in society. However, a remarkable finding was that teachers lacked the necessary training and preparation for teaching multicultural classes. Nonetheless, the study offered some nuggets on some strategies that can be employed to align teachers’ competencies to enable them to navigate the complexities of teaching multicultural classes. This research fills a knowledge gap by demonstrating how teachers’ cultural competencies can be enhanced through training that gives teachers the skills they need to be interculturally aware.

Considering the findings, the study recommends that teachers who are in service in South Africa and elsewhere in similar contexts need to be continuously trained on how to teach multicultural classes considering the diversity reflected in their learners. This training could be done in the form of workshops or seminars in their professional learning communities. This is to ensure that schools do not remain areas of ethnic conflict and that the academic success of pupils from marginalized ethnic groups will not lag that of their ethnic majority peers. In line with the above, universities in South Africa and others in comparable contexts, where teacher candidates are trained, must continue to redefine, and recalibrate teacher education programmes to better prepare future teachers. There is no extensive preparation involved in adding intercultural topics and objectives to the currently offered courses in teacher education programs. Teachers who teach multicultural classes must shake off the constraints of the onesize-fits-all approach training that they got from teacher education programmes, which neglects the variety of needs that students have given the nature of the South African schools and engage in self-development. The learners, diverse needs are distinct needs. It is not conceivable or appropriate to address each learner as a member of a single culture. While this current study has assisted in providing a foundational understanding of the nature of opportunities and challenges embedded in multicultural classes, it has its limitations. The study is based on

literature, hence other studies could be undertaken to explore the experiences of teachers and learners in teaching and learning in diverse classrooms.

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Corresponding Author: Pfuurai Chimbunde

Email: chimbundep@gmail.com

Health Promoting Indicators and Measures in an Educational Context

Migle Helmersen

University of Agder, Norway

May Olaug Horverak Norwegian Research Centre (NORCE), Norway

Abstract

In line with international trends, the new Norwegian curricula for education have a stronger focus on life mastery, democracy and sustainability compared with previous requirements. Students are to develop competence that promotes health and responsible decision-making. The current study presents a programme implemented in lower secondary school aiming at training social and emotional skills and preparing students to become responsible citizens through engaging their peers in meaningful activities during and after school, as well as coaching younger students. The theoretical framework for the study is Antonovsky’s health promotion theory and salutogenic model, stating that for individuals to develop a sense of coherence in life, situations must be comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful. A set of health promoting indicators developed based on research on health promoting measures in kindergartens and schools has served as a framework for the analysis of students’ experiences. The indicator set is divided into four main categories: capacity for action, social and emotional competence, stress management competence and health promotion competence. Interviews examining the students’ experiences of being engaged in this programme show positive results, mostly related to the indicators defined as capacity for action, social and emotional competence, and stress management competence. The study concludes that the students’ experience of facilitating their peers’ well-being by engaging them in activities may be related to health promoting factors, and that the set of indicators presented in this study may serve as a useful framework for planning and evaluating health promoting measures.

Keywords: capacity for action, health promotion, salutogenesis, social and emotional competence, stress management competence, youth

In the Norwegian curricula, developing life mastery skills has been introduced as an interdisciplinary topic, as well as democracy and sustainability (The Ministry of Education, 2017). This, in combination with increasing mental health problems among young people in Norway (The Norwegian Institute of Public Health, 2018), has led to discussions on how to promote good mental health in school and change the negative development. Schools play a special role in health promotion according to the Ottawa charter for health promotion (World Health Organization, 1986). Even though reports indicate that public health in Norway is generally good, there is an increasing number of young people that struggle with mental health issues (Bakken, 2018, 2022; Dietrichson, 2018; Reneflot et al., 2018; The Norwegian Institute of Public Health, 2018). Many young people report that they feel depressed, sad or unhappy, and that they feel hopelessness regarding the future. Stress-related symptoms and anxiety are also common, and an increasing number of students dread going to school (Bakken, 2022).

To meet these challenges, national efforts have been made to improve public health in Norway. The programme described in the current study was part of the project Health Promoting Kindergartens and Schools (HBS-Agder) and aimed at preventing mental health problems among students in lower secondary school. It was inspired by a previous programme where students were trained to facilitate for well-being in school by making their peers participate in activities and coaching younger students (Proba Samfunnsanalyse [Proba Society Analysis], 2010). One of the aims of this study is to investigate how students experience engaging in this programme and examine the potential in such an approach for promoting mental health, and developing responsible citizens, in an educational context.

Engaging students in these types of measures can be related to salutogenic theory, describing how a person needs to be engaged in meaningful and manageable activities to develop a sense of coherence (SOC) in life (Antonovsky, 2012). The current study investigates whether making students responsible for engaging their peers in activities during and after school supports health promotion in an educational context. Building on experience and research on how health may be promoted in educational contexts, this study applies a set of health promoting indicators, developed as part of the project HBS-Agder (Helmersen & Stiberg-Jamt, 2019), as a tool to investigate the health promoting potential of the programme. Applying this set of indicators as framework to plan and evaluate measures may be an innovative approach for future health promoting efforts in schools.

The study has a twofold research question: 1) How did the students who participated in organising activities for their peers in and after school experience this programme, and 2) does the health promoting indicator set function as a framework for evaluating health promoting programmes? As the programme in question is based on health promoting theory, the students’ experiences are investigated in relation to the indicator set developed in the project HBS-Agder (Helmersen & Stiberg-Jamt, 2019), and to what extent they express health promoting competencies.

In the following, the health promoting indicator set is presented, as well as the theory and research it is based on. Following this, the methodological approach to collecting data from the

implementation of the programme is described, and the findings are presented showing what health promoting indicators dominate in the analysis. In the discussion, the findings are related to Antonovsky’s salutogenic theory (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006) and other similar programmes on life mastery in school. Finally, the challenge of evaluating health promotion is adressed, as well as implications for future work with health promotion in an educational context.

Literature Review

This study builds on Antonovsky’s (2012) salutogenic model of life mastering while coping with stress and focuses on identifying factors that promote health and life quality in individuals. According to this model, the salutogenic orientation can be described by the following three components: 1) to focus on all people in system (and not only people at risk), 2) to address and promote salutary factors (and not only remove risks), 3) to focus on the whole person (and not only on a specific disease). Furthermore, this theory defines the core notion of the sense of coherence (SOC) by the following three dimensions: individuals need to feel that situations are comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful to develop a sense of coherence, which again leads to the development of resilience (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). At a given moment, a child will find his life experiences through 1) understanding the situation – What is happening in life? 2) believing that the situation is manageable and within your control – What can be done? and 3) that things in life are interesting, motivating, and a source of satisfaction – Why is this happening? These components and dimensions are united in the concept of generalised resistance resources, which are the resources that help a person, or a collective, to avoid or handle a range of psychosocial stressors (Jensen et al., 2017).

SOC is a central resource for the protection and promotion of health and mainly comprises the individual’s mental, social, and spiritual resources for coping with life challenges (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). A strong SOC is associated with a positive mental health and subjective well-being (Braun-Lewensohn et al. 2016; Moksnes et al., 2014). Studies in adolescent samples have shown positive associations between SOC and perceived positive mental health (Apers et al., 2013; García‐Moya et al., 2013; Honkinen et al., 2008). Where adolescents have been examined for “normal” life stressors, such as academic, school, or peer pressure as well as family conflicts, it has been shown that those with stronger SOC report lower stress levels (Nielsen & Hansson, 2007; Ristkari et al., 2008; Simonsson et al., 2008).

The concept of sense of coherence (SOC) is central in the exploration of what coping resources are crucial for the individual’s capacity to cope with stressors in daily life and create health (salutogenesis) (Braun-Lewensohn et al., 2016; Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). SOC is described as a personal coping resource and life orientation, which is recognized as the ability to perceive life as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful, and the perception of having resources needed to cope with normative and non-normative stressors in daily life.

Research on Health-Promotion in School

Health promotion in a school setting is a broad and innovative concept rooted in the Ottawa Charter (World Health Organization, 1986). The principles and action areas in the Ottawa Charter, such as building healthy policy, creating supportive environments, and empowerment of individuals, relate clearly to the salutogenic orientation (Eriksson & Lindstrom, 2006). Health promoting in schools is based on so called Whole School Approaches, where health education and teaching are combined with school policies, the physical and social school environment, and the surrounding community (Jensen et al., 2017). Furthermore, the focus is on promoting health rather than preventing a specific disease. In focusing on health promotion, it is important to consider the educational context as a natural environment in which it is possible to build attitudes toward good mental health. This approach combines a commitment to improving the health and well-being of children and young people and to making schools a better place to learn and work (Jensen et al., 2017). Research has indicated that many young people worldwide are not well informed about mental health (Apers et al., 2013; Paulus & Rowling, 2009; Rose et al., 2007; Sessa, 2005) and there is a clear need to raise awareness, educate, and provide interventions that facilitate the maintenance of mental well-being in young populations. Mental health promotions are potentially central to the solution, and therefore, it is unsurprising that many interventions that take this approach have been developed (O’Reilly et al., 2018). Internationally, this has been implemented through schools adopting social and emotional programs; for example, in the USA, the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL, n.d.) and in Australia, KidsMatter (Department of Health, n.d.).

There is relatively little research-based knowledge about how mental health work can be arranged in the best possible health promoting way in schools. So far, research shows that: 1) teaching mental health programmes has a positive short term (especially) effect (Klomsten & Uthus, 2020), 2) the effect tends to decrease and stop when the programmes end (Andersen, 2011; Andersson et al., 2009), and 3) mental health knowledge in school must be maintained through systematic teaching that takes place over time (Klomsten, 2014; O’Reilly et al., 2018). Weist and Murray (2011) argued that health promoting measures or programmes should focus on social and emotional learning, competence for all students, as well as the active involvement of young people, schools, and communities.

There are studies which demonstrate that development of sense of coherence is stronger before the age of 15 than after (Honkinen et al., 2008) and that supportive school environment (classmate and teacher support) is related to students’ SOC (Garcia-Moya et al., 2013). Schoolrelated stress and sense of coherence also showed a strong correlation, but the direction stayed unclear since the study used self-reported data.

The positive findings, both for population-oriented measures and measures aimed at high-risk groups, apply to areas such as anxiety, depression, suicide, behavioural problems, and bullying (Durlak & DuPre, 2008; Weist & Albus, 2004). They are mainly related to changes in knowledge, attention, attitudes, or stigma, and behaviour (Jané-Llopis, 2005; Pinfold et al.,

2003; Tennant et al., 2007). Nationally in Norway, however, there are few studies of good quality in this area (Andersen, 2011), as most national studies have mainly focused on behavioural problems (Ertesvåg & Vaaland, 2007; Olweus & Limber, 2010; Roland, 2012). The programmes these studies investigate, the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (Olweus & Limber, 2010), Zero (Ertesvåg & Vaaland, 2007) and Respect (Roland, 2012) do not build on health promotion theory, but rather on theory of bullying and aggression. They emphasize changing individuals through control and use of consequences, rather than facilitating for a health promoting educational environment.

Health Promoting Indicators

To be able to assess how students perceived the programme described above from a health promoting perspective, a set of indicators, which reflect a positive connection between the chosen activity and mental health (Helmersen & Stiberg-Jamt, 2019), was applied. The background for this indicator set was international and national articles and literature reviews on universal promotion interventions in schools for the last 15 years with documented positive effect of preventive interventions in the field of mental health as defined by the WHO (Anthony & McLean, 2015; Butzer et al., 2017; Dix et al., 2012; Fitzpatrick et al., 2013; Hall, 2010; Haraldsson et al., 2008; Hsieh et al., 2005; Kimber et al., 2008; Lendrum et al., 2013; Nielsen et al., 2015; Paulus et al., 2009). Keywords used to describe a desired goal achievement were identified in each study. These were structured into four indicator groups: capacity for action, social and emotional competence, stress management competence, and health promotion competence. Each indicator consists of explanatory keywords and is shown in table 1.

Table 1

Four Health Promoting Indicators and Explanatory Keywords

Capacity for action

Democracy

Empowerment

Self-management

Participation

Social and emotional competence

Self-consciousness

Managing emotions

Empathy

Motivation

Social activity

Respect Relations

Tolerance

Social support

Engagement

Attachment to school

Stress management competence

Confidence

Mastery/coping

Resilience

Control/autonomy

Health promotion competence

Knowledge of good mental health and well-being

Method

To investigate how students perceived the health promoting programme, interviews were carried out with youth leaders who were engaged in the implementation of the programme. This is a qualitative multiple-case-study (Bryman, 2012), investigating individuals in a reallife context. A summative, traditional content analysis has been carried out on the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), and the keywords in the set of health promoting indicators served as codes in the analysis. Relevant student reflections were coded with the keywords under each health promoting indicator, and the coded excerpts were counted to find out which of the health promoting competences that were prominent in the students’ reflections.

Data Collection and Sample

Data were collected in two rounds, in the spring 2019 and 2021. The first year, the students collaborated across grades and students from all grades were invited to a joint social gathering with activities one day after school every week. Due to corona, data was not collected in 2020. In the school year 2020-2021, the programme was organised separately for each grade due to corona restrictions.

The sample consisted of 18 youth leaders from the health promoting programme, and includes eight informants from 10th grade, whereof six are boys and two are girls, four informants from 9th grade, whereof one is a boy and three are girls, and six informants from 8th grade, whereof three are boys and three are girls (Table 2).

Table 2

Sample

Grade Boys Girls

8th 3 3

9th 1 3

10th 6 2

The interviews with the youth leaders of the programme were carried out in groups of two, and the data was collected according to ethical guidelines. All the data collected in the interviews were anonymous, and there was no audio-recording. As no personal, or identifiable, data was collected, the study was not reported to the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research. Information about the health promotion project and the research study was distributed to parents via the school’s learning platform. Information was given that it was voluntary to participate. The content of the interviews was not particularly sensitive. The interview guide included among others the following questions: Why did you join this programme? What education or training did you receive? What do you think works well or does not work? How does it affect you? What could have been done differently and better? Additional questions were added during the interview to make the students elaborate on their answers.

Analysis

The informants’ reflections have been analysed by using the set of health promotion indicators and keywords outlined above (Table 1) as a tool for analysis. The four main categories in this framework are: capacity for action, social and emotional competence, stress management competence, and health promotion competence. Not all keywords under each category were used in the analysis as not all were relevant in relation to the reflections. The keywords under capacity for action applied as codes were self-management, participation, and empowerment. The keywords applied as codes for social and emotional competence were motivation, engagement, empathy, social support, self-consciousness, social activity, relations, respect, and attachment to school. For the third indicator, stress management competence, the keywords applied as codes were confidence, mastery/coping, resilience and control, or autonomy.

The number of occurrences of the individual keywords under each indicator have been summed up to indicate what type of competencies are revealed in the informants’ reflections. Even though there are more keywords under some indicators, this is evened out as there may be more than one occurrence of a keyword in the analysis of the data material from each informant. The results from the analysis of data from 2019 and 2021 showed quite similar patterns, and therefore the results are collapsed in the presentation of findings.

Validity and Reliability

As the sample of this study is limited to one school, the validity of the study can be questioned, whether findings can be trusted and generalised (Bryman, 2012). This means that the experiences that are reported from this set of students may not be generalizable across contexts. The conclusions are also based on self-reported data, and these are not reliable measures, hence, the reliability of the findings may also be questioned. To ensure as reliable reporting from the students as possible, a qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews was chosen (Kvale & Brinkman, 2015), with the purpose of getting the students to describe their experiences from their point of view.

In qualitative research, it is common to talk about transferability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), meaning that the findings have validity beyond the sample and context of the study as the meaning is recognizable across contexts, and may yield significant insights for contexts beyond the sample of the study. The researcher’s competence and skills are crucial for the data that is created, including how the interview is carried out, notes taken during the interview, and how the analysis is carried out. The researcher’s scientific point of view, values and view on knowledge influence the data created. Credibility is related to an open attitude, preciseness, reflexivity, and the ability to meet dynamic challenges in the interview situation. In the interviews in this study, this was strived for through asking open questions and using followup questions based on the students’ responses. The analysis is a result of subjective interpretation, and some of the indicators in the analysis tool overlap to a certain degree, so perhaps another analysis would be possible. To achieve as reliable results as possible, the meaning of the indicators in the analysis tool have been discussed and clarified.

Findings

The results (Table 3) show what type of health promoting indicators are revealed by the students involved in implementing the health promoting programme. Social and emotional competence (176) dominates in the material. In addition, the informants revealed capacity for action (31) and stress management competence (31).

Table 3

Health Promoting Indicators Revealed in Interviews

The students revealed capacity for action (31), and one of the keywords prominent here is ability for self-management (11). They explained how they had become able to lead, be a role model and come up with games. One student reported that he now dared to do what he wanted, others that they were more responsible and more active physically. One of the students said: “Our parents have noticed that we have become more responsible”. The other element of capacity for action revealed in the data is participation (17), which is understood as actively taking part in something, or contributing. The students reported that they had been able to contribute to organising, making decisions, arranging activities, and taking responsibility for including others and making sure nobody was left outside. One of them mentioned that they were concerned with “stopping bullying and including everyone”. Empowerment is a third element that occurs in the data (3), how the students empowered others to dare to be themselves and say no to negative influence. When asked about what they had learnt that was important,

and that they would remember in future life, one of the students answered: “To be positive, to make others feel well, not to push others down, but to help them rise”. These results show that the students revealed capacity for action to self-manage and to participate in, or contribute to, their surroundings.

Social and Emotional Competence

The dominating health promoting indicator is social and emotional competence (176). Many students emphasised motivation, meaning that they enjoyed taking responsibility and participating in activities (38), and that they found it interesting and engaging (10). One of the students said: “It is fun when they come and say that they enjoy themselves”. Many students also reported empathy for their peers (45), recognising that not everyone felt safe. One student said: “Those who have nothing to do after school, they usually are also insecure in general”. It is also recognised that some students need extra attention: “We have seen that some students always stay close to a teacher, this means that they need some extra attention”. There are also examples of social support (21), that they made other students feel safe about transferring from 7th to 8th grade, that they included others and facilitated activity for them. The students also reported self-consciousness (28) concerning what they had learnt by being a youth leader, for example new games and how to help others. It is also expressed that the programme provides a social activity (10), and that everyone can participate. One student said: “The boys who did not like to be social have become social”. Another point emphasised by some of the students is how the activity facilitated for building relations and sharing of responsibility (11). When asked about what works particularly well, one of the students answered: “Food and being together, we sit with friends, eat good food, do something extra, talk with others, then it is even better, being together is perhaps the most important”. The students also expressed respect (11) for each other’s competences. Finally, two students revealed an attachment to school. These are all various elements of social and emotional competence.

Stress Management Competence

The students also expressed stress management competence (31). They expressed confidence (9) by reporting that they were proud of having the role as youth leader and felt confident that others were comfortable talking with them. One of the students said: “I have become better at talking to people I do not know well”. More of the students reported that they had become better at coping (7), for example that they were less afraid of giving presentations and leading conversations, and less nervous about job interviews. One of them said: “It is fun to be able to talk without being nervous”. Some of the students expressed having developed resilience (5), for example that the transference from primary school felt safer, a sign of them having the ability to cope with stress. The students reported: “I was nervous about being in lower secondary school for quite some time, the programme helped me feeling safe” and “the idea of moving on to secondary school was scary. It helped being an activity leader”. In addition, the students described feeling in control (10) of the knowledge needed to organise activities and how to create good systems. All these examples show stress management competence.

Discussion

This study investigates the experiences of students who participated in organising activities for their peers as part of a health promoting programme. The health promoting indicator set, as presented here, provided a framework for analysing the students’ experiences. The study also demonstrates how the health promoting indicator set may function as a sensible framework for evaluating health promoting measures. The main findings of this study show that students who were engaged in the programme developed mainly social and emotional competence, but also capacity for action and stress management competence. This also supports student agency, meaning that students participate in activities and influence their surroundings, which is emphasised as important in future education, both internationally (OECD, 2018) and in Norwegian curricula (The Ministry of Education, 2017), to develop responsible citizens in a rapidly changing society. Other studies from a Norwegian context reporting on health promoting initiatives with focus on social and emotional competence have shown similar results (Horverak, 2024; Horverak & Helmersen, 2023; Horverak & Jenssen, 2020) and illustrate how students can collaborate to work with finding solutions to challenges in the learning environment through discussions. Studies from an Australian context also show good results of measures focused on students working together, supporting each other to solve problems (Morcom, 2022), and prevention of bullying through programmes on emotional intelligence and resilience training (Bunnet, 2021). This contrasts other anti-bullying programmes as the Olweus anti-bullying programme (Olweus & Limber, 2010), Zero (Ertesvåg & Vaaland, 2007) and Respect (Roland, 2012). A Swedish study also shows that social and emotional training has a positive effect on self-image, well-being and the hindering of negative behaviour, such as bullying (Kimber et al., 2008). Another study from an Irish context concluded that a health and personal development programme showed improvement concerning emotional and behavioural difficulties (Fitzpatrick et al., 2013). Internationally, there have been several programmes focusing specifically on social and emotional competence, among others on SEL – social and emotional learning, and reviews of these programmes have shown that they generally have positive results with improvement in SEL and reduced risk of behavioural problems (Goldberg et al., 2019; Stefan et al., 2022).

The findings from this study show that health promotion competence, meaning knowledge of good mental health and well-being, is not obtained through the described programme, which was not the purpose of it either. The purpose of the programme was to improve the social climate in school and get more students to participate in social gatherings after school. That social and emotional competence dominates in the findings may be related to the fact that the purpose of the programme is to create social activities. Other measures developed and implemented in several schools in Norway, such as VIP (Guidance in mental health) and UPS (Education in mental health), focus mostly on giving students health promotion competence, more specifically - knowledge of what good mental health is and different symptoms of poor mental health, and where they can go to receive help for potential problems (Andersen, 2011; Klomsten & Uthus, 2020). In addition, VIP includes peer partnership, meaning that student pairs collaborate and take some responsibility for each other (Andersen, 2011) and UPS focuses on teaching students how to develop strategies for handling stress (Klomsten & Uthus, 2020).

Results from UPS show that the students gained more insight as they reported an increased understanding of themselves and others. The results of VIP showed that the students gained increased knowledge of mental health, and where to seek for help when needed (Andersen, 2011). Another similar programme for Norwegian upper secondary school, from another region, called “What is it with Monica” (Andersson et al., 2009), also showed increased knowledge of mental health and where to seek help. The health promoting programme investigated in the current study does not focus on teaching about mental health to youths, but rather focuses on engaging students in creating positive activities for their peers and giving guidance to younger students. It is therefore not surprising that the programme did not lead to increased health promotion competence, but to social and emotional competence, as well as capacity for action and stress management competence, which are all central aspects of health promotion.

Salutogenesis and Universal Health Promoting Measures

The transition of youth occupies a place of special interest in research on the relationship between SOC and health – individual’s capacity to cope with stressors in daily life and create health (salutogenesis) (Braun-Lewensohn et al., 2016; Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). Obtained social and emotional competence among students leads, in special, to process conditions of a more or less strong SOC to cope with life stressors, which conditions the adoption of certain health behaviours that will have repercussions on future health and wellbeing. These findings are in line with Weist and Murray (2011), who argued that health promoting measures or programmes should focus on social and emotional learning, competence for all students, as well as the active involvement of young people, schools, and communities. Stress management competence and coping ability, which youth in this program express that they gained, hopefully will lead to a perception of having resources needed to cope with stressors in daily life.

Previous research has shown that effects tend to decrease and stop when programmes end (Andersen, 2011; Andersson et al., 2009). If there is continuity in the programme described here, and it is implemented in a systematic way, health promoting knowledge may hopefully be developed and maintained over time. In this way, awareness of health promotion is raised, and education to improve mental well-being among the young population is ensured. This is in accordance with recommendations from earlier research (Klomsten, 2014; Rose et al., 2007; Sessa, 2005).

This study, like other studies (Jensen et al., 2017), assumes that a positive way of phrasing health is a precondition for reaching another key principle in a health promoting school approach: students’ active participation and involvement which creates ownership and therefore also the potentials for sustainable healthy change. The principle of participation is therefore also consistent with salutogenesis’ underlining of participation in socially valued decision-making as a prerequisite for developing a strong sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1996). In the future of learning, facilitating participation and a strong sense of coherence may be one approach of preparing students to become responsible citizens that will be able to understand and deal with rapid changes in society.

Whether universal measures focused on students developing coping strategies is health promoting for students have been questioned, as it is an underlying notion here that it is the students that must change, when in fact the problems perhaps lie in societal structures (Madsen, 2020). Still, even though society and educational structures change, individuals need to develop competence to cope in life and to participate in social settings. Health promoting measures in school may facilitate for developing this type of competence.

Salutogenesis and Measurement in an Educational Context

Lindström and Eriksson (2010) define salutogenesis as an “umbrella concept”, underneath which concepts and theories gather that contribute to our understanding of how health is maintained, strengthened, or set at risk. Salutogenesis, therefore, does not only relate to the explicit measurement and the application of sense of coherence, but is a much broader framework, touching on concepts like “empowerment”, “self-efficacy”, “quality of life”, “resilience”, “well-being”, “action competence” and several other concepts. While it is universally agreed that all those constructs relate to salutogenic dimensions and make valuable contributions in describing, explaining, analysing, and promoting health, some researchers also claim that Antonovsky’s salutogenic theory is still the best explored and with the broadest evidence base (Jensen et al., 2017). The indicator set applied in the analysis of the current study combines some of the constructs within the broader framework of salutogenesis and may provide a tool for planning and evaluation measures in school to strengthen life mastery skills such as social and emotional competence and responsible decision-making, central elements in the Norwegian curricula (The Ministry of Education, 2017).

When diagnosing in clinical work, clear criteria are used in defining mental health problems, and programmes aimed at teaching students about mental health issues are based on this knowledge. However, there is no similar set of assessment criteria that could "diagnose" what health promotion is in for example a school context. One of the main challenges with health promoting measures is to evaluate whether they have potential to promote good mental health. The crucial question is therefore, when applying various measures – is mental health promoted or not? School, as a health promoting arena, contributes to the additional challenge – the population is young and self-reported data can be a challenge to analyse. Antonovsky developed and validated a questionnaire for examining a person’s sense of coherence, or an individual’s mental health condition in relation to stress and coping (Eriksson & Lindström, 2006). However, this is developed for an adult population, and there is no appropriate similar instrument for young people. Furthermore, this instrument does not answer the question whether measures are in fact health promoting. Perhaps the indicators described in this study, developed based on research in the past, may provide an alternative framework for this purpose for the future, and for developing measures in kindergartens and schools that are health promoting. This is because this project is dealing with the whole child instead of only addressing disease and risk dimensions the focus is on a salutogenetic (not a pathogenetic) approach.

Implications

Developing life mastery skills has been introduced in the educational curricula in Norway (The Ministry of Education, 2017). This is in line with international trends focusing on the importance of agency (OECD, 2018), which means participating in and influencing own lives for example through self-management as setting goals and planning actions. Using a health promoting approach as described in this study, could be one way of working with life mastery, or supporting agency, in an educational context. In this programme, students contribute to creating a good school climate for each other, meaning that they take responsibility not only for themselves, but also for their peers. Applying the health promoting indicator set (Helmersen & Stiberg-Jamt, 2019) may provide 1) a quick testing and understanding of whether different approaches applied in school are health promoting, and thereby promote life mastery skills, as is required in the renewed curricula in Norway, 2) a tool for evaluating whether activities in school are health promoting in general, and if so, in which sense and 3) a guide to strengthen the action orientation and intervention dimension of the salutogenic theory. Ideally, activities in school should complement each other and include all four dimensions of the health promoting indicator set; capacity for action, social and emotional competence, stress management competence and health promotion competence. Furthermore, this may lead to a supportive educational climate, which will motivate children and young people to be effective learners and responsible peers, and at the same time, lead to better health and well-being. As this study is quite limited, more extensive, and longitudinal research is needed to investigate the health promoting potential of the programme explored here, as well as the potential of using the health promotion indicator set as a framework for evaluating measures in educational contexts.

Acknowledgements

This research has been funded by the Norwegian public health project Health Promoting Kindergartens and Schools (HBS Agder), Agder County and the Norwegian Directorate of Health. Thanks to central participants in the network of Health Promoting Kindergartens and Schools (HBS) for their contribution to this project, Eva-Kristin Paaschen Eriksen, Tonje Berger Ausland and Julie Sundsdal Nærdal, and the school that contributed with informants to this study.

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Corresponding author: May Olaug Horverak

Email: may.olaug.horverak@birkenes.kommune.no

The 3Cs in Volunteerism: Proposing a Model of Service-Learning in Education

Edwin B. Estrera

University of the Philippines Cebu, Philippines

Abstract

Curriculum strategies on social justice in education often focus on classroom management and technology integration, which may be surface-level approaches. Emerging trends include project-based learning and community partnerships for students to address real-world problems; as such, selected courses employ service-learning as a method of volunteerism. However, the participation of the students ends as soon as the course ends. Thus, this study examined the motives for volunteering and the experiences of selected high school, college, and graduate students to understand what contributes to sustained volunteerism. Seven focus group discussions among 33 key informants were conducted, and the data were analyzed using combined thematic analysis and Colaizzi's method. Following the domains of affiliation, beliefs, career development, and egoism, findings revealed that the volunteer motivations among high school students primarily relate to civics, while college students are motivated by both civics and career development. Graduate students show motivations linked to civics, career development, and competence. This study proposes the 3Cs Model of Volunteerism, which views volunteerism as a continuum rather than a one-time activity; it aims to recruit and sustain volunteers across different educational levels. By gaining a deeper understanding of student experiences in service-learning activities, educational institutions can better identify and address the needs and motivations of students, ultimately enhancing student volunteerism and community engagement necessary for promoting social justice and nation-building.

Keywords: basic education, curriculum integration, service-learning, student volunteerism, tertiary education

Young democracies like the Philippines rely on education systems to instill and cultivate civic values and participation (Glaeser et al., 2007). Schools teach that participating in civic and political activities such as community work, student activism, and voting contributes to nationbuilding, love for country, and, in effect, upholding democracy (Equitable Civic Learning for All: How K-12 Schools Can Grow Voters, 2023). Education programs include statements about social justice in their vision, philosophy, and strategy (Hytten & Bettez, 2011). In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) highlights the importance of cultivating social justice among learners and teachers, reaffirming its commitment to social justice and human rights (BY, 2023).

The country’s K to 12 Social Studies curriculum emphasizes the active engagement of students in national development as part of their rights and responsibilities as citizens in a democratic Philippines (DepEd, 2016). One of the key curricular themes is the promotion of active citizenship across all educational levels, implementing it where it may be applicable (DepEd, 2016). Thus, education is essential for fostering democracy and social justice, with teachers playing a pivotal role. They can promote social justice through strategies such as a culturally responsive curriculum, anti-racist and gender-sensitive programs, inclusive classroom management, and technology integration (DepEd, 2018; GGI Insights, 2024). By embedding these values into the curriculum, the teaching-and-learning experience becomes more cohesive.

However, such practices may be a surface-level approach (Bassey, 2016). Pedagogical and teaching practices cannot articulate social justice in the context of communities. Thus, emerging trends in social justice in education extend to project-based learning and community partnerships, of which service-learning programs are incorporated into courses.

Service-learning (SL) is an teaching approach that integrates theoretical knowledge with practical community service and generally aims to enhance civic engagement and course content understanding (Resch & Schrittesser, 2021). Through SL, students reflect on their experiences, develop social values, and fulfill degree requirements while contributing to their communities. In the Philippines, the economic impact of volunteerism accounted for 0.6% of the GDP in 2009, which is approximately 44.5 billion pesos. Furthermore, the sector experienced a 6.4% annual growth rate from 2000 to 2009 (Virola & Reyes, 2011).

Republic Act 9418, known as the Volunteer Act of 2007, acknowledges the importance of volunteerism in national development. The law aimed to “adopt and strengthen the practice of volunteerism as a strategy to attain national development and international understanding.” Additionally, it also encourages cultivating volunteerism as a way of life, which revives the cherished Filipino tradition of bayanihan to promote social justice, solidarity, and sustainable development. Schools support this mandate by implementing service-learning programs and various extracurricular volunteer activities.

The nature of service-learning as a credit-bearing program means that volunteer work is tied to the course, effectively ending once the semester concludes. Furthermore, not all teachers incorporate service learning or volunteer work into their curricula, often citing issues related

to content and logistics (Mitchell, 2008; Yusof et al., 2020). These challenges were amplified during the worldwide school closures due to COVID-19, which impacted the delivery of educational services. Teachers and students were compelled to adopt various learning modalities, both online and offline. As a result, sustaining academic efforts became increasingly difficult, including implementing service-learning activities, particularly when the pandemic spurred a global increase in volunteerism (United Nations, n.d.). Now that schools have returned to onsite learning, educational institutions must find new ways to foster volunteerism to contribute to national development and promote social justice, solidarity, and sustainable development in the context of the new normal.

Literature Review

The functional approach to volunteerism emphasizes needs and goals as key motivations. People volunteer for various reasons, such as personal growth, career advancement, social values, and understanding. While these functions have been widely adopted in various research, more is needed to explain contexts and types of organizations fully. Butt and colleagues (2017) refined this understanding with the ABCE Model of Volunteer Motivation, identifying four main categories: (1) Affiliation, (2) Beliefs, (3) Career Development, and (4) Egoism.

People’s motivation to volunteer is often shaped by their relationships and social affiliations. Interactions with family, friends, and peers encourage volunteerism as individuals may follow friends’ examples or seek to make new connections. Particularly, adolescents are significantly influenced by their peers’ choices. Thus, volunteering also serves as a means of building social capital, expanding social networks, and enhancing employment opportunities (Spera et al., 2015).

Beliefs and values also influence why individuals volunteer and the activities they choose. When a volunteer’s personal beliefs align with an organization’s mission, it enhances their motivation to participate. For example, animal rights supporters may be drawn to animal shelters. Factors such as cultural, political, religious, and social contexts also shape volunteerism (Grönlund, 2013).

Volunteering is an effective way to develop new skills and gain experience, particularly in fields relevant to future careers. Many individuals volunteer to enhance their knowledge and opportunities, which can influence their motivation to contribute. For instance, someone aspiring to be a teacher might volunteer in educational settings. Thus, volunteer work can significantly support career development (Darden, 2019; Spera et al., 2015).

Lastly, many people volunteer for the sense of gratification it provides. Factors like social recognition, personal agency, and acknowledgment from participation enhance their selfesteem and well-being. Interestingly, volunteerism is highly observed among those concerned more for public interest and less for private gains (Geng et al., 2022).

Generally, motivation is the driving force behind human performance and can stem from physiological or psychological needs, making it complex (Nehaus, 2021). It can be intrinsic, originating from within – such as personal enjoyment – or extrinsic, coming from external sources like rewards or praise. While intrinsic motivation is often preferred, external motivators can enhance it. Intrinsic motivation predicts the quality of performance, whereas extrinsic motivation is a predictor of performance quantity (Cerasoli et al., 2014; Nehaus, 2021).

Related Studies

Butt and colleagues (2017) summarized the findings from studies on volunteerism motivations to four key areas: affiliation, beliefs, career development, and egoism. This model aligns with existing studies by thematically organizing the needs and motivations of volunteers into domains that organizations can easily use to develop policies and frameworks for volunteerism during and after the pandemic.

From Traditional to Virtual Volunteerism

Lachance (2021) examined the effects of traditional volunteering given the limitations imposed by COVID-19. The essay emphasized the necessity of transitioning to online volunteering as a strategy during the pandemic and in the future. This could create more opportunities for new and existing volunteers. It is assumed that the teaching and learning environment after COVID19 will be more technology-driven (Culala, 2022).

Similarly, Kulik (2021) investigated volunteering experiences and styles during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focused on the motivational, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of volunteerism within face-to-face, virtual, and hybrid formats. The findings revealed that volunteers in the hybrid modality had a more positive experience than in the other two setups. In the hybrid modality, volunteers reported a greater sense of social solidarity and also demonstrated a higher commitment to volunteerism.

Affiliation, Beliefs, Career Development, Egoism

Geng and colleagues (2022) examined the relationship between public interest and personal gains in volunteering. Findings revealed that these two factors create a dynamic process. Specifically, 62.5% of participants reported that they volunteer only when it aligns with their personal interests (such as earning course credit) and their concern for the public good. Additionally, 27.74% were motivated by public interest alone, 5.99% volunteered solely for personal gain, and 3.7% expressed no interest in volunteering at all.

Holdsworth (2010), in a mixed-methods study, identified both altruistic and egoistic motivations driving young people to volunteer. Students often engage in volunteering with consideration for their future, including factors such as employability, skill enhancement, learning opportunities, and their personal beliefs and values. Similarly, AlOmar and colleagues (2021) found that student volunteerism during COVID-19 was motivated by patriotism, the

desire to gain experience, and religiosity, while those who chose not to volunteer cited reasons such as a lack of interest, insufficient knowledge, adherence to protocols, and barriers related to health or transportation.

The study by Lazarus and colleagues (2021) explored students’ willingness and readiness to volunteer during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings revealed that students with prior volunteering experience were more willing to volunteer and more prepared than those without previous experience, and that public university students demonstrated higher levels of willingness and readiness to volunteer. Furthermore, individuals from high-income and middle-income families scored higher in both willingness and readiness. According to Lazarus and colleagues (2021), one possible explanation for the results is that volunteering activities may increase the participants’ values (selfless virtues), understanding (knowledge and experience), enhancement (self-satisfaction), career (career-related experience), social (fortification of social relationship), and protection (alleviation of negative feelings or personal problems).

Rosenthal and colleagues (1998), in their study on patterns and predictors of political volunteering among adolescents and young adults, found that individuals aged 18 to 21 were more likely to engage in political activities than the older ones. This difference among the youth group is influenced by cognitive ability, family cohesion, and membership in prosocial organizations. The study also concluded that there is a need to enhance incentives to encourage more young people to volunteer. Similarly, Mekonen & Adarkwah (2022) examined the motivations of volunteers during COVID-19, focusing on intrinsic, extrinsic, and altruistic factors. The study participants reported intrinsic and altruistic reasons for their volunteerism rather than extrinsic motivation.

The overall experience of volunteering, including the development of volunteer role identities, plays a crucial role in determining the success of sustained volunteering (Penner, 2002, as cited in Güntert & Wehner, 2015). A volunteer role identity refers to the extent to which an individual identifies with and integrates the role of a volunteer into their self-concept. This includes the degree to which this role and the associated relationships become essential to their sense of self (Penner, 2002, as cited in Güntert & Wehner, 2015). Therefore, the context of the volunteering activity significantly influences motivation and the likelihood of continued involvement. Figure 1 illustrates how volunteerism among students is directly influenced, as shown by solid lines, and indirectly, as indicated by dotted lines. These influences include their motives, how the activity is conducted, and how these factors may encourage further volunteer engagement.

Figure 1

The Volunteering Experience as Modified from Penner’s (2002) The Causes of Sustained Volunteerism

With this literature, this study examined the volunteerism of selected high school, college, and graduate students at a public state university. It aimed to propose a meaningful model of service-learning in educational institutions by considering the motivations and experiences of student volunteers.

Methodology

Research Questions

This study aimed to explore student volunteerism among selected secondary and tertiary students at a public university. Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions:

1. What were the motivations of students for participating in the activity in terms of: 1.1 intrinsic motivation; and 1.2 extrinsic motivation?

2. What challenges did the students encounter in volunteering?

3. What model of volunteerism can be proposed to sustain student engagement?

Research Design

This study, which is mainly qualitative research, employed structured interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to gather rich data. By looking into the experiences of selected students, the study analyzed the service-learning experiences and volunteerism given the ABCE domains of volunteerism. The results of the analysis were used to propose a volunteerism model that focuses on students’ needs and motivations as a basis for sustained student engagement.

Research Respondents and Environment

The key informants for this study were from a public state university located in Cebu City, Philippines, which offers both tertiary and basic education. The university has an estimated enrollment of 1,500 students across undergraduate, graduate, and basic education programs. A total of 33 key informants participated in seven FGDs, consisting of 12 high school students, 12 college students, and nine master’s program students. These participants were enrolled during the Academic Years 2021-2022 and 2022-2023.

The high school key informants organized two off-campus activities focused on voter literacy. In contrast, the master’s program key informants coordinated two service-learning activities under the guidance of a professor. Meanwhile, the college key informants volunteered in a Math Tutoring program facilitated by the university’s Extension Office.

Data Gathering Procedure and Method of Analysis

This study utilized FGDs to collect data. Guide questions were asked to encourage participants to share their experiences, which covered topics related to the preparation and implementation of activities and inquiries about their motivations and current volunteering efforts.

The data were analyzed using a combined thematic analysis method (Braun & Clarke, 2008) and Colaizzi’s method (1978, as cited in Wirihana et al., 2018) to ensure a valid and reliable qualitative analysis. The following steps were undertaken:

1. Familiarizing the data through reading and rereading the transcripts;

2. Extracting significant statements and generating initial codes;

3. Classifying codes under pre-identified themes;

4. Reviewing codes;

5. Developing an exhaustive analysis of the themes;

6. Producing the report; and

7. Validating the findings through participant feedback to complete the analysis.

Research Ethics Consideration

An ethics clearance was first obtained from the university’s ethics research committee to ensure the ethical soundness of the study. A written consent was gathered from the willing participants before conducting the FGDs. The consent discussed the purpose of the study, participant selection, voluntary participation, risks and benefits, procedure, confidentiality, data management plan, and contact information. All identifiers were redacted in the data treatment. Furthermore, the participants were not enrolled in any classes taught by the researcher, eliminating any potential conflict of interest. Additionally, the risks associated with participation for the key informants were minimal to nonexistent.

Limitations

This study focused on students who organized or volunteered for at least one service-oriented activity. These activities, which aim to connect the school with the community, include servicelearning courses and programs initiated by the university’s Extension Office. The participants were students enrolled during the Academic Years 2021-2022 and 2022-2023.

Findings and Discussion

Theme 1: Affiliation as Volunteer Motivation

Table 1 describes why students volunteer with emphasis on the role of social connections. Individuals are often motivated to volunteer due to influences from friends, family members, or their social circles, as well as a desire to engage socially (Butt et al., 2017; Spera et al., 2015). This suggests that their motivation is primarily extrinsic in nature.

High school students saw volunteer activities as a chance to reconnect during the transition to onsite learning. One student noted, “It was overwhelming since it has been two years since we have seen each other. The activity allowed us to interact with new people and collaborate with classmates” (HS2). College students also felt motivated to participate because of their friends: “I feel motivated this year because my friends also volunteered. Good thing my classmate is here because I feel shy attending onsite meetings” (CS3).

The activities were part of service-learning courses for high school and graduate students, whose motivation stemmed from a desire for good grades. While completing tasks were important, they noted, “(i)t was also an opportunity to feel relevant by connecting to the community who needs voter education” (HS1).

Many college students choose volunteerism because their prior experiences resonate with new opportunities. Lazarus and colleagues (2021) noted that past volunteer roles encourage further involvement. One student remarked, “I was a member of different organizations before going to college. I organized and co-organized relief operations, coastal clean-ups, youth leadership, and feeding programs” (CS11).

Universities must create volunteer opportunities for students, as academics often take priority. With university-initiated extension programs, students can engage in community service alongside their studies. One student noted, “I remember that the university’s Extension Office volunteered in our community before. I got interested and wanted to volunteer for my community” (CS6). Additionally, family support plays a crucial role; CS3 shared that her mother always encouraged her to volunteer whenever possible.

Table 1

Types of Motivations under Affiliation

Form of Motivation Code

Extrinsic

Social Connections

Sample Responses

“Because the pandemic forced us to migrate online, this activity was an opportunity to reconnect with my friends and classmates. It was also an opportunity to feel relevant by connecting to the community that needs voter education” (HS1).

“It enabled me to connect with my tutee and formed friendships that do not end at 4:00 PM, which is the end time for our tutoring. They also send personal messages or react to my posts” (CS2).

“We were volunteering to help the public-school teachers at a rural school. We get to talk and meet them. We also established professional connections with field experts because their insights were essential to have accurate and student-level reading material” (GS2).

Course Requirement

Identical Experience

University’s Extension Program

Family Support

“Everyone participated and contributed as the activity has been coursed through a subject, especially in module making and activity implementation” (HS2).

“The whole class worked as a team. It enabled everyone to emphasize teamwork and collaboration, especially since we have full-time jobs and different work hours” (GS4).

“I used to volunteer to teach my neighbors about Math. They needed help understanding the subject; this volunteerism is the same” (CS5).

“I learned last year that there was a volunteer call, but somehow, I missed it. When they posted for a new call of volunteers, I signed up immediately” (CS7).

“My mother always encourages me to engage in volunteer work. She said, ‘Go volunteer here. I will support you’” (CS3).

Note. Same legend in subsequent tables: HS – High School students; CS – College students; GS – Graduate students

This result aligns with the study of Rosenthal et al. (1998), which identified family coherence, membership in prosocial organizations, and cognitive abilities as volunteering factors. This suggests that extrinsic motivators influence volunteering decisions (Nehaus, 2021), which highlights the role of family, friends, and the curriculum in providing meaningful reasons to volunteer (Butt et al., 2017; Spera et al., 2015). Teachers should incorporate service-learning activities into their courses to facilitate volunteering opportunities. Additionally, strengthening university extension programs is essential to provide more college students with volunteer opportunities.

Theme 2: Beliefs as Volunteer Motivation

Values and beliefs drive volunteerism among students, as shown in Table 2. Butt et al. (2017) noted that organizational values and religious beliefs impact an individual’s willingness to volunteer. These beliefs integrate both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in volunteerism (Nehaus, 2021).

Table 2

Types of Motivations under Beliefs

Form of Motivation Code

Intrinsic

Social Impact

Sample Responses

“Teaching the community members about voter literacy was for a greater (social) change; it was for the whole country. I used myself as a vehicle for change because there was rampant disinformation online. This disinformation was vested with political interests; it was timely and relevant for me to do it” (HS4).

“In education, our eyes were opened to different problems that need attention. Our volunteer work contributes to nation-building because we get to address educational issues, such as producing quality instructional material and relevant teacher training for public-school teachers” (GS3).

“It was easy to say yes because our activity was anchored on one of the school’s values, which is service. This made it easy because the school initiated the program” (HS8).

Institutional Values

Advocacy

“We were taught that our work was not for ourselves but for other teachers. As scholars, we must give back. We also facilitated research conferences, which helped me and the public-school teachers” (GS5).

“We saw rampant disinformation online, which was used in the elections. Our community work would help people in the mountain barangays, who have limited internet access, in choosing suitable candidates for our country” (HS4).

Sense of Direction

“I volunteered to design a test for learners to help them ace the PISA. This issue is relevant since the Philippines performed poorly in reading and comprehension. I am also a member of a reading volunteer group for elementary school pupils” (GS3).

“The activity made me realize what was happening in our country and that we faced more significant problems than I had before. In return, my volunteerism helped me find my purpose as a student” (HS7).

“Volunteerism allowed me to realize I can do more than I already know. I found a sense of purpose, and it was priceless” (GS8).

Vocation

Influence

Extrinsic

Social Awareness

“I could relate to them, given the problems we face. They were professional teachers who needed help, so I humbled myself to help. As a teacher myself, I am also using the same material that we were able to make” (GS2).

“My family and friends believed in fake news – they were misinformed. Their judgment was clouded, and they kept sharing social media posts about elections that were not true. I want them to change their beliefs through me” (HS3).

“Back in my community, I saw that there was an educational crisis. There is learning poverty, more than just a lack of facilities or teachers. Volunteering in this tutoring would hone my skills and help my community. This is my vision” (CS9).

Social impact resonates with both high school and graduate students, as their volunteer activities empower them to view themselves as “vehicles for (social) change” and contributors to “nation-building.” One high school student shared, “I am looking forward to change, and whenever there are opportunities where I need to invest little money, time, and effort, then I will not hesitate to volunteer” (HS4). This patriotic drive aligns with the institution’s values, emphasizing academics and national service. Another student noted, “As a scholar, I found social purpose in this activity—that I should be excellent in academics and community service” (HS10).

The ideals of high school students were heightened by their volunteer activity context. The voter literacy program provided them with direction while enabling them to advocate and influence others. They said that,

“It was at the height of national elections, and to campaign for fair elections was high. Our work was relevant” (HS7).

“We felt pressured and stressed because we felt the importance of our work. We cannot just take this lightly. Our collective efforts must bear fruit when they vote for the rightful candidates. It was a huge responsibility to see a direction in the results of the national elections” (HS9).

Graduate students shared similar experiences about volunteering. One stated, “Sometimes, accepting critiques from experts’ evaluation is difficult, but I remind myself for whom I am doing it. This ignites my volunteerism spirit that I am not doing this for myself” (GS5). Another added, “I feel emancipated with these experiences and teacher feedback. Not only did I learn from myself, but I was able to help a community. This enabled me to ask, “How will this impact the people around me?” whenever I make decisions or enter organizations. It has changed me” (GS2).

The motivation for social awareness often connects with personal experiences during volunteer activities (Lazarus et al., 2021). For instance, Math majors among college students volunteered for the Math Tutoring program, while English majors assisted schoolteachers. This connection helped them recognize social issues, as one volunteer expressed,

“My motivation is to teach kids who have difficulties understanding Math. At least they could improve their math skills, given that math is poorly received in our educational system” (CS8).

“I am a public-school teacher, and the people we are helping are public-school teachers, too” (GS6).

This sense of altruism and nationalism among different groups aligns with the findings of Rosenthal and colleagues (1998), which observed a significant increase in the likelihood of 1821-year-olds participating in political activities. Similarly, AlOmar and colleagues (2021) identified beliefs in patriotism as a motivating factor for student volunteerism during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is consistent with the study of Grölund (2013), which suggests that motivation is influenced by various cultural, political, religious, and social contexts. These motivations mean that high school volunteer work should be encouraged to take advantage of the youth’s heightened sense of social agency. High school encompasses the age group of 1218 years, during which civic engagement can significantly shape students’ sense of nationalism. Notably, prior experience with volunteer work among college students increases their willingness to volunteer again, consistent with Lazarus et al. (2021) in terms of previous volunteer experience. Therefore, integrating service-learning activities into the high school curriculum is essential to sustain volunteerism throughout college and graduate education.

Theme 3: Career Development as Volunteer Motivation

Career development often motivates students to volunteer (Butt et al., 2017). Through volunteering, students can broaden their knowledge and enhance their skills, especially in areas not covered by their current jobs. As one graduate student noted, “I helped in module writing

for a remote school, and my training enabled me to gain more knowledge in the field of reading and writing” (GS3). This intrinsic drive for self-growth aligns with the extrinsic desire for skill enhancement, consistent with the idea of Nehaus (2021) on motivation.

Table 3

Types of Motivations under Career Development

Form of Motivation Code

Intrinsic Self-Growth

Sample Responses

“Volunteerism allowed me to experience new things. It pushed me out of my comfort zone” (HS7).

“It takes time and effort to volunteer. I want to teach because I challenge myself by leaving my comfort zone” (CS12).

“It strengthened our character in dealing with time management and receiving feedback. It challenged our patience, mental health, and teamwork. However, I always ask myself, ‘Do you want to help?’ My answer is always ‘Yes.’ Therefore, I must do my best” (GS5).

“I am learning something new. I am doing something new” (HS1).

Extrinsic Knowledge and Skills Enhancement

Employability

“A webinar workshop on World Englishes that we facilitated, as part of our volunteer work, enabled us to gain further knowledge about Philippine English. These webinars we organized are not something we see every day; this was meaningful to us” (GS2).

“Volunteering while at university beefs up the resumè” (CS1).

Two more graduate students shared that,

“It pushed us out of our comfort zones because it was hard for me to accept critiques from other people. When I work, I assume that it is done. However, the process allowed me to be open-minded and accept criticisms. This developed my character; that is why I continued to volunteer” (GS7).

“The series of volunteers, as required in various subjects, enhanced our communication, negotiation, and collaboration skills. We had to learn the subjects and further develop social skills” (GS9).

Engaging in volunteer work enhances college students’ employability (Spera et al., 2015). One student noted, “I added it to my resumé because having volunteer experience makes my resumé look nice” (CS3).

This result aligns with the study of Geng and colleagues (2022), which viewed volunteerism as an interplay between public interest and private gains, and the study of Darden (2019), which highlighted volunteer motivation for career development. The college students’ desire to enhance their resumés through volunteer activities emphasizes the need to consider personal gains when designing volunteering opportunities (Spera et al., 2015). On the other hand, high school students prioritize graduation, while graduate students are often already employed, focusing instead on self-growth and skill enhancement (Darden, 2019). Thus, educators and universities should craft volunteer work that benefits student volunteers personally.

Theme 4: Egoism as Volunteer Motivation

Students may volunteer to enhance or protect their ego by seeking recognition, praise, or acknowledgment (Butt et al., 2017; Holdsworth, 2010). The codes identified under egoism reflect a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, as shown in Table 4.

Extrinsic motivators, such as grades and support, encouraged students to participate in volunteer activities. A graduate student noted, “The involvement of grades is another reason. I would still say that volunteerism is high; it has a higher sense of purpose, not just about grades” (GS2). On the other hand, a college student said, “The dormitory does not have a Wi-Fi connection. The internet load assistance helps finish a tutoring session” (CS6).

Social perception suggests that students at all levels want to volunteer. Notably, high school and graduate students expressed an altruistic motive:

“I want my family, friends, and relatives to see me as a credible and reliable source of information” (HS6).

“I feel motivated to join more volunteer work because some people ask whether I have joined this activity, and I say, ‘Yes, I have joined.’ This makes me feel recognized.” (GS5).

College students exhibited a sense of universal egoism, where actions are primarily driven by self-interest (Batson et al., 2020, as cited in Williams, n.d.). They shared that,

“The t-shirts they give serve as a badge of honor that you are being recognized. The design is also nice” (CS8).

“I wanted to be recognized during graduation because of the special pins they gave the volunteers” (CS12).

Table 4

Types of Motivations under Egoism

Form of Motivation Code

SelfConfidence

Intrinsic

Sense of Fulfillment

Sample Responses

“Volunteering enabled me to face my weakness in socialization because I needed to interact with the audience” (HS1).

“Joining different organizations is like a stepping stone for me to be more confident and be more engaged in society” (CS6).

“It felt so good because they took the voter training seriously” (HS1).

“Emotion-wise, it feels very fulfilling knowing that there was a change in their knowledge, and they could apply the concepts. That [change] is the prize, and it is priceless” (CS4).

“It was fulfilling because we could impart knowledge to the teachers and the students. Participating in these activities feels different because it adds more experience and enhances my research interest” (GS2).

Extrinsic

Sense of Agency

High Grades

“I wanted to volunteer while I could still do something new and while I still can. I wanted to try so I could learn more about myself and learn more about other people” (CS4).

“As service learning is required in the course, we expect higher grades if we do well in the voter education” (HS4).

“Because it was required in a subject, I was motivated to contribute to get good grades. However, as we did the preparations, the intention to get good grades outweighed the outcome of the activities” (GS2).

“I do not want people to see me as apathetic, apolitical, or indolent. My participation in this activity will help others show that I also care and am involved” (HS4).

Social Perception

General Support

“I volunteered because I wanted to gain recognition during graduation. I know that being a volunteer is a challenging task” (CS7).

“I think people know I am taking my Master’s degree in this school. Because of this, I feel pressured as I am expected to have the knowledge and character” (GS2).

“We were promised that there would be free food and that the office would shoulder the transportation expense” (HS11).

Model Citizen

“Load allowance, although not disclosed to us before volunteering, motivated us to work because they gave us mobile loads” (CS7).

“Our professor would assist us by providing us with money; he wants us to go to a hotel so we can work. We use it to pay for the bills and our food. This makes us happy because we get to work as a team and talk overnight while working on our activities” (GS5).

“I wanted my family and relatives to look up to me. They must understand that they also must do this and do that, because humans need to do good deeds, be good, and be kind” (CS8).

While universal egoism may characterize college students’ social perceptions, they also exhibit a strong sense of agency, striving to be role models for family and friends. One student shared, “Back in elementary, I wanted someone to help me catch up with difficult topics, but no help came. Now that I have the time and privilege, I want to be someone I longed for before” (CS5).

This result highlighting personal gains and egoism aligns with Geng et al. (2022), Mekonen and Adarkwah (2022), AlOmar et al. (2021), Lazarus and colleagues (2021), and Holdsworth (2010). Students volunteer because of the positive impacts on their feelings of agency and fulfillment, reinforced by social validation. This fosters a volunteer identity that benefits both the individual and the community. Consequently, service-learning activities in secondary and tertiary education must provide adequate institutional support and recognition for student volunteers.

Challenges Encountered on Volunteerism

The challenges of various volunteering modalities were evident across all education levels, as seen in Table 5. College and graduate students faced internet connectivity issues during online activities. One college student noted, “The faulty internet connection is a great distraction” (CS1), while a graduate student observed, “Internet connection is a challenge. Feedback takes time, so our timeline is pushed back too. Revising takes time, so every other part is delayed” (GS2). Similarly, high school students required adjustments in their objectives due to the need for online preparation and onsite implementation.

High school and graduate students identified time and resources as significant challenges. High school students felt that the voter literacy program, integrated into their service-learning, needed more time. On the other hand, graduate students found that the preparation required a considerable amount of time, mainly since they had full-time jobs. On the other hand, college students did not face issues related to schedule as their tutoring sessions were scheduled outside of class hours. This gave them free time compared to their high school and graduate counterparts. Additionally, high school students faced challenges related to both time and

resources. They conducted practices and wrote modules online, but the implementation required onsite presence. Moreover, they needed to spend money to purchase materials for their activities.

High school students faced challenges organizing a major service-learning activity, particularly in developing an effective voter literacy program. As one student noted, “It was very challenging in the preparation. We had to create the module and think of the content of the training sessions” (HS4). They struggled to maintain the audience’s attention during the threehour program. They expressed a need for more confidence when addressing peers or older individuals. However, the school initiative lent credibility to their efforts.

Graduate students engaged with the challenges on a personal level. One student expressed, “We had to consider many factors in creating a module for the students, including their grade levels and expected learning competencies” (GS4). Another shared her mental health struggles due to the demanding workload. As many graduate volunteers are teaching professionals, they felt uneasy about peer feedback. One noted, “Our character is tested as we must be patient and open to constructive criticism. When the expert evaluators gave feedback, I felt emotional reading the comments. This kind of volunteerism requires professionalism. We should not take comments personally” (GS4).

Table 5

Level of Education Code

Content and Strategies

High School

Nature of the Preparation

Time and Resources

Sample Responses

“We had to stay neutral throughout the program, yet we must ensure they understand credentialism and platforms when voting” (HS4).

“It is hard to motivate volunteers if the activity is not anchored with the school values, much more so if it is not a course requirement. Volunteer activities must be initiated or organized by the school” (HS2).

“There were parts wherein the audience no longer listened, and it was difficult to get their attention back because they were thinking of other tasks” (HS7).

“The preparation and practices were done online, but the implementation was done onsite with the community. It wasn’t easy to adjust to what was practiced and what was implemented. We lacked preparation, and I underperformed” (HS4).

“There was a time conflict when preparing our activity and other courses. However, because it was a group activity,

Challenges Faced by Student Volunteers

Internet Connectivity

College

Faulty Devices

Technical Competence

everyone poured in their talents and skills so we could still deliver what was expected” (HS1).

“There was a problem during onsite implementation. The audience came late, so we had to devise and be flexible” (HS8).

“The online set-up of the Math Tutorial sessions was difficult because of intermittent internet connection; it either slows down or drops. We had to turn off our cameras to deal with a slow connection” (CS2).

“My tutee does not respond to my messages; we talk only during the tutorial session, yet the connection is faulty” (CS6).

“The digital divide is real! There is a technological gap. Students use school equipment, but these are faulty; some microphones and cameras do not work” (CS6).

“It was a struggle to help professional teachers write technical modules, but it was fulfilling because I also learned” (GS2).

“I volunteered in many outreach activities, but this academicrelated volunteerism was new. It was my first time, and the experience was very different and technical” (GS1).

Internet Connectivity

Graduate

Receptivity to Comments

“On the other hand, conducting the activities online allowed us to be more flexible, especially since we have full-time jobs. It is the quality of the internet connection that affects our sessions. It wasn’t easy, but we are committed” (GS6).

“The expert evaluation part of our preparation was challenging as we consulted Master Teachers to improve our modules. We feel intimidated as I do not know how to approach them. I am tested on my communication, negotiation, and collaboration skills” (GS1).

Time Availability

“We all work full-time, and the volunteer work requires considerable time. We must revise based on the feedback but are constrained by the communication time. Nevertheless, as a non-teacher, I learned so much from my classmates, the Master teachers, and the students” (GS2).

“The preparation was done in groups. What makes it difficult is that the communication is done online. Our time availability does not meet” (GS4).

Overall, there is enough motivation among high school, college, and graduate students regarding their volunteering efforts. However, a significant challenge arose with online volunteering, as all groups encountered difficulties during preparation and implementation. Interestingly, student volunteers demonstrated adequate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

despite recurring challenges because they could still complete their activities; they had to innovate to meet their learning objectives. This finding aligns with the study of Nehaus (2021), which noted that intrinsic motivation influences performance quality, while extrinsic motivation impacts the quantity of performance and the intrinsic-altruistic reasons for volunteerism (Mekonen & Adarkwah, 2022).

Regarding the online volunteering modality, all student volunteers from various groups expressed mixed sentiments, as they acknowledge the benefits of time flexibility. However, online modality also results in decreased volunteer quality due to intermittent internet connectivity. These concerns were consistent with Kulik’s (2021) study, which found that a hybrid approach to volunteerism—a combination of face-to-face and online interactions— resulted in more positive perceptions and greater commitment to volunteering than purely traditional or online methods. Therefore, service-learning activities should incorporate time flexibility, strong institutional support, and a hybrid volunteering model (Kulik, 2021; Lachance, 2021; Rosenthal et al., 1998).

Implications

The multidimensional nature of student volunteerism highlights important aspects that should be considered when developing service-learning programs. This involves examining four key domains: affiliation, beliefs, career development, and egoism, while addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Results indicate that student volunteers were driven by three primary motivations: civics, career, and competence. Figure 2 illustrates how these core motivations are interconnected in the context of service-learning activities and volunteer programs.

This implies that core motivations related to civics, career, and competence (3Cs) can be integrated into various stages of education:

Figure 2

Core Motivations on Student Volunteerism

Civic Engagement in High School

Civic engagement is rooted in the desire to assist others and strengthen the community. The American Psychological Association (2009) defines civic engagement as “individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern.” It can manifest through community service, political involvement, or efforts toward social change (Adler & Goggin, 2005). This is why people are motivated to volunteer to support struggling learners or pursue societal change (AlOmar et al., 2021; Grönlund, 2013; Holdsworth, 2010). Introducing civic engagement early in students’ educational journeys helps them develop social awareness and a sense of agency. Integrating service-learning into the high school curriculum could provide students with the experiences necessary to foster a commitment to volunteerism. A high school student whose sense of community service is well-cultivated may find reasons to sustain engagement during their college years.

Career-Aligned Service-Learning in University

Higher education institutions could consider students’ career aspirations and degree programs when crafting volunteer opportunities. Students benefit from these volunteer works as they can use them to enhance their practical skills and use the said experience when seeking employment (Darden, 2015; Spera et al., 2015). While prosocial behavior, such as volunteerism, is often viewed as a socially desirable action, research indicates that personal gain can also serve as a motive for helping others (Durrant & Ward, 2013; Flynn & Black, 2011, as cited in Egilmez & Naylor-Tincknell, 2017). This approach ensures that students experience a sense of fulfilment in contributing to society while paving a viable path for their career development.

Competence-Building for Graduate Students

Graduate students frequently seek opportunities to enhance their skills and deepen their knowledge. Therefore, service-learning programs at the graduate level should emphasize skill development that provides specialized training relevant to their future careers while also making a meaningful contribution to society (AlOmar et al., 2021; Darden, 2015; Holdsworth, 2015). By aligning volunteer roles with the student’s professional expertise, their involvement can remain relevant and beneficial, encouraging ongoing civic engagement after graduation.

Figure 3 illustrates educational institutions as paths for personal growth, career advancement, skill enhancement, and social contribution, making volunteerism a consistent and relevant activity.

Figure 3

The 3Cs on Volunteerism: A Model for Educational Institution

Models of service-learning in education can be categorized into: (a) pure, wherein community service is the core of learning; (b) discipline-based, wherein academic work demands periodic community presence in a semester and wherein reflections are limited to specific course content; (c) problem-based, wherein students act as experts working for a community as the client; (d) capstone courses, wherein service learning is designed for major courses and are only limited to senior students; and € service internships, wherein students spend a required number of hours to complete a course (Heffernan, 2001, as cited in Pawlowski, 2018). In general, these service-learning models look into how academic content comes before civic engagement and service-learning primarily serves to achieve designated course objectives. The models focus on the pedagogical benefits of service learning, often overlooking students’ intrinsic motivations to volunteer.

The 3Cs model of volunteerism offers a practical approach in educational institutions to encourage, plan, and facilitate student volunteer opportunities. It also provides a meaningful framework to support and sustain student volunteerism in schools. Aligning with the core motivations of student volunteers makes civic work a natural activity – which is needed to develop Filipino citizens who actively contribute to nation-building. Future research should identify best practices and strategies for promoting and maintaining volunteerism among students from diverse backgrounds and interests.

Recommendations

Educational institutions should implement a structured and progressive model of volunteerism that addresses motivations and opportunities at each educational stage. Specifically, high school education should foster civic awareness; university programs should integrate volunteerism with civic duty and career development; and graduate programs should focus on civic awareness, career development, and competence enhancement. This allows students to see that their work is not a one-time activity but part of the need to do the same volunteer work in the following stages of education. In order to sustain volunteerism, educational institutions must provide essential support systems, such as academic credit, flexible scheduling, and rewards or incentives. Moreover, a hybrid volunteering modality, i.e., a combination of onsite and online formats, could be adopted when planning and implementing service-learning

activities as this can make volunteer opportunities more accessible and appealing to a wider range of students.

Conclusion

Service-learning in education is a strategy aimed at achieving national development, with the youth playing a crucial role in promoting social justice and contributing to nation-building. Educational institutions should connect schools and communities through service-learning activities and volunteer work. By identifying the ABCE and the intrinsic-extrinsic motivations among student volunteers, results show that high school students are motivated to volunteer for civic work, college students for civic work and career, and graduate students for civic work, career, and competence. While the mode of volunteering may influence the quality of the volunteer experience, relevant institutional programs are essential to sustain the quantity of volunteerism. The 3Cs Model on Volunteerism proposes student engagement by aligning students’ core motivations with planning volunteer activities. This approach turns volunteerism into a consistent part of their educational experience rather than just a one-time individual effort

Declaration of Generative Al and Al-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

The author declares the use of AI-assisted technology to improve the grammar and clarity of message of this manuscript.

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Corresponding author: Edwin B. Estrera

Email: ebestrera@up.edu.ph

Shaping Purpose-Driven Learning Through Creative Writing

Kalai Vaani Rajandram

Taylor’s University, Malaysia

Judith Nesamalar Tharumaraj

Taylor’s University, Malaysia

Abstract

Existing literature predominantly emphasizes policy frameworks and technological solutions, neglecting the transformative potential of creative writing in facilitating purpose-driven learning. In the context of advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this study addresses the underexplored role of creative writing as a catalyst for societal change and sustainable development. This research seeks to bridge this gap by employing a qualitative methodology that is grounded on a social constructivist model that subsists on focus group conversations and sharing between students and participants that enable the gathering of rich empirical material in the form of narrative responses. The narrative responses are utilized to inspire creative writing initiatives linked to purpose-driven learning. By analysing the impact of creative narratives, poetry, and storytelling on societal perceptions and behaviours, this study aims to uncover the mechanisms through which creative writing influences attitudes towards sustainability and promotes actionable engagement. The anticipated findings intend to showcase the efficacy of creative writing in fostering empathy, encouraging innovative thinking, and amplifying diverse voices, thus providing valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and practitioners involved in sustainable development endeavours.

Keywords: creative writing, narrative analysis, purpose-driven learning, social constructivism, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Purpose-driven learning has emerged out of the dire need to inject socio-emotional values in students alongside the development of lifelong learning goals. Educators are more inclined to promote discovery, encourage exploration and empower students to broaden their worldview through interaction and engagement with societal happenings. The trend in purpose-driven learning utilizing SDGs as the forefront seem to be directed at making students agents of change by connecting them to the relevant stakeholders through various problem-based discussions and capstone projects. Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are implementing all sorts of interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary research that serve to study human-systems through frameworks that address specific challenges. This supports the notion, as Filho and colleagues (2023) suggested, that this process is a dynamic and ongoing approach where the curriculum is transforming to meet purpose-driven learning via the integration of sustainability topics and new modules that can shoulder the endeavour sought after.

A number of research in the area share this transformative notion of pedagogy, approach and sustainable teaching and learning practice that can push the agenda of the SDGs. Cebrián and colleagues (2020) pointed out that diversified learner-centred strategies in the classrooms such as interactive action-oriented activities, and self-directed initiatives can support the linking of formal and informal learning in a purposeful manner. In the light of this, the need for defining common frameworks and definitions has always been central to this agenda to provide not only sustainable practices in the classroom, but also to derive models and technological solutions that have a more global and policy changing impact. While developing policy frameworks and technological solutions are the modus operandi of stakeholders, classroom practices hinge on creating innovative teaching and learning mechanisms and transformative institutional approaches to sustain SDG competencies in the long run. The need for finding new ways to embed, inject and cultivate this agenda for the long haul needs to be addressed from the HEI levels because it can determine future professions that are aligned to this cause (Oltra-Badenes et al., 2023).

If the expectation is for students to be the driver of change, then the nature of the stimulus has to be one that crafts a pathway that not only nurtures talent but also promotes at its core the concept of rigorous scholarship and the development of new ideas through its authentic approaches. However, systematic reviews have highlighted how student activities and assignments more often than not fall in these categories: questionnaires that assess students’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours towards sustainability, reflexive diaries, interviews, conceptual maps, rubrics, and scenario and vignette visioning. These are more summative than it is formative, Cebrián and colleagues (2020) point out. These approaches also lack what Muhammad Yunus refers to as social innovation through sociological imagination, for example (Papi-Thornton, 2013).

Hence, what can be gathered is that there is a further need to diversify how we engage our students in this purpose-driven endeavour. Bringing the SDGs into the classroom to bridge students with underserved communities, for example, requires not only ingenious approaches but also approaches that are character- formative if the educator is to aid knowledge, grow awareness and facilitate the perception of the relationship between SDGs and communal

wellbeing. This study answers this call by exploring how creative writing can be used to drive the SDGs in the attempt to shape purpose-driven learning. The study seeks to investigate why creative writing can be used to mould purpose-driven learning and how this endeavour delivers on learning outcomes that are grounded in the SDGs.

Literature Review

The Call for Purpose Driven Learning: The Motivation

As mentioned earlier on in the introduction, the notion of purpose-driven learning, as propounded by Moreno (2022), centres on unleashing the innate passion of the student. The endgame is in the goals that we set out to achieve. However, what constitutes as purpose learning may differ in context from one classroom to the other. While some may be motivated by culturally relevant stimulus to engage their students, others may use task-based or problembased scenarios to power the learning experience. The bottom line is about moving beyond mere testing and pushing for more outcome-based activities. This trend post-pandemic is a result of reimagining and reinventing education for a more purposeful and long-term impact.

Previous studies in the area have highlighted a number of endeavours in favour of this goaloriented learning. Lodge and Ashford-Rowe (2024) discuss this from the viewpoint of the process rather than the end product. Their study advocates how goals should not be about obtaining credit hours but more about aligning classroom practices with effective learning that is neither about input nor output, but more about understanding of mechanisms on how things are learnt, then drawing on that as a goal. Gironella (2023) uses gamification methods to identify student motivators in the light of driving learning that matches needs and wants. This study attests to effectively leveraging on students’ unique intrinsic and extrinsic motivators to create an empowering, supportive, and highly effective learning model. The core of a purposedriven learning framework is about ensuring that something is learnt in a very student-centred ecosystem.

Purpose-driven learning is more often than not student-led. Njoku (2019) examines the nature of a student-led learning activity revolving public health issues. The act of integrating the students within the community under study enabled the student to drive the task via inquiry mode. Learner-centred strategies are seen to drive purpose-driven learning. An extended endeavour towards purpose-driven learning is also seen in attempts to create social impact. Weakley and colleagues (2021) developed a university-voluntary sector collaboration for social purpose goals. Entrenched in service-learning, this form of learning is not only driven by a cause to achieve civic engagement goals but also to drive the point home about how HEIs can anchor teaching and learning for social change. The purpose of learning is embedded in student engagement with community partners, for example, providing a mission and a vision. However, the challenge lies in the structural aspects of these tasks as well as the conceptual framework and designs of these pedagogical approaches.

Implementing SDGs in Teaching and Learning: The Challenges

A form of purpose driven learning that is gaining pace is the incorporation of SDGs into the curriculum in order to motivate students to move in a fruitful direction. Still in its infancy, this approach has covered quite a bit of ground over a short period of time. If approached effectively, this strategy is able to achieve outcomes that promote forward-thinking amidst other character-crafting values that are highly sought after in many industries. In Ilhavenil and Logewaran (2023), the study attempts to teach forms of empathy which is deemed pivotal in a multicultural context. It is also pointed out that in an Asian context, this agenda is rather fuzzy. With this in mind, the study explores how the Moral Education in Malaysian schools can serve as a case-study or context to explore the development of empathy amongst high school students. While this contributes to further understanding how young adults process empathy, the learning framework can be further extended into a context of a larger scope. Extracting values from a value-based module is one way to go but extracting values such as empathy from a business studies module, for example, not only opens up pathways to accidental learning, but also showcases how any module can be utilized to generate empathy given an effective teaching strategy. For instance, in Zakaria and colleagues (2021), the study approaches the teaching and learning of core values such as empathy by integrating global citizenship as a tag along feature across subjects taken in selected Malaysian primary schools. As a default setting, the SDGs become an overarching framework that is embedded within the education system. The expected communal values alongside other critical cognitive skills are developed at the grassroots.

HEIs on the other hand do have a moral obligation to ensure students develop holistically instead of merely churning out graduates that are academically prepared. Industries today are looking for more than that. Employability, relevancy, innovation, and a host of other cognitive and soft skills are given priority today. Adopting the SDGs into the teaching and learning framework is one step forward which enables integration and incorporation of key goals that merge theory with practice. In fact, there are a number of studies that discuss this humanizing factor in higher education and the need to move in this direction (Abdul Razak & Moten, 2023; Phung & Raju, 2021; Sarifuddin et al., 2021).The idea is to apply what is learnt in a context that enables students to not only gather firsthand empirical material but also to experience, observe and be part of a sustainable solution which is aligned to specific SDGs depending on their specializations. For example, Parahakaran and colleagues (2021) discuss practical approaches to teaching values through Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) disciplines in Malaysia. This then extends into creative innovations and modelling of solutions that address human problems as seen in Del Cerro Velazquez and Lozano Rivas (2020) where the teaching of technical drawing was utilized for an eco-urban project.

The list of success stories is promising. However, in order to maintain the dynamic flow of ideas while aligning module objectives with learning outcomes can prove to be a challenge (Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2019; Leite, 2022). There are a number of studies that share this sentiment about balancing this form of teaching and learning. There is an ongoing concern about methodologies, approaches, frameworks and so on. It is one thing to be noble and try to

incorporate lifelong learning skills in a module, but it is also crucial that the student recognizes what is transpiring in this process learning method. Therein lies the expertise of the educator and this is perhaps one of the main hurdles in adopting SDGs as part of the teaching and learning transaction. Ahmed (2020) refers to this predicament as part of a methodological challenge. In that sense, the pathways to exploring methods, approaches, models, and frameworks have not been fully exhausted. Studies are using all sorts of ways to implement SDGs in the classroom. In Markakis (2023) diagnosing, reviewing, explaining, assessing, and managing (DREAM) technique is applied in an Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) module. Further to that there are also studies, just to name a few, that have reported using case studies, grounded theory, experiential learning, practice-based models, and other formative approaches (Baena-Morales et al., 2021; Dean et al., 2018; Kwee, 2021; Ohta et al., 2022). This is an indication that there is a need to explore this further. The avenues to which the educator can introduce SDGs in a classroom setting is numerous in the light of finding ways to meet learning outcomes alongside module descriptions. With the inception of STEAM, where the Arts have also been introduced as having the ability to expand education and application, the role of language, literature and the humanities cannot be undermined in this respect to take on global concerns as part of its responsibilities.

The Role of Creative Writing: Opportunities and Possibilities

The creative arts and the social sciences have always been entrenched in cultural facets that bring with them sociological elements. Being so, many of these modules and courses are about individuals, communities, and larger scale societies against the backdrop of human conditions. More often than not, these are themes that inspire art and writing. Creative writing can be seen to thrive on these parameters. Previous research on the roles of creative writing has brought to the fore its immense capacity to promote profound thinking, foster critique about the world and facilitate students’ personal growth (Gilbert, 2021). Furthermore, its therapeutic quality is known to heal as practiced in many psychological interventions (Gladding, 2021; Ruini & Mortara, 2022).

Philips and Kara (2021) bring out a fundamental purpose of creative writing when they link it to social science practice. The study makes two pertinent points about how participants (subjects) can provide empirical material that is thick and rich for the utilization of the researchers, in this case writers. Those data points can then be used to explore various ways of expressing through writing. In another study, Kerslake (2021) introduced Literature in her classroom, specifically, Ted Hughes works. It ranged from narratives to poetry. Kerslake talks about how the material inspired students to write their creative pieces tackling ecological issues. Logan and Grillo (2023) offers an interesting study on how creative writing can be used to re-imagine Black futures. The research centres on providing alternative responses to climate change and thinking differently about sustainability. This echoes what was mentioned earlier in Yunus where he talks about using sociological imagination to create social fiction (PapiThornton, 2013). These endeavours can potentially provide solutions or at the very least conjure up conversations about ways forward.

In the light of this, this study takes inspiration from the many studies that have attempted to show the potential embedded in a creative writing module. Its capacity to target the SDGs while spewing out lines of creativity is possible given the nature of the art form that is not limited by form, structure, and expression. Although there is research in the area, it is still in its infancy. Nevertheless, there are studies that have put creative writing in the forefront as a vehicle to create awareness of the SDGs. Tong (2023)’s study revolved around getting students to come up with a collection of creative writing work based on SDGs. They either worked collaboratively or independently. The findings, however, were focused on students’ behaviour in tackling the issues rather than the deliverables or end product. The study reported that students showcased a greater sense of intersectionality, belonging and openness. While this is promising data, Crewe (2021) discusses creative writing as a practice-led research approach. This means that creative writing is seen as a methodology in itself to harness SDGs as well as create a platform for its study. It is with this in mind, this study explores how creative writing bridges the gap between academia and communal concerns, facilitating the activation, production, organisation and transmission of stories, monologues and poems that not only bring to the fore the SDGs but also mobilize action and advocacy.

Methods

The Social Constructivist Approach

The Social Constructivist Model emphasizes the co-construction of shared meanings through extensive conversations, interactions and engagement between the researcher and the situated communities. Introduced by Vygotsky, this paradigm which is largely a social approach to understanding the dynamics of how individuals and communities are shaped and influenced by their environment provides an analytical framework which parameters are defined by narrative responses and extended dialogues with one another. Being so, it centres on the how’s and why’s of the human experience and condition in a negotiated way.

Studies have endorsed the use of social constructivism in forms of learning that are associated with case studies, research projects, problem-based learning, collaborative discovery learning, simulations and the like (Akpan et al., 2020). Park (2023) refers to constructivism as a catalyst to creating agency which is one way to arrive at possible solutions because it brings to the fore norms and actual identities of groups. Mishra (2023) adds that constructivism is built along the lines of student-centred learning, which not only extends the notion of autonomy that Park (2023) maintains, but also delivers on major learning principles such as active learning and putting theories into context which facilitates perspective and meaningful learning that is aligned with societal concerns. In fact, William (2024) attests to this approach as valuable when studying human-related phenomenon that intersects with gender, identity and culture. The context of this study that bridges the attainment of SDGs with purpose driven learning alongside the rich narrative responses of specific communities presents ideal grounds for the use of a focused group discussion that subsists on a social constructivist platform. It fulfils all the tenets of what this study is founded on: purpose-driven learning.

Context

Empirical material was acquired from selected B40 households in the Klang Valley through focus group discussions over a period of time. In the context of Malaysia, this refers to the segment of society within the bottom 40% of income earners, often considered to be communities at or below the poverty line. They are typically characterized as households that rely on a single income recipient and most heads of household are generally described as having lower educational qualifications and are employed in lower skilled jobs, making them bluecollar workers. The study employed a human-centred approach, as described by Kleine (2023), with data gathered mainly through extensive interactions and engagements with participants on university premises.

As an extension to an empowerment workshop held by the institution, 35 students undertaking a creative writing module leveraged on this opportunity to interact and engage with representatives who voluntarily came forward to tell their stories. Five students were assigned to five participants in a group. The language of communication was mostly Malay with sprinklings of broken English. All students were apt in both languages; hence language was not a barrier in most cases. An informal conversational approach was applied to put the participants at ease. They were also informed that this was non-identifiable research, and a consent form was administered alongside an application for an ethics review.

Narrative Analysis

The study adapted Gubrium and Holstein (2012)’s narrative analysis technique to generate the findings and build themes that facilitated the answering of the research questions. Its emphasis on text, context and audience is a fitting lens to study the internal and external organization of participants’ stories. The narrative responses were categorized into four parts: activation, production, organization and transmission. This step enabled the drawing of linkages and connections between motivation of utterances and the actual form of the verbal expressions giving way to the understanding of the participants’ social world and the production of data.

Moenandar and O'Connor (2024) highlight how this form of narrative study presents facets of social realities that ironically underlines the dangers in the practice because of its capacity to reveal inside stories. In the same vein, Rompianesi and Hilt (2024) point out that in their study, it put into perspective who were the heroes, victims and villains allowing them to identify the implications of policies and reforms on that sect of society. Gubrium and Holstein’s (2012) approach stresses the reiterative relationship between the situational and the interactional aspects of narratives. It considers the environment, situations and conditions that drive the narrative’s production. Hence, while utilizing this method informed the study in terms of how local relevancies shaped participants’ responses, it also suggested that their narratives could be used to impact change. Rosser and Soler (2024) discuss this power to shape reality and knowledge in relation to Gubrium and Holstein’s (2012) method which this study acknowledges as a fundamental outcome of purpose-driven learning.

The role of the educator was defined by the social constructivist’s notion of mentoring, motivating and mediating within the whole instructional process. Guided by the research questions, the study was conducted in three phases to ensure rigour, consistency and data driven findings:

Phase 1

Utilizing social constructivism to navigate the study allowed students to gather firsthand information through conversations and observations that expose them to both, verbal and nonverbal cues in the narrative responses of their selected participants. Furthermore, students developed a sense of ownership of how their creative writing pieces, which were their deliverables in the form of stories, monologues, and poems, were activated, produced, organised, and transmitted. The focus group discussions were guided by Gubrium and Holstein’s (2012) framework on the Narrative Reality approach where questions are designed to meet the interactional and situational terrain. The interview questions revolved around gathering backstories of participant’s lived experiences that help in understanding the context of their situations and the communal value of their roles and relationships. Students met with participants three times over a four-week period. In this phase, students collected data that can potentially shape the content of their creative writing task.

Phase 2

Students worked collaboratively to generate a creative writing piece that was either in the form of a short story, a monologue, or a collection of poems. The raw empirical material from the narrative responses of the participants were also framed around Gubrium and Holstein’s (2012) method of analysing narrative reality. The narrative responses were segmented into four parts, namely: activation, production, organisation, and transmission. Using this as a guide, students discussed motivations, contextualization, verbal, and non-verbal expressions presented by the participant. These co-constructed data points were then utilized to build a plot line complete with setting, characters, dialogue, point of view, conflict, resolution, and theme- depending on the type of creative writing form they chose to pursue. Their shared meanings to the narrative responses of their participants were seen in the content, language and organisation of their work which was an important step to applying real-world knowledge amidst the SDGs.

Phase 3

The final phase puts into perspective the learning outcome and deliverables that the task endeavoured to explore. In order to fully understand the foundation and motivation of the group’s creative writing choices, the educator who is the researcher in this context conducted a focus group discussion with the groups of students. The creative writing pieces were considered their narrative responses to the issues brought forward during their sharing sessions with the B40 participants. Using the same frame of reference that the students used in phase 1 with the participants, the educator directs questions that attempt to understand the activation, production, organisation and transmission process behind their short stories, monologues, and

collection of poems. This step is a reflective one for students as they justify and explain critical decisions that they made in shaping their work. This co-construction of meanings between the educator and students enables the uncovering of the mechanisms through which creative writing influences attitudes towards sustainability and promotes actionable engagement, and vice versa. This phase solidifies the intent to showcase the efficacy of creative writing in accelerating the SDGs that can go beyond just fostering empathy.

Research Framework

The research framework integrated the conceptual and theoretical components that this study is based on. The diagram elucidates the process alongside the three phases carried out during the data gathering procedure:

Figure 1

Research Framework

Source: Author’s own work

Findings and Discussion

Capturing the Voices of the Unheard

Often, when it comes to social policies, the economy and the implementation of certain strategies, the tendency is to look at these things from the macro level where a larger scope of things are applied. A one size fits all perspective is common and even acceptable when governments or policymakers introduce new agendas on the pretext of supporting the various communities in their needs and wants. The “blanket” approach is a one size fits all solution, and it does not always consider the individuals and communities at the micro levels. Gubrium and Holstein (2012) posit that in order to find out about how policies impact society, it is the

underserved or marginalized that need to be studied and not the elite. Hence, the narrative expressions of the students encapsulated this notion of capturing the unheard voices that usually drown amidst the “noise” or are often sidelined.

In this study, students had the opportunity to capture the worlds of fishermen, house husbands with disabled children, farm hands, construction and factory workers. The eye-opening predicament of “kais pagi makan pagi, kais petang makan petang” (translation: to live from hand to mouth) statement put into perspective for the students what it meant to be poverty stricken. The recurring cry of “siapalah kita?” (translation: who are we) were some of the notable narrative responses that were included in their poems. There was a shock value in the tone of the students when they re-enacted the stories of their participants. The participants “acceptance” and “resignation to their fate” marked by the words “Insya Allah” (translation: if God wills/God-willing) irked them. In fact, many of their final creative writings were unsettling expressions in the form of questionings. There was a collection of poems entitled, Why?, The Ignored ? and How Did We get Here? There were also parodies to classic titles like Paradise Lost Indeed! and # All Lives Matter!

Students showcased a combination of skills at this juncture: inquiry-based learning marked by incessant questionings, the use of puns and sarcasm to poke fun and mock the lack of an avenue for all sects of society to be heard in matters concerning their participants’ livelihoods and an elevated ability to listen, translate and transcribe. Above all, the exercise created awareness about “how the other half of the world lives” exclaimed a student. This aligns with what Parra (2021) highlights about approaches needing to be such that they strengthen the writing voice and identities. Sweeney (2024) also presents a perspective that focuses on the creative writer being able to free their voices when the subject matter inspires them. However, the findings of this study suggested that while the student’s writing voice was amplified alongside their identities, it was the voices of the participants that were freed from the burden of silence giving way to their identities. They are “seen” and “heard” now; a student summarized. Jungcurt (2022) argues that there is often a gap in data sets in relation to addressing societal issues as there are unknown voices, silent voices, muted voices, unheard voices and ignored voices. While this is true, this exercise in creative writing did however bring some predicaments to light narrowing the gap a little between what is and what is perceived contributing to a more holistic picture of the situation of those left behind. This had a direct connection with SDG 10, reducing inequalities, as it demonstrated how citizen-generated data, as pointed out by Jungcurt (2022), can more adequately describe people’s conditions and thus, their needs.

Realizing Organic Connections and Relationships

This study also brought to the fore the unconscious use of “I”, “we”, “us”, “our” when expressing the participants’ narrative responses into stories and monologues. The participants’ stories became their stories; the participants’ voices became their monologues. As though the struggle was theirs, embedded between the lines were the voices of student agency. For example, the plight of factory workers and their predicaments were embodied in a monologue entitled, Our Battle, spoken in first person perspective. The student spoke as a factory worker.

Likewise, the journey of the seabound fisherman who is at the mercy of climate change, was expressed as “I who lives in fear of the elements/ Ride the tumultuous waves or the’ll be no tomorrow”. This action of putting themselves in the shoes of their participants indicates a form of camaraderie and an attempt to relate. When asked about this gesture, students saw their experiences with their participants as a revelation. They were privy to secrets and inside stories that would never be obtained in normal circumstances.

This bond that was created revealed the interplay between insider information and outsider perspective. This alignment is akin to producing an emic account versus an etic account, a concept propounded by Pike (1967) which discusses how perspectives of the world are derived. Smith (2020) in a study of critical strategies in creative writing endeavours re-affirms the concept of writer’s circles as a form of bringing together diverse co-constructions of knowledge from insights sharing. However, this exercise offered the students a different sense of being in a group. It was an opportunity to be a part of their participants’ lives and unexpected journeys bringing a different form of a collaborative experience that expands the critical strategies Smith (2020) proposes.

This process facilitated the students in understanding the participants’ feelings, attitudes, experiences, and the vicious cycle of cause and effect. “We are all in the same boat, just different waters, yet all the water is connected to one big body of water, right?”, reflects a student during the focus group discussion. In this way, the student is pointing out how we all belong to a larger ecosystem in which each individual, community and society has his role and part to play. “Kita same aje” (translation: we are all the same), a student recollects a participant’s response to our symbiotic relationships. This brings to mind how education systems more often than not receive a lot of flak for failing to nurture complex values such as empathy and other forms of emotional intelligence (EMI) related qualities. In fact, Bai and Srivastava (2023) argue that institutions are more focused on building technocrats and individuals instead of citizens, adding that a restructure is required for a more value-based education. However, the findings in this study have shown that there is a way to mould technocrats and individuals that have both, the elite technical skills and the emotional disposition for empathy, self-awareness and social skills by changing the mechanisms of deriving information.

The notion that we are all somehow interconnected drove home the point about taking responsibility and taking action in small ways to create a positive ripple. What can be deduced here is that the student’s EMI was put to the test and the best way forward was to take on the persona and use language in a way that it preserved the realities of their participants’ situations. While this indirectly hit on some major tenets of EMI, the act of assimilating a character did build human linkages that can lead to greater understanding for the need of inclusivity, and less social injustice, at least at the awareness level. This made way for SDG 5 and SDG 10 which addresses creating inclusive societies alongside the building of empathy through adaptation and adoption of others’ perspectives as their own.

Advocating for Action Through Social Fiction

Through participation in this exercise, students showcased progressive autonomy and the want to lead the rest of their peers towards a fruitful outcome as the participants were willing gatekeepers in their communities. Lee and colleagues (2023) reinforces this development in their study whereby students, in wanting to become active learners, become comfortable holding the reins once the task is fully understood. In the context of this study, listening to their backstories unleashed a portal into their realms; domains that facilitated students’ understanding of multiple realities, social realities, constructed realities and perceived realities. In fact, this further echoes Jungcurt (2022) when he maintains that citizen-generated data, whereby empirical material is generated from people for people, has the potential of putting misconceptions and preconceived ideas about societies to rest. In the light of this, poems and short stories revealed titles that were forward thinking and captured the essence of advocacy. Titles such as So, What Now? and Where Do We Go From Here? epitomizes a call for action.

On another note, what was observed, which organically took place, was Yunus’ aspirations for imagination to be used to create social fiction – “if we do not imagine, it will never happen”, he maintains (Papi-Thornton, 2013). Social fiction, as indicated earlier in the literature review, is the designing of stories and creative works of art in any form that facilitates the imagination to visualize ideal situations. In these ideal portrayals, Yunus suggests, therein lies solutions, resolutions and innovation leading to the alleviation of societal problems. Dunne and Raby (2024)’s study on the other hand, argues for this notion as a form of social dreaming. While their study departs from looking solely at problems, it emphasizes desires and possible futures through the speculative “what if” question. Both studies can be seen to emerge from the similar philosophy opening debates and conversation surrounding the realities that we actually want.

Facets of social fiction and social dreaming were exemplified in The Rise of the Pinks- a story about how female factory workers empowered themselves to communicate dissatisfaction for the unfair treatment at the workplace. The Blues Make Headway is another example of how students took to storytelling in order to disseminate information on how blue-collared male employees can equip themselves against discrimination and unethical practices. As law students, both stories outlined the legal procedures and organisations that can help expedite action. “This was satisfying although I know it is just a fictional story, I felt like I helped someone”, confessed one student. Another student talked about how this experience enabled the merging of the theories of law to the practice of law, all of which epitomises

This exercise that culminated into a show and tell webinar event entitled, The Art of Advocacy: Healing Souls, Building Communities and Inspiring Change, was a marked success. As a student led endeavour that publicly showcased mainly poems written by these students, the act of reciting their own work coupled with the aptly chosen expressions and imagery were about real people and real stories told in real time. In fact, previous studies have highlighted the capacity of students to reposition and reconceptualize approaches to the SDGs by simply using their voices and eyes (McGinnis & Mitra, 2022; Sass et al., 2021).

Conclusion

Creative writing does, in fact, provide a platform that could be used to facilitate a review of blanket processes and procedures alongside cookie cutter implementations that affect certain communities, in this case, the B40 communities in Malaysia. This exercise that was meant to inspire creative writers to engage in more meaningful writing turned into a check-in session with key stakeholders that revealed some implications of Malaysia’s financial facilities such as the micro-financing support for women, ECER-Suri@Home program. This act in itself created a “third space”, a commonly known term for a classroom environment that encourages exploration and experimentation. In this study, it created a creative writing space for challenging and questioning current policies.

Secondly, purpose-driven learning through creative writing can break the vicious cycle of stigmatization starting with classrooms. The endeavour shed light on human problems that have been largely ignored in a non- discriminatory manner. Generally, impacted individuals are often dismissed as uneducated and illiterate. This stigmatization creates the perception of what they say as unimportant and not deserving attention. Through this exercise, the study developed a channel to disseminate the information to the public via an educational setting, advocating for these affected communities in more palatable portions that were not only artistic but carried the voices of the people through student-led events. This builds on the idea that HEIs do in fact have the capacity to impact change through education models and frameworks that are driven by societal goals.

This study also exemplifies how appropriate mechanisms fosters actionable engagement. The people-centred approach, which is the basis of social constructivism, helped accelerate learning objectives and expected learning outcomes. The method and approach were the enablers, not the course module, syllabus, or on a broader note, the education system. There was a drive to act on goals because students saw the immediate link and connections between the theories that they learnt in the classroom and the application value that this mode of teaching and learning offered. It did not matter which SDGs students were trying to achieve, they acted in a collective and informed manner to produce tangible end products and deliverables, signifying and implying formative learning had taken place.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

The nature of this research was explorative. Being so, it set out to experiment if creative writing can be used as a feasible mechanism to uncover stories from marginalized communities as a means to inspire purposeful writing. It acted as a preliminary step towards building actionable engagement and advocacy through coursework and formative assessments over a restrictive duration with a selected B40 group which reflect a particular sect of that community only. That being the case, students’ works can be seen to capture a limited purview of a larger community.

Future research should expand parameters to include other voices that can produce findings that are representative of a larger group. This endeavour can be more effective if specific targets

of the SDGs are measured post phase three in order to evaluate learning outcomes such as empathy on the teaching front and pro-active action at the societal level. The foundation built in this study can be used to build a substantial framework on how purpose-driven learning visà-vis the SDGs can be utilized to inject meaningful learning especially in the liberal arts courses where syllabus is less prescribed and can be navigated from a more socio-cultural lens. For this reason, the context of the situation requires proper interventions and implementation for a longer sustenance of tasks like these so that the attainment of SDGs via classroom activities are not short lived.

Acknowledgement

The researchers would like to convey gratitude to participants in this study for their time and cooperation.

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Corresponding author: Kalai Vaani Rajandram

Email: KalaiVaani.Rajandram@taylors.edu.my

Effect of Students’ Personal Agency on Academic Compliance: An Experimental Study

Anagha

M Nambisan University of Delhi, India

Shailja Rana University of Delhi, India

Abstract

Academic compliance is originally an externally handled action, which means that students tend to follow the directions provided to them by various authorities such as teachers, administration, and so forth. Modern trends in education are based on the principal assumption that students can make choices that are in their best interest. In this context, it is proposed that if the issue of academic compliance, which is originally an externally handled action, becomes a function of students’ agency, it may lead to improvement in many aspects of students’ overall academic engagement and performance. The present study aims to understand the influence of students’ personal agency on their academic compliance within the context of higher education institutions in India, from the regions of Delhi and National Capital Region (NCR), Mumbai and Pondicherry. Employing an embedded mixed-method design, the current research integrated a matched pair scenario experiment regarding students’ compliance towards timely submission of assignments, along with content analysis of descriptions provided by participants about their perception towards compliance. The findings revealed a significant increase in academic compliance among students exposed to interventions aimed at enhancing their personal agency through dimensions of personal agency: shared practices and socialization in the institution. The content analysis underscored the multifaceted nature of compliance, highlighting factors such as acknowledgement of personal efforts, compliance to authority, importance of academic performance, and a perceived lack of concern for peers as determinants of compliance.

Keywords: academic compliance, personal agency, shared practices, socialization, education

Students’ personal agency indicates the capacity of students to actively influence their lives and the environment around them. It is desirable that students, especially in higher education, take their own decisions relating to education, rather than playing a passive role. Student agency has become an essential goal of education and learning in recent years. It has been included in Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development’s (OECD’s) “Future of Education and Skills 2030” as one of the outcomes for future education (OECD, 2019). Contrarily, academic compliance has been mistakenly viewed as synonymous with “academic engagement” and “academic integrity” and is usually considered a part of traditional, teachercentered classrooms.

Even with the popularization of this new viewpoint of seeing students as capable of making their own academically related decisions, the matter of compliance is still primarily externally handled by authorities. This leads to the rise of the question regarding the relation between students as actors complying with requests and the involvement of their personal agency for the same. Generally, in scientific and psychological literature, compliance and agency of individuals have been juxtaposed (Klemsdal & Wittusen, 2021). It is observed in the literature review that eliciting compliance from students based on sanctions and penalties has been looked down upon over time and has been replaced by providing students with the freedom to determine what is best for them. In such a scenario, this study holds importance as it determines the factors that may influence the personal agency of the students in such a manner that it intrinsically leads to higher compliance with academic requests, including submission of assignments, utilization of fair means in examinations, completing assigned readings and homework, without external penalties and sanctions.

Literature Review

Student Academic Compliance

Educational institutions have relied on compliance-based pedagogy to engage students in the learning process. Learners of all ages face far more complex problems and require higher-order thinking to solve as time progresses (Fredricks et al., 2018). Student compliance is often solicited in classrooms at all levels of education. It is said to be students’ ability to listen and follow the rules and requests made by the teachers and authorities. This would mean that students who would meet the requests made by such authorities and take a task-oriented approach would be highly compliant in this scenario.

Herein, there has been a new development of preferring student engagement over student compliance, which involves a deeper understanding of concepts. However, since it is not the topic of the current study, it is not being elaborated. Another essential aspect to be mentioned here is the understanding that student compliance depends on the legitimacy of the authority (Reisig & Bain, 2016). While understanding students’ actions leading to academic dishonesty, including cheating in exams and indulging in plagiarism, the authority can curb such practices by being more fair and just in how they form and implement the official processes and procedures. The importance of students’ academic compliance is expanded by many studies

that also focus on safety concerns at school. Moreover, a safe, fair and just school environment allows students to express themselves freely without any inhibitions (Mameli et al., 2020; Segal et al., 2017). A study on how students engage in violations of acts that contribute to their academic integrity tried to explore the opinions of their professors and teaching staff on this topic (MacLeod & Eaton, 2020). According to the survey, more than half of the teaching staff considered academic dishonesty an issue that must be addressed. Although the literature review indicated that there are studies on the academic compliance of students, an operational definition is yet to be suggested. For this study, students’ academic compliance is defined as the actions and behaviors of students in adherence to the requests of authorities and teachers.

Student Personal Agency

Personal agency is a sociological concept with varying definitions given by different researchers. Personal agency denotes the feeling of being the initiator or creator of an action (Gallagher, 2000). Students use their agency when deciding how to use the instruments for learning and social practices in the classroom. According to Vaughn (2020), who gave an introductory model on Students’ Agency, three dimensions are involved in it, including – (i) the dispositional dimension of the student, that is, their inherent characteristics and personality traits. According to Bandura (2006), the self-efficacy of the students is an essential determinant of whether they use their agency in order to influence the environment around them, including their education; (ii) motivational dimension that most often includes their intrinsic motivation to make decisions, having a voluntary intention to engage in a particular activity and persist with it; (iii) positional dimension which indicates how the student interacts with the aspect of their school, the social context prevalent within it, and in general, the larger socio-cultural elements that influence them (Vaughn, 2020). Here comes the role of the sociological view of Practice theory or Praxeology that postulates that individual practices (everyday routines) can reinforce norms or bring dissensus and, therefore, transformative changes. Thus, Praxeology explains how compliance is ensured and enacted through shared practices, secured through experience and socialization (Klemsdal & Wittusen, 2021). Therefore, the students are understood to be influenced by their environmental context and, at the same time, co-create it with other actors, thus leading to the show of their agency.

The present study attempts to induce personal agency with the help of shared practices and socialization among the students. Their decision-making would involve a cost-benefit analysis of whether compliance provides them with the best possible outcome or result.

Shared Practices

While acting in an institutional setup, actors prefer social validation. Individuals are generally more willing to comply with a request for some action if this action is consistent with what they believe people similar to themselves are doing (or thinking). People want to be correct; one way to do so is to act and think like others (Cialdini, 2008). This can be achieved by observing how other actors are doing a certain task, which will allow the actor to anchor their actions in a way that is in accordance with what other actors similar to them are doing but at

the same time not follow them mindlessly. However, the social consensus is built around the rules that are to be observed.

Socialization

In many compliance cases, the requests for compliance are very well defined, which allows an individual to follow it without any forethought. However, some requests may not be as well defined and require individuals to reach a consensus to decide its execution. In such ambiguous situations, students might have to discuss among their classmates and form a standard manner that determines how they will follow a request that is posed to them. An example is a professor asking students to submit assignments as early as possible without giving a submission date. In this context, convening discussions among the students to establish a mutual understanding of how rules should be applied becomes essential. Such dialogue enables them to interpret rules in ways that benefit them while providing opportunities for personal growth.

Influence of Students’ Personal Agency on Students’ Academic Compliance

An attempt has been made to understand the role of shared practices and socialization in educational institutions, for improving personal agency, especially in complying with abstract requests. However, the constructs explored in the study are relatively newer in the chronological frame of research in the field of education and psychology. Thus, the study also reviews research that are related but have different constructs from the present study.

Deshais, Fisher, and Kahng’s (2019) study was regarding the influence of group contingencies on students’ academic compliance. Group contingencies were understood to be arrangements wherein the consequences of one member’s actions are spread onto some or all group members. Litow and Pumroy (1975) outlined three types of group contingencies: independent, interdependent, and dependent. Independent group contingency would mean that the same criteria are applied to the whole group, and individual members receive the consequence as and when they meet the criteria. Interdependent group contingency is a scenario wherein the same criteria have been applied to the whole group, and only when all members meet the criteria is the consequence released. Finally, in dependent group contingency, when the same criteria are enrolled, one or a few chosen members have to meet the criteria for the group to receive the consequence. All three situations were found to increase academic compliance among students. It can be inferred that these group contingencies induce intrinsic motivation in the students, leading to compliance with academic requests.

Personal agency is impacted by culture and interpreted accordingly. Trommsdorff (2012) posits that in many Asian cultures, personal agency is said to be vital for spreading harmony in the society, whereas it is important for fulfilling personal goals in western cultures. With respect to personal agency in the Indian context, Indians were found to treat interpersonal morality as a role-related duty rather than a personal choice. This showed that there was a difference in the conceptualization and experience of personal agency in India. This study may play a role in the utilization of personal agency by students in complying with academic behaviors. Only a few

studies were found in India regarding the academic compliance of students during review of the literature. However, a working paper by Bhan (2019) indicated the influence of role modeling on students’ hope and efforts. This was further seen to elevate the academic performance of students as compared to the placebo group. It might be assumed that such a study may also support the present research that explores the dimensions of shared practices in the institution as well as socialization among students to improve their academic compliance.

Method

Research Design

The present study utilized an embedded mixed-method design wherein the quantitative data was obtained by conducting an experiment, while qualitative data was obtained by asking the participants open-ended question via Google Forms. The experimental phase was designed on the basis of the theorization developed by Klemsdal and Wittusen (2021), which was modified to suit the objectives and area of the present research. In the original study, the authors suggested that aspects of personal agency, including shared practices, socializations, and the expertise of individuals, may influence their compliance with guidelines, especially in the case of abstract situations arising in industries requiring professional expertise. As the original study was theorized to keep professionals working in sectors based on industry expertise, the dimension of expertise was removed from this study.

On the basis of the literature review of the variables under investigation and the rationale of the study, the following research questions were developed.

RQ 1: This research aims to find a correlation between general compliance behavior and a sense of agency among participants.

RQ 2: To ascertain whether there is a significant difference in academic compliance behavior scores of participants in the experimental and control group, as influenced by personal agency.

RQ 3: To understand the reasons for compliance among participants belonging to the control and experimental groups and explore differences with the help of the qualitative method of content analysis.

The present study was intended to understand the effect of personal agency and its subdimensions on students’ academic compliance. These sub-dimensions include shared practices in the class inculcated by professors, as well as socialization processes among the students in the class. On the basis of the above-mentioned research questions, the following hypotheses were tested in the study.

H₁: There is a significant correlation between General Compliance Behavior and Sense of Agency.

H₂: There is a significant difference in scores on Academic Compliance Behavior of participants in the control and experimental groups as influenced by personal agency.

Experimental Design

Data was collected from the participants, on the sense of personal agency and general compliance behavior. On the basis of their scores on sense of personal agency, they were paired, with each participant in the pair being randomly assigned either to the control group or the experimental group. While designing the study, precautions were taken to minimize the effect of extraneous variables, especially the inherent sense of personal agency in the responses that may lead to academic compliance. A scenario was used to manipulate the independent variable, and two variations of the same scenario were provided to the control and experimental groups. Hence, a scenario experiment method was used, which is said to be a data collection technique where the respondents are provided with instructions to imagine themselves in a hypothetical situation (Werner & Muradova, 2022). The control group was provided with the scenario in written format in Google form. In contrast, the experimental group was narrated the scenario along with providing them with written text in order to ensure that respondents understood the situation.

1

Experimental Design Studying the Effect of Personal Agency on Students’ Academic Compliance

Regarding the design of the experiment, a scenario was prepared in the context of a classroom wherein the academic compliance of students was seen within an assignment submission situation in the form of a request by the professor. In the control group, this scenario did not include the dimensions of personal agency, that is, shared practices and socialization within students. In the experimental group, the scenario was expanded to include the above-mentioned aspects. The participants were explained the premise of the study and its phases, following which they provided their informed consent to participate. Ethical considerations, including the participants’ privacy, confidentiality, and voluntary participation, were ensured.

Figure

The scoring of students’ academic compliance scenario was done using a single-item measure with a 5-point scoring scale that was developed by drawing inspiration from the work of Dubbelt and colleagues (2014). They used scenarios in a digital simulation format followed by a multiple-choice question indicating the different options available to the participants for deciding to comply. The 5-point scale stated the degree of compliance of the participants in the particular situation.

Independent Variable

Since the independent variable here is Personal Agency, an attempt was made to form the matched pairs on the basis of the scores obtained by participants on the Sense of Positive Agency (SoPA) subscale belonging to the Sense of Agency Scale (Tapal et al., 2017). The participants who had the same score on this dimension were paired. Due to certain constraints, out of the 30 pairs of participants, 23 pairs were matched with precisely the same set of scores and seven pairs were matched with scores differing by 1 and 2 units. Sense of Negative Agency (SoNA) was not used for matching pairs as its reliability measures needed to be stronger in comparison, and Tapal and colleagues (2017) suggested that SoNA indicated a lack of sense of agency.

Qualitative Content Analysis

Along with the quantitative data obtained as part of the Experiment, the participants were also requested to elaborate on the reasons for their respective decisions on compliance. These descriptive long answers were utilized to understand the factors that influenced compliance among students with the help of inductive content analysis. Content analysis was chosen as the method for qualitative analysis because of the nature of the data and the method’s versatility in analysis of written data.

Participants

The sample for this study included 60 participants (mean age=22.61 years) who were pursuing their graduation or post-graduation degrees. There were 52 female participants (mean age=22.56 years) and 8 male participants (mean age=23 years) who participated in the study. Out of the entire sample, 58 participants were pursuing a Master’s degree and 2 participants were enrolled in a Bachelor’s degree. They were pursuing graduation and post-graduation studies in fields such as psychology, law, applied psychology, and lifespan counseling. The participants in the final study belonged to accredited Public and Private Higher Education Institutions of India, namely, North and South Campus, University of Delhi (DU), Amity University, O. P. Jindal Global University, Daulat Ram College for Women (DRC), Indraprastha College for Women (IPCW), Pondicherry University and St. Xavier’s College. All the participants belonged to urban areas with 58 (96.6%) participants were from DelhiNCR and 1 (1.07%) participant from Mumbai and 1 (1.07%) participant from Pondicherry. Thus, all the participants belonged to the urban areas. The sample was randomly assigned into either the experimental or control group, wherein 25 females and 5 males were part of the

experimental group, and 27 females and 3 males were part of the control group, respectively. Hence, the inclusion criteria of the study were that the participants had to be pursuing graduation or post-graduation in any discipline in India. The exclusion criteria included any individual who was not pursuing higher education (Bachelor’s or Master’s degree) or was pursuing their higher education outside India to reduce errors due to cultural differences. The sampling technique used was a combination of convenience and snowball sampling techniques. A total of 84 participants were reached out, out of which 16 participants voluntarily dropped out of the study, and 8 participants had to be eliminated due to the unavailability of a matched pair.

Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Sample (N=60)

Institution

of Delhi (PG Department, DU, North Campus)

Delhi (PG Department, DU, South Campus)

Ram College (UG College, DU)

College of Women (UG College, DU)

Tools Used

Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS)

General Compliance has been measured for the baseline of this study using the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (Gudjonsson, 1989). Gudjonsson (1992) described compliance as the tendency of an individual to act according to certain requests, propositions or instructions to

gain something on immediate terms. The scale consists of twenty true/false statements measuring general compliance (e.g., “I give in easily to people when I am pressured”). Out of the twenty items, three items are reverse-scored, wherein choosing false for an item gives a score of one, and choosing true gives a score of zero, and the rest of the items are given a score of one if the individual chooses true and zero for choosing false. Hence, if the participants agreed with the items that asked about their compliance, the scores would increase, that is, the higher the score, the higher the compliance. Cronbach alpha has been found to be 0.75 (Ray & Jones, 2012).

Sense of Agency Scale (SoAS)

Sense of Agency Scale was developed by Tapal and colleagues (2017) and was used to measure the baselines of the independent variable, that is, Personal Agency. Herein, the construct is defined as the realization that one is the initiator of one’s own action (Tapal et al., 2017). The scale has 13 items, of which 6 items measure the Sense of Positive Agency (SoPA) and 7 items measure the Sense of Negative Agency (SoNA). The scoring of the responses is based on a 7point Likert scale indicating the individual’s agreeableness to the statements (1=Strongly Disagree to 7=Strongly Agree). There is no total score for Personal Agency; rather, two different scores are received for each of the dimensions. For Sense of Positive Agency (SoPA), the range of scores is from 6 to 42. Similarly, for Sense of Negative Agency (SoNA), the scores range from 7 to 49. The reliability of the scale was calculated using McDonald’s Omega for both dimensions, which came out to be ω=0.80 and ω=0.75 for SoPA and SoNA, respectively.

Analysis

The baseline data was scored according to the scales’ scoring manual to obtain the calculated scores. The scores obtained by the participants on GCS and SoAS were subjected to correlational analysis in order to see relationship between the two variables. Further, the scores on the subscale Sense of Positive Agency (SoPA) were utilized in order to form pairs. Following the intervention, the participants’ scores on the single-item measure for students’ academic compliance were then subjected to a paired samples t-test, and the descriptive statistics of the baseline variable scores were measured group-wise.

The descriptive long answers were analyzed using an inductive content analysis method. According to the research question and objectives, the category was defined and served as the selection criterion, which helped select the relevant material from the qualitative data. The data for both groups were read line by line, and the meaning units were highlighted as being part of different sub-categories that emerged from the data itself. This was followed by narrowing down the data to the valuable aspects subjected to further analysis. Subsequently, codes were developed for the meaning units, which were a part of the subcategory to which the meaning units belonged. The sub-categories for both groups finalized after re-analysis ranged under two categories - factors leading to compliance and factors leading to non-compliance. This categorization was aptly able to fulfil the research objective of the study, and they were understood and compared to arrive at conclusions.

Results

Based on the analysis elaborated above, the study’s findings are mentioned in the results section. This section includes the descriptive statistics of the variables studied for the study sample, the correlation table indicating the association between the variables measured for the baseline data, results for the paired samples t-test and the qualitative content analysis tables for the control group and experimental group, respectively.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation for the Sample (N=60) Variables

From Table 2, it can be observed that the correlations on the baseline were significantly related. Herein, correlation values indicated that general compliance within the sample of this study is positively associated with negative personal agency while it is negatively related to positive personal agency. There was an expected negative relationship between the sense of positive agency and the sense of negative agency based on its theorization. No significant relationships were found between the scores for students’ academic compliance of the participants and scores for any of the baseline variables investigated in the present study.

Table 3

Group-Wise Descriptives of Control Group (n=30) and Experimental Group (n=30) and Paired Samples t

The descriptive statistics for the variables explored in the present study are presented groupwise within Table 3, along with the t-value for paired samples t-test on students’ academic compliance. The t(29)=3.434, p=.002, indicating that students’ academic compliance of participants in the experimental group (M=3.97, SD=.99) were significantly different from students’ academic compliance in the control group (M=3.20, SD=.92).

Table 4

Content Analysis for Control Group with Categories, Sub-Categories, and Number of Codes

Table 4 indicates the factors leading to compliance and non-compliance among participants in the control group. Factors leading to compliance were found to be an acknowledgment of personal efforts, agreeing with the reasoning of request, compliance with authority, importance to academics, and lack of concern for classmates. The factors leading to non-compliance were found to be limited concerns for academics, maintaining relationships with classmates, the expectation of mutual help, striking a balance, helping others, and abstractness of request.

In the category of Factors leading to compliance, the maximum number of codes were obtained in the subcategory of “Importance of academics”, that is, 13, while the minimum number of codes were obtained for the subcategory of “Agreeing with the reasoning of request” with three codes. In the category of Factors leading to non-compliance, “Maintaining relationship with classmates” obtained 20 codes, while “Helping classmates” got two codes. The content analysis for data obtained from the control group revealed that overall, factors leading to noncompliance were more prevalent as compared to factors leading to compliance. This is expanded in the discussion section.

Table 5

Content analysis for experimental group with categories, sub-categories, codes and meaning units

Table 5 indicates the factors leading to compliance and non-compliance as seen from the subcategories that emerged within the experimental group participants. Factors leading to compliance were an acknowledgement of self-efforts, compliance with authority, cost-benefit analysis, importance of academics, individual nature of the assignment, lack of concern for the classmate and helping the classmate after submission. The factors leading to non-compliance here were abstractness of request, striking a balance, utilizing the situation, and lack of importance to academics. Within the category of factors leading to compliance, “Lack of concern for classmates” was the subcategory with the highest number of codes, while “Helping classmates after submission” obtained the least number of codes. Meanwhile, in the factors leading to non-compliance, “Striking a balance” between academics and helping classmates obtained the highest number of codes from the data. At the same time, the rest of all subcategories had two codes within them. Overall, the content analysis indicated that factors leading to compliance were more prevalent in the experimental group than factors leading to non-compliance. This is opposite to what was observed in the content analysis of data obtained from participants in the control group.

Discussion

The present study is conducted with the purpose of understanding the influence of a sense of agency on students’ academic compliance through a matched pair design. Based on the theorization provided by Klemsdal and Wittusen (2021), the present study was designed to understand and explore second-order compliance (Wittgenstein, 2009), that is, cases where the requests or the instructions to be followed are abstract (McDowell, 2001) and, hence, action is dependent on the personal agency of the individual. Herein, the scenario used indicated an abstract request from the professor, who requested that students submit their assignments at the earliest possible time but did not give a precise date for submission. This was done in order to

induce the scope of bringing the students’ agency into the picture by which they were to decide when to submit their assignment and if other classmates’ actions would influence this decision. This was understood by introducing an element of the participant’s membership to the class as group identity, which is known to enhance a sense of agency (Fritsche, 2022; Lautenbacher & Fritsche, 2023).

The results indicated that the first hypothesis was proven as the correlation between the baseline variables came to be significant (refer to Table 2). The relationship between general compliance (GCS) and sense of positive agency (SoPA) came to be negatively correlated, indicating that with an increase in the sense of positive agency, compliance is reduced. Metaanalysis on compliance-related concepts by Guadagno (2017) emphasized the mindlessness hypothesis wherein, instead of engaging in mindfully processing the requests that individuals receive to comply, individuals mindlessly comply with it and act as a mediating factor in the success of compliance (Cialdini and Goldstein, 2004; Fennis and Jansen, 2010; Langer, 1992). Although the study did not mention personal agency, it can be assumed that mindlessness could also indicate a lack of positive agency involved in decision-making (Gallagher, 2018). The correlation between general compliance (GCS) indicated was positively and significantly related to the sense of negative agency (SoNA). This is in line with past research on the topic, as mentioned by Goodman and Uzun (2013), who posited that when students’ independent actions are not regarded well, they may have to rely on following what others request them to do in order to increase their self-worth, that they receive from the approval of their actions, which ultimately leads to increase in the sense of negative agency.

For testing the second hypothesis, the t-value indicated a significant difference in students’ academic compliance scores between the two groups as a result of the intervention inducing personal agency. This may showcase certain pointers for consideration. The correlation was, however, contradictory in nature as there was an observed negative correlation between the baseline constructs of general compliance and sense of positive agency as well as the positive correlation with negative agency as compared to the significant difference in students’ academic compliance with the inducement of personal agency. This may be due to many reasons, such as the perceived benefit from compliance, the difference in the operationalization of compliant behavior, and students’ academic compliance. According to past studies, students complied with academic requests as it led to higher academic success for them and lessened their overall academic hardships (Al-Tameemi et al., 2023). This aspect of the study opens room for further studies in this direction.

Mameli and colleagues (2023) observed that one of the gaps in the studies on student agency is lack of qualitative and observational research. Therefore, the qualitative analysis in the present study gave many understandings to be explored and understood. The participants’ responses on the reasons for their decision on compliance in the control group as well as the experimental group elicited a number of sub-categories that were seen to largely follow into two categories, that is, factors leading to compliance and factors leading to non-compliance. The content analysis of factors leading to decisions of compliance in the control group and experimental group were indicative of the similarities and differences in the reasoning of

participants in both the groups, wherein it was observed that within the control group, there were more occurrences of codes present in the factors leading to non-compliance, as compared to factors leading to compliance. At the same time, there was a great difference in the number of codes present for factors leading to compliance in the experimental group compared to the factors leading to non-compliance, which were observed very little in the experimental group. Another important observation from the qualitative data was the cost-benefit analysis that participants in the experimental group engaged in while making the decision to comply with the academic request as supported by a study conducted by Scott (2020) that found academic outcomes to be related to the students’ rational cognitive processes in learning. In the experimental group, the participants were seen to show more eagerness to comply with the professor’s request to submit their assignments as early as possible, which could be seen spilling over to display indifference to their classmates and prioritizing their own needs more. This cannot be categorized in terms of good or bad qualities, but it surely needs to be explored in the future. The concept of agency is observed to be more prevalent in individualistic cultures and hence provides a reason for this observation (eg. Kashima et al., 2004). Culture plays a role in impacting personal agency. Abiko (2017) revealed that in Japan, agency is referred to collectivity, that is, spreading harmony rather than the opinion of a person. Further, Trommsdorff (2012) found that individuals in Asian cultures are used to and inspired to work for their group and families, whereas fulfilling personal goals is more important in western culture.

It is to be noted that compliance with authority is expected to be an essentially present characteristic in students’ academic compliance. Hence, a certain level of compliance might be inherently present in students who are academically engaged to ensure that their academic performance is not compromised due to lack of academic compliance, both of which are known to be related variables (Al-Tameemi et al., 2023; Roszkowski & Ricci, 2019). The aspect of academic compliance elicited due to external motivators like sanctions and control has proved unsuccessful over time. Similarly, coercion results in negative consequences including lack of commitment, reduced credibility and trustworthiness in instructors (Aguinis et al., 1996). On the other hand, Roach (1994) found that greater affective and cognitive learning is associated with college students’ perceptions of instructors using greater soft, and less harsh compliancegaining tactics. Studies employing only aligned forms of student agency showed positive correlation between students’ academic compliance and agency (Reeve & Shin, 2020), whereas other studies showed no association, which had used aligned and resistant forms (Mameli & Passini, 2019). This aspect has been probed by employing experimental and qualitative analysis as there are contradictory studies on the subject. It was found that academic compliance of students can be enhanced by using intervention aimed at inducing personal agency dimensions of socialization and shared practices. Moreover, contemporary trends in the field of education also support the current findings by encouraging students to be empowered and handing over a sense of agency to allow them to make decisions that are beneficial to them.

In the new era of education, where students are empowered to make decisions of their own, this study hopes to further fuel the reformation of educational training modules and institutions’ curricula in accordance with fostering academic compliance among students at higher

educational levels (Castro & Pineda-Báez, 2023). This is essentially a part of what can be called as “humanizing pedagogy” (del Carmen Salazar, 2013), highlighted by Kim et al. (2023). Literature review revealed the extensive study on the role of teachers in enhancing student compliance (see Hoeft, 2012; Matheson & Shriver, 2005) but the role of students’ agency has not been studied with such rigor. By studying the latter, students are then seen as not just passive receivers but also as being actively engaged in their academic activities, which also improves student engagement (Klemenčič, 2023; Reeve & Tseng, 2011) and retention (Nakonechnyi et al., 2024). Hence, institutionalizing students’ compliance behaviors is essential and can be done through a variety of methods (Hatteberg & Steffy, 2013; Koebel, 2017). Socialization among students is the most crucial aspect that can transform their classroom performance (Bagum, Khan, & Tehsain, 2022). This socialization can be introduced by letting the students decide the way they will implement the request (Klemsdal and Wittusen, 2021) such as giving students the responsibility to decide on a date for submission of assignments under the supervision of the professor. Further, discourses in the classroom can take directions, including discussions on the importance of specific behavior for students. Thus, the present research indicates that a rational approach (Gethin & Gunnemark, 1996) to compliance induced by socialization and shared practices is essential in order to ensure students’ compliance that is not coerced but is exercised by the free will of the students themselves.

Limitations

To advance future research and practice, it is crucial to address the limitations of the operationalization of academic compliance, as standardized measurement tools are lacking. Future studies should consider more diverse samples across educational levels to better understand compliance dynamics. Additionally, as education becomes more globalized, examining academic compliance and personal agency in online and hybrid learning environments could yield important insights for policymakers and educators. Longitudinal studies could also provide a deeper understanding of how compliance develops over a period of time as also the role of grades in affecting the relationship between compliance and personal agency. and perceptions of agency evolve over time.

Implications and Conclusion

It is a reality that in organizations, especially educational institutions, instructions to students cannot be fine-tuned to the teeth. Hence, instructions are sometimes abstract and therefore, the role of personal agency becomes vital. In such a scenario where instructions are abstract, students develop group identity, which may enhance socialization and shared practices. Therefore, these two dimensions of personal agency could be important interventions for elevating students’ academic compliance. Further, results of content analysis in the present research indicate that the experimental group showed more sub-categories (7) and compliance codes (55) compared to the control group (5 sub-categories and 35 codes). This implies that intervention through socialization and shared practices results in more sub-categories of compliance codes in experimental group. Therefore, personal agency dimensions: socialization

and shared practices, play a vital role in enhancing the academic compliance of students. It would be appropriate, if the educators are made aware of this concept of personal agency and its impact on academic compliance of students. Further, educators also need to be introduced to the identification and application of intervention for enhancing academic compliance.

Contemporary trends in the field of education emphasize the empowerment of students and the importance of personal agency in academic compliance. It is noticed that parents are protective towards their children, which may also include taking decision on their behalf. It would be appropriate if the child is encouraged to take few decisions, like which clothes to wear by themselves. Therefore, counseling of parents in this regard could help their children enhance their personal agency. Further, in Indian culture, the status given to a teacher is even higher than that of parents and God. Therefore, teachers can play an important role, not only in shaping the personality of students but also in furthering their personal agency. Accordingly, the positive aspects in respective cultures need to be identified in this regard and used for favorably effecting the personal agency of students. Furthermore, education training modules need to be restructured to encourage socialization and shared practices to increase the academic compliance among students. This is essential for the hybrid and virtual classrooms that give opportunity for customized curriculum design and self-paced learning that will allow more participation of learners in the learning process. Injecting socialization and shared practices in such classrooms can further enhance student compliance. and which involve these dimensions of personal agency, along-with other factors identified, for favorable academic compliance among students, can be part of the policy documents for education.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely thank the research participants for their valuable time, cooperation and continued support throughout the research.

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University Leaders’ Views on Independent Campus Curriculum as Educational Reforms in Indonesian Islamic Universities

Muhammad Nasir

Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris State Islamic University of Samarinda, Indonesia

Muhammad Khairul Rijal

Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris State Islamic University of Samarinda, Indonesia

Syarifah Kurniaty Kahar University of Newcastle, Australia

Fathur Rahman

Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris State Islamic University of Samarinda, Indonesia

Anis Komariah

Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris State Islamic University of Samarinda, Indonesia

Abstract

The independent campus curriculum policy and implementation in Indonesian universities have faced many challenges during the past two years. This approach is complicated by the Indonesian school system, which divides education into religious and general institutions. The study aims to investigate the challenges and opportunities that Islamic Universities in Indonesia encounter when implementing the policy of the Independent Campus Curriculum as part of an educational policy reform initiative. We employed a case study approach and purposive sampling to select our prospective participants. Nine Islamic universities representing Indonesia’s eastern and western regions were chosen purposively. Thirteen leaders of Islamic universities who occupy various structural positions related to implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum were interviewed. Our research showed that Indonesian Islamic universities must establish grant money, encourage cooperation and partnerships with relevant institutions, and generate a wide range of activities following a publicly accessible independent campus curriculum policy. Despite implementation problems, Islamic institutions’ independent campus curriculum policy change offers great potential for campus quality improvement. This curriculum allows Islamic colleges to expand their collaborative networks and improve student skills. Our research has provided a new perspective on implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum, but only for Islamic higher education officials. A complete understanding requires input from students, stakeholders, and other interested parties.

Keywords: curriculum development, Independent Campus Curriculum, skill-based curriculum, Islamic University

Leading higher education presents a challenge in preparing graduates for the workforce. Academic credentials and practical knowledge acquired during a university education are significant indicators that enhance graduates’ employability (Bui et al., 2019). It is widely believed that the accomplishments of these graduates will increase their income and serve as a gateway to future success (Wolla & Sullivan, 2017). Higher education, an establishment that qualifies graduates for the workplace, is confronted with evolving and unpredictable demands of the employment market (Walsh & Gleeson, 2022). The impact of employment uncertainty on educational institutions’ preparation of graduates necessitates substantial modifications to their policies (Salas-Velasco, 2021). This complicates the processes of education, learning, and curriculum design (Altbach et al., 2010).

Universities significantly impact the development of individuals capable and adaptable to the demands of industrial 4.0 by the education they offer (Patel, 2021). To ensure the quality of higher education and produce exceptionally competent graduates, universities must enhance their educational management, which includes curriculum-related factors (Lukita et al., 2020). To equip graduates with the requisite competencies to confront the challenges of the industrial era 4.0, it is imperative that the curriculum consistently strives to enhance students’ skill sets (Nasreen et al., 2022). Formulating an educational curriculum in Indonesia is essential for accommodating the nation’s diverse religious and cultural landscape. The connection between religious pluralism and social harmony, shaped by historical, cultural, and socio-political contexts, necessitates collaborative efforts to address the challenge of reducing social conflict in the industrial era (Hutabarat, 2023). The emergence of religious universities in Indonesia integrates scientific knowledge with spiritual foundations, promoting tolerance and understanding among diverse religious communities (Anshari, 2012).

Indonesia’s educational system distinctly categorizes religious and general universities. Each serving defined roles and limitations. Islamic higher education institutions, including State Islamic Universities (UIN), have developed from earlier forms, such as State Islamic Colleges (STAIN) and State Islamic Institutes (IAIN), reflecting a responsive adaptation to globalization and the need for competitive graduates (Logli & Wahyuni, 2023; Welch & Aziz, 2021). General universities encounter equity, quality, and funding challenges, striving to integrate social justice with human resource development. The historical foundation of Islamic higher education dates back to 1945, demonstrating significant growth in both the public and private sectors. The transition to State Islamic Universities reflects a response to globalization aimed at developing competitive graduates (Afrizal, 2022).

As a strategic measure to confront the challenges of the industrial era, the Indonesian government, via the Ministry of Education and Culture, instituted the Independent Campus Curriculum policy in 2020. The policy of the Independent Campus Curriculum suggests a novel trajectory for advancing higher education in Indonesia (Minister of Education and Culture Indonesia, 2020). The Independent Campus Curriculum policy aims to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively navigate and respond to evolving social, cultural, and technological landscapes, in addition to accelerated technological progress. The Independent Campus Curriculum is expected to establish a link between business, the

workforce, and the dynamic future (Siregar et al., 2020). The Independent Campus Curriculum strategy has the potential to decrease the unemployment rate among Indonesian university graduates (Purwanti, 2021).

Since it has been in effect for two years, the policy and implementation of the independent campus curriculum in Indonesian universities have undoubtedly presented their fair share of obstacles. One of the difficulties associated with this policy is that it is inextricably linked to the Indonesian education system, which divides education into religiously oriented and general educational institutions. The materialistic paradigm introduced the scientific dichotomy between religion and science, perceiving the two as fundamentally incompatible (Damper, 2022). Science and theology are opposed concerning status, authority, and professionalism (Levinson, 2006). Formal and material objects, research methods, truth criteria, the function of scientists, the status of the theories employed, the policies formulated, and the institutions that house them are all considered distinct domains of study (Abdullah & Kartanegara, 2003). This dichotomy between knowledge and science has negative repercussions and effects, and in Indonesia, it generates an abundance of gaps (Syarif, 2020).

Despite these challenges, merging science and religion remains a subject of intense discussion, underlining the importance of an integrated educational framework that integrates these two domains (Iqbal, 2019). The efficacy of the independent campus curriculum policy at Islamic universities has been inferior to that of general universities. This discrepancy in implementing the independent campus curriculum in Indonesia results in a disparity between general and Islamic universities. This disparity arises from multiple issues, including the divergence between policies and systems and challenges in obtaining support from relevant stakeholders. Challenges in Islamic higher education encompasses ineffective academic institutions, insufficient infrastructure and facilities, poor lecturer quality, and inadequate resources. (Nuryanto, 2017). This study aims to examine the challenges and opportunities faced by Islamic Universities in Indonesia in implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum as a component of educational policy reform.

Literature Review

Historical Curriculum Changes in Indonesia

Over the past two decades, Indonesia’s curriculum development has progressed towards a competency-based, student-centered, and flexible model (Beatty et al., 2021). The 2004 Competency-Based Curriculum (KBK), which prioritized skills over rote memorization, transitioned into the 2006 School-Based Curriculum (KTSP), enabling schools to tailor the curriculum to local requirements within a national framework (Putri & Hamami, 2023). In 2013, the K-13 or Character-based curriculum emphasized character development, interdisciplinary learning, and scientific methodologies, although it faced challenges in underresourced regions. The recent reform, Merdeka Belajar or the Independent Campus Curriculum, initiated in 2020, emphasizes teacher flexibility, reduces high-stakes testing, and promotes digital literacy, enhancing education’s adaptability to individual student needs and

contemporary global demands (Anggadwita et al., 2024). This transition indicates a broader movement towards decentralization, the cultivation of practical skills, and alignment with 21stcentury competencies, all while maintaining adherence to national education standards.

Independent Campus Curriculum Policy in Indonesia

The Independent Campus Curriculum holds philosophical significance concerning the progressive education movement that Rousseau, Dewey, and Freire pioneered (Wilcock, 2021). An educational philosophy known as progressivism places significant emphasis on addressing the needs of students (Omole & Darling, 1995). An additional academic objective of the Independent Campus policy is to “humanize” individuals (Freire, 2019). The perception of education is not that which binds. Thus, it is expected to inspire students to develop in various ways, including academic excellence, social and personal qualities, independence, and community service (Prahani et al., 2020).

The experiential learning theory, as proposed by David A. Kolb, serves as the foundation for the learning approach implemented in the Independent Campus Curriculum (Cherry, 2019). This theory emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge through direct experience. According to (Kolb & Kolb, 2009), experiential learning theory (ELT) gives a complete picture of how people learn and grow and a nonlinear picture of how adults progress. The independence of the campus curriculum is predicated on the philosophical value that emphasizes the students’ learning experience. In the current educational landscape, tasks requiring students to solve problems and exercise their creative and logical abilities have surpassed memorization (Juita & Yusmaridi, 2021). The Experiential Learning Theory is widely incorporated into curricula across the globe (Lehane, 2020). The following figure depicts the progression of Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) stages, which align with the policy of the Independent Campus Curriculum and progress from abstract knowledge concepts to tangible experiences.

The Independent Campus Curriculum is very applicable during the Industrial Revolution 4.0 towards the era of Society 5.0. The implementation of this policy yields numerous advantages for advancing higher education. In addition to fostering collaboration among universities, including those ranked among the Top 100 by the QS World University Rankings, this initiative facilitates the establishing of new academic programs. It offers educational institutions additional opportunities and convenience (Basri et al., 2021). Furthermore, the management of campus accreditation is facilitated for academic institutions through ongoing collaborations with industry and professional organizations that possess comparable expertise, as well as with the local community (Qorib & Harfiani, 2021).

To the corporate environment, the link-and-match policy of the Independent Campus Curriculum concept mandates that universities furnish their students with a flexible curriculum and practical knowledge via extracurricular engagements, including student exchanges, internships, teaching assistantships, research endeavors, independent and humanitarian projects, and entrepreneurship (Kodrat, 2021). Entrepreneurial activities are anticipated to

foster increased enthusiasm among students and transform their perspective from job seekers to job creators within society (Amril & Hardiani, 2021).

Independent Campus Curriculum Policy at Indonesian Islamic Universities

Analysis of data from the 2022 National Labor Force Survey (SAKERNAS) indicates that graduates of Religious Higher Education (PTK) are more readily employed and established as entrepreneurs in the workforce compared to graduates of general universities (BPS-Statistics Indonesia, 2022). The accreditation status of Islamic universities serves as an indicator of their productivity and competitiveness. By implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum in Islamic universities, the technical directives or guidelines of the Ministry of Religion are transformed into campus authority. The delegation of power is critical due to the fact that every campus possesses distinct attributes in accordance with its potential.

As stipulated in Decree 7290 of 2020, issued by the Director General of Islamic Education, which pertains to implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum in Undergraduate Programmes, Islamic universities have eight distinct curriculum activities on campus. This directive necessitates a more intricate sequence of operational instructions and an additional responsibility for the Ministry of Religion to ensure religious moderation. As a derivative of the previous decree, Decree 1591 of 2022, issued by the Director General of Islamic Education of the Ministry of Religion, pertains to the technical guidelines for establishing and operating independent campuses at Islamic universities. Through Islamic universities’ Independent Campus Curriculum policy, the Ministry of Religion develops, controls, and supervises independent, innovative, productive, adaptable, and relevant education, teaching, research, and community service to social dynamics, scientific and technological progress, and business and industry.

In developing this set of technical recommendations, the following goals were taken into consideration:

1) Establish a framework for the execution of the Independent Campus Curriculum at Islamic universities, both public and private;

2) Enhance and refine students’ understanding and proficiency following their unique talents, interests, and capabilities;

3) Motivate students to acquire a diverse range of knowledge applicable to their entry into the business and industrial sectors; and

4) Serve as a standard against which educational program planning, implementation, and evaluation are measured.

These technical guidelines are designated for use by the following parties:

1) Islamic university leaders as the authority for the implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policies;

2) Faculty leaders as the duty the implement the Independent Campus Curriculum policies;

3) The head of the department or coordinator of the study program has the duty for the technical implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policies;

4) Instructors of courses administered through student exchange programs; and

5) Instructors who also function as on the job training supervisors.

Methodology

We are investigating how the higher education curriculum has changed over time. This is to help us figure out how to use the curriculum best to improve the quality of Islamic higher education in Indonesia. The explicit objective of our research is to identify differentiations in implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum policy between general and Islamic universities. We utilize qualitative research employing a case study methodology to gain comprehensive insights into the issue and leverage extensive information directly from the field (Creswell, 2021). This research design aims to understand the processes that occur and does not focus on the product of scientific investigation (Cohen et al., 2017). Moreover, researchers can identify critical issues about the Independent Campus Curriculum policies from multiple perspectives (Punch, 2005). Therefore, the primary focus of this study corresponds to the challenges and opportunities encountered by Islamic universities in Indonesia during the implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policy.

Method

The study employed a purposive sampling method for participant selection. This strategy involves intentionally selecting individuals with specific characteristics or experiences relevant to the research topic.

This study focuses on the leadership of Islamic universities in Indonesia, who serve as campus authorities in implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum. Vice-Chancellor, Dean, Vice-Dean, Quality and Standards Committee, Head of Department, and Head of Undergraduate Program are among the structural leadership positions of Islamic universities represented as participants. Thirteen university leaders representing ten Islamic universities with diverse academic ranks participated in this study. To ensure the confidentiality, this study was conducted anonymously (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The 10 Islamic universities represented by participants are anonymously referred to as University A sequentially until University I.

Table 1 Participants’ Characteristics

Note. Creswell proposed this by interviewing 5-25 participants who had all witnessed the phenomenon.

This study collected data using both interactive and non-interactive qualitative techniques. Data-collecting methods include documentation and interviews (Baxter & Jack, 2015). Documentation and interviews were used to observe and document the implementation of independent campus curriculum policies in Islamic universities and identify opportunities and obstacles on its implementation.

Researchers employ instruments whose validity has been established through testing. The instrument’s validity is established through testing, verifying whether the data gathered precisely represents the assessed construct (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Instrumental validity refers to the accuracy of the conclusions derived from the research within the given framework. This suggests that there is agreement between researchers and respondents concerning the definitions and descriptions of the events (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001). Data validity was assessed using source and procedure triangulation (Sutama, 2019). Source triangulation is a method employed to ascertain data reliability by assessing the information gathered from participants. Subsequently, the described and categorized data is divided into three distinct categories: identical, unique, and specific.

The interactive analysis by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana is used to analyze and interpret data (Miles et al., 2014). By using coding procedures, we could identify themes and make sense of the narratives provided by our respondents. In this study, obtaining data, distilling, presenting, and concluding are the stages involved in data analysis.

Findings and Discussion

Challenges of Implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum in Indonesian Islamic Universities

Islamic universities in Indonesia are subject to the supervision of the Ministry of Religion, an institution that demonstrates agility and responsiveness to the development of policies and curricula in Indonesia. This is shown by the release of guidelines that provide Islamic universities with a foundation and direction for implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum policy. It implies that the Independent Campus Curriculum at an Islamic university possesses a legal foundation, legitimacy, and explicit trajectory in terms of policy, which are derived from the overarching attributes of the Islamic university. There are numerous obstacles to implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum policy in Islamic universities.

The Independent Campus Curriculum Program Lacks ICT Capacity

In implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum Program, the Ministry of Religion and the Ministry of Education and Culture, as education implementers, have the same role to collaborate with and promote a nationwide initiative to standardize the Independent Campus Curriculum. The Ministry of Religion specifically developed an information system to facilitate the implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policies, known as MERPATI. It is currently designed to support the student exchange program as the primary activity of the Independent Campus Curriculum. However, the Information System cannot accommodate all programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum. As stated by the Head of the Quality Assurance Center of University A:

“I think we (Islamic Universities) are late in developing an independent campus curriculum information system from general universities. The MERPATI application only serves one program, namely student exchange through learning between universities. There are still other programs that should be developed in this application service. This information system service is one of the keys that encourages the independent campus curriculum programs to run effectively and efficiently”.

(Respondent 3)

A Head of the Quality Assurance Center of University J stated similar challenges associated with the information system integrated into The Independent Campus Curriculum. He expects that the developed information system will be able to support many programs in the future, as stated:

“One of the biggest challenges of the Islamic university is to develop an integrated service system for the independent campus curriculum to facilitate various program activities in the independent campus curriculum, so it’s not just student exchange through learning at other campuses.” (Respondent 5)

It differs from the choice of programs in the independent campus curriculum at general universities, which have provided various programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum policy. The various programs are Teaching Campus, Certified Independent Study and Internship, Independent Study, Independent Student Exchange, Independent Entrepreneurship, Indonesian International Student Mobility Awards, and Teaching Practitioners. (Program Kampus Merdeka, 2022)

Information systems and the learning management system (LMS) support information technology in implementing the independent campus curriculum. A Dean of the Faculty of Islamic Economics and Business at University A expressed the importance of LMS in facilitating online lecture programs under the Independent Campus curriculum. It is regrettable, given the information technology resource deficient support that limits learning optimization in the Independent Learning Curriculum program. As previously mentioned by the dean of the Faculty of Islamic Economics and Business at University A.

“Information technology support and application services that support independent campus curriculum policies at Islamic universities are still lacking.” “We need to develop big data to facilitate strengthening student competence through various learning activities that can be accessed with one click according to their individual learning needs and interests.” (Respondent 1)

The Independent Campus Curriculum Lacks Government-Private Sector Collaboration

A member of the Quality Assurance Center of University G complained about the lack of cooperation facilities between government institutions and business entities to accommodate the implementation of programs included in the Independent Campus Curriculum. She acknowledged:

“The Ministry of Religion has not facilitated cooperation between ministries and business entities, both government and private, which provide access to Islamic university students to be able to take the independent campus curriculum programme provided by the ministry of education, so that this hinders strengthening the competence of Islamic university students.” (Respondent 11)

Furthermore, the Head of the Quality Assurance Center at University A highlighted the importance of collaboration among campuses and stakeholders. Additionally, establishing optimal and targeted collaboration is significantly influenced by a successful socialization process. As he stated:

“The lack of collaboration between the government, ministries, and the campus is a serious obstacle

Campus collaboration with the industrial sector is hampered by the absence of socialization of programs and information on student skill demands that are pertinent to the workplace”. (Respondent 3)

The Independent Campus Curriculum is Budget-Constrained

A Head of the Undergraduate Program at University E acknowledges that managing grant funds from the Ministry of Religion is one of the most significant obstacles to implementing Islamic universities’ Independent Campus Curriculum policy. Education budget constraints impede the implementation of programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum, just as operational expenses catalyze program implementation, as she uttered:

“The big challenge for leaders of Islamic universities is managing limited education funds to invest in implementing the independent campus curriculum, which requires a lot of funds, while the ministry of religion does not yet have a grant funding policy.” (Respondent 9)

Additionally, the vice dean of University A highlighted that financial support was crucial to the campus’s capacity to manage the Independent Campus Curriculum programs effectively.

“The Independent Campus Curriculum policy has major challenges, mainly due to the lack of financial support,” (Respondent 2)

Opportunities to Reform Indonesian Islamic Universities’ Curriculum to Independent Campus Curriculum

The Independent Campus Curriculum Allows Career and Industry Engagement

The programs in the independent campus curriculum offer great opportunities for universities and students. The campus has the opportunity to expand its collaboration network, and at the same time, students have the opportunity to develop their skills. This effort can reduce the gap between higher education and work needs in the business and industrial world. As a member of the Quality Assurance Center from University F and University B acknowledged:

“A great opportunity for Islamic universities to expand their network of cooperation, together with various parties, to improve and develop student skills according to the demands of the world of work, thereby minimizing the gap between universities and the industrial world and the business world” (Respondent 10).

“Both in business and industry, the courses in the Independent Campus Curriculum are supposed to assist close the discrepancy between higher education and the actual needs in the world of employment. Through internships, actual projects, and industry-relevant independent study programs, students are given the chance to be directly involved in

the workplace in their execution. Therefore, they not only acquire academic knowledge but also useful experience fit for the expectations of the modern workforce….

We attempt to constantly harmonize the curriculum with input from many parties, including industry participants, so that our graduates can be better prepared and relevant to the changing needs of the world of work.” (Respondent 4)

Student exchanges between Islamic universities have constituted a collaborative effort over the past few years. The student exchange program is executed via cooperation among universities, with the participation of up to sixty Islamic universities in Indonesia. However, the execution of programs within the Independent Campus Curriculum has been undesirable, characterized by a shortage of diversity in the programs that have been incorporated (Merdeka Belajar PTKI, 2023).

The Independent Campus Curriculum Fosters Student Interests and Talents

In collaboration with the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia, the Ministry of Religion has launched the Independent Campus Curriculum at Indonesian universities to promote interdisciplinary learning experiences for students. Students’ academic experiences will be customized according to their interests and abilities to foster their development and enhance their performance. A Head of Department at University C and Head of the Undergraduate Program at University D demonstrates that implementing this policy in Islamic universities is an ideal opportunity to advance students’ professions in the future. As they declared:

“Through the independent campus curriculum policy, students will be able to meet their own learning needs by choosing the programmes they need.” “Surely this is a perfect opportunity for their future career development.” (Respondent 8)

“Students have the chance to identify their potential in more depth by choosing courses outside of the academic schedule, internships, research, or independent projects. reported the vice chancellor of the university. “We hope that through the flexibility given, students can discover their true interests and develop their talents in appropriate fields, which will finally support their future career success.” (Respondent 7)

The activities of the Independent Campus Curriculum are intended to allow students more flexibility in pursuing their interests and abilities. It provides an ideal environment for students to develop holistically in academic and non-academic disciplines.

The Independent Campus Curriculum Connects Islamic University Graduates to Industry and Business

Islamic universities gain a deeper comprehension of the demands of job opportunities for the graduates they produce by implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum’s programs.

Implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum policy facilitated the university’s ability to determine the requirements of graduate users or job providers, as articulated by a ViceChancellor of University C. It contributes substantially to achieving the standards for job providers concerning graduates’ qualifications. As he stated:

“The current difficulty of Islamic universities is identifying the needs of graduate users for our graduates.” Therefore, the independent campus curriculum policy helps Islamic universities identify “what is needed for the world of work and what their hopes are for university graduates.” (Respondent 6)

The Independent Campus Curriculum programs enable students to explore the actual demands of the labor market, encompassing both technical capabilities and highly valued soft skills qualities. As the Head of the Undergraduate Program at University H and the Head of the Department at University I stated:

“Students can see first-hand the standards and expectations that exist in the world of work by means of internships, industry projects, and cross-disciplinary partnerships.” (Respondent 12)

“We want our graduates to have not just great academic knowledge but also useful industrial demands awareness and practical abilities. We think our graduates, with the help of the Independent Campus Curriculum, will be more ready to meet worldwide competition and contribute actively in the professional setting”. (Respondent 13)

Discussion

Particularly in the 4.0 industrial revolution, one of the challenges of higher education in Indonesia is to empower its graduates with the necessary work skills. Many graduates are currently experiencing difficulty securing suitable employment. Despite numerous employers seeking university graduates, there continues to be a substantial discrepancy between the educational response and the requirements of employers. Education systems must adapt to labor markets to balance human intelligence and technology (Garcia-Esteban & Jahnke, 2020). Universities must acknowledge that potential employers of their graduates perceive a discrepancy between their anticipated performance and the actual circumstances. Employers will identify the deficiency and develop a suitable bridge program for adjusting recent graduates to their specifications and industry norms.

Consequently, the government will possess an enhanced capacity to devise policies for achieving the nation’s strategic goals (Sangeetha, 2022). Their skills and competencies must be augmented to provide potential graduates of this program with a competitive edge in the domestic and international job markets. As the course syllabus indicates, this issue can be resolved by enhancing the curriculum and classroom teaching and learning activities (Dela Cruz et al., 2016). Developing an intervention strategy predominantly centered around converting the course syllabus into an output-oriented system is imperative. Academic

institutions have developed their distinct categories. The initiatives that promote these competencies enhance students’ academic achievement and employability (Sui et al., 2019). According to the Indonesian government, the curriculum policy on independent campuses can more effectively equip its citizens to confront the challenges of the contemporary industrialized.

Indonesian Islamic universities face many challenges when implementing the policy regarding the Independent Campus Curriculum. The primary obstacles the Islamic universities encounter when trying to implement the Independent Campus Curriculum are regulatory constraints and the preparedness of human resources (Yudhawasthi & Christiani, 2022). However, significant prospects exist for Islamic universities to improve the standard of instruction due to this policy. The curriculum policy of independent campuses enables Islamic universities to strengthen and collaborate with other universities, including those ranked among the top 100 by QS World University Rankings.

Challenges of Implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum in Indonesian Islamic Universities

The Merdeka Campus curriculum allows students to learn more about and improve their understanding of scientific fields relevant to their present interests and priorities through onthe-job training. Students can spend one to three semesters (20 to 40 credits) exploring their hobbies and interests. Students can receive similar learning experiences both inside and outside their studies, including those outside their educational courses. It is the best option for students to study because the Independent Campus curriculum offers a wide range of programs. Islamic institutions’ independent campus curriculum policies aim to transmit and broaden students’ knowledge beyond their field of study. To ensure that the independent campus curriculum policy is implemented effectively and efficiently, students must have access to the national scale independent campus curriculum policy program, organized by the Ministry of Religion and implemented nationally, such as in the Ministry of Education and Culture.

The application of the MERPATI Information System by the Ministry of Religion facilitates the implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum within the ministry’s authority. Nevertheless, the current utilization of the MERPATI Information System is undesirable. This application solely supports student learning exchange programs within the Independent Campus Curriculum. Further efforts are required to assist with additional programs included in the Independent Campus Curriculum at Islamic universities. This policy distinguishes it from the diverse activities of the Independent Campus Curriculum at general universities. With optimal information and communication technology services development, the Ministry of Religion intends to facilitate various available activities following the Independent Campus Curriculum policies. Students will acquire enhanced job-related skills through this diverse curriculum (Gowsalya & Kumar, 2017). Further curriculum augmentation with elective activities would foster greater autonomy among students in their decision-making processes (Krishnapatria, 2021).

One of the foremost obstacles Islamic universities encounter while implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum is the functionality of technology. Higher education institutions are responsible for providing their students with the skills necessary to thrive in an increasingly technologically advanced global society. To accomplish this, Islamic universities must prioritize the development of information technology and information service systems capable of facilitating a wide range of activities related to the Independent Campus Curriculum programs. Through the nationwide implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum and an efficient information service system, Islamic universities can offer their students numerous prospects to enhance their scholarly and vocational proficiencies (Qomarul Huda & Hussin, 2010). These opportunities include teaching assistance, apprenticeships with private and public organizations, entrepreneurial endeavors, research, religious moderation, humanitarian initiatives, community development, and student exchanges. In addition, information service systems can facilitate simple access to various academic and organizational resources, simplify administrative procedures, and enhance communication among faculty, staff, and students at Islamic universities. Moreover, it can assist Islamic universities in monitoring and evaluating student progress, spotting areas that require enhancement, and tailoring every student’s educational experience (Sarkar, 2012).

Policymakers in Islamic universities endeavor to develop suitable information and communication technology (ICT) that can yield multifaceted advantages for the institutions. These advantages may include enhancements to the quality of education, improvement of students’ work capabilities, and preparation for a technologically advanced and globalized world.

Islamic Universities are encouraged, as part of the Independent Campus Curriculum, to become more engaged in the development of cooperative partnership initiatives with Indonesian ministries and state-owned enterprises (BUMN). Facilities to increase student competency through programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum will be the result of the collaboration that will be executed with the assistance of the existing programs. Therefore, in order for Islamic higher education students to have greater access to programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum, cooperation between government institutions, the business world, the industrial world, and non-government institutions must be strengthened at Islamic universities. Policymakers in Islamic universities must establish mechanisms for cooperation among these institutions and other entities. In order for the Independent Campus Curriculum policy to hopefully enhance the standard of graduates and offer advantages for the state, nation, and religion, Islamic universities must be ready to fortify collaborative networks with external stakeholders. Establishing partnerships with other ministries in Indonesia, including StateOwned Enterprises (BUMN), poses a significant obstacle for Islamic universities seeking to incorporate partnership programs into the Independent Campus Curriculum.

The Independent Campus Curriculum Partnership Program intends to establish a framework for collaboration among universities, BUMN, and other ministries to make higher education more relevant to the demands of industry and society. The curriculum for this program is customized to meet the requirements of local communities and industry (David et al., 2016;

Harman et al., 2010). Nevertheless, cooperation among universities, BUMN, and other ministries may present obstacles for several reasons. For instance, effective collaboration may be impeded by disparities in organizational culture, barriers in communication, and competing priorities (Jongbloed et al., 2008; Plewa et al., 2015; Zusman, 2005). To surmount these obstacles, universities must establish transparent communication channels and determine shared objectives with BUMN and other ministries. Mutual regard, confidence, and openness must underpin any collaboration. Establishing efficient project management procedures and ensuring all stakeholders are engaged in program planning and implementation are additional critical aspects to consider. Moreover, universities must foster a culture of collaboration by equipping faculty and staff with the necessary resources and assistance to establish partnerships and collaborate. The educational initiatives encompass the cultivation of proficiencies in negotiation, team building, communication, and conflict resolution (Eletter et al., 2017; Mehar Singh, 2021).

Islamic university leaders underlined the importance of collaboration in determining the success of the partnership program in the Independent Campus Curriculum. By working together, universities, state-owned enterprises, and other ministries can create curricula that meet the needs of industry and society and equip students with the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in the world of work.

In addition, supporting the implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum program with grants from engaged stakeholders, particularly graduate users, is crucial for ensuring its effectiveness and efficiency in Islamic universities. The provision of grant funds can significantly contribute to the execution of the Independent Campus Curriculum initiative within Islamic universities. Operating these programs could incur significant costs, and providing students with the essential resources and opportunities could prove difficult without sufficient funding (Purwanti, 2021). Hence, graduate users who may be interested in the success of these programs and government agencies, private organizations, and other stakeholders may be required to assist Islamic universities. These stakeholders may contribute grants or other forms of financial aid that may be utilized to support internships, entrepreneurial endeavors, research projects, and other facets of the curriculum at the independent campus. Vulnerabilities and guidance, as well as financial support, can be offered by stakeholders to aid in achieving program objectives. Graduate users may provide valuable insights regarding the skills and knowledge in high demand in the labor market. The curriculum is influenced by financial support to equip students for better career prospects (Yusuf, 2021).

Leaders of Islamic universities require grant support and encouragement from other stakeholders to ensure the success of the Independent Campus Curriculum program at their institutions. Through collaborative efforts and the utilization of available resources, Islamic universities can equip students with the opportunities and tools necessary for success in the digital age.

Opportunities to Reform Indonesian Islamic Universities’ Curriculum to Independent Campus Curriculum

The Independent Campus Curriculum policy, which allows students to study for three semesters outside of their program, will create a Higher Education Partnership Network, a transformational way of connecting, collaborating, and learning about transformation and innovation (Vick & Robertson, 2018). Islamic universities must allocate appropriate time for learning and networking with colleagues and industry partners. This collaboration positions Islamic universities for a paradigm shift. Partnerships with businesses and industry can reduce the unemployment rate and enhance university graduates’ assimilation (Lima et al., 2021). This policy confers advantages upon the Islamic University by facilitating networking opportunities for its students with industry partners. The collaboration, as mentioned earlier, has the potential to promote revolutionary changes within Islamic universities and generate fresh prospects for partnerships with the business and industrial sectors. Increased cooperation between academic institutions and industry stakeholders may facilitate a more seamless transition of university graduates into the workforce, thereby reducing unemployment rates (Perkmann et al., 2013).

The implementation of policies promoting collaboration and networking among students, universities, and industrial collaborators has been met with a favorable reception from leaders of Islamic universities. This may positively affect the academic and professional development of students and create new avenues for innovation and expansion.

The Independent Campus Curriculum program provides Islamic higher education students the opportunity to acquire a broader range of experiences through on-the-job training. Through onthe-job training, students can develop work experience while enhancing their practical skills and knowledge. In addition to sharing their work-related experiences and perspectives, students will attend to and gain knowledge from one another. This allows students to engage in direct dialogue and interaction with industry, academic, and business leaders and network with other attendees (Pinto & Pereira, 2019). In addition to imparting practical knowledge, fieldwork allows students to establish connections with prominent speakers and industry experts. This can assist students in establishing relationships and connections that could benefit their future professions. Furthermore, students can gain valuable insights into recent trends and advancements by discussing them with authoritative figures in their respective fields (Dixon, 2017). Students can network with industry leaders and foremost speakers, acquire practical experience, and develop their skill sets through on-the-job training.

Ensuring the quality of graduates is a critical responsibility of any educational institution, especially Islamic universities. Islamic universities can assist in producing competent and capable graduates who satisfy the requirements and expectations of the industry by offering students a methodical and comprehensive learning experience (Fajardo et al., 2020; Puranik, 2020). Islamic universities must ensure the standards of their forthcoming graduates to satisfy industry demands for proficient and capable labor forces and generate experienced human capital for the labor market. This demand can be achieved by implementing an organized and comprehensive learning process that guarantees the quality of future graduates. Consequently,

curriculum programs and appropriate teaching design approaches must prioritize the postgraduation capabilities of the graduates. By employing an independent campus curriculum policy, Islamic universities can ascertain which postgraduate competencies are in demand in the labor (Maher, 2004). Curriculum design strategies and programs are indispensable for guaranteeing the standard of forthcoming graduates. Islamic universities may emphasize developing workforce-relevant skills and knowledge when formulating their curriculum programs. This measure can facilitate the commencement of their professional lives with the essential competencies and understanding (Kouwenhoven, 2009).

Through the Independent Campus Curriculum strategy, Islamic University leaders can assess which graduate skills are required in the workplace by connecting them to industry and business. This practice can facilitate aligning university curriculum programs with the industry’s requirements and expectations. Islamic universities can also align policies with the training and experience required to cultivate students’ skills by identifying the competencies in demand in the professional world.

Conclusion and Implications

As a new direction for developing higher education in Indonesia in anticipation of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 era, the Independent Campus Curriculum policy, presently a priority program for the Indonesian Ministry of Education, represents a technological advancement. This strategy aims to enhance the standard of higher education instruction to enable establishments to produce graduates who are proficient and possess industry-relevant skills.

Islamic universities are regarded similarly to general universities regarding the implementation policies for the Independent Campus Curriculum in Indonesia. However, their policies are implemented using various techniques. Nonetheless, the policies are executed through various techniques customized to align with the specific focus of religious or general contexts. The effectiveness and efficiency of independent campus curriculum policies at Islamic universities are generally inferior to those observed at general universities. Policymakers affiliated with Islamic universities in Indonesia require sufficient resource support to implement the programs outlined in the Independent Campus Curriculum effectively. The success of this program’s implementation is primarily determined by the catalyst, which is the ICT support. In addition, Islamic universities necessitate extensive collaboration between the private and public sectors, as the sustainability of the Independent Learning Curriculum program is highly reliant on the availability of partners willing to provide opportunities for students to acquire knowledge and experience. Insufficient financial support impedes the effective and efficient operation of numerous programs within the Independent Campus Curriculum. The implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum in the field is affected by this deficiency. This lapse in implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum in public and Islamic universities in Indonesia must be assessed to ensure the ongoing program’s continuity.

Islamic universities in Indonesia are required to develop grant funds, promote cooperation and partnerships with various relevant institutions, and generate a wide range of activities following

an openly accessible independent campus curriculum policy. The transformation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policy in Islamic universities presents exceptional prospects for enhancing campus quality, notwithstanding the challenges that impede its implementation. This curriculum provides Islamic universities with the chance to broaden their networks of collaboration while simultaneously affording students the opportunity to enhance their skill sets. Additionally, this policy generates a variety of programs that can be tailored to the interests and abilities of individual students to foster growth and enhance academic achievement. Due to the ongoing nature of their programs, Islamic universities have a greater understanding of the employment opportunities that are most important to the graduates they produce. This necessitates the academic community’s readiness and unwavering support to facilitate the operation of the Independent Campus Curriculum programs.

Our research findings reveal the difficulties and advantages encountered by leaders in Islamic higher education in Indonesia when implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum, despite the literature’s emphasis on its relevance to the industry and workforce. Implementing the Independent Campus Curriculum Policy presents implications and significant prospects for Islamic universities to establish partnerships with global universities and the corporate sector. Consequently, it is anticipated that this collaboration will contribute to the mitigation of unemployment and the augmentation of employment prospects for graduates. This opportunity enables students to enhance their comprehension of scientific disciplines pertinent to their present interests, abilities, and priorities through various programs in the Independent Campus Curriculum. In addition, the Ministry of Religion, as the primary sector, should prioritize advancing information technology and information service systems that can enable various activities associated with the Independent Campus Curriculum initiative. However, the policymakers leading Islamic universities have identified this issue as an obstacle to assessing the future implementation of the Independent Campus Curriculum policy.

The transformation of the Independent Campus Curriculum in Indonesian Islamic Universities would potentially improve global education through a flexible, collaborative learning model, thereby producing graduates with skills applicable to the industrial sector. The Independent Campus Curriculum in Islamic Universities in Indonesia exemplifies how education can be customized to align with individual interests and needs while preserving local and religious values. By sharing these experiences, Indonesian Islamic universities can enhance crosscultural cooperation and foster international educational policy innovation.

Limitations of the Study

The viewpoints of Islamic university leaders regarding the Independent Campus Curriculum policies as educational reforms in Indonesian Islamic universities are outlined in our research. Although our study has offered a fresh outlook on the execution of the Independent Campus Curriculum, this is restricted to the opinions of Islamic higher education leaders. Diverse interested parties, including students, stakeholders, and other relevant parties, must contribute their perspectives to obtain a comprehensive understanding. In addition to this, prior research studies that provide an overview of the integration of Islamic higher education graduates before

the introduction of the Independent Campus curriculum are scarce. Therefore, examining multiple facets of the execution of the Independent Learning Curriculum as an educational reform in Islamic universities in Indonesia is imperative.

Acknowledgment

This study was supported by the Directorate of Islamic Higher Education, Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia, via the 2022 LITAPDIMAS research funding program. All of the data included in this study has been obtained with permission from the parties involved.

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Corresponding author: Muhammad Nasir

Email: muhammadnasir@uinsi.ac.id

Adaptability to Clouds of Change: Study of Engineering Students Pursuing Technical Education in Online Mode

Vikrant Dhenge

Indian Institute of Information Technology, India

Maithili Paikane

Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, India

Harsh Deshpande

Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar College of Law, India

Abstract

The pandemic has affected the social, economic, political, and psychological as well as physiological well-being of an individual. Due to technological advancements, it was comparatively easy to adapt to these clouds of change, and the education field was not an exception. The researchers have observed this not only in letter but in spirit during the pandemic through the new way of teaching and learning, that is, the Online Learning Mode. This paper aims to study the impact of place of residence on English language acquisition and the social and psychological health of engineering students in Online learning mode. A structured questionnaire was designed for this study. A total of 245 participants who are presently pursuing engineering in online learning mode participated in the research. The study revealed that the place of residence had no influence on English language acquisition but significantly impacted engineering students’ social and psychological health.

Keywords: COVID-19, engineering, health, language acquisition, online learning

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools that were rarely used in the education system suddenly came into vogue after the pandemicstarted. Things undreamt of, unthought-of becamea part of reality. The traditional teaching methodology was gradually taken over by the unconventional methods. All these significant changes are attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic period that requires students tostudy at home without interacting in class for a while (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Singh, 2020). COVID-19 resulted in the closing of academic institutions worldwide. It shook the very foundation of the educational system. As a result, all students of different countries faced an unexpected phase in their academic life. Since April 2, 2020, over 172 countries have closed schools and higher institutions. This closure impacted over 80% of the world’s learners (UNESCO, 2022)

Effect of COVID-19 on Academic Learning

The speed and breadth with which the COVID-19 pandemic swept the globe, drastically affecting many elements of each of our lives, will forever be part of the collective memory of everyone who has ever lived. Traditional methods of instruction and learning at different academic levels have undergone significant change. No longer had the COVID-19 wave hit the regions, and the academic institutions started thinking about the possibilities of online learning methodology that the educational institutes could quickly adapt. They even thought of applying ICT tools for solving social &economic crises due to the pandemic (Yi & Jang, 2020).

Though the solution of online learning was widely accepted so that the fundamental purpose of educationshould not be marred and that learning should be a continuous process, it has gradually paved the way for blended learning. Therefore, transformation in teaching pedagogy raised many issues for all the stakeholders associated with the Education industry (Silalahi & Hutauruk, 2020).

Rural-Urban Dichotomy

Indian society is basically comprised of three societies that have their characteristics and drawbacks. Tribal, Rural, and Urban societies are defined on account of their features which differentiates them from each other (Ahuja, 2014). Rural society is characterized by people who reside in the agricultural area and mainly carry out agriculture for sustenance. Though they are aware of technological developments taking place in the urbanized regions through different channels of communication, still they are far away from the civilized society of metro or urban areas in the use ofelectronic gadgets like computers, complex mobile technology, and others. Rural society has an integrated community. On the other hand, urban society is an industrialized society where people live a modern and individualistic life and use utilitarian things resulting from innovations in scientific fields. Hence, students from urban areas find it easy to learn the new technology due to the availability of resources as compared to students residing in rural areas. The facilities that are available and provided by the government in the rural and the urban setup are different.

In India, around 31% population resides in cities as against 69% population which is residing

in small towns and villages where basic facilities are also unavailable due to various issues like geological location, natural disasters, and others (Census 2011). COVID-19 exposed this disparity in the income groups, wherein it was challenging for rural people to adapt to the clouds of change. During the pandemic, parents of children from the rural areas suffered more ascompared to the urban parents (Björklund & Salvanes, 2011; Kalinowski et al., 2022). This dichotomy is the main crux of this research paper. According to the United Nations Labor Agency,there is an increase in job loss for nearly 50% of the Global workers due to COVID19 (United Nations, 2020). A study on “Why place matters; A rurally-orientated analysisof COVID-19’s differential impacts” by Malatzky and colleagues (2020) focuses on the implications of COVID-19 during the early stages, that is, the first wave of the 2020 pandemic in relation to the enduring urban-rural dichotomy within high-income economies. India is a developing country, so to provide electronic devices like laptops, smartphones, computers, and Wi-Fi/Internet for online education, to low-income urban populace/rural areas was impossible. Though developed countries like Japan and the United Kingdom could provide these devices to the students.

In the present research paper, the researchers have studied in detail the social and psychological health of the students residing in rural and urban society during pandemic times and whether the educational facility available in both communities was sufficient for the continuous learning process. The study provide some valuable insights into India’s rising spectrum of online learning under National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The distant learning policy under NEP may face serious challenges from urban-rural dichotomy as highlighted in the present study. The government needs to address the challenges of rural-urban divide poses to the objective of universalization of the education to the remote parts of the country. In this research, we have generated data from the students belonging to the urban, town, and rural areas to analyze how they have managed to come in terms with the new way of learning and the difficulties they faced while adapting to the new normal. The emergency forced teachers, parents, and students alike to adapt to the emergency remote learning despite their readiness. The significance of the present research is that it proves, “rising like a Phoenix from the ashes under different circumstances and facing all the odds and triumphing at the end is what human societies speak volumes of”. Despite various hurdles in the online teaching-learning process faced by all the stakeholders of the education system, the teaching and learning continued during the pandemic. It brought out the present generation’s positive attitude and fighting spirit in the most crucial phase of their life against an invisible enemy in the form of virus.

Literature Review and Hypotheses

Online Learning Method (OLM) and Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is, in fact, an essential part of education. Students experience situationspecific anxiety while acquiring a foreign language in classroom learning. It negatively affects their language acquisition capacity (Horwitz et al., 1986). In accordance with its most fundamental pursuit, the present study tries to glean into the students’ perspective on the acquisition of an English language in an online, remote manner. Even if very efficient and

accessible, online education does come with its hurdles (Silalahi & Hutauruk, 2020). English language learning faced an onslaught of challenges that it had to overcome in quick succession to retain its sanctity and uphold the student’s future aspirations (Mseleku, 2020). This sudden shift from the time-tested method of conventional classroom learning to this new, remote online process posed many challenges (Daniel, 2020; Tarkar, 2021). In addition to this, there is a concern of great digital incompetence among English language teachers. Digital incompetency is broadly described as the lack of capacity to manage the current technology and digital information that includes knowledge and skills with respect to contemporary information and communication technology (Ferrari & DIGCOMP, 2013). The most significantproblems in the OLM were technological access to students in remote areas (Ahmadon et al., 2020). The place of residence has a significant impact on the academic progress of students.

H1: Place of residence impact the language acquisition capacity of students in online learning mode.

Online Learning Mode and Health

The social, as well as the psychological health of an individual, is influenced by not only lifestyle and economic conditions but also by the place of residence (Fuller, 2016; Gattino et al., 2013). Multiple studies across the globe confirmed that the pandemic affected the social as well as psychological health of people significantly (Clair et al., 2021; Kämpfen et al., 2020; Marroquín et al., 2020; Usher et al., 2020). Apart from assessing the overall views of the students on online education, this study also focuses on the social dichotomy of students residing in either urban or rural areas. Some studies found thatthe family’s economic background plays a significant role in a student’s education (Björklund & Salvanes, 2011). Moreover, many studies conclude that students from wealthier families or from sound economic backgrounds that are more stable, tend to be the prominent beneficiaries of the educationsystem (Blanden et al., 2002). The socioeconomic divide between rural and urban citizens is skewed in a particular manner; urban residents tend to be more economically advanced and wealthier than their rural counterparts (Das & Pathak, 2012). Moreover,rural residents faced problems of more severity during the pandemic (Malatzky et al., 2020). The COVID pandemic primarily affected the sense of social security in rural communities (Kalinowski et al., 2022). Naturally, this also significantly impacted the psychological health of students and parents, causing great anxiety in them (Daniel, 2020). Moreover, due to the existing pressures on the rural communities,the students hailing from these communities face a multitude of psychological disorders, like depression, anxiety, and others. Thus, place of residence has a significant impact on the social as well as psychological health of engineering students in OLM during the pandemic.

H2a: Place of residence influences the social health of students in online learning during the pandemic.

H2b: Place of residence influence the psychological health of students in online learning during the pandemic.

Since both hypotheses are referring to similar issues, that is, health, we can merge them and

make it a single hypothesis.

H2: Place of residence influences the social as well as psychological health of students during online learning.

Research Methodology

Initially, the researchers designed the hypotheses based on related literature and background studies. Two centrally funded educational institutes were selected for this study Furthermore, a structured questionnaire was prepared and validated by using factor analysis The data was collected from a total of 245 respondents from undergraduate educational institutes. To test the hypotheses, the researchers performed a one-way Analysis of Variance on the collected data. Finally, the conclusion was drawn on the basis of the results obtained.

Table 1

Constructs, Indicators, and Measurements

Construct Indicator Measurement

Language Acquisition

LA1 OLM has encouraged me to read more textbooks/reference books related to the English language.

LA2 I have started following Twitter/blogs/vlogs/podcasts in nonacademic fields recently for the improvement of lingual skills.

LA3 OLM does not allow one-to-one interaction between teacher and student.

LA4 The virtual mode decreases the fear of speaking out and presenting ideas publicly.

LA5 OLM enhances the seriousness and credibility of language learning.

LA6 OLM encouraged me to download language enhancement apps [ like duolingo]

LA7 OLM allows me to manifest my writing and expression skills more efficiently.

LA8 OLM has emerged as a strong new tool to increase the efficiency of language learning (vocabulary, creativity, expression, fluency)

LA9 I have got more interested in literature available online due to the O.L.M

LA10 Virtual media like e-books, newsletters, blogs, and essays helped me to polish my language skills.

LA11 OLM has enhanced my language speaking skills.

LA12 My listening skills have been enhanced due to OLM

LA13 Manual writing is less preferred by students after OLM.

LA14 Due to learning English and the enhancement of existing

Social Aspect

Psychological Aspect

proficiency, I find it easier to study my technical subjects.

LA15 No distractions have made learning a language more efficient and enjoyable on OLM.

LA16 I find it easier to learn a language online, rather than in a proper classroom setting.

LA17 O.L.M has encouraged me to use the widely available online resources to upgrade my lingual skills.

LA18 I feel online language acquisition is at par with the physical/offline method.

SA1 Online learning has paved the way for new youth culture.

SA2 O.L.M does not allow to have peer learning and interaction.

SA3 OLM has resulted in the laxity of ethics (Cheating practices, intruders in classes, and others.) in the education system.

SA4 OLM has exposed the income disparity in Indian society.

SA5 Urban students were able to adapt to OLM easily.

SA6 Rural students had to face a lot of problems in adapting to OLM due to the non-availability of learning resources in rural areas.

SA7 Electricity problems and network issues were major hindrances in OLM.

SA8 Government should have given financial assistance during OLM to lower-income families.

PA1 I miss classroom culture and peer presence in OLM

PA2 OLM has increased creativity in students.

PA3 Language learning is a conscious effort on the part of a learner.

PA4 Over-dependence on gadgets during OLM has spoiled basic mental abilities.

PA5 OLM is more mechanical and lacks the human touch.

PA6 OLM has affected the emotional health of students.

PA7 Students are expected to be in learning mode 24/7 due to technology access.

PA8 OLM has led to many mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, and insecurity in students.

Field Area of Research

The study attempts to understand the impact of Online Learning Mode (OLM) on language acquisition capacity, and social and psychological health of undergraduate engineering students during the pandemic. The field area of research identified for the purpose of the present study was two centrally funded technical institutes in the central India- Indian Institute of Information Technology Nagpur (IIIT Nagpur) and Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology Nagpur (VNIT Nagpur). These institutes are designated as “Institutes of National Importance” by an Act of Parliament of India. Moreover, these institutions are one of the highly

ranked technical institutes in India that host students from all across India as well as diverse socio-cultural backgounds. English is the primary medium of instruction in these institutes.

Questionnaire Design

For the purpose of the present study, a structured questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire contained a total of 40 items also called measurements divided into four constructs alternatively called components- Demographic Information construct, Language Acquisition constructs (LA), Social Aspect constructs (SA), and Psychological Aspect constructs (PA). The questionnaire was prepared using a five-point Likert Scale technique ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The Demographic Information component in the questionnaire contains a total of six measurements related to gender, place of residence, income group, board of higher secondary education and others. The measurement regarding place of residence and income group holds primary significance as these are differentiating variables in the present study.

The LA component in the questionnaire consists of 18 measurements related to English language acquisition in the pandemic period. The SA component consists of eight measurements related to the social state of students during the pandemic. The PA component in the questionnaire consists of eight measurements related to the psychological state of students during the pandemic period (see Table 1).

Table 2

Mean, Standard Deviation, Factor Loadings, Cronbach Alpha, KMO, and Composite Reliability

Indicators

Language Acquisition LA1 2.64

Indicators

Social Aspect

SA3 3.92 1.151 0.700 SA4 3.64 0.997 0.564 SA5 4.02 1.010 0.552

SA6 4.18 1.095 0.745

SA7 4.47 0.894 0.723

SA8 4.36 0.988 0.539

Psychological Aspect

PA2 2.74 1.301 0.690 PA3 3.92 0.906 0.613

PA4 4.13 0.998 0.761

PA5 4.23 0.987 0.738

PA6 4.31 0.984 0.818

PA7 4.03 1.145 0.566

PA8 4.14 1.093 0.758

Pilot Study

After designing the structured questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted on 30 samples to test the reliability of measurements and validity of components in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed online through e-mail to 15 first-year students each from both the educational institutions by employing Random Probability Sampling technique. While collecting the data for pilot study, the researchers took utmost care to include the respondents from diverse social background to avoid any biasness in the results.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed on the collected data using SPSS v23.0 software. CFA is used to determine the underlying relationship between the relatively large set of variables in this study. CFA is a multivariate approach used to uncover the underlying structure of a relatively large set of variables and minimize the data (Hair et al., 2019). Earlier research suggests that each of the values of loading factors should be greater than 0.5, and that of cross-loading factors to be smaller than 0.5 (Žlender & Gemin, 2020). The items with factor loadings less than 0.5 are eligible for omission (Bollen, 1989)

The reliability and validity analysis was conducted on the collected sample data using SPSS (StatisticalPackage of Social Sciences) v23.0 software. The reliability of measurements in the construct can be confirmed from the value of Cronbach’s Alpha (α) which should be greater than 0.7 for the construct to be reliable (Kelarestaghi et al., 2019). The Cronbach’s Alpha values for L.A., S.A., and P.A. appear to be 0.869, 0.761, and 0.758 which are all far above 0.7. This demonstrates the reliability of measurements in the questionnaire

Along with reliability of measurements, the composite reliability (CR) should be greater than 0.7 to confirm that indicator components used in this study are valid (Hair et al., 2019). The composite reliability value for L.A., S.A., and P.A. appear to be 0.931, 0.836, and 0.887 respectively which are all far above 0.8. This demonstrates the internal consistency of measurements in our components (Netemeyer et al., 2003).

The CR can be computed with the help of following formula:

= (Σ Standardized Factor Loading)! (Σ Standardized Factor Loading)! + (Σ�" )

Where ei is the error. The reliability of measurements in the construct can be confirmed from the value of Cronbach’s Alpha (α) which should be greater than 0.7 for the construct to be reliable (Kelarestaghi, Ermagun, and Heaslip 2019). The values of Cronbach alpha can be calculated using following formula:

Where,

N=number of measurements

� =mean covariance between measurements

� =mean measurements variance

The values of both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability are well above the threshold value of 0.7 and 0.8 respectively. The results of pilot study confirmed the reliability of the measurements (Cronbach’s alpha measure) as well as validity of all the component (composite reliability) in the questionnaire and therefore, the questionnaire could be distributed for data collection pertaining to the present study.

Data Collection

The focused group of the study was the first-year students who were never exposed to offline learning in the institutes. They were raw samples that were not chiseled and groomed for online learning. The data was collected from December 2021 to March 2022. The survey questionnaire was distributed in the form of Google Form among approximately 450 students in the first year through e-mail. Out of which 268 respondents participated in the survey. After filtering the responses,removing the outliers, and invalid responses, a total of 245 responses (38.6% female, 61.2% male, 0.2% others) were considered for the analysis. Table 3 shows the demographic information of the respondents.

Out of total 245 respondents in the present study, 50 respondents (20.41%) belonged to rural area, 85 respondents (34.69%) belonged to town area while 110 respondents (44.90%) belonged to urban area. The study collected the information related to annual household income groups of the respondents such that 67 respondents (59.2%) belonged to less than INR 3 lacs income group, 162 respondents (66.12%) belonged to INR 3 Lacs to INR 8 Lacs group, 11 respondents (4.49%) belonged to more than INR 8 Lacs group. Moreover, approximately 145 respondents (59.2%) had State Board of Higher Secondary Education while 94 respondents (38.4%) had Central Board of Higher Secondary Education (CBSE) and 6 respondents (2.4%) had International Council of Higher Secondary Education (ICSE). The information is relevant as it signifies the level of exposure to the internet and digital education tools and instruments. Students who belong to State Board have less exposure to internet and digital education as compared to students from CBSE and ICSE boards.

Information of the Respondents

34.69 Male: 61.2 3 Lacs to 8 Lacs: 66.12

38.4 Urban: 44.90 Other: 0.2 More than 8 Lacs: 4.49

2.4

Table 3

Demographic

Hypotheses Testing

A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed on the collected survey data using SPSS version 23 software. ANOVA is a statistical tool for hypothesis testing in comparison of the means of more than two different groups, in this case, place of residence. The difference between the two groups is determined by F-statistics. F-statistic is a ratio that depicts the difference between within-group and between-group variance, resulting in a figure that may be used to determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. There is a significant difference among the groupsif the significance value (p-value) is less than 0.05 (Kim, 2017) The ANOVA analysis was used to test the hypotheses in the present study.

Results

The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on 34 variables (measurements) combining the Language Acquisition component, Social Aspect component, and Psychological Aspect component. As shown in Table 2, all the loading factors obtained by conducting CFA are found to be above 0.5. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure verified the sample adequacy for all three components such that KMO=0.927 for LA, 0.855 for SA, and 0.811 for PA which is ‘superb’ according to Field (2009). Cronbach’s Alpha values for LA, SA, and PA appear to be 0.869, 0.761, and 0.758 respectively which are all far above 0.7. This demonstrates the validity ofthe questionnaire’s items (Kelarestaghi et al., 2019). The Composite Reliability value for LA, SA,and PA appears to be 0.931, 0.836, and 0.887 respectively which are all far above 0.8. This demonstrates the internal consistency of measurements in our components (Netemeyer et al., 2003).

The one-way ANOVA was used to study the impact of the place of residents on language acquisition capacity, and social and psychological health of students in OLM during the COVID-19 period. Table 4 (refer Appendix) shows that there is no significant impact of place of residence on the language acquisition condition of students in OLM. Table 5 (refer Appendix) shows the multiple comparisons of dependent variables between groups.

There was a significant effect of place of residence on the social health of students who reported that electricity problems and network issues were major hindrances in OLM at the p<0.05 level for their place of residence (F (2, 242)=4.328, p=0.019). Table 6 demonstrates a significant difference between places of residence such that in rural areas (M=4.64, SD=0.67), in town areas (M=4.40, SD=1.09), and in urban areas (M=4.37, SD=0.94). A post hoc test was computed using the Tukey HSD test which helped to support the results of this study. Based on the results of the Tukey HSD test, thereis a statistically significant difference between the social health of students living in rural and urban areas who reported that electricity problems and network issues were major hindrances in OLM (p=0.019) during the pandemic. However, there were no statistical differences between the social health of students livingin rural and town areas (p=0.450) as well as town and urban areas (p=0.386).

There was a significant effect of place of residence on the psychological health of students who

reported that they are expected to be in learning mode 24/7 due to technology access at the p<0.05 level for their respective place of residence (F(2, 242)=3.963, p=0.020). Table 6 demonstrates a significant difference between places of residents such that rural areas (M=3.64, SD=1.37), town areas (M=4.19, SD=1.12), and urban areas (M=4.1, SD=1.02). Tukey HSD test results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the psychological health of students living in rural and town areas who reported that they are expected to be in learning mode 24/7 due to technology access (p=0.048). However, there were no statistical differences between thepsychological health of students living in rural and urban areas (p=0.100) as well as town and urban areas (p=0.806).

There was a significant effect of place of residence on the psychological health of students who reported that OLM has led to many mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, and insecurity among students at the p<0.05 level for their place of residence (F(2,242)=3.262, p=0.040). Table 6 demonstrates a significant difference between places of residents such that rural areas (M=4.42, SD=0.95), town areas (M=4.2, SD=1.1), and urban areas (M=3.98, SD=1.12). Tukey HSD test results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the psychological health of students living in rural and urban areas who reported that OLM has led to many mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, and insecurity among students (p=0.038). However, there were no statistical differences between the psychological health of students living in rural and town areas (p=0.490) and town and urban areas (p=0.287) in OLM during the pandemic.

Discussion

The study comparatively analyzes the impact of place of residence on the English language acquisition capacity of engineering undergraduate students and their social as well as a psychological state during the COVID- 19 pandemic. The CFA results show that the factor loadings of all the measurements are above 0.5 and thus all the measurements in the questionnaire were valid and reliable (Brown & Chin, 2004). After confirming the component validity, the one-way ANOVA statistics were performed to test the hypotheses and compare the students living in urban, town, and rural areas on the factors of language acquisition, social health, and psychological health.

The results of one-way ANOVA present relevant findings. It has been found that there is no impact of place of residence on the language acquisition capacity of engineering students in OLM during the pandemic. The study corroborates with the study conducted by Kandati & Tatipang (2021) on second language acquisition of high school students in virtual learning mode and found that students have a positive attitude towards acquiring the second language in virtual mode irrespective of place of residence. The findings are also consistent with the study conducted by Elaish and colleagues (2017) which stated that mobile applications were the most widely-used learning model in the English language acquisition context thus diminishing the boundries of place of residents. Meanwhile, concerns regarding quality, usability, integration, financial costs, security and privacy, pedagogical practice, and safety were found to be the main challenges of mobile-based English language learning. The online

learning has brought the paradigm shift in the traditional classroom-based learning broadening the scope beyond physical and geographical limitations (Hee-Jung, 2015).

The mean and standard deviation values shown in Table 6 indicate that OLM has encouraged students to start following Twitter/blogs/vlogs/podcasts in non-academic fields. Many institutions have started using social media platforms to provide important academics-related updates to students. This propelled students to use social media and related platforms for both academic and non-academic purpose. The findings are consistent with the studies conducted Dutta (2020) and Salmon and colleagues (2015). The OLM has enhanced the speaking and communication skills of students and thus, decreased the fear of speaking out and presenting ideas and opinions publicly. These findings supports the study conducted by (Harris et al., 2016) to determine the communication skills of students in virtual classes. OLM has not encouraged the students to read more books related to the English language and to download language enhancement apps but it has encouraged students to read e-books, newsletters, blogs, and essays for improving their language and communication skills. OLM has not enhanced the writing and expression skills as well as the seriousness and credibility of language learning among students. The majority of students think that OLM does not allow one-to-one interaction between teachers and students and thus acquiring a language online rather than in a proper classroom setting is difficult. These findings corroborates with the study conducted by Abang Yusof (2021) on reading and writing habits among students in the online learning era. Moreover, OLM has increased the over-dependency on electronic gadgets but failed to increase creativity among the students. The finding supports the study conducted by Daniel (2020).

The results of the study demonstrate significant effect of place of residence on the psychological health of engineering students living in rural areas who face more problems related to electricity, network connectivity, and others. as compared to students living in town areas and urban areas. The findings are consistent with the study on engineering undergraduate students conducted by Mushtaha and colleagues (2022), Baltà-Salvador and fellows (2021), Korneeva and co-authors (2022), and Wang and associates (2019). The students with low access to internet and gadgets which are the main requirement to be able to participate in online classes show symptoms of depression and anxiety during the pandemic (Thandevaraj et al., 2021). The findings of the study conducted by Agrawal and Krishna (2021) found that the students experienced higher levels of psychological stress during the pandemic in perceived learning which otherwise has a significant positive relationship with psychological well-being of students. During countrywide lockdowns, students living in urban areas were able to adapt to OLM easily while rural students had to face a lot of problems in adapting to OLM due to the non-availability of learning resources in rural areas. These findings in the present study are in corollary with the study conducted by Ahmadon and colleagues (2020). The OLM has varied impacts on the psychological distress of students depending on their place of residence. It has been found that students living in town areas are expected to be in learning mode 24/7 due to technology access than students living in rural areas and urban areas. These findings corraborates with the findings of Hoic-Bozic and colleagues (2009). Moreover, the findings revealed that OLM has led to many mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, and insecurity in engineering undergraduate students living in rural areas as compared to students living in urban areas. The

findings are in corollary with studies conducted by Asghar and colleagues (2024), Danowitz & Beddoes (2022), and Del Savio and fellows (2022).

Table 6

Mean, Standard Deviation (SD)

Measurements

SA7: Electricity problems and network issues were major hindrances in OLM.

PA7: Students are expected to be in learning mode 24/7 due to technology access.

PA8: OLM has led to many mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, and insecurity in students.

Conclusion

The study concludes that the rural engineering undergraduate students are exposed to more social and psychological distress as compared to their urban and town counterparts. The psychological distress is primarily because of their social background, especially the place of residence and the resource constrains that follow the social barriers. The students in OLM are required to manage online studies as well as family responsibilities during online learning. Moreover, there are network issues and electricity shortages in rural areas which disrupts online education so the challenges faced by the students belonging to the rural area are incomparable to those faced by the urban students. During the pandemic, the students living in urban areas were able to adapt to OLM easily while rural students had to face a lot of problems in adapting to OLM due to the non-availability of learning resources in rural areas. The rural students experience shortage of resources such as high quality mobile phones, unlimited internet connection, proper workplace at home, and others. in online learning mode due to comparatively remote and backward areas. This geographical inequalities add to multiple mental health issues like insomnia, fear, uncertainties, anxieties and insecurity among engineering undergraduate students living in rural areas as compared to students living in urban areas.

Another aspect is rural students mainly speak vernacular languages and even their medium of secondary and higher secondary education is vernacular. So English language acquisition becomes very difficult in online learning mode. However, engineering students from rural, town and urban areas in OLM executed resilience and a positive approach in acquiring English language skills as well as knowledge of varied subjects. The findings of the study revealed that

the place of residence had no impact on English language acquisition capabilities of engineering graduate students. They gradually overcame the obstacles faced due to the changes in the education system by COVID-19 pandemic. Online learning mode exposed the rural students to an alien world. All of a sudden, science fiction turned into a reality. The sudden transition to online learning from classroom negatively affected engineering students’ socialization and psychological health. Getting accustomed to it was more of a herculean task for them as compared to the urban students who had been familiar with the ICT tools.

Implications

The findings of this study are particularly relevant given the increasing popularity of online and distance learning among Indian students and students globally. This study offers valuable insights into India’s expanding landscape of online learning under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. However, as the findings indicate, the NEP’s distance learning initiatives may face significant challenges due to the urban-rural divide. Addressing these challenges will be essential for the government if it aims to make education accessible in the country’s remote areas. The implications of the present study emphasize several critical areas for the advancement of online and distance learning in the country. First, the policy makers need to increased digital infrastructure investment in underdeveloped regions to facilitate the online learning, Second, the government may need to enhance internet access and provide affordable smart devices in rural areas to address the digital infrastructure and connectivity gaps. Third, there is necessity to create the workforce of trained educators to deliver quality online education to students in online mode as it is distinct from the classroom education. Fourth, for technical educations like engineering, the findings emphasizes the need for sustainable, hybrid models that combine both online and offline components, especially for areas where internet access is limited. Such models could ensure that all students have continued access to education, even if technology limitations exists. The online learning has potential to transform the education landscape of the nation. Online learning offers an opportunity to reach students in remote and underserved regions, bridging educational gaps that have long existed in the country. It is imperative for India to leverage the robust digital infrastructure and technical prowess of its population to revolutionaries the education sector and to make it more accessible, inclusive and flexible.

Limitations and Future Scope

The in-depth research carried out in a systematic yet efficient way certainly fulfills our aims and objectives, but it is not void of a few limitations. We have tried to incorporate essential elements inthe study related to online learning mode. The study was also limited to the technical institutes located in central India that is Nagpur city. Only rural and urban students were considered for the research work. The place of residence was considered to understand the difficulties faced during the online learning process. In the future, research can be carriedout for students belonging to different disciplines like arts, humanities, architecture, science stream, and others. Other Institutes of National repute can be taken for the research on OLM. An indepth study of students coming from different income groups can be conducted. The place of

residence variable of the demographic scale component of the participants was considered in the present study. The future research can be conducted on other demographic variables including gender, secondary and higher secondary education level, income groups and others. A gender-specific study can be conducted to know the difficulties faced by rural and urban female students. Indian society which is basically a patriarchal society has different treatment of male and female genders. So the research can be specifically conducted to understand the gender discrimination which was meted out to female students during the COVID-19 pandemic and how they had to struggle with household duties and seeking education simultaneously. Therefore, the research has a vast future scope in terms of socio-economic aspects.

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Table 4

ANOVA Analysis Construct

LA14

LA16 Between Groups

Table 5

Multiple Comparisons of Dependent Variables Between Groups

Teacher Agency in Reproducing Translanguaging Practices as Social Justice Strategy to Decolonize ELT

Surya Putra Atma Jaya Catholic University, Indonesia

Harjuli

Abstract

Teachers are vital internal pioneers who can make changes in their own classroom by developing an enhanced sense of agency. In multilingual classrooms, teacher agency is the capacity of language teachers to perform constructively for supporting students’ linguistic diversity equitably. This study uncovers the potential strategy of teacher agency to create translanguaging space in empowering EFL students’ semiotic repertoire toward linguistic justice and inclusion to resist a raciolinguistics ideology. Drawing upon the translanguaging and agency conceptual framework, data were collected from classroom observations and videostimulated-recall-interview of teacher’s pedagogical translanguaging practices in an EFL classroom in Indonesia. Multimodal Conversation Analysis triangulated with the videostimulated-recall-interview data analyzed applying Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used as a technique of data analysis. Findings revealed three key themes that trace the teacher agency in constructing translanguaging practices in EFL classroom as follows: (1) adjusting language use to suit the students’ English competence as a process to guide and help them in the classroom discussion, (2) empowering the relational and critical dispositions, drawing from all linguistic resources to help students negotiate various communicative contexts for inclusive and meaningful communication, (3) providing that all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire. The findings demonstrate how the enactment of teacher translanguaging agency employed in turn influenced students’ agency to demonstrate transformative participation in classroom activities.

Keywords: decolonizing, semiotic repertoire, teacher agency, translanguaging space, translanguaging practice

The role of language teachers in Indonesian education sector has elicited a fair amount of attention recently. It is commonly acknowledged that language teachers are not solely classroom managers delivering preordained curricula, pedagogies, and assessments in routine (Maseko, 2022; Pérez, 2022). On the other hand, there is an unfettered space where the capacity of teachers can be a pivotal component in the expansion of agentive professionals and the enactment of various teaching initiatives to develop students’ linguistic and multimodal diversity (Peña-Pincheira & De Costa, 2020; Phyak et al., 2022). The capacity of teachers in implementing various teaching initiatives to engage their own actions and decisions purposefully to the development of their students’ linguistic competence is commonly referred to as teacher agency (Feryok, 2012; Priestley, Biesta, & Robinson, 2015).

The need to support EFL teacher agency emphasizes supporting to opportunities and privileges fairly across school environments, especially the degree to which the teachers act with agency in professional learning and take responsibility for implementing pedagogical strategy, so that they continue to upgrade their professional development by providing equitable opportunities for students to deploy their semiotic resources (Banegas, Budzenski, & Yang, 2024; Miller et al., 2020). Teacher agency is becoming more widely accepted and progressively returned to the forefront of education reform to make momentous changes that support teachers as agentive professionals (Groenewald & Arnold, 2024).

The cruciality of EFL teacher agency arises in the fact that multilingual students have entitlement to use their whole semiotic repertoires and alternate deploying various semiotic resources during the learning process, instead of trying to stay narrowly focused on one language. Hence, it is considered necessary for a teacher to construct a safe space in the classroom where the EFL students are provides a safe space for translanguaging during the learning process (Harju & Åkerblom, 2020; Straszer, Rosén, & Wedin, 2022; Tai & Wong, 2022). This space will bring together their logical and somatic capacity into one coordinated and fruitful action to develop language use and language contact among bilinguals as their lived experience in a safe space. Working from this perspective, a safe space for translanguaging is considered as an area where students can commit translanguaging practices to employ their linguistic diversity and encourage meaning making without embarrassment in front of their teacher and peer (Canagarajah, 2011; Wei 2011). In this sense, translanguaging practices include multilingual and multimodal resources (e.g., oral, verbal expression, body language or gesture, facial expression, and embodied), when a bi/multilingual speaker’s full linguistic repertoire is employed and honored in communicative practices (Samuelson, 2017).

Additionally, translanguaging has been harnessed as a pedagogical strategy to engage and recognize bi/multilingual students’ existing linguistic competence (Canagarajah, 2011; Infante and Licona, 2021), which in turn supported inclusive education that allow a wide range of teacher practice using agentic action to increase student success. Meanwhile, in many multilingual classroom contexts in Indonesia, English teachers are required to teach monolingually (Zein, 2022). Language education policy embraces monolingual policies that enact the power of English as world language. Such policies can trigger learning difficulties for EFL students, raise immense challenges for teachers to deliver content subjects, and

invigorate the legitimacy of monolingual ideologies (Phyak et al., 2022). To encounter this challenge, the EFL teacher frequently employs their agency to negotiate and even counter the institutional policies and create multilingual and multicultural spaces to facilitate the learning process (Maseko, 2022). In taking this view, how the EFL teachers exert their transformative agency towards translanguaging practices is a critical factor in the maintenance of the local languages by creating a translanguaging classroom space in which the students feel secure and free to deploy their existing language (Phyak et al., 2022; Seals & Olsen-Reeder, 2020).

Nevertheless, a more thorough coverage on how an EFL teacher can empower his agency to resist a raciolinguistics ideology and the inequality of socio justice to recognize students’ full repertoire in learning process has not been explored further. Therefore, this research attempts to fill in this gap and address this research question: How does an EFL teacher empower a sense of agency in utilizing his multilingual and multimodal repertoire as a decolonial pedagogy for ELT?

Literature Review

Teacher Agency in Constructing Translanguaging Spaces

It is pivotal for EFL teacher to feel empowered or to have professional agency towards undertaking professional development activities to implement successfully various teaching initiatives in the classroom. Professional agency alludes to the capacity of teachers to act and take possible opportunities, engaging one’s own decisions to assist students obtain the learning outcomes and goals (Priestley et al., 2015). While it is common for teachers to allow agency to their students, it equitably matters for teacher to have agency too. Specifically, agency has been focused on the freedom of action and individual exercise of power requiring a logical calculation of courses of action including the interrelated notions of someone or institution that control the behaviour and produce an effect with consequences (Liddicoat and Taylor-Leech, 2021). Teacher agency is an organization of temporal-relational work and the capability to act providing awareness into how the experience and environment can contribute to the teachers’ achievement in teaching (Priestley, Biesta, & Robinson, 2015). In this sense, teacher agency serves as a vital capability that not only enhances student learning but also fosters ongoing professional development. Therefore, teachers obtain their professional agency through their readiness to act and participate in their professional growth by making learning strategy to help students participate and accomplish the learning goal (Biesta & Tedder, 2007; Jang, 2022;). The teachers’ orientations and attitudes towards giving a space for translanguaging for students is one of learning strategy that influence their agency in enhancing students’ learning experiences using semiotic resources at their disposal (Cenoz & Gorter, 2017).

Accordingly, the notion of EFL teacher agency can be relevant to the conceptualization of translanguaging space in which EFL classrooms are generally multilingually oriented, where translanguaging practices have frequently occurred in the classroom activities (Pérez, 2022; Phyak et al., 2022). This space functions as an arena to demonstrate students’ multiple languages in the class and assist their multilingual and multimodal resources in supporting their

communicative competence (Canagarajah, 2013; Jang, 2022; Tsang, 2021). In this sense, the concept of translanguaging space seems relevant to allow teacher agency to empower minoritized language revitalization and challenge the hegemonic language ideologies (Wei, 2011). Thus, English teacher agency is best conceptualized by considering how a teacher acts to construct more intensive translanguaging spaces where EFL students can employ more semiotic resources available for the growth of their English competence. By doing so, a space for translanguaging mostly relies on teacher’s apprehension of language diversity and the effects on students’ learning activities (Maseko, 2022; Phyak et al., 2022).

With the expansion of their linguistic repertoires, students’ language practice in several languages might be fluent or restricted in communication. As a result, English language classroom as a collaborative space may allow the teacher to give a space for translanguaging by exploring students’ various multilingual and multimodal resources to ease the learning process (Tai & Li, 2023). Hence, teacher agency potentially influences the use of diverse languages to mitigate learning challenges for students and alleviate significant obstacles for teacher in delivering content subjects.

Translanguaging Spaces to Facilitate English Learning

In multilingual classroom, EFL students bring their rich diversity of languages, experiences, history, ideology, and perspectives to the classrooms. Valuing diversity and respecting the linguistic backgrounds of English language students provide a translanguaging space for intercultural and multilingual communication in the classroom (Lin & Leung, 2023). To embrace these differences, English teacher can create translanguaging safe spaces that are welcoming and promoting cross-cultural understanding through inclusive pedagogical translanguaging practices. The vibrant process in translanguaging space provides an inclusive teaching strategy which celebrates students’ diversity and talents. Wei (2011) introduces the notion of a translanguaging space where the interactivity of bi/multilingual students with “different identities, values and practices simply co-exist, but combine together to generate new identities, values and practices” (p. 1223). He interprets translanguaging space as “a space for the act of translanguaging as well as a space created through translanguaging” (p. 1222).

As Canagarajah (2011) reminds the teacher that it is “important for teachers to provide safe spaces in classrooms and schools for students to practice translanguaging” (p. 415). Thus, a translanguaging space provides multilingual students to consolidate “social spaces” (p. 24). that have been constructed where they creatively and critically use their linguistic resources to strategically communicate (García & Wei, 2014).

Indeed, the expansion in creating translanguaging space has driven attention to the ways English teacher to engage multilingual student employing their linguistic repertoires to interact and participate in the learning process. Referring to the pedagogical translanguaging perspective, some findings that reveal from the previous studies on creating translanguaging space potentially support the chance for a more student-centered translanguaging space (Tai & Wong, 2022; Zhang, 2021). This translanguaging space can exemplify teacher-student power dynamics by bringing together students’ experience, history, and ideology to translanguage or

not to translanguage during classroom interaction (Shepard-Carey, 2022; Song, 2022; Straszer, Rosén, & Wedin, 2022).

Accordingly, the teachers bear the paramount duty of establishing a conducive learning environment for their students that ensures them feel safe and comfortable in utilizing their complete semiotic resources in classroom activities. By doing so, the implementation of translanguaging space purposely to gain pedagogical objectives to develop the learning experience among the students (Tai & Wong, 2022). This in turn, improves their linguistic repertoire, enriches insight with various linguistic knowledge, and encourages their willingness to appreciate the differences from others. Therefore, the teachers are anticipated to facilitate the incorporation of indigenous languages within EFL classroom by creating a space for translanguaging, supporting students’ semiotic resources to develop ELT more equitable, which in turn transforms social justice into tangible realities for all students from different linguistic background.

Translanguaging Practice for Social Justice Strategy

Multilingual students in EFL classroom settings are in center of attention of translanguaging space that both empowers and promotes translanguaging practices as a normative concept based on the notion of equality and the principles of fairness. Translanguaging pedagogy and practice have been attracting many scholars and researchers who want to empower students as a creative user of language by changing their views of language plurality as a resource in foreign language classrooms and promoting social justice–oriented practices and students’ emancipatory into the EFL classroom (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2021; Canagarajah, 2012; Kato & Kumagai, 2022; Räisänen, 2018; Rincon-Mendoza, 2020; Samuelson, 2017; Wei, 2011; Zein, 2019). Translanguaging practice is an attempt to mix linguistic features in several languages that contributed significantly to the concept of language users of verbal resources in communicative activities (Canagarajah, 2018). Consider another convivial translanguaging practice stated by Samuelson (2017), he emphasizes that translanguaging practice is the attitudes and dispositions towards the students as language users in the classroom. It includes their codes, contexts, and beliefs, which accept the ways that all languages are fluid, changeable, variable, and intermingled in classroom activities.

Accordingly, translanguaging practice provides ideas and practices present rich learning opportunities which give equitable opportunities for EFL students from all linguistic backgrounds. This in turn, supports the concept of translanguaging practice for social justice and sensitive matters of justice and equity in teaching multilingual students (García & Kleyn, 2016). Thus, the native and heritage languages should co-exist with English and own the same linguistic privileges. That is, the translanguaging practice enables a shift to a multilingual perspective which is as important as the preservation of heritage and indigenous language and culture (Zein, 2019). Again, translanguaging enables bi/multilingual students to have a single linguistic repertoire and choose the features strategically towards effective communication. They choose and establish their own features from a unitary linguistic repertoire to make

meaning (Wei, 2018), in achieving social justice as centered on the notion of equality and the principles of equity in the learning process.

Through using a critical translanguaging approach to turn the classroom atmosphere into a convenient space, the students are encouraged to explore their entire repertoires (García et al., 2021). Regarding to ELT, translanguaging underpins the notion that the student’s existing language may take part in a potential role in learning English. Wei (2022) believes that this notion is not merely a theoretical or practical perspective; “it is a political stance, a decolonizing stance” to the enactment of translanguaging as a pedagogy in ELT (p. 173). Decolonizing pedagogy is the need the transformative strategy to discharge learning practices and to radically transform the ways in which colonized individuals set themselves free in learning process (Wei & García, 2022). Hence, a particular political stance and/or a decolonizing stance influence the effectiveness of translanguaging space to legitimize student’s existing language as a social justice pedagogy for EFL students. This in turn, supports teacher as agentive professionals are more likely to challenge the English-only monolingual ideology and allow students’ local languages to facilitate teaching and learning activities.

Translanguaging Practices to Decolonize ELT

Translanguaging has the potential advantage for understanding and promoting a decolonizing pedagogy by recognizing the importance of inclusive language practices and equity within EFL classroom (Fang, Zhang, & Sah, 2022). That is, translanguaging practices can prospectively facilitate the meaning-making interactions in a fluid, dynamic, and unbound practice to challenge the monolingual ideology related to the students’ various linguistic backgrounds. Further, in translanguaging context, students’ linguistic repertoires can be perceived both not only from the perspective of the student’s trajectories (the historical, political, social, and ideological effects) but also from aspects of resources that play a role in a particular place which give a freedom and social justice for the students to employ their multiple languages (Pennycook & Otsuji, 2015).

Regarding to the colonial history in Indonesia, it has affected students’ linguistic repertoire to continue English imperialism through the naming of linguistic phenomena, segregation and hierarchy of languages, and the power of monolingual policies and practices in the class (Rajendram, 2022). Translanguaging recognizes that the students whose multiple named languages in their repertoire genuinely move between their multiple languages (Dobinson, 2023). Thus, translanguaging spaces are designed by the teacher for engaging translanguaging practices beyond the ideologically laden dichotomies for social justice in a multilingual classroom (Wei 2011).

In Indonesia, the perspective of English learning represents a native-speakerism ideology (Zein, 2019). This view considers the “standard” English of native speakers as the ultimate objective (Fang & Liu, 2020). This happens often because we are still shadowed form the coloniality which is displayed in the racism and patriarchy environment. Whereas translanguaging offers the social justice and different ways in which the students employ

various language resources to make meaning, without obedience to (named) language boundaries and to the socio-political and ideological circumstances (Wei, 2018). Therefore, translanguaging can also be understood as more than a pedagogical but as a decolonizing pedagogy. That is, it will challenge the raciolinguistic ideologies and the inequality of sociopolitical stance to recognize students’ full repertoire in learning process.

Moreover, the significance of translanguaging to ease learning and give valuable opportunity for EFL students, particularly for those unfairly treated individuals to translanguage their multiple languages as the embodiment social justice and linguistic equality in English classroom (Fang, Zhang, & Sah, 2022). The teacher as the most responsible person in the classroom should have a tactical analysis of translanguaging in a socio-political and ideological frame.

Methodology

Research Context and Participating Subjects

Data were drawn from classroom observation in English classroom of 43 first-year Indonesian university students between the ages of 18 and 21. The research was carried out at a renowned university in Medan, North Sumatera, Indonesia. English as the medium is primarily enforced in this university for conducting most of its lectures, since the university’s language policy prioritizes the enhancement of students’ English proficiency. Over 80% of the students in this class belong to the Batak community, which is one of the prominent Indigenous groups in North Sumatera and the rest are Chinese, Javanese and Malay. They predominantly speak their heritage language at home and use Indonesian language as a lingua franca in public areas. After giving the multilingual profile sheet to know the level of students’ multilingualism and English language proficiency, it was found that most students lack English language proficiency. In this sense, English functions as a foreign language in Indonesia. Its usage is primarily confined to diplomatic and tourism-related activities, which in turn English is not used in students’ daily life. Regarding to the participating teacher who is willing to participate in this research, has adequate experience for ten years in teaching English in this university. Mr. R (Pseudonym) as participating teacher in this study was born and grew up in Indonesia. He is a L1 speaker of Indonesian as well as Arabic and English are his foreign languages.

Data Collection and Analysis

The study included two research instruments for the collection of data: classroom observations and video stimulated recall interview. Thus, the data was derived from two major data sources, namely, video recordings of the classroom observation and video recordings of post-videostimulated recall interviews, to explore how teachers made sense of talk-in-interaction that involves multimodal and multilingual practices and his explanations and reflections on his rationales for perceiving translanguaging practices that were created in certain moments of classroom activities. Specifically, the classroom observation in repetitive daily routine activities were conducted once a week in the first half of the semester. Throughout the

observation period, a video camera was operated at the rear of the classroom to record the activities taking place within. While the classroom observations were digitally video recorded, field notes were written up simultaneously. By doing so, my position in this study was that of an external observer. I played the role of a non-participant observer during classroom observations and interviews. The data presented in this study is part of in-depth observation that sought to explore teacher’ agentive action to adjust his language use to suit the students’ English competence as a process to guide and help them explore their semiotic resources.

To enhance the reliability of the data and mitigate the risk of participants forgetting specific classroom interactions, post-video-stimulated-recall interviews were carried out within the same semester as the class observations, immediately following the analysis of the translanguaging practices. The teacher was then instigated for video stimulated recall interview to make sense and compare their interpretations of their actual translanguaging practices. This research combines Multimodal Conversation Analysis (MCA) with Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (Tai, 2023) to explore the translanguaging practices within EFL classrooms.

MCA was deployed to analyze the video recordings of the classroom interactions. It was conducted to investigate the comprehensive process of how translanguaging practices were constructed by the participating teacher. MCA incorporates and focuses on the linguistic and non-linguistic actions or “non-verbal behavior” (p. 246) including facial expressions, body movements, and gestures that are crucial for understanding the translanguaging practices (Tai & Li, 2021b). Accordingly, the researcher first rewatched the video recordings by identifying the translanguaging practice instances that involve different linguistic structures and systems. The researcher subsequently transcribed the video manually, capturing screenshots from the video clips to demonstrate the multimodal involvement in the classroom interactions. To illuminate the precise mechanism of how social actions are well structured and accomplished, talk-in-interaction was conducted (Kasper & Wagner, 2014; Stivers, 2013), as well as the video transcription process adopts an emic/participant-relevant approach (Markee, 2012). Second, the screenshots of video recordings were transcribed by using transcription convention proposed by Jefferson (2004) and Mondada (2018) (see Appendix 1). Third, after transcribing the data, the analysis of each line was conducted to scrutinize the diverse series of talk that enables the teacher to employ various multimodal and multilingual resources in the classroom.

Meanwhile, IPA was deployed to analyze the video recordings of post-video-stimulated recall interviews. IPA was used for perceiving translanguaging practices that were created in certain moments of classroom activities. The procedure of video-stimulated-recall-interview data analysis was organized based on three fundamental theoretical foundations: “phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography” (Tai, 2023, p. 52). First, phenomenology is primarily a philosophical methodology aimed at exploring individual experiences and understanding how humans consciously perceive those experiences (Tai, 2023). Second, hermeneutics is a theory of interpretation. It is commonly described as the discipline or philosophy concerned with the processes of interpretation and comprehension (Sikka, 2008). Thus, hermeneutics focus on dialogue to understand something by reaching an understanding with another about the

perception of the meaning of their experience. The third is idiography. Idiography pertains to a comprehensive examination of individual cases, focusing on the distinct viewpoints of study participants within their specific contexts (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014, p. 8). The fundamental concept of the idiographic approach is to examine each single case thoroughly prior to making any general statements (Charlick et al., 2016).

Through analysis of concrete translanguaging practices from the video recordings of the classroom activities and video recordings of post-video-stimulated recall interviews, the data were subsequently integrated to tackle the research questions by triangulating Multimodal Conversation Analysis (MCA) and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to get distinct interpretations of translanguaging practices in the classroom interactions. To simplify the readers, understand how the researcher gets the picture of the teacher and students employing their own translanguaging practices, a table with four columns replicated from Tai and Li (2021a) will be used to describe how flexible and fluid translanguaging practices are carried out by a teacher in promoting the potential to decolonize English language teaching. The initial row, arranged from left to right. The first row displays the transcripts of classroom interaction. The second row presents the transcripts of stimulated-recall interview. The third row explains the participants’ perspectives of their own translanguaging practices. Finally, the fourth row displays the analyst’s interpretations of the participants’ perspectives of his own translanguaging practices toward decolonizing language learning and teaching.

Findings

The analysis was revealed three key themes that trace the teacher agency in constructing translanguaging practices in EFL classroom to make meaning and facilitate English language learning by engaging students’ diverse multilingual and multimodal practices, namely: (1) the teacher’s agentive action in constructing translanguaging space is to adjust his language use to suit the students’ English competence as a process to guide and help them in the classroom discussion; (2) the teacher’s translanguaging agency as a decolonial pedagogy to empower the relational and critical dispositions, drawing from all linguistic resources to help students negotiate various communicative contexts for inclusive and meaningful communication; (3) the teacher’s translanguaging agency to ensure that all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire and empower their emotion and participation in English learning. These three key themes are outlined below, accompanied by representative excerpts that represent the interconnected characteristics of translanguaging practices observed in the classroom.

Teacher’s Agentive Action in Constructing Translanguaging Space to Adjust His Language Use with the Students’ English Competence

Extract 1:

The MCA analysis for representative extract 1 can be seen in Appendix 2 which provides insights into translanguaging practices that empower teacher agency in constructing

translanguaging space to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence. From classroom interactions, at the beginning of the meeting, the teacher (T) stands in front of the class and begins the class discussion by asking about what the students have gained from the observations of the public signs around their environment. T requested the class to put their collected photographic prints of public signs on the desk. After a short while, T checked on students’ images. In lines 26, T then subsequently initiated a question related to students’ selected images in English, “Anyone can tell us about your images?” T then repeated it in Indonesian, ‘you dapat menjelaskan tentang maksud gambar atau tulisan itu’ (you can explain the meaning of the image or text). Note that T is employing both L2 English and L1 Indonesia to contrive a question, inviting students’ attention and participation to the classroom discussion. In line 15, T came to one of the groups, simultaneously took and examined the cutouts of pictures on students’ desks. T then initiated some questions. In line 27, T pointed at the images on the student’s desk, extending his right-hand arm and directly initiated the students to categorize the images whether it is a billboard, shop warning, or mural. T proceeded to present an example of the function of an image. It is evident in line 29 that T provided a bilingual gloss for the function of image. T described the function of image by first saying it in English, “may be the function of your image is to warn people passing by or to attract the people”, then subsequently repeat the function of image in Indonesian, “untuk menambah lebih menarik” (to make more interesting). T visually demonstrated the meaning of image by contingently moving his right-hand up and down. It is evident that T was employing both L2 English and L1 Indonesian and emphasis on the function of an image to engage students to explain their own selected images in classroom discussion.

During the 3-second pause in line 30. T turned his body, facing to the students, initiated a new turn by giving the opportunity for students to ask a question. In line 31, a student (S) raised his hand and self-initiated a question. Simultaneously, T made eye contact with S, met the eye gaze of S, and walked over him. In line 34, S then continued to employ both L2 English and L1 Indonesian to reiterate his question by using a gesture showing his image in his right hand to T, while uttering:

Sir, I have picture I get from super mall, but (0.1) I don’t know, mmm (0.2) apakah ini shop warning or (0.1) hanya himbauan saja untuk para pengunjung? ((Is this a shop warning or only an appeal for visitors?))

T proceeded to deliver the answer to the students by uttering “let me see” (line 35). T then extended his left hand outward and extended his index finger pointing at the images, simultaneously T confirmed with S that “it is a shop notice”. T then employed Indonesian to reiterates his explanations to the students and uttered, “ini sebuah pemberitahuan untuk para pembeli” (This is a notice to buyers) in line 37.

It is evident that T exerted his agency in constructing translanguaging space to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence. It is evident that T deployed both L2 English and L1 Indonesian to construe the target sentence for students to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence. T encouraged the students to easily understand the

image and text, keeping the discussion running smoothly by engaging them in translanguaging practices. Further, T might attempt to embrace his agency to enrich the communicative practices with their students using diverse resources and contexts in language and literacy practices. This condition strongly reflects Miller’s idea (2016) about the notion of teacher agency that posits the teacher, as professionals, should act as catalysts for change to facilitate students’ learning by stimulating their diverse resources.

Note that the teacher’s expanded ability through their agency created a supportive learning space to stimulate positive feelings for students (Zhang, 2021). Teacher’s agentive action through translanguaging practices functions to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence. By doing so, the students were motivated to utilize their existing linguistic knowledge (Feryok, 2012) to participate in the classroom. In this sense, teacher agency was considered as a mediated process to assist students participate meaningfully in multilingual classes (Phyak et al., 2022). As noticed in this extract, by adjusting the teacher’s language use with the students’ English competence, the students from different language backgrounds can invest their linguistic and multimodal resources in doing classroom activities. Evident is student feel safe and confident to freely use the whole semiotic repertoire and enjoy exploring their multilingual and multimodal resources during classroom interaction. It can be inferred that the students can develop their creativity and criticality not only engaging their multilingual resources but also multimodal resources to engage and participate in a translanguaging space.

Evident is T also employed distinct multilingual and multimodal resources to provide convenient space for the students to deploy multilingual and multimodal forms in engaging to the class discussion. This led to responses from the students to speak more in the class as seen in line 40, teacher agency in constructing translanguaging space prompts students to utilize their knowledge of the meaning through the way the image presents its information. This excerpt below underlines these points:

Ok↑ from the picture, I understand bahwa pembeli harus pakai masker (0.1) and jaga jarak because to prevent covid 19. ((that buyers must wear masks)) ((Keep the distance))

The extract showed that the student simultaneously switched from English to Indonesian to explain that “shop warning” can mean “pembeli harus pakai” masker and “jaga jarak” (buyers must wear masks and keep the distance). Note that teacher agency has become a means of providing space for students to focus on freedom of action and utilize their linguistic resources towards translanguaging for meaning making in the classroom. This condition strongly reflects Maseko’s study (2022) which revealed that translanguaging as a pedagogy to facilitate multilingual student’s existing linguistic and cultural knowledge and challenge the Englishonly monolingual ideology and allow students’ local languages to facilitate learning activities. In addition, this extract implies that the teacher’s transformative agency can engage translanguaging practices providing the students to feel safe employing their existing home language and various bodily communication in learning process (e.g. facial expression, gesture, eye movement, proxemic, and posture). Thus, the notion of teacher agency provides an

opportunity to construct a space for translanguaging where the students can explore their multiple languages and multimodal resources and assist their multilingual resources to enhance their communicative competence (Canagarajah, 2013; Jang, 2022; Tsang, 2021). Accordingly, teacher agency that constructs a translanguaging spaces allow the students with multicultural and plurilingual experiences to develop their semiotic resources to participate in translanguaging practices in the class for enhancing their potential for everyday communication.

Meanwhile, throughout the video-stimulated-recall-interview for extract 1 (see Appendix 3), I am curious to comprehend the rationale of T’s perception when he engaged the student in the class discussion and initiated some questions. It is evident that the teacher’s agentive action is to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence in engaging the students to employ their multimodal and multilingual resources. It is noticeable in the MCA analysis that T attempts to construct a translanguaging spaces to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence by employing multilingual and multimodal resources. T asserts that his use of gesture to respond the students to direct T’s attention to specific discussion. This can create a learning atmosphere in which students are able to engage with their own opinion by reconstructing a friendly space to the students explore their existing languages. The findings consistently reflect as stated by Sindoni (2023) that multimodal resources are generally richer and more fluid to follow and make sense of due to the intense and interlaced co-presence of any modes that contribute to overall meaning making among the students.

Note that T successfully draws on his agency as her own reflection that he himself can facilitate the students with a safe and friendly spaces for the students to learn English. Moreover, T mobilizes various multimodal resources (moving her hand touching her chest and extending arms on her chest to make sense of her statement conveying in Indonesian) and repetition of his statement in Indonesian to engage in classroom discussion. Hence, evident is the students enthusiastically pursue their semiotic resources into English classroom, and this allows them to engage in a translanguaging space. Such a space provides the students to motivate themselves to engage in translanguaging practices in classroom discussion. That is, this practice can facilitate their English learning to interact with their teacher and peer. This finding unequivocally confirms previous findings revealed by Lin and Leung (2023) that the diverse linguistic and non-linguistic resources deployed by students in a translanguaging space can facilitate and contribute to the comprehension of the concept through a multi-faceted approach during class discussions. That is, the teacher’s agentive action in constructing translanguaging space functions to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence

Further, T also justifies that having understood translanguaging as a unitary repertoire, T resists the English-only monolingual ideology to facilitate his teaching and learning. It is evidenced that T admits the significance of comprehending translanguaging as a unitary repertoire and translanguaging practices should also be understood as more than a pedagogical, but a political and decolonizing stance in providing freedom for his students to employ their diverse multilingual and multimodal resources in a translanguaging space. The findings reinforce the argument revealed by Wei and García (2022) that translanguaging as a political stance has the

potential to decolonize English language teaching, since translanguaging substantiates that named languages belong to political stance and historico-ideological as the products of the nation boundaries (Wei, 2022). Therefore, in this translanguaging space, T provides the students to feel free to arouse their attitudes, personal experiences, ideology, and beliefs to employ their diverse multilingual and multimodal resources in making meaningful communication. Eventually, this space will bring together their logical and somatic capacity into one coordinated and fruitful action to develop language use and language contact among the students as their lived experience in a safe space.

The Teacher’s Translanguaging Agency as a Decolonial Pedagogy to Empower the Relational and Critical Dispositions

Extract 2:

The MCA analysis for representative extract 2 can be seen in Appendix 4 which provides insights into teacher’s translanguaging agency as a decolonial pedagogy to empower the responsive and critical dispositions to help students negotiate various communicative contexts. From classroom interactions, T was explaining and guiding students (S) to discuss public signs with their group members by utilizing the PowerPoint slide. T required S to categorize the signs by identifying the connections and patterns across parts of the pictures of signs. In line 11, T asked S to categorize the signs, then subsequently reiterated his statement by first repeating it in Indonesian “kategorikan dia yah” (Categorize the signs) based on the connections and patterns across parts of the pictures of signs. The extract showed that T simultaneously deployed L1 Indonesian and L2 English, as well as bodily movement (e.g. extending left-hand index finger pointing at the screen and contingently kept moving his right-hand up and down at the screen). Although T was supposed to be employing English as the main linguistic convention to give explanation in the class, T also employed distinct linguistic and multimodal resources to provide convenient space for S to promote a multilingual and multimodal forms in gaining the pedagogical objectives. That is, this led to responses from S by raising his hand to ask questions.

In lines 27, S simultaneously raised his hand and initiated a question using L1 Indonesian by uttering “gak papa yah kalo misalnya kita gak bikin” (it is ok if we don’t make). Simultaneously, in a 0.1-second pause, T nodded his head and pointed at the PowerPoint slide and directly responded to S’s question using L2 English by uttering “That’s ok yah, you speak the picture based on what you got, if it’s not about covid 19 is ok, forget it and skip, all right?” note that T employed both named languages, various multimodal resources, and the prior knowledge of the students to give feedback to S. At the same time S responded the corrective feedback in English by uttering “thank you”.

After a 4.2 -second pause, S called T again, raised his hand while standing up, and again selfinitiated a question using both L1 Indonesian and L2 English by uttering “Sir, so do we group the picture berdasarkan kategori?” S switched the linguistic code from English to Indonesian after a 0.2-second pause, probably because T was attempting to employe his linguistic

repertoire towards the English, yet he found it was hard to say in English. Simultaneously, in line 38, T directed his gaze to the screen, used T’s index finger to appoint at the PowerPoint slide and occasionally looked at S to respond the question by uttering “ok, and then covid 19 you classify and categorize based on the picture you match”. Note that S also spontaneously empowers his multilingual (Indonesia and English) and multimodal forms (i.e. raising his hand while standing up and tilting his head) to engage in translanguaging in the classroom interactions.

It is evident that T did not only utilize slide visualization and the text on his PowerPoint slides that T formerly prepared for describing the photographic prints of signs analysis and categorization activities. He also contingently checked and gave examples from the students’ photographic prints which shared the same characteristics or theme. T also employed bodily communication by nodding his head and appointing at the slide to answer the student’s question. Moreover, S employed L1 Indonesian with a thick Malay accent (e.g. gak papa (it is ok) and kita gak bikin (we do not make)). Further, S also employed hand and head gestures (e.g. tilted his head, gazed at his friend, and raised a hand to provide self-initiated a question). Educational environments are consistently characterized by heightened intensity, diversity, and unpredictability. Such situation provides wiggle room for T to create innovative strategies to empower the relational and critical dispositions, drawing from all linguistic resources to help students negotiate various communicative contexts for inclusive and meaningful communication (Canagarajah, 2023).

Note that relational and critical disposition in social practices are common patterns of mental processes that impact how teachers view and organize themselves in relationships (Edwards & D’arcy, 2004) with students in the classroom to achieve a meaningful learning process. It is apparent in this extract that T deployed both L2 English and L1 Indonesian to translate the target words or sentences for helping the students. It is evident that T stimulated his capacity to engage with the dispositions of students by exploring relational agency to stimulate the students’ motivations and participation in the classroom discussion. By providing a space for translanguaging, T gave more attention to the learning process to a safe space is created and maintained to engage students and the emphasis on his connections with students to struggle jointly to stimulate the exploration of semiotic repertoire. Accordingly, effective translanguaging pedagogies require teacher to make a critical deconstruction of self in relation with his students. This in turn creates effective engagement with decolonization and aspects of social justice strategy makes a substantial to help students negotiate various communicative contexts for inclusive and meaningful communication.

Meanwhile, during the video-stimulated-recall-interview for extract 2 (see Appendix 5), the researcher is attentive to perceive the rationale of T’s use different linguistic resources and gesture to make sense of his pedagogical practice, obtain the reason why T uses Indonesian to restate his statement. T claimed that when the class is noisy, his use of gestures to attract students’ attention. T makes use of extending left-hand index finger, moving his right-hand up and down at the screen, and tapping his fingers contingently on the board to attract students’ attention because the class has started to be noisy. Further, such flashy use of the mechanics of

a movement, accompanied by T’s use of multilingual resources, demonstrates T’s understanding of the classroom situation and the background of the student’s English skills to attract the students’ attention and help them understand T’ instructions for the next project step. T’s use of multilingual resources when he repeats his previous sentence using Indonesian “kategorikan dia yah” (Categorize the signs), is to help students to understand what he is commanding. His use of different linguistic resources to emphasize specific terms to ensure that all the students will have the same understanding of what they should do next. In this sense, understanding disposition as a capacity to engage (Edwards & D’arcy, 2004), the teacher attempted to exert his linguistic resources to create a space for translanguaging and never insisted his students to fully use English in the class. Note that this conceptualization of relational and critical dispositions becomes attention to the social practices in the classroom. Translanguaging space therefore includes the creation and management of social interactions geared at improving the dispositions of students to participate enthusiastically in English learning process.

Again, through the video-stimulated-recall interview, the teacher acknowledged that he had much attention to students’ dispositions and the motivational element may help the students employ various linguistic and multimodal resources through translanguaging. It consistently reflects as revealed by Sembiante and colleagues (2023) that translanguaging practice is already part of teachers and students’ language practices and provides meaningful opportunities for them to engage multimodal and multilingual resources in meaning-making with the classroom community. Note that the students who mobilize their various linguistic resources to construct different ways of speaking may have unique ways of interactions due to the presence and usage of different languages according to the needs and representation of the people in a particular space (Haque, 2011). Accordingly, T believes that by employing diverse multilingual and embodied resources can contribute and facilitate students to study English confidently during the class. It consistently reflects as put forward by Cenoz, Santos, and Gorter (2022) that the great potential of pedagogical translanguaging can reduce students’ anxiety, intensify their confidence, and degrade their anxiety during the class.

The Teacher’s Translanguaging Agency to Ensure That All Students Get More Equitable and Inclusive Education

Extract 3:

The MCA analysis for representative extract 3 can be seen in Appendix 6 which provides insights the teacher’s translanguaging agency to ensure that all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire and empower their emotion and participation in English learning. From classroom interactions, the teacher (T) walked towards the students and raised questions related to their understanding of the task. It is evident that T employed a wide range of gestures. In lines 15-19, T took the cutouts of pictures and put it back on the desk, Particularly, T extends his fingers, pointing to the picture and directly initiated some questions by asking S with rising intonation (↑), “may I know the pictures you have”. S directly responded to T’s question using L2 English by uttering “twelve”. Again, in line 24, T

continued to employ English to reiterate his question, “Store signs (0.1) do you have?” S simultaneously responded T’s question using L1 Indonesian by saying “ya ini ada” (yes, it is). In response to S’s answer, T nodded head by uttering “all right”. After a 0.2-second pause, T pointed at a picture and asked S by uttering “what it is?”. S directly answered, “school store”. After a 0.1-second pause, S repeated the phrase “school store”. In line 33, S used L1 Indonesian and uttered in a “smile voice” attempting to explain that school store is a place where we buy “peralatan” (tool) school. S alternated between Indonesian and English, to translate the word, “tool”. In line 37, T attempted to drive students’ attention back to the next picture by pointing at the picture on the desk and posing a question in English, “may I know for the art of mural?”. S showed the picture to T and explained the picture by using L1 Indonesia in line 40, “kita menentukan masa depan kita” (we determine our future). S explained that the mural’s meaning is such a life motivation, that we are the only ones who determine our future.

Note how the students involved in translanguaging activities through responding to the teacherinitiated question and maintaining classroom discipline in describing and identifying the task they have done. Indeed, it was revealed that S responded to T’s questions even with limited English skills. S showed the willingness to answer T’s question in English and Indonesian to engage in the classroom interaction. Broadly, the findings revealed that the participating students were indeed indulging in the classroom discussion. They were not just portraying the task they found but were having a group questioning stance to clarify their task with their own sentences. Moreover, the teacher’s translanguaging agency can consolidate social spaces where the students courageously use their linguistic resources. By doing so, all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire and empower their emotion and participation in English learning. Chances are that the English language students bring their rich diversity of languages, experiences, history, ideology, and perspectives to the classrooms. In such a safe space, students can express themselves and allow them the opportunity to share their differences in curious and respectful ways without embarrassment or apprehension in front of their teacher and peer. As Canagarajah (2011) reminds us that it is “important for teachers to provide safe spaces in classrooms and schools for students to practice translanguaging” (p. 415).

Meanwhile, during the post-video-stimulated-recall-interview for extract 3 (see Appendix 7) , T comments on the rationale of his visiting and asking questions for each group in the classroom interaction. Based on T’s interpretations, it is evidenced that T draws on his pedagogical belief and his awareness of his involvement in the classroom to encourage the students courageously use their linguistic resources to develop their English skill. The investigator holds the view that the rational why T asks some questions is to facilitate the students learning, since T seeks to minimize the social divide that exists between him and his students and redevelop his agency to enrich the communicative practices with his students through diverse semiotic resources. This condition consistently reflects as stated by Liddicoat and Taylor-Leech (2021) that agency has been focused on the freedom and equity of action towards individual exercise of power entailing a logical calculation of courses of action including the interrelated notions of teacher that control the behavior and produce an effect with consequences. Through teacher agency, T believes that stimulating the students’ semiotic

resources can help them to get involved in English learning activities and facilitate English learning in inclusive and equitable quality education.

Regarding to provide a safe space for translanguaging, most of the students enthusiastically respond to all his questions and get involved in the classroom discussion using both L1 Indonesian and L2 English. The teacher’s translanguaging agency might promote the reduction of disparities and inequities in EFL classroom. Evident is the notion of teacher agency may provide an opportunity to create translanguaging space for the use of multiple languages and multimodal resources in the classroom and support the students to receive a quality education for improving their communicative competence (Canagarajah, 2013; Jang, 2022; Tsang, 2021). In this sense, T plays his agency role to open a space for students to translanguage, since T is bringing his awareness of students’ language diversities on multilingual students’ learning activities (Maseko, 2022). Teacher agency’s contribution towards achieving this English learning goal focuses on equity and inclusion to facilitate all students with quality learning opportunities. Thus, the teachers who utilize a transformative agency to create translanguaging practices can provide the students to feel safe employing their multiple language to facilitate their learning process (Phyak et al., 2022).

Discussion

Drawing on the insights from MCA analysis and the video-stimulated-recall-interview, this study has explored the view of inclusive translanguaging pedagogy strategy through teacher agency in the development of agentive professionals and the implementation of various teaching initiatives to develop students’ linguistic and multimodal diversity. It reveals three important benefits that trace the teacher agency in constructing translanguaging practices in EFL classroom to make meaning and facilitate English language learning: (1) adjusting language use to suit the students’ English competence as a process to guide and help them in the classroom discussion, (2) empowering the relational and critical dispositions, drawing from all linguistic resources to help students negotiate various communicative contexts for inclusive and meaningful communication, (3) providing that all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire.

From these three findings, it appears clear that T constructs a space for translanguaging by employing translanguaging practices that support equitable and inclusive English teaching. By doing so, T consciously provides a friendly translanguaging space where EFL students are treated equitably to use their various semiotic repertoires in the classroom. Interactional analysis for extract 1 reveals how T exerted his agency by stimulating the students with various affordances of translanguaging. T promotes translanguaging to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence. This in turn successfully made the students to feel empowered towards exploring their various semiotic resources to make meaning in the classroom. It is noticeable that the students enthusiastically deploy their multilingual and multimodal resources, which in turn contribute to stimulate a sense of feeling courageous to participate in the classroom. Interactional analysis for extract 2 illustrates how T reconstruct translanguaging practice to stimulate the students’ willingness to communicate with various linguistic

resources. It appears that T is establishing himself as a partner in English for his students. Note that T explores relational and critical disposition to help the students respond to various classroom discussion and participate in communicative interactions. Thus, evident is T attempts to focus on the dispositional aspect which refers to students’ willingness to engage and perform within the translanguaging space. In extract 3, T draws on his agency to build a friendly space for students to explore their linguistic repertoire, since T recognizes that his students bring language diversities on multilingual classroom. His determination towards the enactment of translanguaging agency is demonstrated in the video-stimulated-recall-interview. T acknowledges that his translanguaging agency can consolidate social spaces where the students courageously use their linguistic resources. This in turn makes all students get more equitable and inclusive education to freely employ their semiotic repertoire and empower their emotion and participation in English learning.

All in all, pedagogical translanguaging is a potential approach in providing freedom for students to employ their diverse semiotic resources in classroom interactions. Since they can learn a foreign language from their first learned language. Evident is T resists the English-only monolingual ideology to facilitate his teaching and learning. T admits the significance of comprehending translanguaging as a unitary repertoire. This in turn translanguaging practices should also be understood as more than a pedagogical, but a political and decolonizing stance in providing freedom for students to employ their diverse multilingual and multimodal resources in English learning. Note that T provides the opportunities for students to feel free to arouse their attitudes, ideology, and beliefs to employ their diverse multilingual and multimodal resources in making meaningful communication. Such perceived coherence is also stated by Wei (2011) who convinces that translanguaging space as convivial space for the bi/multilingual speakers by combining various aspects of their attitude, experience, history, belief, and ideology. Eventually, this space will bring together their logical and somatic capacity into one coordinated and fruitful action to develop language use and language contact among the students as their lived experience in a safe space.

Conclusion

The results of this research reveal that empowering teacher agency through translanguaging may offer valuable evidence towards a more justice to decolonize ELT. This study also confirms the importance of teacher’s translanguaging agency to confront raciolinguistic ideologies and acknowledge students’ linguistic repertoire. By doing so, translanguaging holds the potential to decolonize ELT by uniting languages that have been historically segregated and racialized because of colonization (Rajendram, 2022). Evident is EFL students with difference linguistic and cultural background cannot learn English as a single entity, separate from the influence of other languages. Therefore, the approach of pedagogical translanguaging offers a framework to appreciate the students’ potential and recognize their full semiotic repertoire for equitable and inclusive education in EFL classroom.

All in all, considering the discussion and findings in this study, some implications are emphasized. This study has demonstrated evidence for the legitimacy of teacher agency which

support pedagogical translanguaging to provide EFL students a safe space for their creativity and language play in employing various semiotic repertoires. Thus, these findings have implications for offering insights into the need of implementing pedagogical translanguaging to contest the dominance of English as the standard in EFL classrooms. This prompts the teachers to create a space for translanguaging regardless of the tensions of institutional policy, employing resources from their various semiotic repertoire more effective in stimulating students for using their diverse linguistic resources and whole trajectories as language users. By doing so, the enactment of teacher translanguaging agency employed in EFL classroom in turn influenced students’ agency to demonstrate transformative participation in the class. Further, the findings may offer insights for policy maker not to restrict students’ natural language practices in multilingual classroom.

However, this study has some limitations. First, sample used to measure the teacher’ perspectives towards translanguaging is relatively small. Hence, these findings may not represent the perspectives and beliefs of many teachers at this university, since only one participating teacher involved. Second, for the reporting section, I can just sort out the representative extracts instead of displaying all the transcribed instances. Since MCA and IPA analysis method enact a limit on the amount of data that are manageable to a single researcher to avert compromising the micro-analysis quality (Tai, 2023). Finally, for future studies, it is pivotal to explore trends in teacher translanguaging agency that provoke translanguaging policy in other language skills and produce the provision of applicable implementation of translanguaging practices guidance for EFL classroom.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank PUSLAPDIK (Education Financing Service Center) and LPDP (Educational Fund Management Institution) of Indonesia for supporting this study.

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Corresponding author: Harjuli Surya Putra

Email: harjuli82@gmail.com

Appendix 1. MCA Transcription Conventions

Sequential and Timing Elements of the Interaction

Sources. Adapted from Jefferson (2004) and Mondada (2018)

Appendix 2. MCA Analysis of

Video Recording

Extract 1: Teacher’s Agentive Action in Constructing Translanguaging Space

Classroom Interaction Transcript

Video Stimulated Recall Interview Selected Excerpts

(1). R: Hi sir, in this video you repeat your sentences using Indonesian ‘you dapat menjelaskan tentang maksud gambar atau tulisan itu’. So, how come at the moment you were using Indonesian, even though you have uttered the same sentence using English?)

(2). T: Yes, so repeating the previous sentence in Indonesian is solely to help students to understand what I am commanding. But I do not want to use Indonesian to explain all the terms. Only a few sentences that I restate into Indonesian. You see, in my class there are also many students come from remote areas whose English skills are very low. So, I think it is a good approach that can help them understand what I am saying. So, basically, I just want to make it clear what they must do.

(3) R: Then I also noticed in this video you do some gestures such as pointing at the images on the student’s desk, extending his right-hand arm. Can you tell me the rationales of doing that?

(4) T: Oh, that is, So, sometimes I use such gestures to attract the students to pay attention to what I am saying. Meanwhile, when I am extending my right-hand arm! That’s just a reflex to make the

Teacher’s Perspectives The researcher’s own interpretations of the teacher’s perspectives

The teacher asserts that he uses Indonesian for the terms he considers important to affirm. He assumes that his use of different linguistic resources is driven by his attention to those students who have low English proficiency.

Ø The researcher is interested to explore the reason why the teacher using Indonesian to restate his statement. So, the researcher wants to know the rationales in terms of using different linguistic resources.

Ø The strategy of how the teacher decides to use different linguistic resources is to help students to understand what he is commanding.

T admits that he makes such hand gestures to attract the student with the question just given.

T believes that employing that gesture can encourage the student to interact in the classroom

Ø Moreover, low English proficiency in most students is also a factor that stimulates the teacher to use Indonesia to quicky ask the student to do next activity.

T acknowledges that He want to motivate the students to confidently interact and involve in the classroom.

T acknowledges that his use of multiple language (English and Indonesia) to create a space to adjust his language use with the students’ English competence

Ø The researcher is interested to know the rationale of using such hand gestures while interacting with the students.

Ø The researcher believes that T’s use of gesture to engage the students employing their multilingual and multimodal resources to get involved in the classroom interaction.

Ø The researcher is interested to know the purpose for T to engage students in

classroom situation is comfortable and friendly

(5). R: So, in this video, what motivates you to use Indonesian and English to interact with your students?

(6) T: at the time I would like to open a space where the students are feeling safe and friendly to employ their multiple languages. Therefore, this space is to adjust my English use with the students’ English competence. That is, I set them free to explore their existing languages to facilitate their English learning

The teacher asserts that by employing multilingual and multimodal resources, students can engage in English learning and helps them to be confident developing their English learning.

translanguaging practices in classroom interaction.

Ø T believes that stimulating the students to employ their multilingual and multimodal resources can help them to get involved in English learning activities and facilitate English learning in the classroom

4.

Extract 2: The Teacher’s Translanguaging Agency as a Decolonial Pedagogy to Empower the Responsive and Critical Dispositions

Appendix

MCA Analysis of Video Recording

Classroom Interaction Transcript

Video Stimulated Recall Interview Selected Excerpts Teacher’s Perspectives

(1). R: Hi sir! in the video we can see that the students were busy in their respective groups. Can you explain what was going on in the classroom at that time?)

(2). T: Hahaha, yes, the class is a bit noisy yeah. So, after they collected various linguistic landscape signs in several public places, they brought their findings to the class. Well, at that time I wanted to give instructions to do the next project. So, I ordered them to categorize the signs they collected according to predetermined categories. So, I explained the categorization of images through PowerPoint). See! They are very enthusiastic and cooperate with each other, the class is so noisy.

(3). R: It seems that they are working together to pick and cut pictures. So, even though it’s a bit noisy, this is a normal situation during the project, isn’t it?

(4). T: Sure, that’s normal, because they work in a group. All the members of the group express their opinions and discuss their ideas. Even the students who have been shy, currently speak up now hahhahaha

T is sure that the students are excited about selecting and categorizing the pictures. T emphasizes that he wishes to highlight and explains how to do the categorization of pictures through PowerPoint.

The researcher’s own interpretations of the teacher’s perspectives

T acknowledges that the class is a bit noisy because the students begin to select and cut out the pictures. Ø T strives to guide students to do the categorization of pictures Ø T seems to understand to make the project in a right track, so he attempts to reexplain the categorization procedure to the students Ø Through explaining the categorization procedure, T aims to assist students in grouping the picture according to the theme.

Ø The researcher desires further explanations about T’s perception of his own ongoing classroom activities. Ø T acknowledges that it is a normal condition making some noise during group projects Ø The researcher believes that T gives students freedom to express their ideas and opinions to explore their linguistic resources, although it makes the class a bit noisy.

(5). R: Mmm, wow it looks like they are very enthusiastic. Then, when explaining to students you point to the screen, extend your right arm. Stretched out your left index finger pointing at the T moves his hand contingently and taps the whiteboard to attract students’ attention. When the classroom

Ø The researcher is eager to understand why T used such hand gestures and made an effort to make sense of the teacher’s use of

screen and moved it up and down contingently like this (I mimicked the T gesture), then tapping on the screen board. A very intriguing moment is that your finger is like that. But how can you get this gesture? And what is the point?)

(6). T: Hahahah, ouch, so embarrassed. the gesture seems exaggerated, huh? Hahahhaha. It has been already my habit while explaining in front of the class, my hands move contingently, hahhahaha. At that time the class atmosphere was a bit chaotic because the students were already busy selecting out pictures and starting to cut them). So, the gesture was to grab the attention of the students and at the same time make it clear to them that they had to categorize the signs based on categorization table showing on the screen. Or maybe it is because I used to be a dangdut singer, so my hands often move like that. Hahhahha just kidding. Ahhahah

(7). R: Then, here you repeat your sentence using Indonesian ‘kategorikan dia yah’. So, how come at the moment you were using Indonesian, even though you have uttered the same sentence using English?)

(8). T: Yes, so repeating the previous sentence in Indonesian is solely to help students to understand what I am commanding. But I do not want to use Indonesian to explain all the terms. Only a few sentences that I restate into Indonesian. You see, in my class there are also many students come from remote areas whose English skills are very low. So, I think it is a good approach that can help them understand what I am saying. So, basically, I just want

atmosphere is a bit crowded and noisy, it motivates T to use the gesture to get students to listen to T and this has become a habit that T does in the classroom. T also states (jokingly) that because he is a former dangdut singer inspires him to use gestures.

gestures in his pedagogical practice.

Ø T’s personal habit when the class is noisy shape his use of gesture to attract students’ attention. Ø T’s memory as a dangdut singer shapes his use of gestures (just a joke T said) Ø It can be noticed that some students did turn around and gaze at the screen when T taps his hand contingently on the board

The teacher asserts that he uses Indonesian for the terms he considers important to affirm. If he considers it is important to reaffirm the sentence, he then will prefer to use Indonesian. He assumes that his use of different linguistic resources is driven by his attention to those students who have low English proficiency.

Ø The researcher is interested to explore the reason why the teacher using Indonesian to restate his statement. So, the researcher wants to know the rationales in terms of using different linguistic resources.

Ø The strategy of how the teacher decides to use different linguistic resources is to help students to understand what he is commanding.

Ø His use of different linguistic resources to emphasize specific terms to ensure that all

to make it clear what they must do.

(9). R: Then, during this moment you are trying to address a student’s question dealing with categorization. what do you think at the moment because that student was asking in Indonesian. how were you feeling at the moment?)

(10). T: Yeah, he is one of the most active students in the class. Basically, I never limit them to fully use English in the classroom. However, I always insist them to dare to speak English. But as you can you see in the video; they have actually exerted the English skills they can. So even if they combine with Indonesian or local languages, it is not a problem for me. Because not every student has a 100% complete skill in one language. Perhaps in this case, he is more dominant in Indonesian.)

(11). R: Okay sir, so, in the end you still answer student’ questions in English. What are the pedagogical objectives?) (12). I intended to familiarize them with English in the classroom. I hope it can develop their English skills. But I don’t want to compel them to use 100% English. Because surely the Indonesian or local language can contribute for them to become proficient in English.

T aims to develop students’ English skills by answering their questions in English.

T acknowledges that students have attempted to exert their linguistic resources, if the student cannot make it in English, then they will use Indonesian.

T attempts to familiarize the students with English in the classroom, yet T also believes that students’ local languages can contribute to master English.

the students will have the same understanding of what they should do next.

Ø Moreover, low English proficiency in most students is also a factor that stimulates the teacher to use Indonesia to quicky ask the student to do next activity.

Ø The researcher is interested to know T’s feeling when a student was asking a question in Indonesian and what are his rationales in terms of answering the student’s question in English.

Ø The approach of how T answers the students’ questions in Indonesian is most motivated by his pedagogical objectives to develop their English skills.

Ø T is aware to provide a space for students to freely employ their multilingual resources to ensure that they can all master English

Appendix 6. MCA Analysis of Video Recording Extract 3: The Teacher’s Translanguaging Agency to Ensure that all Students get more Equitable and Inclusive Education

IPA analysis of Video-stimulated-recall-interview: Teacher’s Perspectives (Extract 3)

Classroom Interaction Transcript

Video Stimulated Recall Interview Selected Excerpts Teacher’s Perspectives

(1). R: In this section, I see you visit to each group. Can you explain what you do?

(2). T: At that time the students had already begun to categorize the pictures they had collected. So, I intended to check what linguistic landscape pictures they have collected by asking some questions.

(3). R: Can you briefly tell the rationale of doing that. Because I see you ask a lot about the project they are working on)

(4). T: So here I attempt to facilitate my students, I want to make them active by asking some questions related to this project. The point is I want to get directly involved by getting them to speak English, so I visit each group and ask questions.

(5). R: In this section, how far do the students engage in classroom interaction?

(6). T: They generally respond to all my questions and get involved in the project. As you can see, they have tried to exert their language skills. Although sometimes they answer my questions in Indonesian, but I think it is a normal situation. Sometimes, they are trying

T visits each group and talks about the project they are working on to keep the class active by asking some questions.

T initiates some questions related to students collected photographic prints of signs and categorization activities. Since, T want to encourage them to explore their English skill.

T mentions his role in the classroom as a facilitator who stimulates students to communicate in English.

T acknowledges that students are actively involved in classroom interaction.

T acknowledges that his students have employed their multilingual and multimodal resources to get involved in the classroom.

T asserts that by employing multilingual and multimodal resources, students can engage in English learning and helps them to develop their English skill.

The researcher’s own interpretations of the teacher’s perspectives

Ø The researcher wants to know more about T’s perception of his ongoing classroom activities.

Ø The researcher is trying to make sense of the rationale of the teacher ’s asking questions in the classroom interaction.

Ø The researcher believes that T wants to get involved in each group by initiating some questions.

Ø It is evidenced in the MCA analysis that T wants to encourage the students to develop their English skill.

Ø It is evidenced that T is an internal pioneer who can make changes in their own classroom by developing an enhanced sense of agency.

Ø T might redevelop his agency to enrich the communicative practices with his students through language and literacy practices involving multiple

to speak in English, even though their English skills are still low but sometimes they add with their gesture that I easily understand.

(7). R: So, do you think that by employing multilingual resources both English or other languages that students master and accompanied by their gestures, this can help them to get involved in English learning activities? Is that so?

(8). T: Yes, that’s what I mean, so I set them free to explore their language skills and they are free to make any gesture, since this activity really helps them to learn English.

diverse resources and contexts.

Ø The researcher is interested to know the purpose for T to engage students in classroom interaction.

Ø T believes that stimulating the students to employ their multilingual and multimodal resources can help them to get involved in English learning activities and facilitate English learning in the classroom

An

Integrated Framework for an Educational Early Warning System with Mentor Matching

D. V. D. S. Abeysinghe

University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

M. S. D. Fernando

University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

Abstract

“Education is the key to success,” one of the most heard motivational statements by all of us. People engage in education at different phases of our lives in various forms. Among them, university education plays a vital role in our academic and professional lives. During university education many undergraduates will face several challenges demanding from educational matters to socio-economic problems. In such situations, many undergraduates tend to abandon the degree programs halfway leaving them incomplete. Hence creating an Educational Early Warning Systems (EEWS) to predict and identify at-risk students in the early stages of the degree programs will improve the graduating ratio against the dropouts. Further, mentoring is another aspect in education where it can be used in undergraduate studies to address students individually. There exist many separate frameworks for EEWS and mentoring, but there exists a lacuna for an integrated framework for the two aspects. Having an integrated framework to identify at-risk undergraduates and matching the best matched mentor would be more impactful and effective for the universities to control dropouts. This study has proposed an integrated framework namely as “GRADGROOM” as a solution to the identified lacuna by extending EEWS framework with mentor matching which performs at-risk undergraduate prediction and mentor-mentee matching for them. Through two case studies at a local university, the study has concluded that a proper mentoring process conducted immediately after being identified as at-risk students will be highly beneficial to reshape their study patterns to align with the correct route of studying.

Keywords: at-risk student prediction, Educational Early Warning Systems (EEWS), mentormentee matching, virtual mentoring

Education will be the key for us to unlock the world. People will be engaged in education throughout their lives in divergent phases in numerous ways. In education, to bring it closer to the students, mentoring will play a significant role. The process of mentoring can be defined as the building of a relationship between a mentor and a mentee to boost the confidence and skills of a mentee. Mentoring has become an important part of education, which will enhance the reflective practice of education and improve the professional development of students (Sundli, 2007). With mentoring, rather than developing specific academic abilities, it will also focus on building a resilience character with confidence and good relationship handling (Martha, 2022).

Mentoring will have a lot of impactful benefits to both mentee and mentor (O’Connell, 2024). Through a proper mentoring program, a mentee will be able to identify the learning and skill areas to be improved through the constructive feedback they receive from mentors. Moreover, mentoring will help mentees to set clear goals and achieve them. For mentors, mentoring will be a reciprocal learning experience that enhances their career growth and learning curve. A successful mentorship requires time, effort, and dedication of both mentor and mentee, which in some cases people cannot afford. To overcome the challenges mentoring has gone beyond the face-to-face traditional meetings which is replaced with online connecting is defined as virtual mentoring.

The term early warning systems (EWS) can be used in different use cases such as in disaster management, security, economics, and finances. However, the use of Educational Early Warning Systems (EEWS) has also now become a prominent use case. Early warning systems in education can be defined as a system which is based on student data that can be used to identify students who exhibit lesser behavior or academic performances that puts them under the category of at-risk students in the education system (“Issue Brief: Early Warning Systems,” 2016).

According to Slavin and Madden (1989), the term “at-risk student” can be defined as “someone who faces the risk of not obtaining the necessary level of education to finish university and low achievement, grade retention, behavioral issues, low attendance, low socioeconomic status, and attendance at universities with a high proportion of impoverished learners are risk factors”.

With a correct set of indicators, EEWS can be beneficial for students to assess their status of working and will be aware of the improvements to be made. Earliest identification of at-risk students in universities will be highly supportive to reduce the number of dropouts and support students to build up their skills and confidence.

EEWS and virtual mentoring are two phases in a student education process, with EEWS identifying students needing support and guidance, and virtual mentoring guiding students towards desired targets. EEWS systems are mostly built up with predictive algorithms (LizDomínguez et al., 2019). EEWS uses Learning Management System (LMS) data, student background details, performance indicators, images, engagement indicators, academic results, and Grade Point Average (GPA), among others, as input for the predictions (Liz-Domínguez

et al., 2019). Most of the existing EEWSs collect data, predict the at-risk students with the support of techniques such as Machine Learning (ML) or predictive algorithms. Then finally the relevant results will be informed to the stakeholders including students, educators, university management and parents.

In the best practices, it will be obvious that just identifying the risk level early and informing will be sufficient. The necessary steps should be taken or suggested for students or educators to overcome the risk level. Virtual mentoring will be one such ideal solution to suggest students and educators to uplift the condition of students. With virtual mentoring, it would be efficient if we could suggest the best matched mentor and mentee pair. Still there is the requirement to create a single system which bonds both the aspects of identifying at-risk students and to direct them for the correct mentor. Hence this study addresses the need to create frameworks to build a system to identify at-risk students and warn them early and suggest them with a best matched mentor to address the above stated requirement. In the existing systems, identifying at-risk students and finding the ideal match of mentor-mentee pair will be done as two different processes in separate applications and frameworks.

A system merging both EEWS and mentoring frameworks could enhance university quality of education by identifying at-risk students and matching them with the most suitable mentors. However, existing research on merging these frameworks is limited, with only a few studies providing a framework for EEWS and suggesting the best match mentor. A comprehensive system that integrates these two frameworks is highly required, filling a research gap.

This study aims to address the lack of research on having a single framework for EEWS and mentoring by creating an integrated framework to identify at-risk students in university education and suggest the best matched mentor. The study also explores the research question, “to what extent a Machine Learning and knowledge-based framework can be applied in identifying at-risk undergraduate students and suggest a personalized best matched mentor for them?”

Hence, the aim of the study was to develop and validate a conceptual application by creating an integrated framework for the application to identify at-risk undergraduate students and match mentee with best matched mentor. While achieving that, the study has focused on two main objectives as,

1. to identify the requirements for a system to cater to identify at-risk undergraduate students and matching mentors for them

2. to propose an integrated framework with machine learning based at-risk undergraduate identification and knowledge-based mentor matching.

The rest of the paper has elaborated how the above research question, aim and objectives were achieved. The organization of the paper is as follows. In Section 1, reviews different techniques that are closely related to the study. In Section 2, the methodology and the proposed conceptual framework is described in detail. Section 3 discusses the results of the experiment through

conducted case studies. Section 4 discusses the findings, and the last section concludes the work while stating the future works. Finally, references for the citations are provided.

Literature Review

When considering EEWS and mentor matching there are ample studies done related to the field. Literature typically about an integrated framework for EEWS and mentor matching was obscure, although studies related to EEWS followed with several technologies and work related to mentor matching were found among related work. Hence, this section reviews some of the studies that have been proposed over the recent years and among them which have been considered as mentors when commencing this piece of work.

Studies in this section can categorized under the classes given below when reviewing with a focus to examine the lacuna.

1. Impact of EEWS in higher education

2. Impact of Mentoring in higher education

3. Integration between EEWS and mentoring

Impact of EEWS in Higher Education

Plak and colleagues (2021) evaluated the suitability of Early Warning Systems (EWS) in higher education on locating at-risk students and minimizing dropout. In a randomized field trial, it was discovered that EWS correctly predicted at-risk pupils but did not lower dropout rates or boost academic achievement. Hence the work points to the need for further feedback and counseling techniques along with a proper EWS. A field study engaging 1,577 students from three faculties was conducted in 2016–2017 at VU Amsterdam in the Netherlands. After passing a digital Dutch proficiency exam authors have asked students to take part in an experiment using EWS-assisted counseling. EWS provided counseling assistance to the intervention group during the first academic year, while the control group received standard therapy. 16.5% of participants completed a follow-up survey, and 15 out of the 31 participating students for counseling sessions were questioned about how they used the EWS dashboard by authors. As stated by authors, machine learning models outperformed heuristic or theory-based estimation models, addressing over-identification issues. Hence, the study has used the gaining momentum of machine learning in predictive modeling, to support teacher tenure decisions and college dropout prediction. The models have been assessed at the beginning of the school year, at the conclusion of six successive study terms, and at the conclusion of the summer break.

A Dutch counseling program in higher education used an EWS to predict student-specific dropout risks. A dashboard showed the system’s predictions, encouraging one-on-one consultations and coaching interventions. The trial, involving 12 bachelor programs at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, found no significant impact on dropout rates or credits earned. However, the study’s low response rate and lack of external validity were drawbacks.

Aguilar and colleagues (2014) investigated how academic advisors, who were unfamiliar with the use of data-driven learning analytics tools use them through an Early Warning System (EWS) powered by learning analytics. The findings demonstrate that, despite the EWS’s intended use as a tool to help advisors prepare for meetings and spot students who could be having academic difficulties, advisors mostly used it when they met with students. According to the authors, this has added an unexpected audience and had important design implications for advancements in learning analytics. The main goal of the study was to create and implement Student Explorer across different contexts. It was a joint effort between researchers and academic advisers. The Summer Bridge Program was founded in 1975, provides hundreds of students with intensive academic preparation, customized mentoring, and a living environment that fosters community and was used for the setting of the study. Nine academic advisors, five female and four males, served 219 Bridge students, serving 2,500 students during fall and winter terms. They have Masters and Doctoral degrees in various fields. Students were from three courses: a mathematics course for intermediate algebra or mathematical reasoning, an English or Writing course, and a first-year introduction to social science seminar. Data on advisors’ use and attitudes towards Student Explorer were collected from user log data, calendar application log data, and a count of 32 pre- and post-Bridge surveys. The study aimed to understand their background, perceptions of student academic orientation, and overall perceptions of Student Explorer’s functionality. The study used Student Explorer to track student progress, LMS site visits, individual assignments, and gradebook comments. Bridge advisers participated in a one-hour training session to enhance accuracy and provide necessary adjustments before attempting the online study.

Through the pre-bridge survey it was identified that advisors anticipated discussing most about mathematics in meetings and English and orientation course next in the order. Also, it has been found that the average count of advisors highlights Student Explorer as one of the valuable tools regardless of their usage. Then authors collected usage data generated by Student Explorer related to each advisor for seven weeks. Authors have also found from the study, student interaction with meetings have gradually decreased, however engagement with Student Explorer has increased during the weeks closer to mathematics midterm exams. The study has observed advisors interact with the Student Explorer by using page access parameters and it has been stated that with a grand total of 3035 accesses advisors have interacted and have shown more interest towards students’ status. Further, advisors have used the EWS during the meeting times and lesser access before the meeting and after the meeting the access rate was recorded even less. Authors have also conducted post-bridge surveys and results have indicated that the English has climbed up in the anticipated subject order for meetings in the pre-bridge surveys by acquiring the position as same as mathematics. Overall, the study has contributed with a EWS called Student Explorer, intended to support advisors with student achievement details, was found to be primarily used during student meetings, suggesting that unintended users may indirectly use learning analytics interventions.

Impact of Mentoring in Higher Education

Lunsford and colleagues’ (2017) scholarly work reviews on mentoring in higher education for undergraduates, graduate students, and faculty members. It explores mentoring in educational contexts in the US, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the UK. The study synthesizes findings from the past ten years to provide evidence on special populations and program types. The required data for the study were obtained from databases related to Academic Search Complete, EBSCO host, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, SOCI Index and based on several academic and journal writings. According to the study, recent research on mentoring in higher education in English-speaking countries indicates that informal and formal mentoring is prevalent, with formal mentoring being more frequent for undergraduate students and less frequent for faculty members. Mentoring programs focus on underrepresented groups, research, professional and peer mentoring, and early career faculty needs. Further, benefits of mentoring vary depending on the population involved. Also, as emphasized by the authors, future research should explore equivocal results, clarify mentoring relationships, and study effects at under-represented career stages.

Dorner and colleagues (2020) explored online international mentoring for faculty in geographically distant universities. The researchers analyzed interview data from 30 mentees using an inductive analysis technique to understand how online mentoring aids young academics in their growth as inexperienced teachers. The study aims to provide new generations of faculty with strategies to adapt to a specific academic environment and critically examine the limits of teaching and knowledge development influenced by physical location. The results revealed diverse conceptions of the mentoring process, the mentor’s function, and the possibility for change in business relationships. A model of transformational experiences was developed to explain the various cycles of professional growth in an online faculty mentoring program. The study uses a grounded theory methodology to analyze qualitative research data and examines the consistency of interviews.

According to the study, mentees have various conceptions about mentoring, the mentor’s function, and the transforming power of business connections. It also points up difficulties with faculty mentoring programs conducted online, such as how mentors’ sincerity may be harmed by their physical distance. Also, the results from the study are not generalizable and may need to be changed in the future to account for variances in mentoring for mentees who have not had any formal teacher preparation. Further, it was ensured that the study’s theoretical framework and program design components are relevant and pertinent for those operating conventional and online faculty mentoring programs abroad by providing these descriptions.

Integration Between EEWS and Mentoring

In the study titled as “Efficacy of the Check & Connect Mentoring Program for At-Risk General Education High School Students” (Heppen et al., 2017), has evaluated the effectiveness of Check & Connect with general education pupils who has exhibited the early warning indicators of high school dropout risk. In the study, authors have taken the student

sample based on attendance, behavior, and course performance in Grades 8 and 9, where the study has used a 553 such identified students’ population with the lowest estimated likelihood of graduating on time. In the study, students have been randomized to either not receive a Check & Connect mentor for three years, beginning the summer following Grade 9, or to receive one for three years. The result of the study indicates that the program was executed faithfully, except for students who departed from district schools. Further, the study has found that there were no statistically significant effects of Check & Connect on graduation rates, academic advancement rates, dropout rates, or engagement metrics. However, study has emphasized the importance of identifying at-risk students early and directing them for mentoring.

Grewe and Kleiner (2023) offered a model of successful integration of evidence-based mentorship practices during the first year of university education with a program conducted at Utah State University. The program’s mentoring component has created to cope with the issue of first-year students leaving early for their second year of study. In the program, every student has received faculty mentoring through the proposed strategy. Further, through the proposed model special attention has been given to the most vulnerable students to support those who do not have the social or educational resources to seek out faculty mentorship on their own. Through the proposed model, evaluation results have shown that it is necessary to keep the program rigorous and prioritize the needs of most vulnerable students, to provide them with the highest quality of high-touch mentoring. Moreover, through the study authors have contributed with an easily adaptable, evidence-based model that can be successfully implemented at any other college.

The study titled as, “Towards Requirements for Intelligent Mentoring Systems” (Kravčík et al., 2019), has addressed the research question “How can we design educational concepts that enable a scalable individual mentoring in the development of competences?” by the authors. When addressing the above gap, the study has aimed to develop knowledge services for an automatic realization of parts of the individualized mentoring process. To achieve the goal, the study has referred to existing systems and analyzed the features and identified requirements for an intelligent mentoring system. According to the findings of the study, to provide metacognitive support, lifelong mentoring, affect detection and accurate predictions, an intelligent mentoring system would be beneficial. Further, the authors have stated that an intelligent system will be required in three phases as in preparation, in the learning process and in the follow-up.

Conclusive Remarks of Literature Review

Recent studies on e-learning and mentoring in EEWS have evaluated the success of mentoring programs, with some discussing the mentor matching process. Qualitative approaches are common, and AI and ML are under investigation for selecting the best mentor. Accurate predictions of at-risk students should consider social, economic, and behavioral factors. The research highlights the need for an integrated framework for merging EEWS and mentoring, with a case study to validate these approaches.

Methodology and Conceptual Framework

The study contributes with an integrated framework named as “GRADGROOM,” grooming a graduate, for an application to identify at-risk students and match mentee with best matched mentor. Hence, the methodology of the research has two phases. Phase 1 of the study was to create EEWS to identify at-risk undergraduates. The results obtained with phase 1 will be contributing to initiating phase 2 of the study. Phase 2 was designed to make suggests for the best matched pair of mentor and mentee. The overall methodology of the study has been illustrated in Figure 1 given below.

Figure 1

The Methodology of the Study

Planning

In the planning stage of the study, scope and objectives were decided. Initially a sound literature review was conducted in the selected field to identify an existing gap to address through the study. Once the lacuna was identified, aims and objectives are structured while clarifying the scope and contribution. Further, the rest of stages of the study were designed during the planning stage.

Requirement Gathering and Analysis

In this stage of the study, the requirement for the specific need was evaluated with existing studies as secondary sources. Further, the relevant stakeholders, undergraduates, lecturers, and

university administrations were questioned about the real requirement for an integrated framework. Hence, once the research gap was identified and clarified, the study continued.

Framework Development

This was the main stage of the study, where the contribution of the research was produced. In the framework development, it was done to address the identified gap in the existing works. The process of framework development contained various steps in two main phases as shown in Figure 2 below.

Process of Framework Implementation: (a) Proposed Integration for Frameworks, (b) Phase I Implementation and (c) Phase II Implementation

Figure 2

When the framework was developed, integration of two frameworks for EEWS and mentor matching was the main concern. Hence initially the framework for EEWS was designed and the output generated from the framework was passed to the next design which was a framework for mentor matching as the input. Hence, the study was able to integrate the frameworks to a single framework, where it has been named and introduced as “GRADGROOM.” GRADGROOM hence will be supported to identify at-risk students, and then best matched mentors will be suggested for the at-risk students.

According to the proposed methodology, initially the past data will be collected and preprocessed. Then the data will be used to train and test the ML model for EEWS. Hence the at-risk predictions for the students will be done by the trained model and then the identified atrisk students’ mentor preferences will be collected. With the collected data from the mentors and mentees, using the knowledge created, the best matched mentor pair will be selected, and the virtual mentoring process will be conducted.

Conceptual Framework

The study has proposed the framework to identify at-risk students in the university systems following undergraduate programs in Technology and Engineering (TE). The undergraduate programs can be categorized into two categories as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and non-STEM. However, the proposed EEWS framework was designed to be focused for STEM subjects’ undergraduate programs since it has identified with much research that STEM has major challenges to face with its low student enrollment and high attrition rates and due to these challenges more students tend to drop the program or switch to non-STEM programs (Sithole et al., 2017). Further it has also been observed that a study conducted over with 110,000 student records has shown clearly that getting a grade of C or lower in an introductory STEM class has a been heavily impacted on the likelihood of underrepresented college students earning a STEM degree (Sholtis,2022). Like this evidence, many other works also have emphasized the high rate of dropouts and challenges in STEM undergraduate programs and critically analyzed the requirement of an EEWS for STEM programs (Bernacki et al., 2020; Yu & Wu, 2021).

Hence, in the study, it has chosen STEM undergraduate programs as its scope and based on the practical considerations it was limited to TE spectrum of STEM. Further, studies have also shown that it would be appropriate to predict at-risk students earlier in degree programs to prevent the dropping out of students (Adnan et al., 2021; Arvind JNR Kumar, 2018). Based on the facts, the proposed framework for EEWS is used to predict at-risk students from first year and second year courses.

With the above-mentioned limitation, the proposed framework “GRADGROOM,” can be applied for any TE stream programs in universities. The proposed framework consists of 6 steps, each step completion will provide the university an effective procedure to control the drop-out rates. In the step 1, university should gather the data records of the past graduated and drop-out students. This data can be collected based on 28 parameters suggested by the proposed

framework as elaborated in the below paragraphs where the step-by-step procedure has been explained. Thus, collected data can be preprocessed and cleansed to use as test and train data for the ML model. In step 2, the study has proposed to use KNN, RF, and SVM algorithms to ensemble through stacking with the Meta model based on DT for the at-risk identification. By step 3, the model can be trained and tested from the data collected from step 1, to prepare the ML model to be applied for the at-risk prediction of the current students. After this step, the university can collect data for the same 28 parameters again from the current set of students who needed to be classified as at-risk and well-performing. Then, this dataset can be fed to the ML model to acquire the prediction results.

After obtaining the results from the prepared ML model from step 3, universities then can focus to uplift the status of at-risk identified students. As to take immediate actions, the framework continues to the step 4 where the mentor-mentee matching framework has been merged with the at-risk identification framework. In step 4, focusing on the at-risk identified undergraduate, university can collect few more parameters to use along with the data of the universities’ mentee pool to suggest the best matched mentor to them. Step 5 will be using the data collected in step 4 to match the best matched mentor-mentee pair. This step utilizes the knowledge-based logic program and will provide the best matched pairs to the university, facilitating the mentoring process. Based on the suggestions, the university hence can conduct the last step of the proposed framework where a virtual mentorship program will be conducted.

Most importantly, the framework can be reused from step 1 if the university needs to have more accuracy for the predictions with latest passed out student details for every upcoming batch’s at-risk prediction. Whereas can be reused only from step 3, for upcoming student batches if the university is satisfied with the current accuracy of the prediction. Also, if students are not happy with the suggested mentor through the framework, step 5 can be repeated or can use the next best matched suggestion. This flexibility of the proposed framework can be highlighted as one of the biggest strengths of it. The section given below, elaborate each step with technical details.

Step 1: Data Gathering and Preprocessing

As the first step, past data gathering from the TE stream University undergraduate programs should be done to create a dataset for the at-risk prediction. The collected data must serve as test and train data for the ML based prediction model. Framework has intended to collect data TE subject(s) in the first year and the second year of the degree program to predict at-risk students for the course. Through literature it was observed that LMS data plays a prominent role in predicting at-risk students (Arizmendi et al., 2022; Howard et al., 2018; Macfadyen & Dawson, 2010; Osborne & Lang, 2023). Further, it has also identified that students’ assessment scores, engagement intensity and time dependent factors are impacting more in the online learning environments (Marwaha & Singla, 2019). Moreover, studies have emphasized that socio-economic status also matters for students’ education (Slavin & Madden, 1989).

Su and colleagues (2022) conducted a study to identify factors to be used in at-risk student prediction with ML techniques. Study has stated that academic factors should be considered as they define academic performance such as marks. Also, authors have stated demographic data and social and behavioral data should be equally considered as with demographical data. Because with demographic data, it can be used to define the characteristics of a person such as race, age, and income while social and behavioral can be used to define the lifestyle and habits of a person such as religious believes, family income, and so on.

Hence in this study, the framework has been designed to take 28 parameters covering academic, LMS, demographics and behavioral features. The details of the parameters are described in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 given below.

Table 1

Academic Parameters for At-Risk Prediction in EEWS

Category Parameters

Academic Features

End exam grades and assessment grades

Subject preferences

Lecture clarity

Lecture attendance

Table 2

Academic Parameters for At-Risk Prediction in EEWS

Category Parameters

Demographic Features

Gender

Age

District

Secondary education

English literacy

• O/L English results

• A/L English results

Advanced level results

Family background

• Father’s occupation

• Mother’s occupation

• No of siblings

• Family income status

Relationship status

Monthly living expenses as a student

Job status

• Full time student

• Part time worker

• Full time worker (Part time studying)

Special conditions

• Medical issues

• Economic issues

• Family dedications

• None

Current stay: Hostel/ Home/ Boarding

Table 3

LMS Parameters for At-Risk Prediction in EEWS

Category Parameters

Features from LMS

Table 4

LMS active time

No of on-time/delayed submissions

Forum activeness

• No of forum posts/replies

• No of words in forum posts/replies

No of account logins for the semester

Behavioral Characteristics for At-Risk Prediction in EEWS

Category Parameters

Behavioral characteristics

Monthly Internet usage

Daily mobile screening time

Daily study time

Mood controlling skills

Reputation at university- Character and conduct

Extra-curricular activities

Stress level handling and controlling

Once these parameters are collected, then the data are preprocessed and purified to form training and testing data for the model.

Step 2: ML Based Prediction Model Creation

During the literature survey, it was identified a range of algorithms that can be used for the atrisk student prediction purpose such as Support vector machine (SVM), decision trees (DT), random forest (RF), Naive Bayes classification, K- nearest neighbors and Neural networks (NN) (Arizmendi et al., 2022; Baneres et al., 2019; Howard et al., 2018; Plak et al., 2021). Several existing studies have shown NN, RF and DT algorithms give high accuracies when predicting at-risk students (Akçapınar et al., 2019; Marwaha & Singla, 2019). Further, KNN has also been found as highly accurate for the purpose (Xu et al., 2023). SVM was also highlighted through studies as one of the best algorithms which work well with a small dataset (“Matching Mentors with Mentees”, 2022).

Hence, this framework is intended to apply KNN, RF, and SVM algorithms to ensemble through stacking with the Meta model based on DT for the framework to predict at-risk students.

Step 3: Prediction Model Training and Testing

The prediction model was trained with 80% of the data and tested with 20% of the gathered data. With these steps, the first phase of the study will be completed by designing the framework for the EEWS.

In the second phase, the above predicted at risk students’ data will be used in the mentormentee matching program. Hence the two frameworks will be integrated at this phase. Framework development for mentor-mentee matching will contain below steps. When finding the best matched mentor and mentee pair, existing works have shown the importance of considering deep-level characteristics (personal traits), surface similarities and individual experience (Keramidas et al., 2022). Hence in the proposed framework the three categories of features mentioned above, and Learning Goal Orientation (LGO) were considered.

Step 4: Gathering Data for Mentor Matching

In this step framework is designed to gather more data from at-risk predicted students and from mentors. The gathered data will be used to match the mentor-mentee pair for the virtual mentoring process.

To obtain the deep-level personal traits, Five-Factor Model (FFM) also referred to as “Big Five,” which is one of the widely accepted frameworks in psychology, was used. The selected framework uses five factors acronymic as OCEAN: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism to understand the personal traits. The framework was selected as it covers a broad dimension to describe human personality (Garcia C., 2019; Zhao et al., 2021).

For surface similarities the framework has considered gender and ethnicity and for individual experience the framework has considered education qualifications and career experience. Further, Learning Goal Orientation (LGO) was used to understand the students’ underlying attitude and approach toward learning. It was selected as one of the factors in mentor matching because it encompasses how individuals perceive and engage with learning activities, their motivations, and their strategies for learning and skill development (Lechuga & Doroudi, 2022).

Hence in this study, the framework has been designed to parameters covering deep-level characteristics, surface similarities, individual experience and LGO features. Deep-level characteristics and surface similarities were considered for both mentors and mentees while individual experiences were taken from mentors and LGO was considered from mentees’ perspective. The details of the parameters are described in the Tables 5, 6 and 7 given below.

Table 5

Surface Level Parameters for Mentor-Mentee Matching

Category

Surface level similarities

Table 6

Parameters

Gender

Age

Ethnicity

Religion

Interest Identification Parameters for Mentor-Mentee Matching

Category

Individual experience (From mentors)

Learning Goal Orientation (LGO) (From mentees)

Parameters

Current job title

Years of experience

Previous mentoring experience

Focus on acquiring knowledge

End goal of learning

Motivations for learning

Table

7

Deep Level Parameters for Mentor-Mentee Matching

Category

Deep level characteristics

Parameters

Openness to experience

Example:

• Open-mindedness

• Imaginative skills

• Curiosity level

• Creativity level

Conscientiousness

Example:

• Level of organization of work

• Reliability of work

• Goal-oriented

Extraversion

Example:

• Outgoingness

• Energy of working

• Sociable

• Assertive

Agreeableness

Example:

• Empathy

• Kindness

• Cooperation

Neuroticism

Example:

• Anxiety

• Depression

• Anger

• Mood swings

• Stress handling

Surveys were conducted with questionnaires made based on the above factors which was verified from an educational counselor to gather the relevant data for mentor-mentee matching.

Step 5: Creating Knowledge for Mentor- Mentee Match

With the gathered data through pre surveys knowledge-based mentor-mentee matching was proposed in the framework. When paring two people together several techniques such as complementary paring, similarity paring, task-specific paring and contextual paring can be made. In educational systems mixed approaches will give enhanced results as observed through existing works (Pursell, 2024). Further, it was identified that among various other techniques to match mentees with mentors, skill-based compatibility matching with similarities will be ideal for the proposed framework (Pursell, 2024). Then from the collected designed to use knowledge-based logics to match the best suitable mentor and mentee pair. All the collected parameter categories from mentors and mentees were given score values and based on the scores the feature categories were labeled as low, medium, and high with the calculation of tertile. Hence, logics were made based on skill-based compatibility matching with similarities. Then with an educational counselor’s consultation the logic was verified. With the knowledge, matched pairs will be produced at the end of the framework.

Step 6: Virtual Mentoring Program

Since the mentors and mentees cannot be limited with the geographical locations and other constraints, the framework suggests a virtual mentoring program which will be conducted throughout the year. Further, the framework suggests evaluating the growth of students frequently after few mentoring sessions according to the university requirements and through the feedback obtained from mentors and mentees, if required the framework can be reused to rematch the mentors and mentees with the changed or updated mentee requirements.

Testing and Validation of the Framework: A Case Study

To validate the above proposed integrated framework through the study, two case studies were conducted as explained in detail in the Section 3. Real data from a local higher education institute in Sri Lanka was collected for two different subjects in the first year and the second year of two programs of degrees and proposed conceptual framework testing and validation. Hence by collecting post survey results from the students the proposed integrated framework was validated.

Present Findings: Results Analysis

With the case studies and obtained results, the effectiveness of the selected algorithms for EEWS were compared individually and after stacking them to a single model. Further, through the combined model at-risk student prediction results were produced and then the mentormentee pair matching was conducted. To produce results to evaluate the effectiveness of integrating the at-risk prediction and effective and efficient mentor-mentee matching, selected samples of at-risk predicted and non-at-risk predicted students were engaged in pre-survey and a post-survey during the virtual mentoring period. Hence the obtained results were compared to produce results to show the effectiveness of at-risk prediction and navigating them for a

proper mentoring program through an effective mentor matching. Findings of the study has been elaborated in Section 4.

Testing and Validation of Framework- Case Studies

To evaluate the proposed framework two case studies were conducted and test results were produced. Case studies were conducted with the data gathered from one of the local higher education institutes in Sri Lanka and all the data used were anonymized during the writing and publications to preserve the ethical considerations of university and students. For the case study computer science degree stream and software engineering degree stream students of 4 intakes were selected as the sample. The sample was selected considering the TE subject streams in the Faculty of Computing of the higher education institute.

Demographic data from all the four years were taken and in addition to that subject specific data from relevant student groups were taken through questionnaires as shown in a few samples in Figure 3 to Figure 5 given below. The questionnaire consists of 31 questions, and they were finally merged with the subject specific data gathered during the case studies to form the final 28 parameters for the prediction.

Basic Data Gathered About Students: (a) Academic Intake, (b) Subject Stream and (c) Gender

(c) Gender distribution

Figure 3

Figure 4

Economic Related Factors to the Student: (a) Economic Providing for the Family, (b) Monthly Family Income, (c) Monthly Expenses of the Student and (d) Economical Provider for the

(d) Economical provider for the student

Figure 5

Details about Study and Internet Usage: (a) Monthly Internet Usage, (b) Daily laptop/mobile

Moreover, for the second phase of the study for mentor-mentee matching, five mentors were selected from academia and industry randomly covering the fields of software engineering as the selected subjects were both relevant to the field of software engineering. This chapter will be further elaborating the details of the case studies conducted.

Case Study 1: Predicting At-Risk Undergraduate Students at First Year

In the case study 1, one the 1st year undergraduate subjects, Fundamentals of Programming (FP) was selected. Other than the collected demographic data from students, subject specific academic data such as grades and LMS data for the specific selected subject from all four years

were collected. The collected data of the 1st year subject of current 2nd, 3rd and 4th year students have been used as testing and training data for the ML model.

That data then has been split into testing and training dataset and actual 1st year students’ data was used as the validation dataset. Collected data test and train have used as the 80% training data and 20% testing data to train and test the ML model for at-risk prediction. The data collected from first year students were taken as a validation dataset and fed to the model to get the results and compared with the already known labels. Both train-test dataset and validation dataset had 28 columns excluding the label and serial number. Train-test dataset for the case study two had 121 data rows and the validation dataset had 36 rows.

With the at-risk predicted students from the framework, a sample of five students were taken randomly to conduct the mentor-mentee matching. Initially additionally required data for mentor-mentee matching was collected through a questionnaire. Questionnaire contained 60 questions covering surface level personal traits, deep level personal traits and LGO data. Then the data gathered from mentees were pre-processed while giving scores for each category of features out of 100%. From the selected five mentors, data were collected through another questionnaire where it contained 60 questions covering surface level personal traits, deep level personal traits and professional experiences and score values were given. Both questionnaires were made based on FFM-OCEAN to gather deep level personal traits and questions were verified through an educational counsellor.

Data gathered from mentors and mentees were then labelled as low, medium and high with the calculation of tertile of the score values. With the score values for deep level characteristics and surface level characteristics mentor-mentee pairs were matched according to the similarly. Experience level from mentors were matched with the LGO of mentees in a way to uplift the student improvements. High experienced level mentees were matched with high and low levels of mentees with LGO. Low and medium experienced mentors were matched with medium LGO mentees.

Finally, according to the features, matched pairs of mentors and mentees were matched from the framework and were given opportunities to conduct three mentoring sessions each of not less than 30 minutes weekly. Then post feedback gathering interviews were conducted from the mentees who were paired and to compare the improvement at-risk identified non-mentored students were also questioned. Finally, the feedback from two parties were analyzed to produce results to evaluate the success of the proposed integrated framework, which extends the process of at-risk prediction up to mentoring.

Case Study 2: Predicting At-Risk Undergraduate Students at Second Year

In case study 2, the above same procedure was conducted for one of the 2nd year subjects, Data Structure and Algorithms (DSA). After collecting the subject specific academic data and LMS data from 2nd, 3rd and 4th year students the dataset was merged with demographic data. Then the current 3rd year and 4th year students’ data for the selected 2nd year subject were split into

training and testing in percentages 80% and 20% to train and test the ML model for at-risk prediction. Then the data collected from current 2nd year students were taken as a validation dataset and fed to the model to get the results and compared with the already known labels. Both train-test dataset and validation dataset had 28 columns excluding the label and serial number. Test-train dataset for the case study two had 66 data rows and validation dataset had 55 rows.

With the at-risk predicted students from the framework, a sample of five students were taken randomly and mentor-mentee matching was conducted. Initially additional data for mentormentee matching was collected through a questionnaire and pre-processed while giving scores as in the previous case study, “case study 1”. While using the same knowledge created in the above case study, mentors were matched with mentees.

Finally, the paired-up mentors and mentees from the framework were given the opportunity to conduct three mentoring sessions each of not less than 30 minutes weekly. Then post feedback gathering surveys were conducted to evaluate the success of the proposed integrated framework.

Results and Discussion

After executing the framework and predicting at-risk undergraduates and matching best mentor to them, mentoring sessions for both cases were conducted.

The sessions were conducted virtually in adhering to video calls to make the mentors and mentees closer to each other in despite of the location barriers. Five selected mentors participated in the process and among the randomly selected five at-risk predicted students from each sample were considered in matching. In the matching, based on the knowledge created each mentor was matched with a mentee resulting in five out of ten intended mentees to be matched for mentoring. Finally, the feedback was gathered from five mentees who participated in the mentoring sessions and other five remaining at-risk predicted students who were not mentored. Gathered feedback was analysed to understand the impact of integrating the two frameworks.

At-risk Undergraduate Student Mentoring and Not Mentoring Impact

Individual feedback received through interviews based on 5-6 main questions. Through the interviews mentees highlighted that the mentoring program was highly impactful, and they hope it would have continued during your university period. Student 15 and 32, highlighted that they were motivated with the sessions and the feedback of mentors and not as they do their studies alone, they felt guided with short term goals. Given below are the summaries of the feedback of the mentored students.

Summary of individual student feedback

Student 24: Student has rated the program 8/10. Also stated that initially the communication was not easy but within a few minutes it was comfortable, and the mentor was friendly even more than the student had thought to be. Further, the mentor has supported in creating study goals and student had achieved them to a satisfactory level as the mentor has continuously checked the progress. Overall, students highlighted the importance of the sessions and were willing to have continuous sessions thereafter too.

Student 15: Student was highly satisfied about the input from the mentor and rated the program 9/10. Further, mentioned that goals were set with the support of mentor and mentor motivated student which the student felt secured and guided. Student agreed with most of the feedback given by the mentor, however student stated the mentoring period was not long enough to experience it well.

Student 32: Student rated the program 7/10 and stated the mentor was good but could have been more specific when giving instructions. Further, the student stated that he was satisfied with the feedback and the student also stated that the program was not long enough. It could have been more effective if it was held for a long period and even during this short period student was able to gain a lot according to the student’s perspective.

Student 4: Student rated 9/10 for the program and stated that identifying as at-risk was always a worry for the student. However, through the given guidance student got motivated to work well in future. Student said that she was able to clear out many doubts of her which she could not solve during her classroom with a close attention. Student also stated as the others that the program could have been longer to get the best impact.

Students appreciated mentors’ support in setting goals and motivating them. They enthusiastically worked on tasks for the week, preventing them from missing work if they had only set goals and worked for them.

The study reveals that non-mentored students often struggle with receiving close attention during lectures, leading to doubts about studying, exam preparation, and industry. Some students are at-risk and focus more on studies, while others are not satisfied with their progress. The study also found that students lack the proper idea of setting academic and life goals without a mentor’s support. However, two students were not worried about being identified as at-risk and were comfortable working slowly with their normal routines, even if they lost the mentoring opportunity. The feedback reflects the perspectives of non-mentored students and highlights the importance of mentorship in addressing these challenges.

When comparing the proposed framework with the existing frameworks, the “Check and Connect” program presented by (Heppen et al., 2017), shows limitations in the study by highlighting the importance of early identification of at-risk students and importance of collecting the correct set of data for prediction. And this framework was for school education.

Hence in the newly proposed system, it has been suggested to run the new framework in early of the university academic programs preferably in the first and second academic years. In the study (Grewe & Kleiner, 2023), importance of mentoring has been highlighted, however the framework has not prioritized the at-risk students. It has made the administrative and procedure for mentoring more complex. Hence, in the proposed new framework from this study has focused on at-risk identified students making the procedure effective and efficient. Further, compared to framework proposed in the study (Kravčík et al., 2019), the flexibility of the newly proposed framework can be stated as a prominent difference. Further, the many existing studies only having individual frameworks either for mentoring or EEWS. Hence, the “GRADGOOM” framework has attempted to fulfill the existing research gap.

The study concluded that extending at-risk predicting frameworks, EEWS, with a mentoring process is crucial for at-risk undergraduate students. A proper mentoring process can motivate them to return to the correct study route, and delayed mentoring can fade their enthusiasm. The study also highlighted the varied study routines and the impact of mentoring on students. However, the study had limitations, such as the need for a second case study to compare results, more data collection to avoid overfitting and error proneness, and the inclusion of all university batches. The mentor pool could have been expanded to include all at-risk identified students, and mentoring duration could have been extended due to time constraints. By addressing these issues, the study could have been more effective. Overall, the study highlights the importance of implementing mentoring processes to improve student outcomes.

Conclusion

While achieving all the objectives and yielding many primary findings, the study has correctly proven its aim which was to evaluate the success of the proposed integrated framework for EEWS and mentoring. Overall, through the case studies and feedback gatherings, study has emphasized the importance of extending the at-risk predicting frameworks, EEWS with a mentoring process. Since a proper mentoring process is conducted immediately after being identified as at-risk undergraduate students, students will be taking initiative to reshape their study patterns to align with the correct route of studying. With the extension of the framework of EEWS up to mentoring and creating the integrated framework as “GRADGROOM” with the proposed methodology, the above stated requirement can be clearly addressed.

The proposed solution has covered practical aspects related to the identified problem and has been able to solve the problem up to a considerable level as proven through the case studies. Hence it can be stated that with a proper set up for the designed experimental setup this framework can be used at any higher educational institute to address their specific requirements. With the findings, it can be concluded that the early prediction of at-risk undergraduates and directing them for a proper mentoring program would be ideal and have emphasized the importance of the integration of the two aspects.

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Cultural Interface in Action: A Case Study of Philippine Indigenous Educational Policy

Giselle Lugo Miole

The University of Tokyo and United Nations University, Japan

Abstract

This study explores the development and implementation of the Indigenous Peoples’ Education (IPEd) policy in the Philippines, which institutionalizes the practice of cultural interface by combining Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems in the Philippine curriculum. Using actor-centered institutionalism as an analytical framework, this study investigates the motivations and processes behind the Philippine Government’s strategy of employing an interfacing model in policy and curriculum development. Through in-depth expert interviews and policy documents analysis, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of IPEd’s development and stakeholder involvement. The findings reveal that IPEd shifted from assimilationist approaches to an interface model of education, recognizing Indigenous peoples’ representation and rights to education, and participation in national policy development. The implementation of the IPEd policy necessitates continuous dialogue and collaboration between the Indigenous communities and the state, emphasizing rights-based approach to ensure meaningful inclusion of Indigenous knowledge systems. This study contributes to the ongoing agenda of inclusive education for Indigenous peoples at the national policy level.

Keywords: cultural interface, educational policy, Indigenous peoples, inclusive education, rights-based approach

Interest in Indigenous knowledge systems has grown significantly in recent years, despite a long history of disregard and marginalization of Indigenous peoples (Nakata, 2011; Nesterova, 2020). Such growing interest is due in part to global commitments such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). Although UNDRIP remains to be a non-legally binding resolution, it recognizes the importance of Indigenous knowledge and emphasizes its relevance in policymaking, including Indigenous education.

In addition, Indigenous knowledge is increasingly recognized for its strong affinity with knowledge management, inclusivity and diversity (Battiste, 2002; Funk & Woodroffe, 2023; Grande, 2018; Nesterova, 2020). The discourse on Indigenous knowledge and linkage with inclusive education is gaining greater attention and recognition, spearheaded by UNESCO’s Education for All (EFA) and Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Inclusive Education (UNESCO, 1994, 2000). Currently, the linkage is also relevant to ongoing global commitments highlighted in the Education 2030 Incheon Declaration, which commits for Sustainable Development Goal 4 for Quality Education and Sustainable Development (UNESCO, 2015).

Despite these advancements, scholarship on Indigenous knowledge and inclusive education remains under-addressed, overlooking the vital role and agency of Indigenous communities as actors in policy development. This oversight also emphasizes the importance of revisiting how methodologies such as Nakata’s (2007, 2010) cultural interface, are applied at the institutional level. Scholarly literature also lacks discussions of policy development experiences from the Global South, underscoring the need to include such case studies. Understanding these applications is crucial for advancing the discourse on inclusive education and ensuring meaningful inclusion of Indigenous knowledge systems in the national education curriculum.

The Indigenous Peoples’ Education (IPEd) policy is a pioneer initiative of the Philippine Government under the Department of Education (DepEd) that institutionalizes the interfacing of Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems into the national basic education curriculum. The policy reform aligns with Nakata’s concept of cultural interface within educational policies, demonstrating a critical inclusionary approach rather than the incorporation of Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems. The IPEd policy serves as a concurrent national strategy of the Philippine Government to fulfill the global commitment of EFA, which aims to recognize and reconcile the educational needs and aspirations of Indigenous peoples and cultural communities within the national curriculum through the interface approach.

Building on this, using the case study of the Philippines, this study shows why and how a Global South state in the Asia-Pacific adopt an Indigenous education policy as its nationwide strategy for interfacing Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems in national education. It seeks to investigate the motivations and processes behind the Philippine Government’s strategy to employ interfacing model in institutional policy and curriculum development. This paper reviews the overall development and implementation of IPEd policy,

followed by highlighting pertinent policy implications and lessons learned from the policy experience.

Literature Review

Indigenous Education

Scholars emphasized the strong link between Indigenous education, knowledge systems and heritage. Jacob and colleagues (2014) define Indigenous education as “the path and process whereby individuals gain knowledge and meaning from their Indigenous heritages” (p. 3), highlighting its lifelong, reciprocal nature and spiritual dimension (p. 3-4).

Indigenous education consists of diverse forms, such as participatory learning in Sub-Saharan African schools (Shizha, 2014), language revitalization in New Zealand’s Maori programs (Boshier, 2014), and Australia’s Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages Framework (Australian Government, 2018). Multicultural education is practiced in Papua New Guinea’s Abelam community, blending ancestral knowledge with global orientations (Scaglion, 2014), and Peru’s Somos Incas (Porter, 2014). Taiwan’s policies aim to “preserve” Indigenous cultures (Nesterova, 2019a, 2019b). Environmental education, tied to land is practiced in Kenya’s Maasai communities (Hoare et al., 2022) and the Indigenous Environmental Network among Native Americans (Indigenous Environmental Network, n.d.).

Despite these varied practices, much of the scholarship focuses on curriculum content rather than reasons for its national inclusion. Discussions often link Indigenous education to oppression, imperialism and Western colonialism (Smith, 2021). Scholars classify Indigenous education as inherently critical due to its resistance to Western models (Archibald, 2006; Freire, 1970; Funk & Woodroffe, 2023). The exclusion and marginalization of Indigenous education within Eurocentric systems is well-documented (Battiste, 2002; Battiste & Henderson, 2000; Jacob, Liu, et al., 2014; Nakata, 2007). Therefore, understanding Indigenous education requires acknowledging its historical context and the issues surrounding colonial influence. Thus, it is essential to discuss its history and include it in global policy and academic dialogues.

Global Indigenous Education Policies

International Commitments

The formal recognition of Indigenous peoples’ right to education began with the 1993 Draft Declaration of Indigenous Peoples, later evolving into UNDRIP in 2007. Article 14 of UNDRIP affirms Indigenous peoples’ right to establish and control their educational systems in their languages and cultural methods, and recommends states support to address these educational needs (UN, 2007).

The UN has played a key role in addressing Indigenous issues, especially education at the international level. The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) emphasized the importance of Indigenous education for preserving languages, ancestral domains and lands, and recognizing traditional lands and natural resources (UNPFII, 2003). The forum has also highlighted the importance of culture, being “a major part of the survival of Indigenous peoples” (UNPFII, 2003).

UNDRIP, albeit a non-legally binding resolution, aims to “correct” historical injustices and respond to educational marginalization (Battiste, 2002; Battiste & Henderson, 2000; May & Aikman, 2003). Scholars view Article 14 of UNDRIP as enabling other fundamental rights through education, including political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights (Hohmann & Weller, 2018).

At present, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in 2015 further aligned with UNDRIP, expanding Indigenous education rights to include inclusive access to all education levels (UN DESA, 2016b, 2016a). Article 14 also mandates state actions in partnership with the Indigenous communities (Hohmann & Weller, 2018).

Despite these advancements, UNDRIP’s non-legally binding nature makes its provisions optional, hindering progress in fulfilling Indigenous educational rights. International bodies often use non-binding declarations like UNDRIP for diplomatic reasons, affecting governmental adoption, particularly in the education sector, where marginalization persists (Jacob, Cheng, et al., 2014; Nesterova, 2023).

Educational Policy Experiences Around the World

Establishing policies that directly or indirectly address Indigenous education at the national level remains a primary strategy for governments to protect and fulfill the educational rights of Indigenous peoples. Many of such policies aim mostly at revitalizing languages and fostering multiculturalism (Cortina, 2017b; Nesterova, 2019a; Shwed et al., 2018). Some policies also emphasize on assimilationist practices or more on the attendance of Indigenous students in mainstream schools (Gordon, 1965; Hohmann & Weller, 2018; Leite, 2014). Other policies also practice a so-called segregation where governments establish boarding schools, separating Indigenous schools from the mainstream school systems (Cole, 2011; May & Aikman, 2003; A. Smith, 2009). The following presents selected policy experiences reviewed around the world that show nationwide educational policies that address educational needs of the state’s Indigenous peoples.

In current literature, Australia is often highlighted as a key example of a state actively involved in Indigenous educational policies due to the government’s ongoing initiatives aimed at addressing the educational concerns of its Indigenous peoples. Australia released the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Strategy in 2015 which aims to address the educational needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. The strategy strongly

emphasizes on the following priorities: (1) attendance and engagement of the Indigenous students; and (2) inclusion of Indigenous languages. It also aims to provide support to the Indigenous learners the pathways to tertiary education through vocational and technical education and encourages inclusion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives in the Australian Curriculum (Australian Government, 2017, 2021).

Another country that is often highlighted in current literature for nationwide policies is Australia’s neighboring country, New Zealand. Known for its Māori communities across the country, New Zealand has long been launching language revitalization policies since the 1970s by formalizing the use of Māori language in formal, informal and nonformal settings (Archibald, 2006; Boshier, 2014). In addition, the country enables Kura Kaupapa Māori program where children are taught Māori language and lifeways. Tocker (2015) notes that the restructuring of New Zealand’s Department of Education enabled a policy space for such program to be established.

In North America, policies such as affirmative action in the US prioritizes scholarships and admissions for Native Americans (Robotham, 2011). However, these policies often overlook the specific cultural and educational needs of the Native American students. In Canada, the policy practice of boarding schools, including First Nation residential schools, has historically been prevalent (Battiste, 2002; A. Smith, 2009; Watson, 2014).

In Latin America, many countries strive to improve the equity and equality of education for Indigenous children by advancing Indigenous languages and culturally relevant education (Cortina, 2017a). This effort is driven by the regionwide Intercultural Bilingual Education (EIB) model, which aims to promote and reclaim Indigenous languages and cultures (Herrera, 2017). Cortina (2017b) argued that reforms in pre-service and in-service teacher education, as well as Indigenous language instruction, have supported EIB’s implementation in Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. However, many policies do not directly address Indigenous peoples and lack specific protocols for effectively integrating Indigenous perspectives into curricula.

Many initiatives in Asia focus on strengthening and revitalizing languages, including indirectly addressing languages of the region’s Indigenous peoples (Hogan-Brun & O’Rourke, 2019). For instance, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) released the ASEAN Charter that promote respect for the languages in the region. These include integrating bilingual education and some provisions to introduce Indigenous languages and cultural histories in the curriculum, as highlighted in Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand and the Philippines (Kirkpatrick & Liddicoat, 2017; Sercombe, 2019).

Overall, despite significant policy developments and experiences, many policies still present blanketed and generalized aims of improving the quality education to enhance the inclusion of Indigenous peoples with the oversaturation on addressing Indigenous languages. However, there is lack of scholarly discussion on Indigenous representation in policy process, as well as

the implementation of a rights-based approach and the development of specific policy practices that realize cultural interface at the institutional level.

Cultural Interface

Scholars have argued that Western and Indigenous models were historically seen as irreconcilable (Russell, 2005; Verran, 2005). However, recent efforts have aimed to bridge these methodologies and philosophies. Non-Indigenous, typically Western and Eurocentric models, have dominated, prompting a paradigm shift towards inclusive integration. Nakata's (2007, 2010) work on cultural interface is pivotal in this discourse, advocating for nuanced interplay between Indigenous knowledge systems with non-Indigenous dominant scientific thought. This approach fosters meaningful engagement and recognizes Indigenous knowledge bearers (Nakata, 2007, 2010). Today, including Indigenous knowledge in national curricula empowers Indigenous learners, affirming their identities and addressing historical marginalization for a more culturally responsive and inclusive educational experience.

Despite these advancements, there remain knowledge gaps in the current discourse of Indigenous educational policy. Firstly, there is a lack of discussion on rights-based policy process, which is crucial to ensure the substantive inclusion of Indigenous perspectives, rather than symbolic and performative approaches. Secondly, there is a need for specific protocols and tools that facilitate cultural interface. While the concept of cultural interface is wellestablished theoretically, practical guidelines and tools for its implementation are underexplored. Finally, the participation of Indigenous peoples in the policy process is often under-addressed, particularly in policy experiences in the Global South. With these in mind, this study aims to address such gaps by highlighting the case of the Philippines’ current national Indigenous educational policy.

The Philippine Indigenous Educational Policy

The Philippines presents an interesting case study since it is among the pioneers from the Global South to practice innovative approaches to Indigenous education. It is crucial to emphasize that the country has enacted the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA), 10 years before the enactment of UNDRIP. IPRA is the legally binding law that formally recognizes the rights and self-determination of the Indigenous peoples and cultural communities (Legal Assistance Center for Indigenous Peoples’ Rights et al., 1999; the Philippine Government, 1997). IPRA also facilitated the establishment of the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), which remains to be contested and critiqued for its genuine representation of the Indigenous peoples in the Philippines (Almeda et al., 2024; Ambay, 2016). Apart from NCIP, the Indigenous peoples voice their calls and complaints through limited seats under the House of the Representatives, social movements via massive protests and lobbying with the cooperation of local non-governmental organizations and the UNPFII (Miole, 2022, 2024).

With the establishment of IPRA, the country has passed a law enacting the Indigenous Peoples’ Education Policy Framework and Curriculum (IPEd) (Department of Education, 2011). IPEd is the cornerstone initiative of the Philippine Department of Education (DepEd) which features the application of cultural interface that goes beyond the dichotomy between the stateprescribed mainstream and Indigenous special needs education approaches (Victor & Yano, 2015). The so-called interface model has attempted to combine national curriculum and mapped Indigenous educational practices that DepEd had conducted a few years before the enactment. In other words, the overall goal of IPEd is the interfacing policies of Indigenous knowledge systems and practices and DepEd perspectives into the curricula of public schools, particularly those schools which community members called for the aspirational needs of an education that is culturally responsive and recognizes their identity and heritage. With this chosen case, this study sheds light on the Philippine government was able to reconcile Indigenous peoples’ educational needs through IPEd in the Global South context.

Methods

This study addressed the following research questions: (1) Why was the IPEd policy developed? and (2) How was it implemented? To answer these questions, this study employed qualitative research methods to gain in-depth insights into the motivations and processes behind the development of IPEd, as well as the application of cultural interface into the policy.

Data Collection

In-depth expert interviews were conducted with policymakers, DepEd officials, particularly within the Indigenous Peoples’ Education Office and other individuals directly involved in the development, formulation and implementation of the IPEd policy. These interviews aimed to uncover motivations, challenges and strategies employed by key policy actors in the development and implementation processes. In this study, 5 participants were selected via purposive sampling technique and snowball sampling in recruiting further participants. Interviews were transcribed and coded via NVivo, a qualitative research software for organizing and managing interview data.

Table 1

List of Participants

Participants (Ps) Gender

Role/Position

P1 F IPEd policy actor and IPEd Office head

P2 M IPEd policy actor, curriculum designer and implementer

P3 F IPEd monitor and evaluator; collaborated with P2

P4 F IPEd curriculum designer, monitor and evaluator from Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

P5 M Historian; IPEd curriculum evaluator

To support the interview data, policy documents were collected from DepEd offices following the Philippine Government’s protocol on Electronic Freedom of Information (FOI). Documents were analyzed using content analysis from the coded data in identifying key themes and patterns related to the development and implementation of the IPEd policy. Analysis was then furthered using theoretical framework such as the actor-centered institutionalism.

Data Analysis

This study utilized actor-centered institutionalism (ACI) by Scharpf (2018). ACI is an interaction-oriented policy framework that studies public-interest-oriented policy that provides an organizing system which explains a social phenomenon (i.e., policy change) through observing Actors as a “proximate cause”, and Institutional Context as a ‘remote cause’ (Scharpf, 2018, pp. 30, 37; Mayntz & Scharpf, 1995, pp. 46-47). In this framework, the focus is on the three main elements: Actors, Constellations, and Modes of Interaction. But the framework begins with Problems, which pertain to challenges or barriers that are to be dealt with by Actors. Actors are those determined by shared orientations and capabilities. This study subdivided Actors into two groups: International Actors and Domestic Actors. Each Actor Group has its Constellations, or the strategies they have employed, and preferences over the outcomes. Lastly, to operationalize their Constellations, Actors were to employ Modes of Interaction or the modes that are shaped or largely influenced by institutional contexts. After Modes of Interaction is the Outcome, of the policy that was created from the policy process. Hence, for this study, the Outcome is the integration of indigenous knowledge in formal higher education. Such an Outcome is interlinked with the current Policy Environment that can influence the Problems in the future.

Findings

Formulation and Development of IPEd

Overview

The development of IPEd by DepEd involved several stages before it was enacted and implemented. It is important to note that it required a paradigm shift from practicing assimilationism to cultural interface. In the 1960s to 1970s, the Philippine Government’s strategy towards the Indigenous peoples at that time was of a form of affirmative action with an assimilationist perspective. This was to get the Indigenous communities “integrated” in the dominant, non-Indigenous society (P6, personal communication, 2021). Older generations within the Indigenous communities tend to discuss how the former initiative Presidential Assistant on National Minorities (PANAMIN), an initiative under the Marcos dictatorship, provided scholarships for the Indigenous peoples to be “integrated” into the schools. PANAMIN was under the supervision of the Commission on National Integration of the Philippines, which is arguably the de fact precursor to NCIP. P1 remarked, “This is why

Indigenous peoples, particularly the elderly, shun away from the use of the term ‘integration’” (personal communication, 2022).

Before the IPRA law was enacted, the Indigenous peoples in the Philippines were not considered “Indigenous peoples” at all, but they were considered the colonial ways of categorizing them such, for instance, taga-bundok or mountain dwellers. Thus, IPRA, being the domestic legal framework, considered instrumental in prompting further changes in policy, including reforming the education sector through IPEd. Focusing on education, Sections 28, 30, and 31 of the IPRA law pertain to educational needs of the Indigenous peoples. Most of which stipulates the obligation of the state to provide equal access to various opportunities of the Indigenous peoples through the educational system and allow them the means to conduct their own education as well as providing education in their own respective languages. Under Section 46 of IPRA, NCIP operates in offices, among which include the Office of Education, Culture and Health, which is responsible to oversee, promote and support education implementation of community schools, both formal and informal (The Philippine Government, 1997).

The formal policy development process of IPEd can be traced beginning with DepEd's Order 42 titled, “Permit to Operate Primary Schools for Indigenous Peoples and Cultural Communities” in 2004. This was among the first formal implementation of IPRA following the enactment of IPRA in 1997.

In 2005, with the continuous call from the Indigenous movements sector for a more relevant education, DepEd organized National Assembly on Indigenous Education, a massive conference that started facilitating multisectoral dialogues. These include Indigenous representatives, including the elders and council members of the communities, along with civil societies and advocates of Indigenous peoples.

In 2008, DepEd established the Indigenous Peoples’ Technical Working Group to address educational issues for Indigenous peoples as part of the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA), and the EFA 2015 National Action Plan. In 2009, DepEd organized a consultative consortium with Indigenous elders, community members, civil society organizations, and educators to shape the IPEd policy. This also initiated a nationwide survey of Indigenous educational practices, supported by international donors and NGOs. P1 and P2 highlighted the importance of involving school heads, administrators, principals, and superintendents in developing the IPEd policy. P2 noted, “We have to do the top-down approach first because we believe the heads are influential to the teachers” (personal communication, 2022). DepEd combined top-down and bottom-up approaches, influencing teachers to include Indigenous knowledge systems while consulting with Indigenous communities for content and competencies.

Over two years, DepEd engaged in extensive consultations with Indigenous groups across the country. This led to the issuance of Department Order 101 in 2010, introducing the Indigenous Peoples’ Alternative Learning System (ALS) program under BESRA's 2010-2012

accountability plans. In 2011, after gathering insights from these consultations and validations from elders, DepEd released Department Order 62, formally adopting the national IPEd policy.

The policy development continued beyond this point. In 2014, the Episcopal Commission of Indigenous Peoples, in collaboration with DepEd, released a report highlighting the need for a culturally responsive curriculum. This report spurred DepEd to conduct training and develop a national curriculum more attuned to the needs and aspirations of the Indigenous peoples in the Philippines. Consequently, in 2015, DepEd issued IPEd Curriculum, under Department Order 32.

International Factors

It is worth noting that apart from the pre-existing legal framework that facilitated the establishment of IPEd, international factors also played vital roles in enabling the policymakers to pave the way for its foundations. One of the factors includes international commitments such as the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. This Statement was the first ever of its kind to spearhead the universal norms of inclusive education in the 1990s (UNESCO, 1994). Before becoming a signatory member of the Statement in 1994, the Philippines also had pre-existing legal framework that could influence the signation. These include the Accessibility Law in 1982 (Jocson & Buenrostro, 2024; Santos, 2014) and the amendment of the Constitution in 1987.

Another factor is the EFA principle promoted by UNESCO, as well as the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education. Ten years after the Jomtien Declaration, the World Education Forum adopted the Dakar Framework for Action in April 2000, which specifically aimed to ensure that by 2015 all children, including those from ethnic minorities, have access to free, quality primary education (UNESCO, 2000). The Philippines adopted the Asia-Pacific Regional Framework for Action and became a signatory in 2000. However, this framework did not specifically address Indigenous peoples. In compliance, DepEd released the Philippine EFA 2015 National Action Plan As a compliance, in 2006, DepEd, through National EFA Committee, released a 28-page report entitled, “Functionally Literate Filipinos: An Educated Nation: Philippine EFA 2015 National Action Plan”. In 2009, DepEd created the Regional Committee on EFA to translate the Action Plan into regional languages, review programs to ensure complementary school and non-school approaches and coordinate funding for projects.

International bodies and entities such as the UN system have also directly informed the Philippine Government in shaping the educational reform. These include the state’s active participation at UNPFII; being a signatory member of UNDRIP; and having Victoria TauliCorpuz, a Filipino Indigenous leader representing the UN Special Rapporteur for Indigenous Peoples. Tauli-Corpuz also established what could be among the pioneering Indigenous organizations in Asia, Tebtebba Foundation (also known as Indigenous Peoples’ International Center for Policy Research and Education).

Lastly, educational cooperation via official development assistance (ODA) has also become instrumental in policy reform. Before becoming the IPEd’s office head, P1 served as a consultant under the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAid). AusAid formed a team that provided technical assistance to DepEd’s ongoing initiative on Indigenous education. In 2011, AusAid launched the Philippines Response to Indigenous Peoples’ and Muslim Education Program (PRIME), which aimed to prompt reforms in the policy and improve the quality education of Indigenous peoples and Muslim communities in the Philippines. PRIME has also become a significant tool towards advancing the IPEd curriculum that was released in 2015 (P1, personal communication, 2022).

Domestic Factors

Apart from legal frameworks and international factors, domestic factors played a significantly vital role in formulating the IPEd policy. These include proactive government initiatives such as initiating consultations and survey mapping, partnerships and collaborations with the Indigenous peoples and communities (P2 and P3, personal communication, 2022). P2 also mentioned that to do such initiatives, DepEd had to “put in the right people from the start and P1 is one such person.” (personal communication, 2022). This is because P1 is from an Indigenous Igorot descent, having born and raised in Benguet, a province in Northern Luzon, and having been exposed to AusAid’s educational cooperation.

Another important factor at the domestic level is inter-departmental partnership. DOST is among the major and recurring collaborator closely working with DepEd on enhancing inclusivity and quality of Indigenous education. This is because Indigenous epistemologies, knowledge and practices call for the need for a culturally responsive curriculum and that science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects in classes for Indigenous education are often left underexplored. P4, being a curriculum designer for science education under DOST Science Education Institute, provided training for teachers and faculty staff, following the “Teaching Science to Indigenous Peoples” program of DOST and DepEd (personal communication, 2022). P4 also narrated that the project aims to capacitate teachers in science education that are culturally relevant to the learners. Apart from science education, mathematics is also being tested for IPEd implementation. P3 noted to use ethnomathematics lens in interfacing both Indigenous and non-Indigenous perspectives. Using beadwork from Lumad people in Mindanao, P3 and her team engaged with the Indigenous students and inquired on the use of beadwork as part of their personal pastime and use such activities in learning mathematics. Thus, with the use of tangible items that are familiar with the Indigenous learners, the learning experience could become more effective and easier to learn.

The Indigenous sector’s collective social movements as well as their lobbying and campaigns have also become instrumental in pressuring the Philippine Government in paying careful attention to recognizing their educational needs. P5, an IPEd evaluator and historian, mentioned that the Philippine Government worked hand in hand and maintained close

connections with the Indigenous elders and council members for research and consultations (personal communication, 2021).

Lastly, it is also important to note that the timing of such initiatives coincided with the ongoing peace process in Mindanao, which faced armed conflicts and skirmishes, as well as land grabbing, militarization for decades (Fernandez et al., 2019; Strachan, 2015). Mindanao also composed of the highest number of Indigenous populations in the Philippines.

Cultural Interface Implementation in the IPEd Program

Cultural interface in the IPEd context simply means interplay of perspectives between the national education system prescribed by DepEd and Indigenous knowledge systems and practices (IKSPs) (see Figure 1). P1 narrated that it is the major national strategy of the IPEd

aiming to combine the formal educational structure with the unique cultural and educational practices of Indigenous communities. This pedagogical approach seeks to create an inclusive education model that respects and incorporates Indigenous knowledge within the broader educational framework.

The rationale behind the use of the term “interface” in the policy strategy of DepEd was not because of Nakata’s (2007, 2010) known work of cultural interface, but because of its frequent use in the Philippines’ policy language on themes of combining or blending. P1 (personal

communication, 2022) explained that recently in national policymaking, the term “interface” has emerged. For instance, in the context of “interfacing of policies” or combining of policies – it often appears in government language, especially when two agencies are to collaborate, leading to discussions about the interface of their respective policies. “It seems to be more of a policy-level language… given the terminologies, ‘interface’ seemed the most appropriate to us at that time” (P1, personal communication, 2022). Participants noted that the term is the most fitting among the terminologies currently in use because of its applicability to both policy and implementation. Before interface, they initially considered using “integration”. However, with 'integration,' there is an implication that what is being integrated is secondary to what is dominant, hence there is a sense of hierarchical tendencies. P1 further narrated:

“There's sometimes an implication that what is being integrated is secondary to the dominant system, and it's just being inserted into it. That's the usual connotation of integration. And we didn't want that to be our standpoint. We are approaching it from the perspective of dialogue, where the systems in conversation are viewed as being on equal footing. So, between 'integrate' and 'interface,' 'interface' is the more appropriate term because, at least for now, it carries the notion that the national education system and other systems, like the knowledge systems of Indigenous communities, are on the same level” (personal communication, 2022).

The given narrative above shows the careful yet proactive decision of the government via DepEd to reconsider the wording and shift to “interface” which they deemed more appropriate and conducive in the policy and implementation actions of the national strategy. As highlighted previously, integration has been tarnished by historical background in the Philippines, as the use of the term integration was utilized for an assimilation policy in the country through affirmative action strategies such as providing scholarships to the Indigenous peoples to be “educated” to be “integrated” into the society.

Another important aspect to note in the narrative is the perspective of dialogue mentioned. This means that they did not choose the wording of “interface” alone as a sole department but took into consideration the accounts of the Indigenous communities they have reached out to. Thus, the practice of IPEd’s interface necessitates an iterative process of dialogues between the government and the Indigenous communities for the educational experience to be more nuanced and well-delivered.

Points of Interface

The IPEd curriculum is in the premise on the process of interface between the Indigenous learning system (ILS) of the community and the national education system’s curriculum. The policy states that the scope of Indigenization and localization is determined by DepEd together with the community (DepEd, 2015, p. 14). It encourages both parties to understand each other’s systems and give directions to the process of interface (see Table 2).

Table 2

Points of Interface

Indigenous cultural communities’ Standpoint

Indigenous Learning Systems

IKSPs

Consent-giving process

Points of Interface

Perspective Interface

• Recognition of the rights of Indigenous peoples to their culture, IKSPs and ILS

• Recognition of the right of Indigenous peoples to participate in national development.

Policy Interface

• IPEd Framework

• Rights-based approach

DepEd Standpoint

Formal education / school system and Alternative Learning System

Competencies specified in the curriculum

Government partnership with civil society / private sector

The points of interface are twofold: the level of perspective and the level of policy. At the level of perspective, the points are: (1) recognition by both parties of the rights of Indigenous communities to practice, promote, and develop their culture, IKSPs, and ILS; and (2) recognition by both parties of the right of Indigenous communities to participate in national development. The first point highlights cultural integrity which must be upheld through interface in the inclusion of IKSPs and ILS in the national education system. The second point emphasizes participation in national development. Here, both DepEd and the Indigenous communities regard the Indigenous peoples’ role in nation-building and appreciate the need for culturally responsive education.

At the level of policy, the provisions are multi-fold which refer mostly to the policy statements as prescribed in the IPEd policy. These include principles of inclusion, participation, and empowerment; IKSPs; teacher support in Indigenous areas and communities; and appropriate institutional systems.

Actor-Centered Institutionalist Policy Formulation

It is argued that the policy formulation of IPEd as a national strategy went through a process of actor-centered institutionalism (ACI). According to Scharpf (2018; see also Mayntz & Scharpf, 1995), ACI movements only occur through public interest-oriented fashion of policy change. Thus, in this section, the analysis is outlined through borrowing the ACI framework provided by Scharpf, modified based on the findings, and describes the policy change and development of IPEd program (see fig. 2).

Figure 2

ACI Process for IPEd Policy Formulation

The core entities of this analysis include Problems, Actors, Constellations, Modes of Interaction and Outcome. The peripheral entities are Institutional Context and Policy Environment. The policy formulation was analyzed through ACI framework as exhibited above. The core entities are Problem, Actors, Constellations, Modes of Interaction and Outcome (Miole, 2022).

Problem

The Philippines faces significant Indigenous issues. These include discrimination, exclusion, and the effects of post-assimilation policies like PANAMIN. Indigenous peoples have voiced their lack of access of education, highlighting these ongoing problems.

Initial Actors

Initial actors included the Indigenous peoples, civil societies and non-governmental organizations. They were the ones that raised awareness and promoted social movements to pressure the government to address the problem.

Initial Constellations

These are strategies to appeal to the Philippine Government involved forming coalitions, organizing protests, and advocating for educational reform. Indigenous communities led the push to include DepEd, believing that education could prompt paradigm shifts. This unified movement, along with global commitments to UNDRIP and EFA, led DepEd to recognize Indigenous education policies.

Final International and Domestic Actors

International actors, such as the UN and ODA partners such as AusAid influenced the Philippine Government. Domestic actors include the IPEd Office, NCIP and various

government partners such as DOST. DepEd played a key role in partnering with organizations and Indigenous communities to enrich the curriculum, influenced by early EFA implementation.

Final Constellations

Scharpf (2018) describes Constellations as a combination strategy options and preferences. In this context, the Actors’ Constellations consist of international commitments, social movements and educational cooperation projects. International actors influenced educational cooperation and norms such as PRIME’s theory of Change by AusAid. Domestically, Indigenous peoples organized social movements and national coalitions. DepEd’s strategy of involving Indigenous community members, with the support from NCIP and regional offices, proved effective due to their familiarity and capacity. The influence of EFA norms and an enabling institutional context in the Philippines heightened DepEd’s focus on Indigenous education.

Modes of Interaction

Scharpf (1997) identifies four interaction modes. These are unilateral action, negotiated agreement, majority vote and hierarchical direction. IPEd formulation involved a mix of negotiated agreement and unilateral action. Initial Actors initiated dialogues and appeals, leading to a negotiated agreement. Subsequently, a unilateral action ensued as the government, influenced by international and domestic actors, proactive engaged Indigenous communities in the IPEd policy process.

Outcome and Policy Environment

The Outcome is the implementation of IPEd, representing a collaborative effort between Indigenous communities, DepEd and non-state actors such as civil societies and advocates. For the Policy Environment, this includes domestic and international influences. Domestically, factors include the legal frameworks like IPRA and BESRA and DepEd orders. Internationally, it involves global commitments such as UNDRIP and MDGs.

Institutional Context

Institutional Context sets the circumstances that form the policy setting, venue, or landscape which directly or indirectly affect and influence Actors in the process of policy formulation. There are two great groups: the Domestic and International institutional contexts. The key Domestic Context includes the Philippines’ ongoing conflict and peace processes in Mindanao such as the Bangsamoro transitioning, and Indigenous peoples’ massive movements. On the other hand, the International Context is the EFA agenda, MDGs and UNDRIP.

Discussion

The Need for Rights-Based Approach in Indigenous Educational Policies

Based on Figure 2, institutionalizing cultural interface requires interplaying Indigenous learning systems and national education systems through a rights-based partnership between Indigenous communities and relevant institutions. This approach fosters empowerment by considering rights as both legal entitlements for Indigenous peoples and obligations for the government. While Nakata’s (2007) work on cultural interface has pioneered dialogue between Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems, it lacks focus on the rights-based dimensions which are essential to Indigenous education.

Comparative examples from Australia and New Zealand highlight the importance of a rightsbased framework. Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Strategy in 2015 prioritizes rights of the Indigenous peoples to schooling, participation and the use of their mother tongue languages (Australian Government, 2017, 2021). Similarly, New Zealand language revitalization policies affirm the Māori right to access and use their languages (Archibald, 2006; Boshier, 2014). Both countries aim to treat Indigenous knowledge systems as equal to non-Indigenous systems. However, they encounter challenges of implementation at the national level. In contrast, the Philippines provides a unique policy design that goes beyond school participation and mother tongue language rights, including not only Indigenous knowledge systems but also Indigenous rights in the curriculum, as highlighted in Table 2.

Broadening the cultural interface discourse by incorporating Huaman’s (2017) theory and practice of Indigenous rights education that can strengthen national programs like the Philippines’ IPEd program. Institutionalizing cultural interface and Indigenous rights education at a national level ensures broader state recognition, moving beyond segregated Indigenous-led schools.

Beyond Non-Binding Resolutions and Generalized Aims

The non-binding nature of Indigenous educational policies presents a global challenge, as demonstrated in international commitments such as UNDRIP and in policy experiences from across various countries and regions. The literature reveals a high prevalence of state institutions focusing on language revitalization and increasing school participation. However, there is limited evidence of binding resolutions that emphasize rights-based, cultural interface approaches. For instance, while the US has a strong intention to prioritize scholarship programs and admissions for Native Americans (Robotham, 2011), assimilationist approaches persist, which minimizes Indigenous knowledge systems in the curriculum (Leite, 2014; Shwed et al., 2018). In Australia and New Zealand, strong commitments to Indigenous language support lack the binding resolutions needed to comprehensively address Indigenous education needs. Thus, the Philippine case illustrates how institutionalizing a cultural interface approach through policy can effectively prioritize Indigenous education in the national scale.

Institutionalized cultural interface has a potential to extend beyond grassroots customary level and can transcend into institutional and structural level of implementation, thereby informing for a more binding nature of Indigenous educational policies. Based on the Points of Interface (Table 2) revealed in the findings, DepEd’s strategies are two-fold: localization and Indigenization. Localization is the surface-level of relating the learning content for an enhanced learning experiences for the students. It involves connecting the curriculum’s learning content to local information and materials found within the learners’ community (DepEd, 2015). Whereas Indigenization refers to the process of relating the content to the bio-geographical, historical, and socio-cultural context of the learners' community (DepEd, 2015, p. 26). Indigenization may also involve the enhancement of the curriculum framework, curriculum design, and learning standards of subject areas, guided by the standards and principles adhered to in the national curriculum. In the related literature review on Indigenous pedagogies particularly multicultural education, Smith and colleagues (2021) posit that Indigenization is a process of integrating Indigenous perspectives, knowledge, methodologies, and systems into various domains, including education. Thus, this suggests that Indigenization can be practiced within the top-down institutional spaces, not just in grassroot and bottom-up spaces.

Cultural interface does not only advocate for the intersection but also for a more careful integration and intersection of Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge systems, allowing for a space for meaningful engagements and recognition of Indigenous peoples and knowledge bearers (Nakata, 2007, 2010; Battiste, 2002; Battiste & Henderson, 2000). However, what needs to be further explored is its implementation at the national level and the possibility of being institutionalized nationwide. Thus, for an institutionalized cultural interface to occur, it requires not only the state institutions and Indigenous communities to come through and collaborate, but with the following essential premises: (1) the proactive inclusion of mid-space actors such as Indigenous representatives, civil society organizations, experts, knowledge bearers, representatives and (2) the strength of the political and legal policy framework.

Current literature also reveals that oversaturation of existing Indigenous policies on generalized aims and focus on Indigenous languages. For instance, ASEAN does not impose binding resolutions due to the principle of non-interference among countries, thereby only recommending the ASEAN Charter that fosters respect for the languages (Kirkpatrick & Liddicoat, 2017; Sercombe, 2019). In contrast, the Philippines steered beyond broad language rights to considering the Indigenous peoples as a special matter nationwide.

It is important to note that laws and policies that embody institutionalization of cultural interface necessitate an iterative process of evaluating, implementing, and validating, with the conscious presence of Indigenous communities. The policy is itself imperfect and bound to have loopholes. It was even criticized for its tokenistic nature (P2 and P5, personal communication, 2023), but perhaps what needs to be done here is careful contextualization and proper implementation. The challenge therefore is the resources, technical support and assistance provided by DepEd regional offices and divisional units.

Indigenous Representation in the Policy Process

Current literature reveals the limited exploration of Indigenous peoples’ representation in educational policy development, largely because significant inclusion is a recent occurrence. Examples include the establishment of ministries dedicated to Indigenous peoples such as the National Indigenous Australian Agency in 2019 and the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples in Brazil in 2023 (Australian Government, n.d.; Vilela, 2023). While policy circles have increasingly emphasized including Indigenous voices in policymaking in educational reforms, specific discussions on their roles in the policy process remain under-discussed. For instance, Māori leaders’ involvement in language revitalization initiatives helped shaped programs such as the Kura Kaupapa Māori in New Zealand (Boshier, 2014). In contrast, the Philippines demonstrates a case of how Indigenous representatives helped shaped the development of the IPEd program. This section explores how Indigenous peoples can be effectively included in the policy process.

The proactive inclusion of mid-space actors is among the important aspects for an institutionalized cultural interface to occur. This is because of the nature of the initial and final actors. It is therefore important to consider locally grounded characteristics or threshold of the chosen policy actors, as learned from the case study. Thus, the recruitment process of who to deploy and utilize in terms of institutionalization of cultural interface is significantly crucial. Learning from the IPEd policy process, the government was able to recruit individuals and groups who have an extensive knowledge, experiences, and expertise of Indigenous education. Those who were behind the scenes of consulting and surveying across the country. Another important factor is the conscious effort, political and cultural will of the governmental midspace actors to directly consult and involve the Indigenous peoples by dedicating a period of organizing massive orientation workshops and conferences. This was done because of the decentralized characteristics of the governmental units in the Philippines. With the support from NCIP regional offices, along with DepEd’s own division offices, the ways to reach out to as many Indigenous communities as they could were instrumental in the policy process.

However, among the challenges for this is how the governments treat mid-space actors. If they are not well compensated or are given temporary contracts to work on the policy process and action, then it would only greatly affect the quality and standards of the institutionalization. So, it is suggested to maintain an enabling environment with substantial benefits enough for the mid-space actors to retain.

Implications

This study reveals that developing and implementing cultural interface through nationwide policy and curriculum is achievable, contributing to the discourses on inclusive Indigenous education. This approach proactively includes Indigenous voices and representation, incorporating their input into the public education system. Countries and educational institutions with strong, supported Indigenous movements and frameworks should adopt educational models that view Indigenous education not simply as integral, but as interfacial.

Embracing an interfacial perspective means recognizing Indigenous learning systems as equal to the dominant, national, non-Indigenous education system. The following are implications for policy and curriculum development, and educational leadership and practice.

For Policy and Curriculum Development

For policy and curriculum developers, it is strongly recommended to institutionalize Indigenous education programs on a national scale, including them within the framework of citizenship education. This national strategy should extend beyond Indigenous learners, allowing non-Indigenous learners in diverse localities to engage with and appreciate Indigenous communities and educational experiences they provide. Thus, Indigenous education aligns with and enhances citizenship education by contributing to nation- and identity-building efforts. Moreover, it is essential to involve Indigenous representatives (e.g., Indigenous teachers, elders of communities, advocates) in policy and curriculum processes, as they possess the knowledge and expertise critical to ensuring meaningful and sustainable inclusion. The principle of “nothing about them without them” highlights the importance of their active participation in shaping these initiatives.

For Educational Leadership and Practice

Educational administrators and practitioners are advised to consider implementing the following recommendations: (1) creation of Indigenous-led committees and working groups to guide the implementation of culturally relevant programs; and (2) the establishment of an overarching framework on the proactively includes Indigenous voices and agency in leadership and practice.

As with prior recommendations, efforts to achieve inclusive education for Indigenous communities should prioritize Indigenous-led initiatives, with comprehensive support for capacity building and training from relevant partners, including the governments and development donors. It is essential to ensure that Indigenous representatives are fully informed of their rights, particularly their educational rights. Such committees and working groups provide essential platforms for Indigenous voices and agency, allowing meaningful participation in administration and broader discursive circles, ultimately fostering positive societal change.

Establishing an overarching framework for proactive inclusion ensures that Indigenous education prioritizes agency and representation. These elements are fundamental to selfdetermination, a critical aspect of Indigenous rights worldwide. Policy and academic bodies are thereby recommended to consider the agency of the Indigenous peoples by granting them seats of representation in administrative and educational practices. In this way, the education sector becomes a crucial drive within Indigenous affairs, where inclusivity and empowerment can contribute to long-term, sustainable change.

Acknowledgment

The author would like to thank the Philippine Department of Education’s Indigenous Peoples’ Education Office for their valuable research participation. This research is funded by the Waseda University Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies Haraguchi Memorial Research Fund.

Author Affiliation Note

This study was conducted while the author was affiliated with Waseda University as a PhD candidate. The author is currently affiliated with the University of Tokyo and United Nations University as a postdoctoral research fellow.

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Corresponding author: Giselle Lugo Miole

Email: miole@g.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Navigating a Path of Uncertainty: Profiling Novice Teachers as Adaptive Leaders

Edwin Darrell De Klerk North-West University, South Africa

June Monica Palmer

Central University of Technology, South Africa

Abstract

Increasingly, novice teachers function in complex learning environments that require heightened resilience and making calculated, sometimes unexpected decisions. Undoubtedly, novice teachers in the African context must adapt to the persistent weaknesses of inadequate education systems, characterized by underperforming learners, high learner drop-out rates, limited resources, and possible un-employability after completing their studies. In exploring the realities of novice teachers in two provinces of South Africa, this paper aimed to understand how novice teachers’ adaptive leadership ability can support them in transforming their schools during challenging times. An adaptive leadership profiling framework is conceptualized, according to the novice teachers’ portrayal of their adaptive leadership ability during uncertain and challenging times. Novice teachers’ narratives and semi-structured interviews informed the qualitative data collection process. An interpretative phenomenological analysis was conducted to analyze the data. The findings revealed that novice teachers desire an enabling leadership environment in which they can contribute meaningfully to improving their schools. Novice teachers echoed concern about the creation of a psychologically safe environment in which to function, while they are engaging in a process of sense-making of their realities. Finally, novice teachers’ contributions to sustainable change must be acknowledged, while leadership strategies must be explored to overcome the adaptive challenges they face.

Keywords: adaptive challenge, adaptive leadership, novice teachers, psychological safety

Drysdale and Gurr (2017) explain that in times of prodigious transformation, difficulty and ambiguity, school leaders (principals, senior management teams and teachers) are confronted to adapt and navigate their way through the flow of external and internal forces to create the most constructive outcomes for themselves, their schools, their learners, and the wider school community. Many novice teachers encounter various obstacles or “transition shocks” (Farrell, 2016), necessitating the development of strategies to address concerns, associated with these challenges. Therefore, while novice teachers are dealing with heightened complexity and uncertainty, consideration should be given to implementing tangible solutions to assist them in adapting to transformative school environments.

This study focused on novice teachers’ adaptive leadership ability to influence and transform their learning spaces during challenging times. Novice teachers are newly qualified teachers with less than five years of teaching experience, who are expected to adapt quickly to the school environment in which they find themselves in (Makoa & Segalo, 2021). However, Muyumbano (2019) emphasizes that novice teachers are usually challenged by feelings of isolation and an absence of support that contribute to underperformance in their teaching roles. Moreover, their frustrations are exacerbated by their powerlessness to deal with differences between idealistic beliefs and realities experienced in their classrooms. Additionally, novice teachers experience challenges with, amongst others, classroom management, discipline, motivation, learners’ work, and relationships with learners’ parents (Muyumbano, 2019). The intricacy and ambiguity surrounding new teachers' identities and their responsibilities in the classroom are further compounded by the fact that they enter the profession with inflated expectations. Naturally, novice teachers become uncertain in terms of how they lead and how they teach and are many a time left with the complexity of “what happened, why it happened, how they should respond, or even what response options are available” (Jordan et al., 2014, p. 328). Interestingly, there is a dearth of publicly available data about the adaptive leadership skills of inexperienced teachers. Meirink and colleagues (2018) suggest that, although novice teachers are capable of enacting leadership roles, they need to develop skills and knowledge to optimize their leadership competencies. Thus, we believe that initiating this research is essential, because we want to help create passionate and committed new teachers, who can use adaptive leadership to find their way as recently hired employees in educational institutions.

This paper explored novice teachers’ profiles as adaptive leaders to navigate a path of uncertainty during their first years as teachers at schools. From previous research, it is known that the interplay between principals’ and novice teachers’ actions is crucial to successfully developing leadership roles (Cheng & Szeto, 2016). Therefore, by acknowledging and empowering novice teachers with adaptive leadership skills—especially in trying circumstances—this paper aimed to assist them in gaining a great deal of self-assurance and confidence.

Aim and Objective

This paper aimed to explore novice teachers’ profiles as adaptive leaders to navigate a path of uncertainty during their first years as teachers at schools. Given the necessity of deepening the dialogue about the phenomenon under study, the objectives of this paper were to:

1. obtain insights into the adaptive challenges novice teachers face in their quest to transform their learning spaces;

2. interpret novice teachers’ perceptions of their adaptive leadership ability to navigate themselves during times of complexity; and to

3. propose an adaptive leadership profiling framework that may assist novice teachers in positioning themselves in creating enabling environments for learning.

To achieve the aforementioned objectives, we applied an adaptive leadership theory to guide our thinking, regarding the profiling of novice teachers as adaptive leaders.

Adaptive Leadership Theory

The Adaptive Leadership Theory (ALT) recognizes that individuals must adapt to stay relevant in a complex and uncertain world (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997). Strong emphasis is placed on a change in how leadership was executed before, whilst it has become important to promote collaboration, considering feelings and intellectual reasoning amongst individuals, and encouraging them to work adaptively (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997). To do adaptive work, individuals [novice teachers] should be mindful of how to collaboratively explore new activities, principles, beliefs and unfamiliar solutions to speak to educational challenges and practices (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020). Thus, for novice teachers to transform their schools in times of complexity and uncertainty, they should consider that,

“If you stay moving on the dance floor, all you will see will be the people dancing with you and around you. Swept up in the music, it may be a great party! But when you get on the balcony, you may see a very different picture” (Heifetz et al., 2009, p. 7).

The quotation signifies that novice teachers may not be able to recognize that complex circumstances require action to improve current situations. Thus, when they are willing to move from the dance floor (engaging the self) and go to the balcony (engaging in transformative action), they may be empowered to navigate adaptive leadership practices for transformative change in their teaching practices (Raei, 2018). In so doing, novice teachers may be in a position where they have to step back from the dancing moment, assess what is happening from a wider perspective, and then take on an adaptive leadership stance. Having said this, we are cognizant that individuals are not the same, and the contexts in which they find themselves in, might not be the same. Of significance though is that an adaptive leadership stance implies that novice teachers can be empowered to know differently and do differently in terms of the enactment of adaptive leadership. De Klerk and Palmer (2021) declare that differences in seeing and doing may open the door for novice teachers to adapt intelligently, grow adaptively,

and employ adaptive practices. In this regard, novice teachers’ personal views of the kind of adaptive leaders they may be, can spark the integration of creative and compelling ideas that are coherent to persuade the self and others to act on required changes in schools. In this paper, we employed a combination of thoughts about adaptive leadership theory (De Klerk & Palmer, 2021; Heifetz et al., 2009; Joseph, 1991). Therefore, ALT may be articulated as an application of trustworthy ideas that can assist novice teachers in developing innovative processes of working, during and beyond changing circumstances, to contribute to transformative change in schools. As such, ALT was useful to our research, because “the adaptive demands of our time require leaders who take responsibility without waiting for revelation or request. One can lead with no more than a question in hand” (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 134). Of more significance, navigating a path through uncertainty does not imply that principals should be at the forefront, because adaptive problems in schools are not found in school leaders, “but in the collective intelligence of employees at all levels, who need to use one another as resources, often across boundaries, and learn their way to those solutions” (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 124). Thus, ALT holds that to understand the deeper meanings of navigating the self through times of uncertainty, individuals’ [novice teachers’] voices need to be heard, regarding their ability to enact adaptive leadership (Nelson & Squires, 2017).

The Socio-Political Context in South Africa

The process of democratization in South Africa started in 1994, ending the era of racial segregation and gross inequalities in all spheres of life, including education. Education in South Africa was informed by the experiences of racial discrimination and horrible suppression, ranging from the ethnic isolation of schools, the obvious disparities in educational provisions, the proscription of educational information, and the non-recognition of "black" experiences and views in knowledge construction (Kallaway, 2002; Nkomo, 1990). After the abolishment of apartheid, the White Paper on Education and Training (Republic of South Africa [RSA], 1995) was the first policy document that paved the way for the transformation of this country’s education system. This policy document explicitly indicates that there must be “fair opportunities for training and advancement in the education service…to ensure an effective leadership cadre” (p. 21). Despite policy provisions like this (RSA, 1995), South African novice teachers still struggle to adjust in schools, experience poor mentoring, and an absence of professional collegiality (Makoa & Segalo, 2021), thus contributing to a delay in adapting and showing leadership in terms of their development. In line with the views of the South African Department of Higher Education, teachers’ adaptive struggles can be listed as part of the skills gap in this country (RSA, 2024). Therefore, there should be “investments in basic education to equip individuals with adaptable skills that align with the demands of a rapidly changing world of work” (RSA, 2024, p. 32). In an attempt to invest in narrowing the gap (RSA, 2024), this paper shares information on how novice teachers can navigate a path of uncertainty through an application of adaptive leadership skills.

Novice Teachers and Adaptive Challenges

The first few years of teaching are a time of great change for novice teachers worldwide as they take on the duties of lesson design, instruction, assessment of learners, and the expectation that they must perform as leaders inside and beyond the classroom (Smagorinsky et al., 2015).

Ferris (2019) reiterates: “In today’s time of constant change and turbulence, agility and anticipation of change are crucial to survival” (p. 1). Ferris’s (2019) observation implies that adaptive leaders should not only take control of changing situations, but they must be able to navigate their paths of uncertainty by diagnosing, interposing and transforming as a means of creating capabilities that align with leadership ambitions.

Van der Pers and Helms-Lorenz’s (2019) study in the Randstad region of the Netherlands, examined the involvement of schools’ local features in the effective teaching behaviour of 1,945 beginning teachers in secondary education. A strong focus of Van der Pers and HelmsLorenz’s (2019) paper is that of the adaptive instruction skills of beginner (novice) teachers. The findings revealed that novice teachers in the Randstad region have weaker adaptive instruction skills, than their counterparts, in more urban areas of the Netherlands. This results in an increase in inequity of learning opportunities, thus having implications for how novice teachers can lead adaptively in their classrooms and the school. In their study, De Klerk and Palmer (2021) advise that school leaders should assist teachers [also novice teachers] to adopt alternative strategies so that they can be ready when adaptive action is required in schools. The relevance of this statement is confirmed by a prior view of Gillespie (2014), who asserts that “teachers must be involved in adaptive leadership, and adaptive challenges cannot be overcome without them” (p. 1). Thus, [novice] teachers must have access to suitable information and use their independence to transfer their thoughts so that they can become self-directed and portray an ability to be adaptive leaders themselves (De Klerk & Palmer, 2021).

Model of Adaptive Leadership (Northouse, 2016)

Figure 1

In a South African study, Petersen (2017) uncovers how novice teachers must move hastily from being university graduates to assuming new responsibilities, relating to teaching, learning and leadership. The problem is that many novice teachers cannot adapt so quickly, because they do not understand the contexts of the schools and they do not completely understand how to deal with the situational challenges they face. Apart from the situational (adaptive) challenges, novice teachers must navigate the technical challenges with the appropriate behaviours, thus finding it challenging to adapt to working with learners, leading in disorderly classrooms, and collaborating and socializing with their colleagues. Although induction programmes are available in most educational settings, they mostly do not provide information to novice teachers on how to be functional in their roles as teachers and leaders, who frequently have to engage in adaptive work (Dishena & Mokoena, 2016). Drawing on the authors (Dishena & Mokoena, 2016; Gcabashe, 2021; Petersen, 2017), novice teachers’ ability to lead in South African schools is still at its most challenging juncture. Adaptive leadership works in the face of new and increasing expectations, therefore, researchers must find ways to close the knowledge gap (Heifetz, 1998) about individuals’ (novice teachers’) ability to enact this kind of leadership. As such, this study sought to provide insights into how novice teachers profile their ability to enact adaptive leadership to navigate an enabling leadership environment for them to transform learning spaces. Such insights may contribute to a better understanding of how to support and optimize the conditions for novice teachers to develop strong adaptive leadership aptitudes.

Adaptive Leadership Environment for Novice Teachers

Novice teachers should be viewed as upcoming professionals with “energetic, innovative, and unclouded perspectives” (Pangan & Lupton, 2015, p. 120), who have the potential to be significant change agents in their learning spaces (Cheng & Szeto, 2016). The literature on novice teachers' development as adaptive leaders, however, is scarce, despite decades of empirical research on the phenomena of leadership development (Meirink et al., 2020). From the works of a few authors, we identified key aspects to bring about an understanding of the creation of an enabling adaptive leadership environment for novice teachers. Firstly, schools should create an environment that promotes risk-taking and fosters autonomy (Kouzes & Posner, 2017). Secondly, schools should support [novice] teachers in taking risks, planning independently, and delivering evidence-based instruction (DeMatthews et al., 2020). Thirdly, schools should create adaptive spaces where diverse team members take risks and combine their knowledge to plan equally and make decisions (Chrobot-Mason & Robertson, 2021). To be effective adaptive leaders, novice teachers must understand how complex situations in schools are and should be innovative when it comes to solutions and inspire others to pursue more ambitious goals. Throughout their works, Heifetz and colleagues (2009) emphasize the importance of rethinking how individuals see problems and how they should act to adapt to challenging and complex situations. Thus, for schools to thrive, novice teachers as adaptive leaders will need support to contribute meaningfully to the transformation of their schools.

Transformed Learning Environments Through Adaptive Leadership

The challenges novice teachers must respond to in South African secondary schools are not just limited to curriculum practice, including classroom management, lesson planning and assessment that they must navigate, but they are steadily becoming affiliates of a new school community with its own culture. With these changes, school principals are expected to share leadership with School Management Teams (SMTs) and teachers, and to lead in a transparent, democratic and participatory manner (Ngcobo & Tikly, 2010). Novice teachers’ agency in contributing to transformed learning environments, is largely contingent upon the opportunities provided to enact leadership ability and their contributions to the wider school context.

Peng and colleagues (2019) assert that a transformed learning environment provides possibilities for the development of personalized learning and also building adaptive learning. Firstly, personalized learning requires that individuals (novice teachers) should freely use their intelligence and emancipate from their static existence so that they can be able to escape boredom and a lack of enthusiasm, whilst playing an active role in bringing about change in their learning environments (Dewey, 1903; Nagle & Bishop, 2021). Secondly, adaptive learning implies that novice teachers may be able to make adaptive adjustments during times of change in schools (Peng et al., 2019). We, therefore, contend that when novice teachers play an active role in bringing about change and deliberately engage in adaptive adjustments, they can create transformed learning environments through adaptive leadership. Thus, when novice teachers are aware of changing realities, they may realize that it is important to “take small, strategic, and deliberate risks” (Brown, 2023, p. 4). In so doing, novice teachers may be aware that in the creation of transformed learning environments, they might be required to move beyond the realms of their abilities and know-how, whilst shifting their beliefs of how things ought to be dealt with in schools (Heifetz, 1998). When such realization becomes a reality, novice teachers may see themselves as engines of change through autonomous thinking and the promotion of diversity of thought, whilst courageously navigating the transformation of learning spaces in schools (see Novias, 2023).

Description of Adaptive Leadership Profiles

In this section, we present three adaptive leadership profiles, showing how novice teachers can fuel innovation and creativity, but also build strength, supporting them to adapt and thrive in changing work environments.

Transformative Adaptive Leadership

Adaptive leaders employ distinct approaches, leverage intelligence, and embrace a holistic understanding of shifting circumstances in their world of work (Thanager & Company, 2023). Such an ability is supported by an understanding of the transformative power of leadership, emphasizing why it is pivotal to uplift the self and others, dispel negativity, and chart a course for success (Singh, 2023). By focusing on and dispelling pessimism, a transformative adaptive leader sets the stage for an atmosphere that nurtures collaboration, innovation and success.

Thus, as novice teachers attempt to navigate the intricacies of change in schools, they deliberately recognize and leverage the transformative adaptive potential of leadership. In this way, they exchange perspectives on challenges, and break down the walls of negativity, whilst creating paths towards triumph (Singh, 2023). Novice teachers, who are associated with transformative adaptive leadership, are thus individuals, who engage in courageous actions to build more promising futures for themselves and others. They use transformative goals and adaptive actions to take risks and think innovatively so that they can drive change in schools (Grain, 2022).

Wisdom-Based Adaptive Leader

Wisdom is the understanding required to make reliably good decisions about how we ought to live (Swartwood & Tiberius, 2019). Wisdom is manifested in one’s way of handling daily events, managing one’s own life, making critical life decisions, and taking wise actions that would exert a significant and positive effect on human life (Bao et al., 2022). Individuals thus integrate thoughts and feelings to adapt to changing situations so that they can “withstand life’s pitfalls, … extract the concealed (and many times undetected and unsearched for) reason that’s interwoven, … to forge forward to make progress” (Swartwood & Tiberius, 2019). In this regard, individuals interfere with changing moments, apply flexibility to different ways of thinking, and embrace opportunities to re-frame their actions as experiments in adaptiveness (Guttman, 2020). Novice teachers, who are associated with wisdom-based adaptiveness embrace the unavoidability of change, and harness its power, whilst transforming it into a catalyst for professional and personal development. Our view is underscored by Jagtiani (2023), who purports that “It allows you to break free from your comfort zone, expand your horizons, and discover hidden strengths within yourself” (p. 1). Novice teachers with wisdombased adaptiveness, thus adopt a transformative mindset, open themselves to new possibilities, and set the stage for a fulfilling and successful professional journey.

Self-Expressed Adaptive Leader

Foucault (1988) states that “the self has personal competencies and abilities that provide for choice and autonomy to demonstrate those competencies…individuals act on their thoughts and conduct to transform themselves to attain a state of autonomy” (Foucault, 1988, p. 18). Such expression of the self is significant, because individuals learn how to problematize and interpret difficulties, whilst also expressing the power to adapt during trying circumstances (Foucault, 2000). Novice teachers, who are associated with self-expressed adaptability are thus individuals, who portray special sureness to respond positively to change, implement innovative ways of working, rise to the challenge of dealing with the unfamiliar, and show they can cope with the new or unexpected. They show intellectual flexibility (integrating new information), receptiveness (responding with a positive attitude), creativity (new ways of doing), and modification of behaviour (adjusting their style of working and leading) (University of Bradford, 2024). The portrayal of self-expressed adaptability contributes to positive emotions, and such an attitude can make individuals feel self-assured, hopeful, or happy (Matthews, 2019).

Research Design

The study followed a phenomenological research design with the intent of eliciting the views of novice teachers on how they profile themselves as adaptive leaders in challenging times. Phenomenology is the intellectual pursuit of interpretations and meaning-making that is employed to comprehend the conscious lived experience of humans (Neubauer et al., 2019). Considering this perspective (Neubauer et al., 2019), we were cognizant that phenomenology would assist us to be clear about our positions as researchers, whilst widening our field of view and delving deeper into the lived experience of the participants (Qutoshi, 2018).

While doing this research, we applied Greening’s (2019) views, regarding bracketing in phenomenological studies. Firstly, bracketing is the process where predetermined opinions and beliefs about the phenomenon are recognized and held in suspension. In this study, we erased all information we had about novice teachers and the enactment of adaptive leadership. Secondly, intuition followed, and we continued to focus on the ascribed meanings of adaptive leadership. After completing the intuition process, we engaged in an analysis of the novice teachers’ responses on how they perceive themselves as adaptive leaders. Next, we continued with description, which is a critical step in any phenomenological research. In the descriptive stage, we provided the concluding thoughts, derived from the views of novice teachers, regarding the enactment of adaptive leadership.

The application of phenomenology allowed us an opportunity to cut to the heart of and expand our understanding of the commonalities in novice teachers’ experiences during challenging events. Creswell (2012) remarks that phenomenology hinges on “describing the meaning for several individuals of their lived (or shared) experiences or a phenomenon” (p. 57). Thus, in this phenomenological study, novice teachers’ understanding of adaptive leadership was elicited, and insights were gained by interviewing knowledgeable participants (Yin, 2003).

Research Methodology

A qualitative methodology was used in this study, since it focused on multiple modes and used a naturalistic, interpretive approach to its subject. Qualitative researchers investigate phenomena in their natural environments, intending to interpret or make sense of them, based on the meaning that individuals assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). A qualitative research approach enabled us to learn more about how novice teachers profile themselves as adaptive leaders to transform their learning environments during times of uncertainty. One advantage of employing a qualitative methodology is that it can contribute to the understanding of complex issues and experiences (Rahman, 2017) about how novice teachers profile themselves as adaptive leaders in times of uncertainty. As such, we engaged with the participants and obtained valuable information regarding their enactment of adaptive leaders in schools.

Population and Sampling

The population for this paper consisted of all the secondary schools in Bloemfontein in the Free State Province of South Africa. There are 15 secondary schools in Bloemfontein. An independent recruiter contacted the Free State Department of Basic Education to obtain a list of all secondary schools, contacted the schools to ascertain the number of novice teachers, and then recruited those schools with the highest number of novice teachers, thus individuals who have been teachers for a period of between one to five years. Convenient sampling was used to recruit those secondary schools that were easily accessible and where novice teachers were willing to participate in the research (Campbell et al., 2020). From the list of schools, ten novice teachers, who were willing to participate in this study, were purposively recruited, however, only five teachers were committed to participate thereafter. Kim (2016) asserts that it is not always about the number of participants, but the quality of the data that justifies a qualitative study. Purposive sampling was apt and based on the study's aim and objectives, as novice teachers may hold divergent views about their adaptive leadership profiles (see Robinson, 2014). Adaptive leadership is a key factor in determining a school’s performance, which directly or indirectly affects novice teachers’ leadership development and the quality of teacher collaboration between teachers and learners (Muckenthaler et al., 2020).

Data Collection

Thematic analysis, the process of identifying recurrent meanings in collected data, which is critical for interpreting a phenomenon (Lester et al., 2020), was employed. Drawing on Lester and colleagues (2020), we first scrutinized the data by reading through the written responses. Next, the data was coded by highlighting sections of the texts, and stenography labels, or “codes” to label their content, were constructed. Patterns were identified among the codes and themes were devised. We ensured that the themes were useful and accurate representations of the data and that they could be used to profile the novice teachers in terms of their responses. Our choice for employing thematic analysis was based on the prospect of examining the perspectives of the different research participants, emphasizing differences and similarities, and generating unexpected understandings (Braun & Clarke, 2006) about how they (novice teachers) profile themselves as adaptive leaders. Drawing on the ALT and the novice teachers’ responses, we identified three themes, namely: transformative adaptive leadership, wisdombased adaptiveness, and self-expressed adaptability to profile novice teachers as adaptive leaders.

Figure 2

Adaptive Leadership Development framework

Novice teachers’ adaptive leadership profiles

Transformative adaptive leaders: use transformative goals and adaptive actions.

Wisdom-based adaptiveness: embrace the unavoidability of change.

Self-expressed adaptability: the power to adapt in trying circumstances.

Interpretation of the Data

The data and direct verbal comments from the participants revealed the following themes, which were then used to profile novice teachers as adaptive leaders: wisdom-based adaptability, transformative adaptive leadership, and self-expressed adaptability.

Transformative Adaptive Leader

To be classified as a transformative adaptive leader, novice teachers should deliberately recognize and leverage the transformative adaptive potential of leadership. In this regard, the novice teacher (aged 25) observed that

Transformation takes a lot of courage and grit. It is important not to back down from the process, especially because things get tough. Resistance should be expected [Snowy, NT2], that is why

A change in perspective is always welcome as the challenges we face will keep changing, get worse, or increase. It is important to keep track of the effectiveness of my response to different challenges and be proactive [Snowy, NT2], because

I am a risk-taker and I support, instead of being an onlooker. A win for the team would ultimately mean a personal win too [Snowy, NT2]

By focusing on and dispelling pessimism, Snowy (NT2) believed that she created an atmosphere that nurtures collaboration, innovation and success in their learning environments. By engaging in this act, she was able to navigate the intricacies of change in their schools by

creating pathways toward success and triumph. The use of “courage and grit” implies that Snowy (NT2) regards change as an essential and brave act to build more promising futures for herself and others. Also, “to keep track” implies that Snowy’s (NT2) use of transformative goals and adaptive actions assisted her in easily navigating the complexities in their school’s changing environments, whilst she inspired others by being “proactive”. In this regard, she took risks by implementing innovative ideas and approaches, which can be vital for innovation and growth. Snowy’s (NT2) action implies that to be transformative adaptive leaders, novice teachers should nurture collaboration, innovation and success by breaking down the walls of negativity, whilst creating paths toward triumph for all.

Wisdom-Based Adaptive Leader

Thandi’s (NT1, aged 21) view is related to that of a wisdom-based adaptive leader. She believed that integrating and managing thoughts and feelings into handling daily events, managing one’s own life, and making critical life decisions, are wise actions in ensuring a fulfilling and successful professional journey. She mentioned that

It is important to read situations and plan how to react when such a situation arises. Always consider other’s feelings. Being prepared for anything and everything is important. Everyone has their own way of leading and handling problems. We must be flexible. The senior personnel are always available and willing to help and guide me when I need it. I must be open to new possibilities [Thandi, NT1]

This view demonstrates that she is willing to apply and accommodate flexibility to different ways of thinking and embrace opportunities to reframe her actions in adapting to the intricacies of the learning environment. She further indicated that she

Allow learners to be part of class and extramural activities, so that they can enjoy themselves and praise good work. It is not only learners who want to hear teachers say, “good work”, we also need to hear those words from colleagues. Offer support where it is needed [Thandi, NT1]

This quote reiterates the notion that novice teachers should be willing to adopt a transformative mindset, implying that they should reframe change as an opportunity for learning and growth, and where individuals should unlock new possibilities and pathways for success. According to the ALT, the reframing of actions and the cultivation of transformative mindsets can assist novice teachers in exploring innovative ways to navigate their paths during times of uncertainty by changing their values and views, so that they will be able to embrace and enact leadership in schools.

Nthabiseng’s (NT4, aged 39) response can also be associated with a wisdom-based adaptive leader. She indicated that

It is important to have a change in perspective. As one faces various challenges you may have solutions, however, the solution that might have worked today may not have the same result tomorrow or next time. Therefore, adapting or learning to look at every situation a little more or a bit differently, will help with one’s growth and confidence. Looking into different, more-learning-friendly ways to solve, this is necessary [Nthabiseng, NT4].

A “change in perspective” and “a bit differently” relate to what Mezirow (1981) refers to as “the structure of psycho-cultural assumptions within which new experience is assimilated and transformed by one’s past experience” (p. 6). This implies that novice teachers should draw on their past experiences of how they adapted during times of uncertainty so that they can make meaning of how to act during present and future experiences of transformation.

Self-Expressed Adaptive Leader

Engaging the self is what novice teachers in this study believe they are called for: to take initiative, show intellectual flexibility, and make creative decisions to transform their learning spaces, were key aspects that they highlighted. Precious’s (NT 5, aged 36) view is related to that of a self-expressed adaptive leader. She made the following remark,

Learners have different abilities and skills that I needed to learn how to handle and work with. The learners have different cultures and backgrounds from my own so I had to learn how to respect that and learn how to use that in teaching [Precious, NT5], and also indicated that Rethinking a problem or situation will give you a chance to control your emotions. It will give you a chance to evaluate the actual cause or reason for the behaviour of the learner. Rather than reprimanding, you could give advice and support [Precious, NT5]

Precious’s expressions of “I had to learn myself” and “give you a chance” align with the notion that she can navigate challenges skillfully and is consciously aware of her ability to enact adaptive leadership during times of uncertainty. In this regard, awareness can be used as an apparatus of self-expression, implying that they can act on their thoughts and conduct to transform themselves (Foucault, 1988), in an attempt to make themselves adaptable to changing situations, whilst employing their knowledge and beliefs, as well as dispositions (De Klerk, 2014) to become stronger, adaptive leaders in schools. When aligned to the ALT, novice teachers’ ability to be self-expressed, adaptive leaders find significance in their willingness to develop innovative processes of working during and beyond changing circumstances so that they can be in a position to contribute to transformative change in schools. Natasha’s (NT3, aged 26) view is also related to that of a self-expressed adaptive leader. She reiterated that

No learner is the same. The more you are exposed to various challenges at multiple magnitudes, the more adaptive to challenges you become. This can create a better response for a more desired outcome. Learner behaviour is forever changing which

is why teacher behaviour should be adaptive consistently to ensure teacher capability of problem solutions.

Natasha’s (NT3) words, “you are exposed” and teacher behaviour should be adaptive”, suggest that she probably experienced an “amazing feeling to be so connected to what you are doing that you can fully immerse yourself in the task at hand” (see Hart, 2019, p. 1). With such an experience, novice teachers may be able to adjust their styles of working and leading, according to what the circumstances dictate. As such, self-expressed adaptive leadership, through exposure and behavioural change, may help novice teachers to better identify the specific demands of different situations, strengthen their ability to flexibly react, and balance opposing demands appropriately. The adaptive leadership theory predicts that leaders apply innovative ideas and processes of working in changing circumstances, as well as expressing the power to adapt in trying circumstances.

Discussion of Findings

This paper aimed to explore novice teachers’ profiles as adaptive leaders to navigate a path of uncertainty during their first years as teachers at schools.

After an analysis of Snowy’s (NT2) views on the transformative adaptive leader, it emerged that novice teachers should nurture collaboration, innovation and success by breaking down the walls of negativity, whilst creating achievement paths for all. Sternberg (2021) articulates achievement paths as triumphs, which is the result of the intelligent use of abilities and mindsets to create, develop, invent, imagine, discover, or innovate to engage in transformative actions so that novice teachers may be empowered to navigate adaptive leadership practices for transformative change. Shields (2016) confirms that transformative actions applied by individuals can indeed assist them to engage in practices of emancipation, equity and justice to overcome uncertainties in given situations. In our discussion of the ALT, it was clear that novice teachers can spark the integration of creative and compelling ideas that are coherent to persuade the self and others to act on required changes in schools. This view corroborates the finding, because when novice teachers experiment with innovative practices and learn from failures and successes, they may become transformative adaptive leaders, who can navigate complicated and transforming school environments (Aniche, Bundie, & McKee, 2024).

The analysis of Thandi’s (NT1) and Nthabiseng’s (NT4) sentiments revealed that past experiences should be regarded as a form of wisdom to guide novice teachers to make adaptive decisions during times of uncertainty. This finding resonates with wisdom-based adaptive leadership, which requires that novice teachers find the courage to take bold steps to navigate paths of uncertainties, thus seeing change as an opportunity for capacity-building to solve problems, manage change and thrive (see Heifetz, 1998). Taking such steps may inspire novice teachers to develop mindsets that encourage experimentation and exploration, whilst viewing uncertainty as a catalyst for transformation (Gleeson, 2024). Interestingly, Heifetz and Linsky (2011) compare past and future experiences to “the DNA that no longer serves the species’ current needs” and “it creates DNA arrangements that give the species’ the ability to flourish

in new ways and more challenging environments” (p. 26). With this comparison, Heifetz and Linsky (2011) indicate that individuals should position themselves in such a way that “they make the best possible use of previous wisdom and know-how” (p. 26). In so doing, individuals [novice teachers] may be able to make wise decisions and change attitudes to take adaptive leaps in uncertain times. We did not expect to find a correlation between past and future experiences and the reference to DNA arrangements by Heifetz and Linsky (2011). We traced the origin of this analogy and found that using DNA in the same voice as adaptive leadership implies that to adapt successfully, individuals should take the best from history into the future to be able to thrive (Heifetz et al., 2009). Congruent with the ALT is the notion that when novice teachers assess the past and the present, they may be able to take a wisdom-based adaptive leadership stance.

Drawing on the analysis from the views of Precious (NT 5) and Natasha (NT 3), it was interesting to find that self-expressed adaptive leadership may help novice teachers to better identify the specific demands of different situations, strengthen their ability to flexibly react, and balance opposing demands appropriately. Robbins (2024) asserts that “flexibility allows us to navigate the complexities of life with grace and resilience. As we enhance our ability to be flexible, our impact, perspective, and success can and will expand exponentially” (p. 1). Robbins’s (2024) view resonates with the idea that adaptive leaders are flexible, resilient and open to new ideas, making them quick to tailor approaches and respond differently to change (Kuluski, Reid, & Baker, 2021). In this way, novice teachers should allow themselves to become vulnerable, because “vulnerability is the birthplace of innovation, creativity and change” (Brown, 2019, p. 1). Thus, flexibility aligned with vulnerability presupposes that a self-expressed, adaptive leader can commit to continuous learning and letting go of what they used to know. Aligned with the ALT, novice teachers, as self-expressed, adaptive leaders will cultivate a strong sense of how to adapt intelligently, grow adaptively, and employ adaptive practices.

Implications for Policy and Adaptive Leadership Enactment

A summary of the profiles and findings is provided to enable us to articulate our thinking about how the discussion in this paper may have possible implications for policy and adaptive leadership enactment. In this regard, we ask the following questions: (a) How can the findings potentially affect novice teachers’ practice of adaptive leadership; and (b) What might be possible implications for leadership enactment in schools? We extracted the findings and adaptive leadership actions to guide our discussion, regarding the implications for policy and leadership enactment.

Table 1

Adaptive Leadership Profiles

Profile

Transformative adaptive leader

Wisdom-based adaptive leader

Self-expressed adaptive leader

Finding

Novice teachers should use imaginative and transformative abilities to enact transformative adaptive leadership.

Novice teachers should find the courage to take bold steps to navigate paths of uncertainties.

Novice teachers should better identify the specific demands of different situations, strengthen their ability to flexibly react, and balance opposing demands appropriately.

Adaptive leadership actions

The ability to create, develop, invent, imagine, discover, or innovate to navigate a path of uncertainty.

The ability to reframe leadership actions to adapt to the intricacies of the learning environment.

The ability to adjust styles of working and leadership in line with what changing circumstances may dictate.

1.Schools should rethink the theory, rationale and conceptualization of their induction programmes so that conflicting perceptions can be reconciled and novice teachers be supported on how to navigate their uncertainties when newly appointed at schools. Our view is that a balanced induction programme should focus on fostering a culture of continuous improvement, innovation and adaption, driven by curiosity and experimentation within the specific context of the school.

2.A balanced induction programme may assist novice teachers in transforming their ways of thinking and doing (enacting transformative adaptive leadership), making wise leadership decisions in terms of the tasks allocated to them (acting as wisdom-based adaptive leaders), and strengthening their ability to have their voices heard (acting as self-expressed adaptive leaders).

3.Schools should consider adapting their induction policies to include decision-making and adaptive negotiation that enlightens about methods, tools and processes, to support novice teachers on how to adapt incrementally and strategically during their first years as teachers.

Broadening the Scope of Adaptive Leadership Profiles

To assist schools with implementation, and to broaden the scope of adaptive leadership profiles, we suggest the following cycle of short-term adaptive leadership approaches (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Cycle of Short-Term Adaptive Leadership Approaches

Goals-driven, adaptive approach to

Prepare for and respond to uncertain circumstances

Change mindsets

An adaptive approach to policy implementation implies that schools should have an adaptive plan that provides strategic pathways of how to deal with conditions of uncertainty. Such pathways should contain procedures that will enable adjustment to start, rather than waiting for inevitability, which will always come too late or perhaps never at all. According to Haasnoot and colleagues (2019), adaptive pathways should include initial actions that can be used by individuals to start the process of adapting, whilst adaptation options should also be available so that the process of adapting can be continuous. To change mindsets, schools should have plans in place that will assist novice teachers to be “disruption-resilient through careful planning, establishing solid decision-making processes, and leading with a mindset fuelled by empathy, curiosity for change, and an appetite for innovation” (Benz, 2024, p. 1). With such an adaptive leadership character, novice teachers may become open to feedback and assistance, ready for inevitable change, and skilled in how to deal with adaptive challenges, whilst being nimble enough to shift direction when the time comes. Drawing on Kato and Ahern (2008), schools can assist novice teachers to prepare for and respond to uncertain circumstances by ensuring that adaptive leadership actions are understood as learning by doing. In this regard, novice teachers should be willing to adjust to the academic levels of the school, frequently change the order of tasks and level of involvement and be open to customized guidance and feedback.

Aligning this cycle of short-term adaptive leadership approaches to the ALT, novice teachers can become stronger adaptive leaders when schools are willing to take them (novice teachers) outside their comfort zones so that they can become agents of change, because “leaders who can embrace change and uncertainty will be the ones who succeed in the years to come” (Fessahazion, 2023, p. 1). We contend that the adaptive leadership profile of novice teachers is unique in the sense that it is based on the understanding that sound leadership is not about having all the answers, but engaging novice teachers to facilitate change, whilst experimenting with new approaches and inspiring them to perform at their best.

Conclusion

This paper aimed to explore novice teachers’ profiles as adaptive leaders to navigate a path of uncertainty during their first years as teachers at schools. Novice teachers, as adaptive leaders, must understand that the world is in constant flux. What worked yesterday, may not work today, and what works today, may not work tomorrow. They must embrace change as a natural part of their teaching practices, and they should not be afraid to pivot and adjust their strategies when needed. Significantly, leading adaptive change requires them to step beyond their default behaviour into an unknown situation and to learn something new. Valuable insights were gained from the literature review. Firstly, novice teachers must be equipped with the necessary information and use their autonomy to become self-directed individuals, who will be able to portray an ability to be adaptive leaders themselves. Secondly, schools should create adaptive spaces so that novice teachers can know how to adapt in times of deep uncertainty. Thirdly, novice teachers should regard themselves as transformative agents, who are willing to promote diversity of thought, whilst navigating transformed learning spaces in schools. The novice teachers’ responses were analyzed through thematic analysis. The findings revealed that, for novice teachers to enact transformative leadership, they should employ creative and transformative techniques, make courageous moves to navigate paths of uncertainties, and act flexibly, whilst balancing conflicting difficulties in schools. In line with the findings, this paper recommends that schools should revisit their induction programmes and consider adapting their induction policies to allow for adaptive decision-making and growth.

This study was limited to secondary schools in Bloemfontein in the Free State Province of South Africa. Although 10 novice teachers indicated that they would participate in the study, only five were willing to participate in the surveys. We could have possibly learned more about novice teachers and their adaptive leadership profiles if more individuals were willing to share their experiences. Despite this, we believe that this paper offers insights into how schools can assist novice teachers in developing adaptive leadership profiles, whilst teaching them how to embrace growth and show their adaptive capabilities. An interesting avenue for future research may include a comparative study including more schools to evaluate how novice teachers experience their adaptive leadership ability during times of uncertainty. Researchers may also be interested in conducting a philosophical analysis of how quality management systems in schools can contribute to the adaptive leadership development of novice teachers.

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Corresponding author: Edwin Darrell De Klerk

Email: darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za

Evaluating AI-Generated Language as Models for Strategic Competence in English Language Teaching

Phuong-Anh Nguyen Hanoi University, Vietnam

Abstract

Strategic competence, the ability to use communication strategies (CS) to overcome challenges and enhance communication effectiveness, is crucial in language learning. However, the coverage of these strategies as well as target models to teach them remain scarce in current instructional materials. This paper represents the first attempt to examine the application of ChatGPT in providing target models of CSs and facilitate L2 learners' strategic competence. ChatGPT-4 was used to generate transcripts of monologues and dialogues around a description task following two types of prompts: with and without a taxonomy of communication strategies (structured and unstructured prompts). Preliminary findings suggest Chat-GPT’s considerable potential in modeling communication strategies. Across the two prompting conditions, the chatbot was able to present a wide range of CSs, including achievement, self-monitoring, timegaining, and interactive strategies. The highest CS content was found in the structured-prompt dialogue which utilized 9 out of 10 CS sub-types, a more diverse range than typically covered in textbooks, with approximation, circumlocution, and time gaining being most frequently used. In terms of linguistic presentation, the AI-generated transcripts demonstrated appropriate use of CSs, though their linguistic realizations were limited in range. The article concludes with implications for leveraging Chat-GPT to contextualize communication strategies, considerations for prompt engineering, strategy training to proficiency levels, and AI-teacher collaboration.

Keywords: AI, ChatGPT, communication strategies, strategic competence

Strategic competence is an essential aspect of communicative competence, referring to verbal and non-verbal communication strategies which allow speakers to enhance the effectiveness of communication and overcome the problems that arise in the process (Canale 1983; CelceMurcia et al., 1995; Faerch & Kasper, 1984). In a broad sense, strategic competence involves not only compensatory strategies to deal with communication breakdowns but also other strategies that ensure conversation continuity and keep the communication channel open. Given that no speaker, whether native or non-native, can be certain that they have enough linguistic resources to discuss any topic, it is crucial to develop this competence. While strategic competence is relevant to both L1 and L2 speakers, it is probably more important to L2 speakers who are likely to encounter situations where their linguistic resources are insufficient to convey meanings. Indeed, the significance of developing strategic competence, particularly communication strategies among language learners, has been widely recognized and discussed since the 1980s. In most models of communicative competence, strategic competence remains an integral component (see Canale & Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983; Bachman, 1990; Celce-Murcia et al., 1995; Savignon, 2002; Celce-Murcia, 2007). For example, in Bachman’s model (1990), strategic competence, operationalized as the capacity to implement language items in communication, is one of three main segments. Celce-Murcia and colleagues (1995) and Celce-Murcia (2007) even went as far as highlighting strategic competence as an ever-present component moderating all the other microcompetences (i.e., linguistic, socio-cultural, actional/interactional, formulaic, and discourse components). It is also believed that strategic competence largely determines a learner's fluency and conversational skills (Dörnyei & Thurrell, 1991).

Despite the critical role that strategic competence and communication strategies play, there is a lack of attention to them in current teaching materials. Material evaluations suggest that EFL textbooks present a limited coverage of communication strategies as well as insufficient target models for how to implement them (Faucette, 2001; Firmansyah & Arianti, 2022). Authentic models of strategically competent speakers are also not widely available to teachers and learners. Meanwhile, collecting authentic conversation models for strategy training is timeconsuming and costly as teachers would have to invest considerable effort in recording, transcribing, and analyzing real-life conversations to create teaching-ready materials. In contrast, AI chatbots such as ChatGPT are becoming more accessible and applicable in ELT. ChatGPT can produce a diverse range of texts that mimic natural human language. In a recent study, Cai and colleagues (2024) provided evidence that ChatGPT can resemble human language use. It was found that ChatGPT was able to replicate human-like patterns of language use in 10 out of the 12 experiments. The AI also managed to interpret noise-corrupted sentences and drew reasonable inferences while ignoring semantic fallacies in a sentence. These findings demonstrate that ChatGPT can be effective in many aspects of human language processing and is therefore likely capable of producing language models for teaching. For these reasons, this paper aims to evaluate ChatGPT’s potential to generate target language input for teaching communication strategies. The significance of the study lies in its being among the first to address this topic. Drawing on the existing body of research on strategic competence, communication strategies, and large language models’ applicability in English Language Teaching, the study will examine the opportunity for learning communication strategies

through transcripts generated by Chat-GPT4. Specifically, the study will explore the range and distribution of the communication strategies in the AI-generated language, assessing to what extent the model can represent varied communication strategies. Furthermore, the quality of the linguistic presentations will be analyzed. By doing so, the study will provide insights into the effectiveness of Chat-GPT as a supplementary educational resource to traditional textbooks in facilitating strategic competence for L2 learners.

Literature Review

Theoretical Framework: Communication Strategies

Communication strategies (CS) are essential tools for effective interaction, especially in a second/ foreign language. They are generally understood as “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal” (Færch & Kasper, 1983, p. 36).

There are several proposed taxonomies for communication strategies which aim to categorize the various techniques that language learners use to compensate for the gap in their linguistic resources and effectively convey their intended messages. The framework informing the current study has been adapted from Dörnyei and Thurrell (1991, 1992), Celce-Murcia and colleagues (1995), Dörnyei (1995), and Yule (1997). The selection of communication strategies follows Færch and Kasper’s (1983) suggestion that the strategies most useful for learning (i.e., recommended CSs) are those involving important aspects of language learning, namely the formation, testing, and automatization of hypothesis, as well as those requiring L2 production. Accordingly, the framework excludes strategies such as topic avoidance, message replacement, message abandonment, L1-based strategies (e.g. borrowing), and non-verbals, as these do not involve producing the target language. Despite the debate around whether timestalling or time-gaining devices should be considered communication strategies (see Dörnyei, 1995; Celce-Murcia et al., 1995; Kasper, 1999), the researcher decided to include them in the current framework given their usefulness when topic avoidance is not an option. This results in the taxonomy below which consists of four types and ten sub-types of communication strategies (see Table 1).

Table 1

Adapted Taxonomy of Communication Strategies

Communication strategies

(i) Achievement strategies

(ii) Interactive strategies

(iii) Selfmonitoring strategies

(iv) Other communicati on strategies

Definition and examples

1. Approximation/ Generalization using an alternative expression which may not express exactly what you mean (e.g., bird for owl).

2. Circumlocution/ Paraphrase describing or explaining the meaning of the target expression, for example through description of its characteristics such as shape, color, function, etc. e.g., Somen is a type of thin noodle often eaten in the summer in Japan.

3. All-purpose words using an abstract, general word (e.g., thingy, thingamajig).

4. Restructuring rephrasing using a different grammatical structure e.g., The bus was very... there were a lot of people on it.

5. Word coinage creating an L2 word thinking it might work. (e.g., fish zoo for aquarium)

6. Appeal for assistance asking others for help.

7. Indicators of nonunderstanding/ misunderstanding

These may be global (e.g., Pardon?) or lexical (e.g., How do you say jinja in English?)

• repetition requests (e.g., Pardon? or Could you say that again please?)

• clarification requests (e.g., What do you mean by...?)

• confirmation requests e.g., You mean...?

So what you're saying is…? Did you say...?

• verbal expressions of non-understanding (e.g., Sorry, I'm not sure I understand.)

8. Comprehension checks

• whether the interlocutor can follow you (e.g., Am I making sense?)

• whether what you said was correct or grammatical (e.g., Can I/you say that?)

• whether the interlocutor is listening (e.g., on the phone: Are you still there?)

9. Self-initiated repair and Selfphrasing (Overelaboration)

correcting one’s own speech errors or clarifying message without external prompts. This can involve rephrasing, correcting mispronunciations, or changing words.

e.g., I mean...

This is for students... pupils... when you're at school...

10. Time-stalling/ Time-gaining devices hesitation devices used to fill pauses in order to gain time to think, keep the floor, or warn the interlocutor that you are not a native speaker.

e.g., Umm, give me a minute to think about that; well; let me see

The Teaching of Communication Strategies

Although the importance of CSs has been widely acknowledged, whether they need to be taught is a topic of debate. On the one hand, some researchers believe that teaching the language itself is more necessary than teaching the strategies, arguing that strategic competence can transfer from L1 to L2 (Bialystok, 1990; Kellerman, 1991; Poulisse, 1990). Others argue that CSs should be taught to ELF learners as it is an excellent means for less proficient speakers to maintain the conversation. As Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) stated, a non-native speaker's ability to keep a conversation going, which can be done with proper use of CSs, is a valuable skill and major objective, as it enables them to receive additional input and benefit from it. Through the use of CSs, the communication channel remains open, and learners can learn how “not to give up” (Hatch, 1978, p. 434). This current study takes the latter stance, supporting the necessity of teaching CSs to L2 learners.

Communication strategies are not only teaching-worthy but also teachable. Scholars tend to agree that CS training is beneficial in raising learners’ awareness and declarative knowledge, which are essential to their proceduralization of knowledge and in turn, the implementation of effective communication strategies (Dörnyei, 1995; Yule & Tarone, 1997; Lam, 2005; Rababah, 2005). For example, Dörnyei (1995), studying 109 students in Hungary, presented concrete evidence that CS training can result in qualitative and quantitative improvements in students' use of three communication strategies, including (1) topic avoidance and replacement, (2) circumlocution, and (3) time-gaining (including fillers and hesitation devices). Similarly, Salomone and Marsal (1997) found that training significantly improved learners' use of circumlocution.

Following a strategy training approach, Tarone (1983) discussed two main ways to enhance students' use of communication strategies, including explicit and implicit instruction in the use of strategies and providing practice opportunities. Along these lines, Dörnyei (1995) introduced six guidelines for a direct approach to teaching communication strategies: raising learners’ awareness of CSs, providing L2 models, presenting linguistic devices to verbalize CSs, providing opportunities for practice, enhancing students’ willingness to take risks and use CSs, and highlighting cross-cultural differences in CS use.

Connecting theory and practice, Tarone’s study (1983) recommended exercises for practicing CSs which can be in the form of a jigsaw task where the speaker has information that the listener(s) need to complete a task. She provided a detailed account of sample exercises such as asking a speaker to describe an object for which the target language vocabulary is likely unknown, such as a kitchen colander. A listener, who cannot see the object being described, must pick out the correct photograph of the object or draw the object. Such an activity involves both speaking and listening and has room for practice in negotiations but can be designed to place the burden primarily on the speaker, such as by not allowing the listeners to ask for clarification. This kind of activity is also preferred by Brooks (1992) over interview-type activities which do not provide enough opportunities for negotiation. Faerch and Kasper (1986) provided further suggestions for three types of activities for practicing CSs: communication

games with visual support, communication games without visual support, and monologues. They emphasize the importance of enhancing language learners' meta-communicative awareness regarding the factors influencing the selection of appropriate strategies. This awareness can be developed through specific analytic tasks, such as analyzing audio/video tapes of non-native speaker (NNS) and native speaker (NS) discourse. However, access to this kind of material could be an issue. In a more recent discussion, Faucette (2001) suggested dialogues, tangrams, and other abstract shapes, “spot the difference” activities, and describe the unfamiliar object, among others.

Instructional Materials for Communication Strategies

Textbooks are fundamental resources in ELT teaching, yet they seem to lag behind when it comes to teaching communication strategies. Though decades have passed since Dörnyei and Thurrell (1991) named strategic competence as the most neglected competence, assessments of textbooks still indicate a continued modest coverage of CSs. Analyses of coursebooks reveal that both the quality and quantity of CS training need improvement. Faucette’s (2001) comprehensive analysis of 17 ELT materials, including textbooks and teachers’ resource books, identified the most commonly featured CSs being circumlocution, appeal for assistance, time-stalling devices, and abandonment. Out of the 17 books, only “Learning to Learn English” by Ellis and Sinclair (1989) introduced the strategies of approximation, foreignizing, and word coinage. Although the usefulness of communication strategies is directly mentioned and there are tasks that lead to authentic conversations, target models are rarely provided, and the presentation of useful linguistic devices is limited. It was found that practice opportunities are few, as the language and strategies are seldom recycled throughout the texts. In a more recent study, Firmansyah and Arianti (2022) reviewed Indonesian EFL textbooks for the 12th grade. The distribution of CS types in these materials was not balanced, and there was limited representation of the ways to use communication strategies. Overall, these studies, highlighting the limited resources for teaching CS, underscore the need to develop alternative materials that fill the gap.

AI and Large Language Models in Language Education

Given the limited availability and variety of current materials on strategy training, it is imperative that teachers seek alternative resources, among which generative AI and LLMpowered models are promising candidates. Large language models (LLMs), which are advanced computational models trained on significant amounts of textual data to understand and generate human language patterns (Devlin et al., 2018), hold transformative potential for language education, especially in areas where human-generated materials are lacking. LLMs have proven themselves to be highly capable in a variety of language tasks including text generation, sentiment analysis, text classification, factual data handling, machine translation and question-answering (Chang et al., 2024; Rae et al., 2021).

Within English language teaching, LLM applications such as OpenAI’s ChatGPT and Google’s Gemini (formerly Bard), are gaining popularity as they can produce human-like language and

create tailored feedback based on concrete instructions, through a technique known as "prompting" (Meyer et al., 2024). A growing body of literature indicates these AI models’ ability to offer substantial support for teachers by aiding lesson planning, implementation, and assessment (Celik et al., 2022). Regarding material development, LLMs have also advanced the creation of generative corpora by linking example sentences with linguistic features such as parts of speech and meanings (He et al., 2024). This results in a standardized corpus of example sentences that are highly standardized and tailored to specific educational needs. Koraishi (2023) further notes that LLMs can create text passages on topics relevant or interesting to learners, which makes them valuable for generating engaging materials. In a related inquiry, Young and Shishido (2023) discuss the application of ChatGPT in simplifying reading materials for ESL students.

For language learners, LLMs can enhance engagement by acting as a conversation partner (Fitria, 2021), providing resources and engaging students in practice (Dombi et al, 2024; Ji et al. 2024), and delivering personalized feedback (Chang et al., 2024; Kim, 2024; Meyer et al., 2024). Fryer and colleagues (2019) also reported learners’ positive learning experiences with chatbot. Their analysis revealed that students felt they learned more with the chatbot compared to with another human, which was linked to their task interest, even when there were communication difficulties.

Admittedly, LLMs present limitations in few-shot learning (i.e. when very few examples are provided) as well as methodological issues when trained on large web-based corpora (Brown et al., 2020). There have also been reports of LLMs generating seemingly factual text that is actually false, a phenomenon known as “hallucination” (Rawte et al., 2023). Another challenge, specific to LLMs’ use in education, is the demand for teachers and learners to cultivate the necessary competencies and literacies to comprehend the technology (Kasneci et al., 2023). However, if teachers are offered sufficient guidance and LLMs are carefully guided by specific prompts and monitored closely for accuracy, they have the power to revolutionize language education.

Motivated by the promising findings on the application of AI tools and addressing the existing gap in strategy-training materials, this study aims to explore AI’s potential in providing the missing target models of communication strategies, which can supplement traditional textbooks. The main research questions of the study include:

1. How many types and sub-types of communication strategies are presented in ChatGPTgenerated L2 models?

2. What linguistic features characterize these communication strategies?

3. To what extent does prompt engineering influence ChatGPT-generated content when provided with varying levels of communication strategy information?

Methodology

The AI model under inquiry is OpenAI’s ChatGPT-4, which was the most updated model at the time of the investigation. ChatGPT-4 was prompted to generate transcripts of speaker(s) talking about how a coffee machine works. This task was chosen because it involved less familiar vocabulary, which can elicit the use of communication strategies (Tarone, 1983). Following Atlas’s guidelines on effective prompting in ChatGPT (Atlas, 2023), all the prompts used to generate transcripts included the following elements:

• A specific task that the chatbot needs to perform (i.e. create a transcript for a description of how a coffee machine works where the speaker(s) experience difficulties in communication)

• Type of transcript (i.e. monologue or dialogue)

• ChatGPT’s persona (i.e. role-playing as either one or two speakers)

The AI was prompted four times, with varying numbers of speakers and varying levels of CS information. The prompt engineering for these conditions are detailed in Figure 1 below. The unstructured prompting condition (i.e. without any explanation of CS) was conducted first to avoid “order effects”, a situation in which the order of questions (in this case, the order of prompts) may influence responses (Schuman & Presser, 1981).

These conditions resulted in four AI-generated transcripts, which were analyzed to assess the quantity of CSs covered (Research question 1) and their linguistic presentation (Research

Figure 1

Research Design Matrix

question 2). Comparisons were also made between the structured-prompt and unstructuredprompt transcripts to assess the impact of prompt engineering on the quality and usefulness of the generated language in presenting CS (Research question 3). The analysis was informed by the adapted taxonomy of communication strategies reviewed in the previous section (Table 1). As this study focused on examining generative AI's material development potential, no research participants were involved. The researcher assumed the role of monitoring the AI and “orchestrating different resources” (Jeon and Lee 2023, p. 15888).

Findings and Discussions

Range and Distribution of Communication Strategies

The findings in Table 2 below indicate that Chat-GPT was able to present a good range of the recommended communication strategies. Most of the Chat-GPT-generated transcripts covered the four recommended types of communication strategies, ranging from speaker-oriented strategies such as achievement, self-monitoring, and time-gaining strategies to interactive ones. Predictably, dialogues consistently made use of a higher number of sub-types of CSs than monologues. This is because the presence of more than one interlocutor allows for negotiations of meaning and in turn, the implementation of interactive strategies, which are not enabled during monologues. The most productive transcript was the structured-prompt dialogue in which 9 out of 10 sub-types of CSs were used. This is, by far, a wider range than textbook coverage as indicated by current literature. For example, the 17 textbooks analyzed in Faucette (2001) covered only a total of 6 recommended sub-types of CSs.

The most featured CSs were approximation, circumlocution, self-initiated repairs, and timegaining devices, which were used consistently in all four transcripts. This aligns somewhat with textbook distribution where circumlocution and time-stalling devices were also the most common (Faucette, 2001). Interactive strategies such as indicators of nonunderstanding/misunderstanding and comprehension checks, as well as word coinage, were only observable in dialogues. Interestingly, appeal for assistance, although categorized as an interactive strategy, was featured in one of the monologues. Such use will be discussed further in the next section.

Table 2

Range of Communication Strategies Presented in ChatGPT-generated data

Communication Strategies Unstructured prompt Structured prompt Monologue Dialogue Monologue Dialogue

(i) Achievement strategies

1. Approximation/generalization

2. Circumlocution/paraphrase

3. All-purpose words

4. Restructuring

5. Word coinage

(ii) Interactive strategies

6. Appeal for assistance

7. Indicators of non-/mis-understanding repetition requests clarification requests confirmation requests

verbal expressions of non-understanding

8. Comprehension checks whether the interlocutor can follow you x whether what you said was correct or grammatical whether the interlocutor is listening (iii) Self-monitoring stragies

9. Self-initiated repair/Self-phrasing

(iv) Others

10. Time-stalling/time-gaining devices

Furthermore, comparing unstructured-prompt and structured-prompt transcripts, there was minimal difference in the total numbers of CSs presented in each. This implies that ChatGPT

is capable of maintaining a consistent range of CSs regardless of the amount of CS instructions provided. This consistency might be related to the design of the prompts. Both the structured and unstructured prompts used to generate the language models followed the principles of prompting for the educational use of ChatGPT (Atlas, 2023). These include being specific, defining the context for the conversation, and specifying the chatbot’s specific persona to ensure relevant responses. Since both types of prompts adhered to these principles, the chatbot was sufficiently informed to effectively produce communication strategies, regardless of whether a detailed CS taxonomy was provided. With unstructured prompts, communication strategies were called on by the specific requirement of demonstrating communication difficulties. Meanwhile, the structured prompts explicitly provided 10 communication strategies to overcome these difficulties, which the chatbot was required to use.

Amount of Prompting and Number of Communication Strategies

Figure 2 compares the distribution of various communication strategies in the monologues and dialogues generated by ChatGPT across two scenarios: structured prompts with explanations of CSs and unstructured prompts without CS information. Across all transcripts, time-gaining devices saw the highest usage. This persistent use of time-gaining was probably due to the fact that communication difficulties are often expressed as hesitations in speech. However, when prompted with specific information about CSs to include in the transcript, the chatbot produced fewer time-gaining devices in both monologues and dialogues. This was a response to the focused nature of the prompt, which explicitly required the chatbot to include a range of given strategies. This also reflects the possibility that when speakers are aware of and able to employ other CSs to overcome a communication breakdown, the need for stalling time will likely reduce. Notably, other strategies such as circumlocution and self-repairs were also used repeatedly in the AI-generated transcripts, as indicated by their higher frequencies (see Figure 2). This repeated exposure can lead to effective learning since it helps reinforce the understanding and usage of these communication strategies (Mariani, 1994). This is another area where the AI-generated model outperforms textbooks, which rarely recycle strategies, as found in Faucette’s study (2001).

For monologues, it was evident that circumlocution, approximation, all-purpose words, restructuring, and self-repairs were more observable in the structured prompt transcript. Meanwhile, time-gaining devices and appeal for assistance saw a higher frequency in the unstructured-prompt transcript. As noted earlier, the presence of an appeal for assistance in a monologue was somewhat surprising given that there was only one interlocutor. However, this use could be explained by the link between appeal for assistance and time-gaining devices. In this context, appeals for assistance may not be truly interactive in nature. Rather, they are attempts to express difficulty in communication, which are described by Kang (2008) as “difficulty fillers”, a sub-category of time-gaining strategy in her taxonomy. This reclassification would contribute to the dominance of time-gaining devices observed in the data, further emphasizing the reliance on this strategy when the prompts are less defined. Alternatively, time-stalling devices may also be considered as part of the broader category of “seek help strategies” (Littlewood, 1984). Words such as um and uh can be seen as implicit

requests for help through hesitation, alongside the verbal appeals for help in the form of a question.

For dialogues, appeals for assistance, restructuring, word coinage, and approximation were rarely used. There might be an explanation for why these certain strategies were less commonly applied. Mariani (1994) argued that not all achievement strategies can be equally singled out for explicit instruction and practice. While techniques such as asking for clarification or maintaining a conversation are teachable, more complex skills such as restructuring utterances or paraphrasing are harder to guide explicitly. This may explain why the AI was less effective in conceptualizing these strategies.

Confirmation request was the only sub-strategy used to signal difficulty in understanding, which was used to a greater extent in the structured transcript. Similarly, circumlocution appeared more frequently when ChatGPT was given specific CS hints. All-purpose words and comprehension checks were only featured when ChatGPT was prompted with the full CS taxonomy.

Communication Strategy Usage Across Different Prompting Levels

Monologues - Structured vs Unstructured prompt

Time-gaining devices

Self-initiated repair/Self-…

Appeal for assistance

restructuring

All-purpose words

Circumlocution/paraphrase

Approximation/generalization

Monologue - Structured prompt

Monologue - Unstructured prompt

Dialogues - Structured vs Unstructured prompt

Time-gaining devices

Self-initiated repair/Self-…

Comprehension check

Confirmation request

Appeal for assistance

restructuring

Word coinage

All-purpose words

Circumlocution/paraphrase

Approximation/generalization

Dialogue - Structured prompt

Dialogue - Unstructured prompt

Figure 2

Linguistic Presentation of Communication Strategies

The analysis in this section is underpinned by the view that communication strategies cannot be described prescriptively as a collection of fixed norms. Rather, a descriptive, context-based approach that observes patterns in language use is more effective (Mariani, 1994). Thus, the analysis below focuses on identifying which forms are used by ChatGPT to fulfill specific communication strategies and whether they are contextually appropriate.

Overall, ChatGPT could realistically replicate the type of communication breakdowns that may occur when discussing a less familiar topic, including both language-related (Excerpt 1) and meaning-related problems (Excerpt 2).

Excerpt 1:

Exactly. Then the ground coffee goes into the... um, the part where the brewing happens. You know, the section where the water gets really hot. [language-related hesitation]

Excerpt 2:

Um, I think that’s the main idea. Unless... oh, wait, different types of machines. Uh, there’s the drip one, which just, uh, drips hot water through the grounds. And the espresso one, which, um, uses pressure to push the water through. [meaning-related hesitation]

While the range of communication strategies produced by the AI chatbot was extensive, as indicated by the previous section, its linguistic presentation of some communication strategies was restricted to a limited number of forms.

Achievement Strategies

The chatbot-generated transcripts were able to use approximation by using a generalized word or expression which may not express exactly what something means (see Excerpts 3 and 4).

Excerpt 3:

There’s a spout, or a nozzle... or is it a portafilter?

Excerpt 4:

You put the milk in a, uh, jug or something.

Circumlocution was also implemented effectively by means of describing the characteristic or function of the item being described, as seen in Excerpt 5 below.

Excerpt 5:

So, you put the beans in the, uh [time-stalling], the place where the beans go [circumlocution] You know [time-stalling], the container on top [circumlocution]

What made the data seem authentic was the simultaneous implementation of multiple communication strategies. Excerpt 5 demonstrates how the AI-speaker worked out the word for a beanhopper in a coffee machine using a combination of circumlocution and time-stalling devices. This multi-layering of communication strategies reflects human learners’ negotiation patterns consistent with findings from Dobao (2001) in which speakers made use of more than one communication strategy. Upon checking the comprehensibility of the strategies used, any misunderstanding could be resolved by employing an alternative strategy.

All-purpose words, such as thing and thingy, were also used where specific words were lacking. In excerpt 6, thing refers to the heating element in the coffee machine.

Excerpt 6:

There's a, uh, a thing inside that makes the water hot.

Restructuring strategy, which means reformulating the sentence using a different grammatical structure, was presented but limited in use. See how Excerpts 7 and 8 below both rephrase the sentence by replacing the subject.

Excerpt 7:

There’s a grinder inside that... well, it grinds the beans into... uh, into small pieces.

Excerpt 8:

The coffee, uh, the brewed coffee, it goes into the cup.

There were a few attempts at word coinage, as illustrated in Excerpt 9, through words such as bean holder for bean container, and brew part and brew group for brew basket All the coinages were in noun form.

Excerpt 9:

[Speaker 2]: Uh, the, uh, bean holder? No, wait, the... the container. The bean container, yeah. [Speaker 1]: Right, the bean container. So, you put the beans in there and then the machine, uh, grinds them up. There’s this grinder thing inside that... um, it, uh, grinds them into... uh, tiny pieces.

[Speaker 2]: Yeah, like powder, but not really. It’s, uh, ground coffee. So, then the grounds go into the, um, the brew part. Uh, what's that called again?

[Speaker 1]: Uh, I think it’s the... brew group? Or, uh, brew basket.

Generally, these AI-generated instances of achievement strategies reflect appropriate CS use, which can serve as L2 models in input-based tasks to facilitate strategic competence. However, there were places where the AI usage did not emulate situations that real speakers would encounter. In the transcripts, the speaker(s) always reached the precise word either independently or through collaboration with the other interlocutor, without much struggle, which is not always the case in real-life situations, particularly among non-native speakers. For

example, in Excerpt 9, the speakers quickly found the precise terms for bean container and brew basket

Interactive Strategies

The linguistic verbalization of appeal for assistance was limited to the question What’s that called? and its variant What’s that called again? All the indicators of non-understanding or misunderstanding in the transcripts were expressed as a confirmation request in the form of You mean..? or You mean.., right? (see Excerpt 10).

Excerpt 10:

[Speaker 2]: Uh, yeah, kind of. You mean like the... uh, the one with the beans and all that stuff, right?

However, this limitation could likely be addressed by interacting with the chatbot and layering prompts (Atlas, 2023). This involves building on previous interactions with ChatGPT by asking follow-up questions or providing additional context that guides Chat-GPT to include a wider range of linguistic devices. This iterative approach can help to refine and focus the responses, making them more relevant and detailed.

Across all transcripts, there was only one instance of comprehension check in which a speaker was ensuring that the listener understood what they were saying by asking Am I making sense? (Excerpt 11). However, when considering the context, this confirmation check appears redundant, as there is no indication of a communication breakdown, nor does it add to the effectiveness of the communication.

Excerpt 11:

[Speaker 1]: Yeah, that’s it. Coffee machines are, uh, pretty cool when you think about it.

[Speaker 2]: Totally. Even if it’s a bit hard to explain.

[Speaker 1]: Am I making sense?

[Speaker 2]: Yeah, you mean how coffee machines work, right? I get it.

Self-monitoring Strategies

There were instances of self-initiated repairs, where speakers corrected themselves midsentence, such as in Excerpt 12, and self-phrasing, even to the point of overelaboration as in Excerpt 13.

Excerpt 12:

There’s a spout, or a nozzle... or is it a portafilter? No, wait, that's something else.

Excerpt 13:

There's a, uh, a thing inside that makes the water hot. Really hot. Uh, almost boiling but not quite.

Time-Gaining Strategies

Time-gaining strategies, which include fillers and repetition, are sometimes referred to as processing time pressure strategies (Dörnyei & Scott, 1997). In the data, the time-gaining devices found were both fillers and repetition. The fillers featured in the transcripts were mostly uh, um, and occasionally, well or you know. Excerpt 14 illustrates the use of most of these fillers along with a lexical repetition.

Excerpt 14:

First, you have your coffee beans. They go in the, uh[filler] what's it called... the bean container. Yeah, that’s it. You put the beans in there and, um [filler] the machine grinds them up. There’s a grinder inside that... well[filler], it grinds the beans into... uh[filler], into [lexical repetition] small pieces, sort of like powder, but not exactly. It's... uh[filler]... ground coffee, yeah.

Besides the tendency to overuse um and uh, the chatbot-generated transcripts did not seem to demonstrate the pragmatic difference between these two time-stalling devices. Specifically, um and uh have been found to signal varying delay times when the speaker is thinking of answers to factual questions. Research by Clark (1994) and Clark and Wasow (1998) found that um typically indicates a long delay before answering, while uh indicates a short delay. However, this differentiation was not reflected in the transcripts as um and uh tended to be used interchangeably.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, this section suggests a range of practical implications for the use of ChatGPT in strategy training.

The Impact of Prompt Engineering and Task Design

As the findings show, there was minimal difference in the range of strategies used across the two prompting conditions. In both conditions, the AI was able to use a high number of CS types and sub-types. This consistency was probably due to the design of the prompts as both types of prompts specified the task, context, and the chatbot's persona. These elements, according to Atlas (2003), are important to guide ChatGPT toward relevant content. With clearly designed task, setting, and expectations in the prompt, the AI can better understand the intent behind the request and tailor its responses accordingly.

The chosen task in the study also played a key role in eliciting CS use. The task of describing how a coffee machine works required technical vocabulary for the parts of the machine as well as how they function. These challenging lexical demands, as Tarone (1983) stressed, are vital for successfully motivating the use of communication strategies. Teachers aiming to apply a similar approach could consider selecting tasks that imply the use of less familiar terminology and concepts, which can encourage AI chatbots to actively use communication strategies.

Selection of Communication Strategies for Teaching

When deciding on the set of CS to teach, besides prioritizing the more useful ones that lead to hypothesis formation and learning (Færch & Kasper, 1983), teachers also need to consider individual differences. Mariani (1994) highlighted that learning style variation among individuals may lead to the different uses of communication strategies. He argued that it is impractical to restrict learners to a fixed set of strategies, as their choice of strategy often occurs unconsciously and is shaped by factors such as the kind of communication problem, the type of challenge, and learner's proficiency level. While L2 materials should aim at exposing learners to a wide range of strategies suggested by research, it is also important to acknowledge learner-specific strategies and leave some aspects of strategic competence “to students’ own initiative” in real, spontaneous interactions (Mariani, 1994). To this end, AI chatbots can and should be employed to expose learners to the diverse possibilities of CS use, without restricting students’ choice.

The selection of communication strategies for instruction should also be informed by their effectiveness across proficiency levels. Empirical research on learners’ use of CSs suggest that although the link between proficiency level and CS use is complex, students at varying proficiency levels tend to employ communication strategies differently. For example, Ulga and colleagues (2019), studying Iraqi EFL learners, observed that low-proficiency students frequently used L1-based strategies, avoidance tactics such as “approximation” and “selfrepetition,” and fillers. Though excluded from the current analysis to focus on strategies that involve L2 production, L1-based strategies can indeed be useful to lower-level learners who often fall back on their first language due to their limited L2 resources. In contrast, paraphrasing is less effectively deployed because of its high linguistic demands. As this strategy requires students to have a wide repertoire of linguistic structures to choose from, it benefits minimally from strategy teaching (Lam, 2010).

For advanced learners, a discourse-based approach to communication strategies by Clennell (1995) is worthy of consideration. This approach, in line with Canale (1983) and Faérch and Kasper (1984), emphasizes using communication strategies not only for repair but also to enhance message clarity and fluency. His model includes three categories: Category 1 (lexical compensatory strategies, including circumlocution, paraphrase and word coinage); Category 2 (negotiation/interaction strategies such as clarification requests and confirmation checks), and Category 3 (collaborative planning strategies such as tonicity, topic fronting and lexical repetition). While Category 1 and 2 strategies help negotiate breakdowns, Category 3 strategies enhance the effectiveness of communication. Research suggests that proficient learners prefer discourse-level CSs (Category 3) for message enhancement (Ting & Lau, 2008; Ting & Phan, 2008). With carefully designed prompts, the AI-generated content can be tailored to include specific CS that cater to different proficiency levels and learner preferences.

Approach for Strategy Training

The suggestions for strategy training by Mariani (1994) and Dörnyei (1995) offer a useful guideline for introducing and practicing communication strategies. Teachers can begin with a receptive or awareness-raising phase, where learners are introduced to real examples of communication strategies in use. At this stage, LLM-powered chatbots like Chat-GPT can aid in generating L2 models of use, as demonstrated in this study. Learners would then progress to exploring these strategies as well as the linguistic devices to verbalize them, followed by practice. Finally, they could reflect on their performance, assess their strategic use, and compare it with that of proficient speakers. During this last stage, AI can be involved again to provide automated feedback, a promising direction as suggested by research in other areas of ELT (Chang et al., 2024; Kim, 2024; Meyer et al., 2024).

The Role of Teachers: Perceptions and Agency in AI Integration

AI can be a valuable aid in material development, but its integration into practice is dependent on teachers’ attitudes and perceptions, which can be influenced by AI’s perceived usefulness, usability, and trust (Jeon & Lee, 2023). An effective integration of LLMs and AI-powered chatbots while minimizing their shortcomings thus necessitates a three-way relationship among teachers, AI, and students. In this relationship, AI can perform the roles of an interlocutor, content provider, teaching assistant, and evaluator, while teachers act as orchestrators of resources, facilitators of student inquiry, and promoters of AI ethics (Jeon & Lee, 2023). There is considerable value in AI-teacher collaboration, where AI supports but does not replace teacher agency (Holstein & Aleven, 2022; Kim et al., 2022). Celik et al. (2022) adds that teachers may also contribute to AI development by serving as models and validating AI assessment accuracy. Overall, the combination of AI’s agentive role and teachers’ designer role can help strengthen teacher-student interactions and the learning experience (Choi et al., 2023; Luckin et al., 2022).

Conclusion

This study presents the first attempt to explore the effectiveness of ChatGPT in providing L2 language models for teaching communication strategies and developing strategic competence in ELT. It examined the extent to which ChatGPT-4 can produce monologues and dialogues that make use of communication strategies to overcome communication breakdowns and enhance the effectiveness of communication. The data included analyses of transcripts produced by ChatGPT-4 using prompts that provide different levels of information on 10 recommended CSs. Overall, ChatGPT has shown promise in providing L2 models of communication strategies, which can help close the gap found in the current teaching materials. Specifically, ChatGPT-4 was able to implement all four types and 9 out of 10 sub-types of recommended CSs. In this regard, the AI outperformed textbooks by providing a more varied range of CSs (see Faucette, 2001 for a detailed textbook evaluation). The most frequently employed strategies include approximation, circumlocution, and time-gaining/ time-stalling devices, many of which were successfully recycled throughout the transcripts. Although there

was a tendency to rely on time-gaining devices, this pattern was reduced when the chatbot was prompted with a CS taxonomy. In terms of linguistic presentation, the linguistic forms utilized by ChatGPT were contextually appropriate, but some CSs such as time-gaining and restructuring appeared limited in their linguistic realizations. These limitations may be overcome by layering the prompts with more specific follow-ups on communication strategies and specific linguistic parameters to include. Additionally, the study found minimal variation in the range of strategies presented in ChatGPT-generated transcripts, regardless of the prompt's CS information, which highlights the importance of well-designed prompts and task selection in eliciting CS.

Despite these encouraging results, the current study recognizes the limitations of the small scale of data, as well as the potential limitation in ChatGPT’s representation of language variation. Chat-GPT's models (GPT-3.5 Turbo and GPT-4) have been found to default to "standard" varieties of English and may be susceptible to stereotyping (Fleisig et al., 2024). Nonetheless, Chat-GPT's language data can still be valuable as models of proficient English speakers, which should be prioritized in instructional materials (McKay, 2002), especially when the focus is on strategic competence rather than linguistic competence. Future research could explore teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of the AI-generated language models, as well as learners’ uptake of communication strategies using the AI input. Another line of future studies would be exploring the effectiveness of AI in designing tasks for teaching these strategies.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

ChatGPT-4 was used for data collection in this study to generate the language models for analysis. This use complies with the IAFOR’s AI policy and has been disclosed explicitly in the methodology section.

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Corresponding author: Phuong-Anh Nguyen

Email: anhnp@hanu.edu.vn

Sociology of Education: Exploration of Stakeholders Experiences of Inclusive Education in Schools

Abdul-Jaleel Saani

University of Cape Coast, Ghana

Abstract

The study explored lived experiences of major stakeholders with regard to Inclusive Education (IE) practices in mainstream public basic schools using heuristic inquiry of descriptive phenomenological approach. The sampled participants were selected using purposive sampling technique. Six set of semi-structured interview guides were used to collect the data. The data were manually analysed reflexively using Braun and Clarke six-phase model of thematic analysis. The study revealed that there is some level of misconception about IE on the part of stakeholders. Also, these stakeholders have malfunctional experiences regarding their lived experiences of IE practices in schools. Nevertheless, when teachers are able to employ innovative, gender and culture responsive instructional strategies that take into consideration the sociocultural and Special Education Needs and Disabilities differentials of learners, they will be able to ensure inclusion of all learners. Regular organisation of in-service trainings to stakeholders, particularly those in the working and lower classes, regarding the conceptualisation and practices of IE based on our IE policies and laws will help in ensuring that we educate all learners in well-integrated school settings.

Keywords: Inclusive Education, mainstream school, public basic school, stakeholders

Globally, education is seen as the fundamental human right of each child irrespective of his/her religion, culture, gender, or Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND). Nevertheless, many children in developing societies are not getting opportunity to get quality education due to certain ascriptive factors that are manifested from their sociocultural practices (Mantey, 2014, p. 13). This phenomenon is becoming an obstacle to achieving the goal of universalising access to education for all in these societies. According to United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund ([UNICEF], 2017), an effective education should improve learning for all; promote understanding, reduce prejudice and strengthen social integration; and ensure that all learners, especially learners from minority groups, are equipped to work and contribute economically and socially to their communities. This calls for the need for all countries to reform and transform their schools by adapting to Inclusive Education (IE) so they can respond to the diverse needs of heterogeneous students’ population including those with SEND.

Historically, public schooling systems in English-speaking West African countries such as Ghana, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Gambia have always created room for inclusionary practices to manifest in public basic schools by ensuring that learners are not denied access to education on the basis of their cultural practices, socioeconomic status and disabilities (Milledzi & Saani, 2018). For instance, the spirit and the letter of article 21(1) (b) (c) of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana which clearly specifies that: “all persons shall have the right to-freedom of thought, conscience and belief…” and “freedom to practise any religion and to manifest such practice”, affirms the country’s quest for IE. This shows that mother Ghana and other sub-Saharan African countries have always seen IE as eufunctional element in the achievement of their Education for All (EFA) and national integration agenda.

Unfortunately, in the early 1950s, learners with explicit SEND were not allowed to be integrated into the mainstream public basic schools in Ghana and Nigeria (Mantey, 2014). This was so because most stakeholders, by then, believed in the medical model of disability, an orientation that believes that learners with SEND should be sent to special schools (Retief & Letšosa, 2018). However, after independence, these countries witnessed significant positive revolution in their educational system which has created room for them to adopt the social model of disability, an orientation that allows the adaption of IE in mainstream schools (Opoku et al., 2022). Mainstream public basic schools are schools from the general public education system that receives all learners, irrespective of their culture, socioeconomic status or SEND differentials (UNICEF, 2017).

Major stakeholders in Ghana and other sub-Saharan African countries, particularly parents, started to understand that their “special” children are able to learn better in the school with their age-mates and friends rather than in special schools that comes with some level of social discrimination (Milledzi & Saani, 2018). According to Milledzi and Saani, this understanding led to an establishment of non-profit societies in these countries that ended up providing education in church basements for learners with SEND. To some extent, this intervention made by these groups of parents helped in satisfying the socio-educational needs of learners with SEND, and also narrowing the countries’ IE gaps (Opoku et al., 2022).

Tactlessly, the intervention made by these parents and other stakeholders regarding the education of these “special” children created the impression in the minds of stakeholders that IE is synonymous to special education, as a result, the countries’ quests of IE over emphasised on the inclusion of learners with disability, thus putting premium on ‘disability-inclusive education’ (Aboagye, 2020; Adjanku, 2020). This view is consistent with the outcomes of Achmad’s (2023) study, which systematically reviewed the literature and found that IE policies substantially ensures that children with special needs are given their right with regard to education. Thus, it makes education more accessible to learners with SEND. The work of Achmad largely presented IE as the inclusion of learners with SEND in mainstream schools. He did not consider the incorporation of gender, culture and religion of minority groups in the school curriculum as an element of IE.

Also, in looking at the predictors of parental attitudes, knowledge and perceived social norms influencing IE practices in Ghana and Nigeria, Opoku and colleagues (2022) defined IE as promoting the education of students with disabilities in regular classrooms located in their communities. This definition is consistent with the historical view of IE in Ghana. The question therefore is: What is IE, and how is this concept conceptualised in today’s Ghana?

According to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2005), IE is a process of focusing on and responding to the diverse needs of all learners, removing barriers impeding quality education, and thereby increasing participation in learning and reducing exclusion within and from education. The IE system creates room for all learners to be accommodated irrespective of their abilities or requirements, and at all levels of education, including life-long learning (UNESCO, 2020; UNICEF, 2017). Regrettably, the term “disability-inclusive education” (inclusion of people with disabilities in education) is increasingly being manifested by major donor agencies and developed nations to implicitly describe IE (Aboagye, 2020; Malek, 2017); a phenomenon which is influencing negatively the implementation of IE in Ghana and other heterogeneous West African countries.

The IE policy of Ghana sees IE as ensuring access and learning for all learners: especially those disadvantaged from linguistic, ethnic, gender, geographic or religious minority, from an economically impoverished background as well as learners with SEND (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2013). The Pre-Tertiary Education Act 2020 Act (1049) also defined IE as the value system that holds that each child, irrespective of his or her physical or personal circumstance is given the same and stable opportunity and access to basic education (Parliament of the Republic of Ghana, 2021). This shows that in Ghana IE is no longer defined by physical and cognitive disabilities of students, but also includes a full range of human diversity with references to culture, gender, language, ability, and all other human features. It is seen as an ideology that addresses all barriers and provides access to quality education to meet the diverse needs of all learners in the same learning environment. This makes IE a process and not an event. It provides room for all learners to participate in the general education system irrespective of their cultural and ascriptive factors.

Regrettably, Ghana’s contextualisation of IE in public schools is not being manifested in her schooling system. Her mainstream schools are behind diversity (Gyimah, 2021) and that is not upright for her children’s civilisation if she considers that IE sets the foundation for allencompassing society. Also, most people consciously discriminate positively in favour of learners with disabilities when dealing with IE at the detriment of cultural, social, and gender inclusions. Mohammed (2021) posits that current trends in Ghana seem to suggest that nondisability factors such as religion of minority groups are not given much attention regarding implementation of IE policy. These situations are creating room for cultural, gender and socioeconomic status segregations of minority groups in the curriculum of the country.

In its quest to promote the provision of quality education for all learners in an inclusive setting, Ghana has been able to put in place some interventions, including the development of IE policy and implementation plan [2015-2019] (Gyimah, 2021). Despite these efforts, it appears the desired goal has not been achieved, particularly at the first cycle of our educational system. There are still reported cases of children being denied access to education in some first cycle schools as a result of their cultural, religious, gender and SEND diversities (Kefallinou et al., 2020; Mohammed, 2021).

Also, anecdotal reports seem to suggest that IE in Ghana is all about the inclusion of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) in mainstream schools (Aboagye, 2020; Adjanku, 2020; Opoku et al., 2022). This call for the need to revisit the concept of IE sociologically by exploring the lived experiences of major stakeholders regarding the meaning and essence of IE in mainstream schools so we can unearth the successes and challenges of IE practices in the schools for purposes of policy enhancement and sustainability. Outcome of this study will help to review the curriculum from a sociocultural and inclusive perspectives to ensure a well-integrated curriculum that will help in producing an ideal man or woman for Ghana and for the world in general.

Theoretical Framework

An in-depth structural understanding of major stakeholders lived experiences regarding the meaning and essence of IE practices is underpinned by the assumptions of symbolic interactionism and Ajzen’s planned behaviour theories. Thus, major stakeholders’ behaviours and actions toward IE practices, in general, are based on the meanings they assign to IE. Likewise, their planned behaviours toward IE practices are determined by their intentions which are largely influenced by their knowledge and attitude toward IE and the social values and norms governing the manifestation of the practices (Ajzen 2011; Cameron et al., 2012).

Generally, our beliefs influence our intentions towards a given behaviour (Ajzen 2011). The current study assumed that the meaning and essence of IE by major stakeholders is influenced by their intentions towards it. As the saying goes, “one’s action must be judge according to his or her intention.” This implies that how stakeholders act toward IE practices depends largely on how they were socialised with the concept either by the family, school, church, media or the society and their intentions toward their action. Thus, major stakeholders naturally act

logically, according to their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control which is largely influenced by their social orientation and communication process (Ajzen, 2011; Cameron et al., 2012). Likewise, the meaning and essence of IE practices by these stakeholders are largely constructed by their communication process. This conceptualisation serves as motivation that influences stakeholders’ intention and behaviour toward IE practices hierarchically (Kefallinou et al., 2020).

From the launching of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to Salamanca Statement (1994) on IE and a more recent UN Convention on the Rights of PWDs, Ghana has supported the vision of transforming school policies and practices toward educating all children in mainstream education facilities, including learners with SEND (MoE, 2013). However, literature seems to suggest that there are evidence gaps in prior research concerning the achievement of effective IE practices in schools. In relation to stakeholders’ misconception of IE, Lui and colleagues (2015) indicated that knowledge and perceived social norm are leading influencers of parents’ assertiveness towards IE.

Within the context of Ghana, Amponteng and colleagues (2021) indicated in their study that parent have low knowledge about inclusive practices. This may lead to their misconceptions regarding IE, a phenomenon that can be dysfunctional to the country’s efforts regarding IE for national integration. Also, examining the issues of IE from a descriptive and positivists perspective does not allow researchers to understand the issues better from heuristic and phenomenological perspectives

In looking at the challenges in implementing IE, Kelly and colleagues (2014) assert that most learners in mainstream schools are not participating in schooling because the schools are not meeting their academic, social, emotional, behavioural, and resource needs. Kelly et al. added that the academic needs of learners with SEND are not matching the school environments, leading to such learners’ irregularity to school. Also, inadequate preparation of teachers to handle learners with SEND in mainstream classrooms (Chitiyo et al., 2019), parents’ low knowledge about IE (Amponteng et al., 2019), teachers’ poor attitudes towards learners with SEND (Wang, 2023), insufficient administrative support and teachers inadequate training on IE (Ahiava & Thomas, 2021) were major factors impeding the implementation of IE. Employing qualitative methodology, Beyene and colleagues (2023) also found that access and accessibility difficulties that spring from the learners’ diverse background and lack of teaching resources were among the problems identified as some of the challenges impeding inclusionary practices in schools.

The assertions from the empirical works reviewed seem to suggest that there are still some emerging dysfunctions of IE in Ghana. Also, there seems to be an ostensible knowledge gap in the prior research concerning the meaning and essence of IE practices leading to some misconceptions about the concept (Amponteng et al., 2019; Kefallinou et al., 2020), stakeholders differential narratives regarding IE practices, IE policy implementation challenges (Kelly et al., 2014), lack of instructional and assessment innovative approaches on the part of teachers (Chitiyo et al., 2019; Wang, 2023), lack of resources (Gyimah, 2021; Beyene et al.,

2023) and non-tracking of IE trends, both overt and covert (Beyene et al., 2023). In addition, the few studies conducted on IE practices in Ghana have largely focused on non-symbolic and non-sociocultural gaps (Ahiava & Thomas, 2021; Amponteng et al., 2019; Gyimah, 2021).

Methodology

Design

The philosophical orientation of the study with regard to the pursuant of the virtues of reality and truth were based on the ideas of heuristic inquiry of descriptive phenomenological approach. That is, the reality of IE practices was seen as a sociocultural construct that requires an understanding of the context in which it is constructed and experienced symbolically by those with such lived experience (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). This design helped in discovering the underlying meanings and essence of IE in major stakeholders’ experiences (Mihalache, 2019). Using heuristic inquiry helped me to gain better insights regarding stakeholders’ attitudes and actions toward IE practices that challenge conventional views (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018).

Participants

The study population was major stakeholders (headteachers, teachers, learners, parents, Special Educational Needs Coordinators [SENCOs] and Local Directors of Education [LDoE]) within the basic school sub-sector. Most eclectic Local Government Areas (LGAs) in the three zones in Ghana were considered, one LGA from each zone. According to Educational Management Information System ([EMIS], 2022), there are three LDoE, five SENCOs, 564 headteachers, 7,639 teachers and 140,640 learners (basic 7–9) in the three areas. Estimate from Ghana Statistical Service (GSS, 2022) also show that there are about 37,983 parents within the various basic schools in these three areas.

The sample was 90. This comprised of three LDoE, 17 parents, 20 headteachers, 26 teachers, 19 learners and five SENCOs. This sample was decided based on the recommendation that for a qualitative study that requires an analysis of participants lived experience, a sample of 20-30 is appropriate (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Purposive sampling was used to select one eclectic local government area from each of the three zones. Schools (both inclusive and non-inclusive) and categories of respondents were also selected purposively. Emphasis was on mainstream public basic schools that are perceived to be most diversify and inclusive in nature. Individual participants were also selected purposively to ensure heterogeneity and diversity in participants’ views.

The six categories of participants were handpicked because they are seen to be living with the manifestation of the IE policy implementation. In the selection process, I focused on those living with the phenomenon and they have the needed characteristics that can help yield the most needed information. Some of the participants were selected as the data collection progresses. This created room for me to interact with some of the participants, analyse their

thought in order to decide what data to collect next and from whom. The three LGAs selected have diverse people with multicultural practices, as a result may have different symbolic understanding of IE.

Data Collection Instruments and Procedure

Six set of semi-structured interview guides were used to collect the data. Using this type of instrument created room for me to explore participants’ thoughts, feelings and beliefs about IE practices. The interview guides were in sections and were participants specific. The field work started in August 2023 and ended in November 2023. Prior to administering the instruments, I sent permission letters to the selected education directorates and schools. This was supported by an ethical clearance, with a reference number UCCIRB/EXT/2023/19, from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Cape Coast (UCC). Participants were interviewed individually on face-to-face basis to ensure that other participants would not influence the thoughts of others.

The instruments were administered personally with the support of six field assistants who assisted in the data collection process, including the administering of consent forms. The field assistants were given a brief one-day training and orientation regarding the study a week after receiving the ethical clearance. The data collection commenced immediately after obtaining the informed consents. All participants were interviewed at an agreed place and time of their choice. The interviews were audio recorded with the permission of the participants. Also, notes were taking to ensure that in the event that the recording equipment fails I will still have the data. Fortunately, none of the audio recorders failed. Two of the adult participants who consented to the study did not agree to be audio recorded. As a result, they were given opportunity to provide their responses to the questions in a written form. In the case of the learners, the interviews were recorded manually by writing their responses. Participants were compensated with some stationaries at a cost range of Ghȼ20.00 to Ghȼ30.00 for their participation.

In all, data were collected from 77 participants before reaching the point where I was not observing new information or theme. At this point, participants started confirming what I already found. Generally, as indicated in Table 1, the participants’ characteristics were reflective of the EMIS (2022) and GSS (2022) statistics on basic school teachers and students’ enrolment and population census respectively.

In order to ensure value free and to deal with reflexibilities and serendipity issues, I and the field assistants were explicit in our activities and also ensured that our experiences, interest, values, beliefs, assumptions and biases did not influence the interpretations of the data. This created room for us not to create favourable or unfavourable conclusions about the study issues and the participants. Also, our perceived assumptions and personal goals and reasons for doing this research were documented in the field notes as memos and they were kept overtly during the data collection. I ensured that there is consensus between me and the field assistants on the interpretation given to each theme and associate narrative. I employed peer-observation tactics

by creating room for another interviewer to observe sessions and to peer-reviewed others field notes.

Table 1

Description of Participants’ Characteristics

Characteristics

(18.2%)

Age

than 18 years

– 45 years

Source: Field data (2023)

Data Analysis

The data analysis started while some of the interviews and writing of memos were going on. The audio recordings were transcribed manually. The data were organised, categorised, and coded into sub-headers based on the emerging themes of the research objectives. I first broke down the transcripts into discrete excerpts that represented labels, descriptions, definitions, and category names. Recurring patterns and themes regarding meaning and understanding of IE and lived experiences of IE practices were identified and coded uniformly. Furthermore, the coded excerpts were put into one overarching code to describe the emerged patterns. In the case of participants meaning and understanding of IE, they were re-coded to better understand the emerging incidents symbolically.

Reflexively, the data were analysed using Braun and Clarke six-phase model of thematic analysis as cited in Byrne (2021). Firstly, the recorded data from the interviews were playback to listen to them actively. Later, they were transcribed into written form patiently. The transcripts were read and reread in order to obtain general ideas and notes that emerged from

the data and to become intimately familiar with the data to better understand the tone of participants’ ideas.

Secondly, the data were organised in a meaningful and systematic way by coding the germane sections of the data that were linked to the objectives of the study. Thirdly, the codes were carefully observed and sorted into themes and subthemes applicable to the objectives. Some of the codes that share similar underlying concept were collapsed into one single code. Example, personal meaning and understanding of IE and cultural view on IE were collapsed into symbolic meaning and understanding of IE practices.

Fourthly, the themes were carefully studied in order to enhance the ideals obtained earlier. Finally, the findings of the study were supported by direct quotations from participants, taking into consideration the written memos. The transcribed data were sent to participants to confirm or disconfirm if it represented their thoughts and ideas.

Ethical Considerations

The research protocols were performed in compliance with relevant laws and institutional guidelines. As indicated earlier, ethical approval was received from IRB, UCC. All participants who were above 18 years signed information sheet and written consent prior to participation. However, in relation to the learners, their respective parental opt-in or opt-out consent was used. All, but two participants who favoured the interviewer take composed notes, assented to the sound recording. The data obtained from these two participants were consistent with that of the other participants. Participants were invigorated to feel unrestricted and air their opinions as factually as possible and that they had the liberty to choose whether to participate or not. They were given the right to pull out from participation without any form of adverse consequences ones they do not feel like continuing to take part in the study.

Findings

Latent Meaning of IE

Firstly, I looked at the symbolic understanding of major stakeholders regarding IE practices in mainstream public basic schools. The participants’ thoughts and understanding of what IE is show that they have some level of misconception about the concept. For example, five of the participants (FPN2, FPS3, MPM2, FLS2 and MLM2) see IE as an educational system that allows the participation of PWDs.

A participant, FDM1, said:

“…there was a time I visited a school where one learner with some chromosomal disorder was denied access. When I intervened, I was told by the headteacher that the teachers in the school do not have the requisite competencies required to teach her. She needs to be sent to a special school. Parents in the various schools also do not

agree to the idea that both ‘special’ and ‘non-special’ learners should be in the same class. In my catchment area IE simple means allowing learners with physical disabilities to participate in mainstream schools” (FDMI).

Also, most of the headteachers (16 of 18) viewed IE as an educational system that aims to provide accommodated public education to learners with disabilities. The views of the headteachers are consistent with that of the teachers. Most of the teachers (19 out of 23) also indicated that IE involves a range of interventions and services provided by schools and teachers to help learners with disabilities learn and make progress in school. The understanding of most of the participants regarding IE seems to suggest that cultural integration in the area of religious, gender and social inclusivity are not considered. Rather emphasise is on instructional and school inclusivity of learners with SEND, particularly ensuring that physical school infrastructures are accommodative to PWDs.

Almost all the participants (75 out of 77) were of the view that IE is an important element of education policies in Ghana. However, the government and other major stakeholders are not committed to IE policy and its implementation. For example, FDM1 said:

“…mainstream public basic schools in this LGA do not admit learners with overt conditions such as visual and hearing impairments. However, those who are physically disabled are admitted even though the environments of the various schools in the area are still not accommodative and conducive for them” (FDM1).

Manifestation of IE in Public Basic Schools

When the headteachers were asked whether their respective schools admit learner with SEND, most of them (11 out of 18) said no. The reasons they gave for their answer was that they do not have the needed qualified teachers to serve as resource persons in the schools and to handle these learners. However, seven of the headteachers indicated that their schools admit learner with mild SEND, particularly those with non-cognitive and non-emotional difficulties. The seven participants further indicated that their schools have specific classrooms for learners with SEND and SENCOs come to the school regularly as resource person to support teaching and learning activities.

In line with the social model of disability, almost all of the participants disagreed to the classroom differentiation policy of inclusive schools. They rather call for special schools with their own homogeneous school culture. However, MSN said:

“…creating a special class for learners with SEND in inclusive schools is very important ... These classrooms and the ‘special’ teachers serve as resource centres and persons respectively. These classrooms allow us to give extra support and more attention to learners with SEND so they could catch up with their classmates ...” (MSN).

Another participant said:

“…placing learners to special schools or special classes should be the exception and not the norm. I think learners with severe cases are those that should be placed in special classes or schools” (FTS7).

The analysis of participants’ narratives revealed that major stakeholders in education are having some level of misconception regarding IE. This is largely as a result of their orientation towards the concept which is influencing their planned behaviour towards the concept and the meaning they assigned to it. Their understanding of the concept seems to be variants with the meaning of IE in the various acts of education in Ghana. They do not see the integration of the peoples’ culture (especially minority groups) in the curriculum and the day-to-day classroom instruction as part of IE. The pre-tertiary Education Act, 2020 (Act 1049), for example, define IE to mean “the value system that holds that every child, irrespective of his or her physical or individual circumstance is given equal and balanced opportunity and access to basic education” (p. 5). This conceptualisation by policy makers goes beyond physical it also considers personal circumstances that are define by culture values and norms of the family, society and the country in general.

Symbolically, the country sees mainstream basic education as a ‘melting pot’ where all learners from different cultures, with or without SEND, are converted into one metal with some significant level of sameness. This understanding of IE embraces inclusivity in the area of vision, placement, curriculum, assessment, instruction, acceptance, access, support, resources and leadership.

Practices of IE in Mainstream Public Basic Schools

The second objective explored key stakeholders lived experience regarding overt and covert IE practices in mainstream public basic schools. The views expressed by the participants seem to suggest that inclusion of all learners in mainstream schools sounds good in theory, but does not work in practice. Even though most of the teachers (21 out of 23) indicated that they continue to work in order to create an atmosphere where differences are understood and appreciated in their respective schools, the reality ‘in action’ regarding the implementation of IE policy show that it is not being achieved. This is so because teachers focus on learners with disability and not sociocultural integration. For instance, participants such as FHS5, MHN1, MPN1, FTM3, FLN1 and FSM indicated that the Ghanaian negative mentality regarding PWDs is the main reason why we are not able to witness incremental experiences regarding IE practices in public schools and Ghana as a whole.

Trends of IE practices

In relation to the overt experiences, participants were questioned regarding the trends at which their respective school environments celebrate diversity for the past three years (2020–2022). Generally, the views of the participants show that there is low level of increment at a decreasing

rate for the past three years with regard to school-social interaction, school physical infrastructures including walkways and pavements, classroom sitting arrangement including illumination and ventilation, and suitable furniture, toilets and urinals facilities for all learners.

A participant said

“…errm … no. Overtly, I do not think there has been a significant or moderate increase in the trends of IE practices in my catchment area. There are some learners in my catchment area who have reading disorders (dyslexia). However, only two qualified professionals have been employed for the past three years to operate in the various schools as resource persons to handle learners with SEND” (MSN).

Another participant, FSS1, also said

“… hmm my area has over 50 public basic schools with more than 10,000 learners. But I cannot really say that in all the schools there are trained professionals who can handle ‘special’ learners such as dyslexics, and also ensure cultural, curriculum and instructional inclusions when teaching” (FSS1).

“Hmmm … I will say for instructional inclusiveness, the teachers are expected to employ a well-integrated cultural and gender responsive curriculum approach that ensures that all learners, irrespective of their physical, gender, cognitive, emotional and cultural differences, enjoy class instruction. Unfortunately, the trend for the past three years seems to be the same. Even if there is an increase, I will say it is insignificant. Realistically, this is so because I still see teachers in my school teaching learners with examples that are alien to the Ghanaian culture” (FHM1).

In support of FHM1 submission, FHN said

“…some of my teachers still list fruits such as apple, berries, cherries, plums, and strawberries as types of fruits simple because these fruits are listed in the textbooks they are using. These fruits are type of fruits that are not produce in this community as a result are unknown to most of the learners. I expect my teachers to adapt the textbook and apply the content in their lesson plans so they can teach from known to unknown as expected in the instructional policy of IE. Teachers should start with fruits that are common in the community (Examples: mango, banana, orange, pear, watermelon, pawpaw and pineapple) before listing those that are not common or even produce in this country. Unfortunately, this is not happening. Therefore, I do not think the trend of IE practices regarding instructional inclusion is significant” (FHN).

Furthermore, FSS1 said

“…most headteachers and teachers downplay the practice of non-Christian religion (Islam and Traditional African Religion) in our schools. As a result, they do not allow the practice of these religions in their schools. Nonetheless, they put much premium on Christian religion. This may be as a result of the country’s colonial influence. The start of western education in Ghana is attributed to the European Christian missionaries. Even though we are no more under colonisation, these missionaries have been able to incorporate Christian values and practices in Ghanaian public basic school culture which has, and continue to, influence majority of Ghanaians. This practice in my view is not helping to benefit fully the IE policy of the country, particularly regarding religious tolerance and sociocultural integration in our pretertiary schools” (FSS1).

Instructional Inclusion

Also, MHS2 said

“…some teachers do not design inclusive lesson plan, as a result they fail to teach in a way that will help them consider the diverse culture, needs and abilities of all learners. For example, I witness a lesson last week where a teacher was teaching her learners the things we get from animals. In her examples, she indicated that cow, sheep, goat and camel give us meat, milk, wool and leather. Animals such as python (snake) and agama (lizard) are seen as wildlife while dog, cat and rabbit are used as pets, as a result we do not slaughter them for food. These examples use by the teacher do not reflect the Ghanaian culture. This is so because meaningful number of Ghanaians consider the meats of these animals (cat, dog and python) as special delicacy and as animals that give us meat” (MHS2).

In line with MHS2 assertion, FDM1 said

“…the teacher should have presented the content to indicate that these animals are use as pets for some people while others use them as meat for food. Using such content to teach our children may influence them negatively to dislike some of our ‘favourite’ meats in Ghana. In my view, these practices do not help in promoting national integration in our basic schools and communities at large” (FDM1).

The participants (FHM1, FSS1 and FSM) views suggest that professional teachers are not using multi-sensory, differentiated, cooperative, individual and collaborative approaches to teaching. Rather, they prefer using direct teaching approaches that do not create meaningful room for them to differentiate their teaching in order to create room for them to teach multi-culturally and also give more attention to learners with SEND.

Consistent with the views of other participants, FLS1 also said

“…for the past three years there has not been any meaningful improvement regarding our classroom illumination and ventilation, and school walkways, pavements, toilets and urinals facilities” (FLS1).

Furthermore, FPS1 said

“…I do not belief in this thing call IE. There are still issues of gender disparities and discriminations of minority groups with regard to their cultural practices in our schools” (FPS1).

The views of the participants show that the IE culture of the people with regard to belief, ideas, knowledge, attitude, norms and values are not improving as expected. Even though the IE policy is being implemented for the past nine years, the covert practices in public mainstream basic schools is not encouraging.

“… I think the teachers in the various schools within my catchment areas are aware of the need to practice IE. However, I do not think their demonstrated knowledge and attitudes are helping in the achievement of the main goal of the policy, which is education for all. As I indicated earlier, most of the teachers do not have the competencies to handle learners with dyslectic” (FSS1).

In line with the view of FSS1, FSS2 also said “…in most cases these learners are not able to participate meaningfully in classroom reading activities” (FSS2). This lack of knowledge and negative attitude of teachers is not helping to achieve instructional inclusion.

Practical Barriers to IE Practices in Ghana

More than half (14 of 23) of the teachers indicated that school structures and facilities and also teaching and learning resources are not allowing them to teach effectively when both SEND and non-SEND learners are admitted to the same class.

“Eiy … in this community ... I do not think all learners can be put together in the same class or school. I remember last year I had a learner who was mildly suffering from one of the sensory impaired disorders. Unfortunately, most parents were not confortable for her to be in the same class with their children. About 11 per cent of the parents removed their children from the school to a nearby school. The school recommended to the parents to send the child to a special school for better attention. But I disagreed with the recommendation because her average performance in the class showed that she was the 19th person in the class of 36. Some of the parents were calling her “nsuoba”, meaning ‘water child’. The attitudes of the parents were largely influenced by their lack of knowledge regarding the issues of IE and also the values and norms of the community” (FTN1).

In line with the views expressed by FTN1, FTS1 also said

“Hmm … unfortunately, some of the cultural beliefs, values and norms of this community and Ghana as a whole are not helping in achieving the intended gaols of IE policy, not to mention poverty. As the saying goes, ‘religion is the opium of the masses’. Some religious leaders in this community are those telling the people negative things about children with sensory, cognitive or emotional disorders” (FTS1).

The views expressed by the participants show that most parents and teachers have negative perception and attitude toward IE practices. However, policy implementers such as headteachers, SENCOs and the director expressed positive trend regarding covert practices of IE in mainstream public basic schools. This may be so because these categories of participants seem to be more exposed to the IE concept and policy.

Discussion

Uniformity in the conceptualisation of IE and its practices is a significant factor to the survival of the IE agenda of Ghana, which is to ensure that all mainstream schools are equipped to meet the multi-cultural and varied needs of all learners so they can school and learn together notwithstanding their unique characteristics. Therefore, the meaning and value major stakeholders attached to IE should be homogeneous (Kefallinou et al., 2020; UNESCO, 2005). However, the views outlined by participants show that there is some level of misconception of IE, particularly between policy makers and implementers which may be as a result of the differences in their sociocultural and professional orientations.

Policy makers see it to be the ‘value system’ that holds that all children are given equal and balanced opportunity and access to basic education (Kefallinou et al., 2020). Most of these policy makers are within the upper- and middle-class status groups. Their beliefs largely influence their intentions (Ajzen, 2011) which in turn predict their planned behaviours and the essence of IE to them (Opoku et al., 2022). This conceptualisation is from the perspective of cultural, curriculum, social and instructional inclusionary practices. However, policy implementers such as teachers and SENCOs concur with this conceptualisation, but their reality ‘in action’ show that they, and also parents and learners, see it to be the incorporation of learners with SEND in schools, and not cultural and curriculum integration as conceptualised in many of the laws governing pre-tertiary education in Ghana, including the Pre-tertiary Education Act, 2020 [Act 1049] (Parliament of the Republic of Ghana, 2021).

The misconception in major stakeholders’ conceptualisation of IE support the findings of Amponteng and colleagues (2019) which indicate parents low knowledge about inclusive practices. Also, the views of the parents, SENCOs and some teachers are consistent with the submissions of Kefallinou and colleagues (2020) who indicated that not all stakeholders have clear and common understanding of the values IE represents, the benefits it can bring to all learners and teachers and the ways it can be implemented. Opoku and colleagues (2022) also

found that parents have limited knowledge about implementation of IE. ‘Knowledge is power’, as a result, knowledge producing institutions such as schools can be used as a social engineering tool to change people’s attitudes and behaviour. Therefore, as posited by Mantey (2014) and Aboagye (2020), boosting stakeholders’ knowledge of IE can help enhance their levels of awareness and practices of IE.

Major stakeholders’ figurative understanding of IE practices is largely influenced by the meanings and values they assign to the practices and their intention toward the practices of IE (Lui et al., 2015). Further evidence from recent studies show that these dynamics are in turn influenced largely by the stakeholders’ beliefs and attitude toward IE, and the social values, norms and control governing the manifestation of IE (Cameron et al., 2012; Opoku et al., 2022).

With regard to stakeholders lived experience regarding overt and covert practices of IE in schools, the findings suggest that there is a minor increase at a decreasing rate for the past three years. However, the overt experiences such as school-social interaction, school physical infrastructures including walkways and pavements, classroom sitting arrangement including illumination and ventilation, resource person and toilets and urinals facilities witness higher trends as compared to covert experiences such as major stakeholders’ belief, knowledge, attitude, norms and values toward IE practices. This shows that the covert trends of IE practices in Ghana is not encouraging. Evidence of stakeholders’ lack of knowledge and poor attitude toward IE, and the norms of the society being the factors that thwart the achievement of IE practices in both micro (school) and macro societies comes from studies by Lui et al. (2015) and Opoku et al. (2022). This calls for an immediate intervention to help enhance the lived covert experiences of stakeholders in order to strengthen the implementation and realisation of IE practices in the country.

Furthermore, the findings show that teachers were not employing innovative pedagogical and assessment strategies that are gender and culture responsive and ensure inclusion of all learners, irrespective of their cultural, gender and SEND differentials. As indicated by Chitiyo et al. (2019), teachers must be prepared adequately by teacher training institutions so they can develop pedagogical and assessment techniques that are responsive to IE during lesson planning, preparation and delivery. This suggests that teachers can employ these strategies by using relevant and familiar examples and role-play approaches when teaching.

Parents not allowing their children/ward to be in the same class with learners with cognitive and emotional disorders, and headteachers recommending for parents to send their ‘special’ children to special schools show some level of negative attitude toward IE. These views are congruent with the comments of Kelly and colleagues (2014) who assert that principals reported an increasing trend (40% over 5 years) in learners enrolling in special schools as a result of the failure of mainstream schools to meet the academic, social, emotional and behavioural needs of learners with SEND.

Furthermore, this study shows that headteachers are able to demonstrate more positive attitudes toward IE practices as compare to other major stakeholders considered. This means, SENCOs,

parents, learners and some teachers are still having some negative perception and attitude toward IE. Lui and colleagues (2015) showed that parents’ lack of knowledge and negative perception regarding IE are the dominant predictors of their negative attitudes towards IE practices. Additionally, the finding regarding less incremental covert experiences of IE practices of parents is in line with that of Amponteng and colleagues (2021) who avow that parent have low knowledge about IE practices, a phenomenon that usually leads to some level of misconceptions regarding IE. However, in relation to overt experiences, Gyimah (2021) indicated that there are still significant aspects of school environments that are not conducive/friendly to learners with SEND, and the trend is not improving.

Implications

In this 21st century, the value system that all countries must develop and hold onto when implementing their educational policy, particularly at the pre-tertiary level, is to ensure that each learner, irrespective of his or her sociocultural and individual status quo, is given equal and balanced opportunity and access to education. Such conceptualisation of education can be implemented effectively through the practices of IE. This calls for the need to have sameness in the meaning, essence and practices of IE in a country to avoid misconception.

Within the confinement of this study, major stakeholders lived experiences regarding IE practices in mainstream public basic schools show some level of misconception and misunderstanding. The meaning policy makers attached to the concept embraces cultural, curriculum, physical and instructional inclusivity while that of the policy implementers focuses on the inclusion of learners with SEND in the conventional education system. One can, therefore, conclude that major stakeholders of basic education have some level of misconceptions about IE practices which is as a result of their conventional beliefs and social orientation regarding IE practices. These dynamics largely influences their intentions and planned behaviours toward IE, which largely affect the practices of IE negatively. Consequently, there is the need for re-orientation and re-socialisation of teachers and parents respectively on IE so we can help narrow or eliminate their misunderstanding of the concept and boost their level of awareness. Largely, this will help provide a sense of belonging and school community that values all learners equitably.

Also, in relation to stakeholders lived experience regarding overt and covert inclusionary practices in mainstream schools, the study concludes that there is a low level of improvement regarding the overt and covert trends. Largely, this observation is attributed to teachers who are not employing appropriate innovative pedagogical and assessment strategies that ensure cultural, gender and religious inclusions, and inclusion of all learners when planning and delivering lessons. This call for the need for teachers and parents to nurture positive beliefs toward IE in order for them to develop good intention towards it to ensure positive behaviours that will in turn boost positive IE practices. This intervention will help reduce the socio-cultural barriers to the implementation of IE policies in Ghana.

Recommendations

In line with the finding that major stakeholders symbolic understanding of IE does not propel gender and cultural inclusions with regard to societal values and norms, it is recommended to the various LGA directors of education to collaborate with professionals in the area of Educational Sociology in order to organise series of seminars for stakeholders to help enhance their beliefs, knowledge and attitudes toward IE practices. The training will also help SENCOs and teachers to employ multicultural and gender responsive strategies and multisensory teaching interventions when teaching or supporting learners to learn. Organising such seminars will make it easy for the LGA authorities to nurture parents’ positive beliefs and intentions toward IE so they can enrol all their children/wards to be trained in mainstream schools for their day to day living skills and competencies; irrespective of their gender, religious beliefs and SEND differentials.

Also, it is recommended to the Director-General of Ghana Education Service, through the various local area directors of education, to make multisensory teaching resources available to teachers after equipping them with the requisite skills and competencies regarding their usage. This will help them delivery the current integrated curriculum appropriate by ensuring that the needs of all learners are met, both in class and in the school.

Again, it is recommended to the Director-General of Ghana Tertiary Education Commission (GTEC) to initiate curriculum review of the various teacher-education institutions so they can produce qualified teachers who understand the concept of IE and its practices. This will help narrow the misconception among major stakeholders and the effective implementation of the IE policy.

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Improving Secondary School Mathematics Teachers’ Effective Lesson Implementation through Lesson Study

Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba Jimma University, Ethiopia

Abbi Lemma Wedajo Jimma University, Ethiopia

Faith Maina Texas Tech University, USA

Adula Bekele Hunde University of Oslo, Norway

Abstract

The main purpose of this study was to explore how engaging in lesson study improves secondary mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation to support students’ learning better. The research was conducted in Jimma City, Ethiopia, and employed design-based research with qualitative data collected from two secondary schools and 12 mathematics teachers. A purposive sampling technique was used to select participants. Interviews, observations, and document analysis were the main sources of data. The data were analyzed thematically supported by Atlas-ti qualitative data analysis software. Findings indicated that engaging in lesson study improved mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation. LS improved participants’ practice of lesson presentation, use of diverse student-centered teaching methods, assessment, behavior management, instructional aids, time management, and feedback strategies. School leaders’ positive attitudes and teachers’ commitment were found to be supportive, while shortage of time and teachers’ high teaching load were constraints. It would be vital to integrate lesson study into teachers’ school-based professional development programs to improve mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation in the study setting. The study suggests further investigation in more secondary schools by incorporating quantitative evidence with larger a sample size.

Keywords: effective lesson implementation, lesson study, mathematics teachers, professional development, secondary school

In the ever-changing educational environment, teachers are encouraged to implement lessons effectively in their day-to-day teaching. Effective lesson implementation plays a central role in students’ success in school and in their lives (Matić et al., 2020). The conception of effective lesson implementation considerably varies, largely dependent on the educational traditions in different countries (Matić et al., 2020) and is controversial because it involves a range of factors (teacher, learning environment, and students) that collectively work (Rahaman, 2018). However, some authors describe the concept of effective lesson implementation as the knowledge, skills, strategies, behaviors, and processes which lead to improved student learning outcomes (Hidayati et al., 2021). Effective lesson implementation is also viewed as teachers’ ability to make a positive impact on a student’s life, and academic career and empowering them to reach their full potential (Matić et al., 2020).

Further, effective lesson implementation is described as teachers’ pedagogical practices of solving problems occurring in real instructional situations by applying knowledge, ability, skills, and experiences creatively to achieve the desired results (Rahaman, 2018). The emphasis is on teachers’ practices to explore the hidden capacities of the students and shape their behavior in a desirable direction (Hidayati et al., 2021). Pertinent to this study, thus, effective lesson implementation is conceptualized as secondary school mathematics teachers’ appropriate use of pedagogical elements involved in their teaching practices (learning objectives, content, teaching methods, learning materials, time, assessment, classroom management, and feedback strategies) to promote students’ mathematics learning. Effective mathematics lesson implementation (EMLI) creates mathematical potential among the learner in terms of knowledge, attitudes, skills, and logical thinking (Matić et al., 2020). This means, teaching mathematics can be deemed effective when it positively impacts students’ learning and results in the realization of the stated learning objectives (Hidayati et al., 2021). This conceptualization of EMLI is, used to guide this study.

In the context of Ethiopia, mathematics education is considered fundamental for science, and technology studies (Seifu, 2019). Hence, EMLI is emphasized to develop students’ understanding of mathematical concepts, problem-solving, logical reasoning, critical thinking, creativity, abstract thought, and analysis (Sebsibe et al., 2023). While EMLI is recognized as a key factor in improving student’s learning outcomes, it has remained a challenging situation in secondary schools in Ethiopia (Sebsibe et al., 2023; Tefera et al, 2018). In the country, a series of research findings in science and mathematics subjects indicated low students learning outcomes in grade 10 and 12 national examinations (Sebsibe et al., 2023; Tefera et al, 2018). Among the explanatory reasons were teachers’ deficient classroom practices, and inadequate teaching skills and techniques (Sebsibe et al., 2023). Most teachers were unable to implement learner-centered lessons, inadequately used teaching and learning resources, and assessment techniques, and rarely provided feedback on classroom activities to enhance students’ learning and progress (Sebsibe et al., 2023). Most students also think that mathematics is a difficult subject that requires them to have high critical thinking ability (Seifu, 2019). Thus, many students struggle with mathematics and become dissatisfied as they continually confront obstacles to engagement (Seifu, 2019). Practical actions taken to solve the problem appear very limited. Tackling the problem at the school level through research-informed intervention has

been less substantial. As a result, the issue of secondary school teachers’ EMLI is one of the crucial areas to be focused on to bridge the current practice gaps teachers have. This initiated study focused on improving secondary school mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation through lesson study (LS) based intervention to support students’ mathematics learning. LS, originated in Japan has gained wide reputations in improving mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation (Adler et al., 2023; Alamri, 2020; Roorda et al., 2024). Therefore, the main purpose of the study was to explore how engaging secondary school mathematics teacher in LS improves their effective lesson implementation in Jimma, Ethiopia. To achieve this purpose, the study is guided by the following research questions.

1) How does engaging in LS improve secondary school mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation?

2) What are the school context-related factors that support and/or hinder the success of LS to improve secondary school mathematics teachers’ effective lesson implementation?

Theoretical-Conceptual Frameworks

Social constructivism provides a framework for the use of LS to improve teachers’ EMLI. Social constructivism emphasizes a learner-centered and active role of learners in the learning process to create knowledge for themselves (Akpan, 2020). LS enable teachers to place students learning at the center of their learning (Lewis et al., 2019). Constructivist maintains the gradual process of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught, and how learning is assessed collaboratively in a specific context (Rock et al., 2005). LS provides multiple opportunities for teachers to reflect, discuss, analyze, evaluate, and share understandings with other teachers on their practice (Lewis et al., 2019). Constructivist supports contextualized approach to teaching (Thi Thu & Thi Thu, 2023). LS is a context-based model, where learning is promoted via realworld context (Widjaja et al., 2017). Finally, constructivism stresses learning is best achieved through authentic and meaningful tasks that challenge and motivate learners (Thi Thu & Thi Thu, 2023). LS provides teachers with the opportunities to identify problems that challenge the students and solve students’ learning challenges (Lewis et al., 2019). Thus, it is logical that building teachers’ EMLI practices through LS is considered in light of constructivism theory.

Social learning theory (SLT) from the perspective of professional learning through observation and participation also provides a base for understanding the role of LS in improving teachers’ EMLI practices. The SLT focused on observational learning and the mental modeling of observed behaviors provides an opportunity for teachers to (re)construct behaviors to implement in the classroom (Watson, 2013). As teachers observe largely more experienced colleagues, they construct this, knowing that it represents a safe and stable practice (Watson, 2013). LS represents a strong relationship between practice and teachers’ needs (Mhakure, 2019). This provides opportunity for mathematics teachers to collaboratively engage in LS processes essential to improve EMLI (Lomibao, 2016). This allows mathematics teachers with an opportunity to collaboratively plan lessons and practice them to address students’ learning difficulties (Hidayati et al., 2021). LS establishes a link between teachers’ teaching practice

and the learning process using real classroom situations as experimental activities. Thus, teachers become lifelong learners seeking to improve their pedagogical skills, and EMLI (Ogegbo et al., 2019). In addition, this study used a conceptual model depicting the impact of LS on teachers’ EMLI shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Conceptual Model Informing the Study

This conceptual model shows the four stages of lesson study (Study-Plan-Conduct-Reflect) that work in cyclical iterative manners to improve teachers’ effective lesson implementation. At stage 1, the LS team studies curriculum materials that provide a rationale for pedagogical decisions, choices, and information on student thinking. Then, the team identifies the learning goal in terms of students’ learning of a topic. At stage 2, the study teams collaboratively plan a research lesson – a real lesson designed, taught, and observed. At stage 3, the collaboratively planned lesson can be taught by one of the members of the team. The other team members observe students learning and collect data. At stage 4 team members gather for a post-lesson reflection and discussion during which they share the collected data, discuss implications, examine evidence, and reflect on the experience, especially concerning the learning goals of the lesson and the research theme. Further, LS is a school-based teachers’ professional development model in the school context. Thus, the school contexts play a vital role in supporting and/or hindering its effective LS practices and, consequently teachers’ effective lesson implementation.

Literature Review

In recent years, one of the keys to educational innovation and improvement in EMLI has been linked to LS. This is because LS addresses many of the problems associated with teachers’ classroom practices (Takahashi & McDougal, 2016). LS provides teachers with the opportunity to collaboratively plan lessons and implement them to meet the students’ learning needs (Lewis

et al., 2019). LS is an instructional improvement model that places teachers at the center of pedagogical activity, with their interests and desires to better understand students’ learning. It helps teachers to link their classroom teaching practice with broader educational goals and objectives. This linkage makes teachers more flexible and dynamic in using a variety of instructional methods to actively engage students in learning activities that transform their classroom practices (Lee & Madden, 2019). Teachers practicing LS, can learn new and better use of instructional methods, materials, and assessments and refine their skill of managing students’ behavior (Kihwele, & Guoyuan, 2020). It creates a teaching situation based on students’ knowledge that helps them to improve teaching methods to benefit students, particularly those needing support (Lundbäck & Egerhag, 2020). Hence, the true purpose of LS is not just about improving a single lesson but rather building pathways for ongoing improvement of instruction and students’ learning (Takahashi & McDougal, 2016). It is about improving teachers’ use of diverse teaching methods, student-based activity design, and better teacher-student interaction (Rahim et al., 2015). During the practice of LS, teachers systematically observe their colleague’s classroom teaching from students’ viewpoint helpful to improve their knowledge of student thinking and motivation to improve their instruction (Lewis et al., 2019). Hence, engaging in LS improves teachers’ teaching, assessment, and feedback-related capabilities (Aimah et al., 2018).

Previous studies reported positive impacts of LS on mathematics teachers’ EMLI (Adler et al., 2023; Roorda et al., 2024). A study conducted in Malawi secondary mathematics teachers showed that LS maximized teachers’ teaching and learning (Adler et al., 2023). Similarly, a study in South Africa revealed that LS positively influenced mathematics teachers’ creative teaching of mathematics (Helmbold et al., 2021). Hence, LS improved teachers’ lesson delivery and practices of learner-centered pedagogy (Jung et al., 2015) and focused on students learning (Bikmaz, & Bayram, 2021). It enabled teachers to be monitored each other mainly in lesson presentation, teaching material preparation and usage, assessment and time management skills (Bikmaz, & Bayram, 2021). LS promoted teachers pedagogical skills and practices in lesson implementation, classroom management, and assessment through post-lesson reflections and peer observations (Rahim et al., 2015).

Although LS plays an important role in improving teachers’ effective teaching practices, some school context-related factors influence teachers’ EMLI. These include teachers’ collaboration, administrative support, and availability of resources (Ogegbo et al., 2019; Wajdi, 2017; Wood & Cajkler, 2018). Teachers working in collaboration build a culture of learning from each other (Bikmaz, & Bayram, 2021). Teachers’ engagement in LS also requires substantial support from school leaders in terms of administrative, material, and moral encouragement to promote every teacher’s capacity building (Chiira et al., 2023). Secondary school leaders promote collaborative practices (team work, peer lesson observation, and team teaching) that support the implementation of LS in the school (Chiira et al., 2023). Teachers’ engagement in LS is also impeded by teacher’s workload which a lighter instructional load allows teachers to get time to best engage in LS activities (Akiba, 2016). Teachers also need adequate time to engage in various activities to make LS an ongoing part of their daily basis and to see the results of their effort (Wood & Cajkler, 2018).

Method

Research Design

This study employed design-based research (DBR), which is a systematic methodology aimed to improve educational practices through iterative analysis, design, development, and implementation, based on collaboration among researchers and practitioners in real-world settings (Wang & Hannafin, 2005). DBR is used for four main reasons. First, DBR indicates ways in which research in LS could be undertaken in a non-Japanese environment (Ebaeguin, 2014). The context of this study is, Ethiopia, the conditions might be different from Japan. Second, DBR is convenient for studies with cyclic and iterative (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; Reeves & McKenney, 2013). In this study, LS was conducted in two cycles of iterations. Third, DBR is contextual where the practitioners are part of the context (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; Juuti, Lavnen & Meisaol, 2016). This study conducted in the schools and classroom settings where teachers actually engaged in their regular mathematics teaching.

The Study Settings

Proponents of DBR advocate for context-based research to increase the relevance of research outcomes in a real context and to benefit the practitioners from research work (Armstrong, Dopp, Welsh, 2018). The settings for this particular study were positioned in two public secondary schools (grades 9 to 12), found in Jimma City, Ethiopia. For the sake of anonymity, the settings were named secondary school A and secondary school B.

Participants

Twelve mathematics teachers (eight males and four females) were the participants in this study. All participants had a first degree in mathematics an optimum educational qualification to teach at the secondary school level in the country. The teaching experiences of the participants ranged from three years to thirty years. In terms of grade assignment, four teachers were teaching at grade nine, four at grade ten, two at grade eleven, and two at grade twelve. Participants were grouped into two LS teams, based on their respective schools. Each team consisted of six teachers. The LS team at school A consisted of five males and one female, while the LS team at school B consisted of three males and three females.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

A purposive sampling technique was utilized in this study where the samples were deliberately selected to achieve the intended objectives of the study. Primarily, two out of six secondary schools were selected purposefully because the school leaders were open and willing to implement LS in their schools. Mathematics subject was focused purposively due to the emphasis given to improving the teaching and learning of mathematics subject in Ethiopia (focus on science and technology) and the serious problems faced in teaching the subject (Seifu,

2019). Teachers were also selected on a purposive basis based on their teaching experiences at all grade levels (grades 9 to 12) and willingness to take part in the study.

Data Collection Instruments

The data for the study were collected from interviews, observations, and document analysis.

Interviews

Semi-structured interview guide was prepared originally in English language and translated into local languages (Amharic and Afan Oromo). Before the use of interview guides, the questions were reviewed and checked by supervisors, researchers, and language experts. The interviews were scheduled before meeting the participants to ensure that they were present at a convenient location. Using a personal face to face interview, all the study team members were interviewed by the researchers at the end of the second cycle of LS implementation using either of the local languages, based on the interest of the participant. Each interview lasted for 30-40 minutes. All interviews were audiotaped.

Observations

The study team meeting observations were conducted during the four stages of the LS implementation process in two cycles. All meetings were observed by the researcher as participant observer and detailed field notes were kept. Four (two in each team) classroom research lessons were taught and observed by the study team members together with the researcher using a semi-structured observation protocol. The research lesson observations took four periods (each period lasted 40 minutes) and taught in grade 10 on the topic of “Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions.” All observers stood in a position not to block students’ view of the chalkboard and documented relevant data for 40 minutes. Some pertinent issues were video recorded by the researchers to provide evidence of the teacher and student engagement in the teaching and learning process.

Documents

Meeting minutes, reflective portfolio, and lesson plans were also used to secure supplementary data helpful for triangulation purposes. Accordingly, four detailed lesson plans (two in each team) were prepared, implemented, and examined. Besides, all meeting minutes were taken by minute takers and approved by the signatures of all participants at the end of each meeting. Further, all the study team members produced a reflective portfolio in which they documented their performance outlining their journey of participation in the LS processes. At the end of the study, all documents were collected and used as sources of data.

Implementation of the Intervention

The implementation of intervention began with one-day awareness-raising workshops on the basics of the LS and was implemented from November 2022 to May 2023. Then, two study teams were formed (one in each setting), and LS processes that involved four stages implemented in two cycles (one cycle in each semester) in both settings were described as follows.

Stage 1 Curriculum Study and Goal Setting

This stage involved six LS team members and one researcher in each setting. Participants studied mathematics curriculum materials (from grades 9-12), standards, and policy documents. They reflected on their teaching to address common classroom mathematics learning challenges that students have, and some teachers struggled to teach it. Thus, students’ learning problem was identified as “applications of exponential and logarithmic functions in real life” as a gap, from grade 10, unit two. To this effect, both teams explored the same topic. Then, participants adapted learning goals from curriculum materials “Students will be an independent problem solver.’ Both teams fixed a research question based on the goal to guide their study stating, “How can we help students solve mathematical problems involving exponential and logarithmic functions independently from real life?”

Stage 2 Planning

At this stage, participants collaboratively worked on a lesson plan. Participants again collaboratively studied the grade 10 mathematics syllabus, teacher’s guide, and student textbook in detail and planned the research lesson around learning objectives to achieve the intended goal. Participants discussed and shared experiences on how to design a lesson so that students learn the topic of “application of exponential and logarithmic functions in real life” better than they have previously. They reflected on their experiences of lesson planning on the topic and shared experiences on the most appropriate learning path, materials, assessment, and time required for teaching and learning the topic. Besides, participants decided on the focus of data to be collected and the learning path “the gradual release of responsibility (GRR) model” (Fisher & Frey, 2008) to ensure better student learning of a topic as prescribed in the teacher’s guide. In addition, the GRR model was found to fit for the intended research that required teachers to know their students and content very well, regularly assess students’ understanding of the content, and purposefully plan lessons that transfer responsibility from the teacher to the student (Fisher & Frey, 2008). They anticipated students’ mathematical responses and misconceptions related to learning the topic and crafted the lesson plan. The lesson plans were prepared with specific learning objectives in four chart columns: teacher’s and students’ activities including students’ anticipated responses and misconceptions, teaching and learning aids, evaluations, and time allocated to the activities in minutes. Finally, each team collaboratively crafted the lesson plan centered on students’ activities and assigned one of the grade 10 teachers voluntarily to deliver the research lesson during regular class time.

Stage 3 Conduct (Teaching and Observing)

The implementation of the collaboratively planned lesson has two main components: teaching the planned lesson and observing the lesson. Participants conducted two research lessons (one in each semester) in each setting. The research lesson was taught by one of the team members in grade 10 and other team members observed the lesson and collected data on students’ learning. As the collaboratively planned lesson was taught by the classroom mathematics teacher, other LS members and the researcher observed the lesson using a copy of the lesson plan and collected data through notetaking based on observation protocol. The observation protocol is composed of three columns: teacher’s actions and responses, students’ actions and responses, and reflection on assessments. Observers examined data on student thinking, work, questions, responses, engagement, and behavior to the research theme focused on the lesson rather than the teacher.

Stage 4 Post-Lesson Reflections

In the post-lesson reflection all LS team members, one researcher, and a knowledgeable other person attended the meeting. A facilitator from the team members gave the first chance to the teacher who taught the research lesson for reflections, who commented on what went well in the lesson, challenges faced with teaching and learned experience to the expected lesson outcomes. The team members then presented their key observations turn by turn, focusing on the thinking and planning behind the lesson and taking collective ownership of the lesson. They discussed students’ learning based on the data they collected during lesson observation. The focus of the discussion was to improve the lesson for better teaching and students’ learning of the topic. Finally, adjustment was made to a refined lesson plan and re-taught by the same teacher in another classroom. Participants similarly collected and analyzed data.

Data Analysis

The audio-taped data collected from different sources were transcribed and translated into English language by the help of Google translation and checked by a language expert. The analysis was conducted based on the (Saldana, 2013) coding manual for qualitative researchers. The coding methods were based on the objectives of the study and basic research questions in two cycles. Primarily, the transcripts were coded inductively reading line-by-line, segmenting, labeling, and writing memos by directly examining the data based on emic terms (terms that were used by participants themselves). This was followed by deductive coding drawing upon basic concepts in research questions (Saldana, 2013). The codes were verified by working closely with the knowledgeable other person, to determine inter-coder agreement on codes. Then, similar codes were merged to form categories, interrelated categories were merged to form themes, and thematic analysis was conducted. The analysis carried out was supported by qualitative data analysis software called Atlas-ti. Further, pertinent verbatim quotes were extracted from each transcript and placed under the major themes to provide essential evidence.

Findings

The analysis of interviews, observations, and documents depicted three main themes. These themes were validated across the various data sources for each theme and analyzed as follows.

Theme 1: Managing Effective Lesson Implementation

The analysis of the interviews indicated that colleagues’ teaching research lesson observation best modeled and shaped observers’ lesson presentation experiences. Participants viewed their colleague’s teaching observation as a golden opportunity to see how to make the lesson more understandable to the students and to share better pedagogical practice in the classroom. For many of the participants insight about best practices came from colleague’s teaching observations and post-lesson discussions they had. Then, they adapted and integrated it into their practice. This was accurately summarized by a participant from school A who stated:

“……The teacher began the daily lesson by greeting the students with welcoming faces. In the introduction, he motivated students and revised the previous lesson by asking questions. Students replied. Then, he communicated the daily lesson and learning objectives. In presenting the lesson, he wrote a problem to be solved, organized students using mixed-ability groups, and told them to solve it. He walked around, encouraged students’ active participation, and provided hints. He gave a chance to students’ group work presentation. Then, summarized the main points using teaching aids, asked questions, made students self-assess, and gave feedback. Finally, he gave homework and closed the lesson. Hence, I can say that my colleague’s teaching observation highly shaped my classroom teaching experiences.”

Another participant from school B shared, similar views:

“My colleague’s classroom teaching observation has better demonstrated to me how to present the lesson using students’ knowledge and real-life related examples. He presented the lesson from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract matching the lessons to the students’ mindsets and their learning paces to enhance their understanding. He used local examples and students’ home-related experiences from their daily life.”

The analysis of the interviews also revealed that participants’ predominant use of teachercentered teaching methods attributed to large class size, vast content to be covered, and lack of experiences gradually shifted to the use of more student-centered teaching methods. The colleague’s classroom teaching observation had better demonstrated to observers how to move gradually from the traditional chalk and talk teaching methods into more student-centered classroom teaching. These helped them to improve their use of different student-centered teaching methods in their actual classroom teaching. Many of the participants confirmed that as they had begun to exercise and use different active learning strategies regardless of many challenges in the classroom. In this respect, one participant from school A suggested:

“I felt that implementing student-centered teaching in a large class size (when students are more than fifty) would be impossible. However, I observed the use of gapped lectures, small group discussions, question and answer, problem solving, and cooperative work in one session. Within 40 minutes, I didn’t see an off-task student. This has initiated me to practically use different student-centered/active learning methods in my classroom teaching. Thus, my colleague’s teaching observation highly impacted my skill to facilitate students learning using more student-centered/active learning methods.”

A participant from school B had similar views about the use of active learning strategies, and who stated:

“From my colleague’s research lesson teaching, I can observe the use of different active learning strategies. This is because my colleague used in one session; group discussion, pair work, buzz groups, debate, questions and answers, problem-solving, and individual work. I rarely use these active learning strategies due to a shortage of time to cover vast content and a lack of experience in using active learning methods. However, after observing my colleague’s teaching, I can try and use different active learning methods in my classroom teaching.”

The analysis of the interviews also depicted that colleague’s teaching observation enabled participants to focus on student work, engagement, and behavior, rather than focusing on the teacher’s ability to present the lesson. By keeping their focus on students’ engagement and their interactions, observers gained vital insights into ways to improve their instructional practice. This was found to be a great experience for their developed skills and experiences of observing students’ engagements in the learning process. Watching students working together carefully and attentively listening to them has strengthened participants’ attention to focus on students’ observation which is a new experience for many of the participants. Thus, colleague’s classroom teaching observations strengthened participants’ ability to see students’ engagements, interactions, and actions in their learning process. In this regard, one participant from school A said:

“Previously, classroom observations were meant to evaluate teachers. In the LS, what I observed were how the students learn, their interaction, and how they worked with a teacher. In my observation, I noticed first, the students worked with the teacher, then, students worked together under the guidance of the teacher, and individually practiced in front of their peers. The teacher walked around, and gave advice, guidance, feedback, and encouragement. My colleague’s teaching observation improved my ability to observe students’ engagements which is a new experience in my classroom teaching.”

Further, the analysis of the interviews showed that collaborative research lesson planning, colleague’s teaching observation, and post-lesson reflection had contributed to improved participants’ skill in selecting and using instructional aids, assessment, and classroom management strategies that aligned with the objectives and content of the lesson. The discussions and experience sharing focused on the use of instructional aids fostered

participants’ skill of using different instructional aids to address students’ different learning preferences. In this respect, one participant from school B stated:

“After observing my colleague’s classroom teaching, I have used visual aids to address the learning needs of those students who prefer to learn through their sense of sight, explanations for those who choose to learn through hearing, and provide tasks to be done for those who like to learn by doing. This has strengthened my ability to assess students’ learning styles and use different instructional aids to address their learning preferences.”

Similarly, a participant from school A said:

“From my colleague’s teaching observation, I observed the use of visual aids, showing and telling, and hands-on exercises to address the diversified learning needs of students. This has increased my ability to identify students’ learning needs and use different instructional aids to address the diverse learning styles of students in my classroom teaching.”

The analysis of the interviews also indicated that collaborative research lesson planning strengthened participants’ ability to select and use formative assessment helpful to collect information on students’ progress. Colleague’s classroom teaching observation helped participants to identify what students have learned to help them by using timely and relevant feedback. It also assisted participants in fostering students’ learning progress and making decisions about what questions to ask next, and how to answer students’ questions. In this respect, a participant from school A said:

“Due to a large number of students and my attention to covering the vast content of the textbook, I rarely used classroom-based assessment strategies and feedback. My experience is, giving homework and doing sample questions. After observing my colleague’s classroom teaching, I can use quizzes, classwork, worksheets, and marking exercise book. Besides, I can give timely feedback and record the results as soon as possible.”

Similarly, another participant from school B said:

“From my colleague’s classroom teaching observation, I learned how important is to give students the chance to observe and share their answers. I liked how the teacher used worksheets and made students to self-assess. That was a very interesting experience that I shared and used in my classroom teaching.”

The colleague’s classroom teaching observation strengthened the participants’ ability to observe, identify, and manage the students’ behaviors so that they get well prepared for managing classroom behaviors. In this respect, one of the participants from school A said:

“From my colleague’s teaching observation, I got useful experience in managing student behavior. I observed the doers, disturbers, and silent listeners. To maintain classroom

discipline, the teacher watched all the students. Sometimes he used eye contact, signals like putting a finger on his lips to stop misbehavior. He presented the lesson step-by-step in a clear sequence. I think he was well-planned and prepared to facilitate students’ learning. Thus, I reflected on my teaching performance and adapted such helpful classroom management strategies.”

The analysis of the study team meetings and lesson observations showed that participants were able to encourage students’ active participation and collaborative engagements to learn from each other through discussion and sharing of ideas at their own pace. Most of the participants had almost similar approach to teaching the topic under discussion. Thus, in the second cycle of LS implementation participants used multiple strategies; buzz group, debate, problemsolving, cooperative learning, and students’ presentation in solving a mathematical problem. Participants carefully observed students’ engagement, collected data on student learning, and recorded what they had observed. In their discussion participants acknowledged the appealing atmosphere of making the lesson student-centered, and the dynamic nature of classroom interactions. In their post-lesson discussions, participants argued that collaborative work in the LS enabled them to adjust the content of the lesson to the student’s real-life experience and narrowed the gap between lesson planning and its implementation in the classroom. The collaboration helped them to choose and use suitable instructional methods, materials, assessments, classroom management, and feedback strategies.

Further, the analysis of documents (lesson plan) depicted that collaborative research lesson planning had strengthened participants’ skills to implement the different didactic stages in their lesson implementation. This was found to be valuable to motivate students before teaching, organizing them for group work, fostering interactions, and managing students’ behaviors. Besides, participants’ reflective portfolios showed that colleague’s teaching observation provided them the chance to see and use better teaching, assessment, and classroom management strategies. It also strengthened participants’ ability to observe students’ work attentively during the instructional process vital to managing students’ behavior and providing timely feedback to foster their engagement in classroom activities.

As a whole, the analysis of all data sources supported the emerging theme. LS fostered participants’ managing effective lesson implementation.

Theme 2: Backing Lesson Study Practices

The analysis of the interviews depicted that the school leaders have shown positive interest and willingness to accept LS as teachers’ professional learning model in their school contexts. The school leaders provided office, verbal encouragement, and refreshments support that encouraged participants to engage in the LS activities. This has created suitable conditions for participants’ engagement in the LS activities during the study periods vital to improve teachers EMLI. In this respect, a participant from school B said:

“The school leaders were open to accepting LS as a CPD model and provided us with refreshments such as bottled water, coffee, and tea, during LS team meetings. The leaders exempted us from some extra school activities carried out by teachers on opposite shifts and provided us verbal encouragement saying ‘Keep going’, ‘You did a good job’, etc.”

Similarly, another participant from school A stated:

“The school leaders cooperated with us and created a suitable working environment during the study periods. They provided our office for meetings. We didn’t experience any session loss. We didn’t also face a shortage of material supply. There was nothing that disturbed us when we met for discussions.”

The analysis of the interviews also showed that participants’ intrinsic motivation and commitment to working together and overcoming the traditional individual teaching experiences had played a helpful role. This had been reported as supportive by many of the participants, of which a participant from school A said:

“The LS team members willingly come together to hold discussions, openly raise questions, and work together patiently. We enjoyed working and learning together because we were not imposed. LS activities were exclusively focused on professional matters: curriculum, teachers’ work, student learning, and the teaching-learning process. This has created a positive interest, willingness, and motivation to engage in the LS process.”

Another participant from school B explained:

“Well, the weekends (Saturday and Sunday) are vacation days for teachers. Because the team members found engaging in LS to be valuable professional learning and interesting, we committed our vacation time to engage in LS. This has fostered our engagement in LS activities.”

The analysis of the document (reflective portfolio) indicated that participants appreciated the school leaders’ initiatives to extend LS to other departments and promised to work with the LS team to extend their LS experiences to other department teachers.

As a whole, the analysis of data sources supported the emerging theme. The school leaders’ support along with the participants’ commitment reinforced LS practice to impact EMLI during the study periods.

Theme 3: Impeding Lesson Study Practices

The analysis of the interviews depicted that participants’ high weekly teaching load, and shortage of time as limiting factors during the LS implementation periods to build teachers’ EMLI practices. In this respect, a participant from school A said:

“The heavy teaching load (25 periods per week) has challenged us to exert full effort in portfolio development. In addition, LS team members were working in different shift systems in the school. This created a problem of having a convenient common time to engage in LS activities together.”

Another participant from school B had similar views:

“My main challenge during the LS implementation was the shortage of time. Because writing a reflective portfolio is time-consuming. It requires conducting self-assessment, self-reflection, and written reports. This was found to be tiresome due to the time limit and extra professional work in the school.”

The analysis of the document (reflective portfolio) indicated that almost all participants underscored the high weekly teaching load and the shortage of time as inhibiting issues for their active engagement in the LS activities. These have hampered their detailed analysis, reflections and organization of reflective portfolio during the study periods.

In sum, the analysis of data sources supported the emerging theme. Teachers’ high teaching load, and shortage of time, constrained participants’ engagement in LS during the study periods.

Discussion

Teachers’ EMLI is decisive in fostering students’ mathematics learning outcomes. In response to the first research question, the findings of the study indicated that engaging in LS improved secondary school mathematics teachers’ EMLI. LS improved participants’ practice of lesson presentation, use of a variety of student-centered methods, assessment, behavior management, instructional aids, and time management strategies. These findings concurred with other studies (Jung et al., 2015) who found teachers’ improved practices of learner-centered pedagogy, lesson presentation, teaching material preparation, and usage. It also agreed with (Bikmaz, & Bayram, 2021) who found teachers’ improved assessment, aligned with (Aimah et al., 2018) who found teachers’ improved time management skills and coincided with (Kihwele, & Guoyuan, 2020) who found teachers’ improved managing students’ behavior.

The findings of the study show that engaging in LS enabled participants to improve their EMLI helpful to teach mathematics in a better way through teamwork, sharing experiences, and reflective practices helpful to solve classroom teaching-related problems. Participants planned lessons collaboratively which helped them to move practically towards more student-centered

lesson implementation. Participants identified students learning problems, selected appropriate learning paths (GRR), learning materials, and assessment practices designed to provoke and support student thinking and learning- all are basic aspects of EMLI. Participants planned mathematics lesson connecting with the real world and students’ life outside the mathematics classroom. In this study, engaging in LS enabled participants to realize planning and implementing lessons students’ have more meaningful experiences and possess a personal connection to their own lives beyond a textbook. This was found to be valuable in promoting problem-solving, mathematical reasoning, creativity, and decision-making individually and collaboratively as central aspects of EMLI.

EMLI supports and promotes students’ learning clearly showing the connection between what is taught and how well it is taught. In this respect, the findings of the study depicted that participants were practically able to move towards student-centered learning and stimulated students’ active participation in the learning processes. The students were able to engage in multiple active learning strategies vital to promote their critical thinking, reasoning, problem–solving, and making sense of mathematics leading to their independence. These improved participants’ experience of promoting students’ active participation during the instructional process rather than focusing only on their presentation and a few of students who could participate actively. Thus, participants tried to make their teaching participatory and inclusive giving room for students to share ideas, ask questions, listen to other ideas, and learn collaboratively – which are essential attributes of EMLI.

Studies support that engaging teachers in LS contributed to teachers’ EMLI (McSweeney & Gardner, 2018). To be successful secondary mathematics teachers must demonstrate major mathematics principles, methods, procedures, and frameworks within mathematical fields (Capua, 2021). In this regard, engaging in LS helps teachers to create opportunities to the students to develop abstract, logical, and analytical thinking to be competent in using mathematics to evaluate and solve problems both in schools and in real-world situations (Hidayati et al., 2021). It helps teachers to use a variety of instructional methods to actively engage students in learning activities and to be more creative in transforming their practices (Lee & Madden, 2019). LS creates a teaching situation based on students’ knowledge that helps them to change and improve teaching methods to benefit students (Lundbäck & Egerhag, 2020). Engaging in LS facilitates teachers’ meaningful mathematical discussions, to build a common understanding of mathematical concepts, principles, and arguments vital for their effective lesson implementation (Copur-Gencturk & Tolar, 2022). It also helps teachers to connect mathematical ideas that promote students’ ability to apply and solve problems in the real world, showing the power and practicality of mathematics as an aspect of effective lesson implementation (Matić et al., 2020). This enhances teachers’ interest in teaching mathematics as they see the relevance and value of mathematics teaching (Hidayati et al., 2021).

In this study, participants reflected upon what they know about their students, mathematics content, and their experiences of teaching it, which is a new paradigm in their mathematics teaching practices. Thus, engaging in LS enabled participants to improve their mathematics teaching skills and experiences and provided them with better opportunities to directly apply

what they learned into actual classroom teaching fundamental to foster students’ learning outcomes. EMLI seeks to equip students with the mathematical skills and knowledge they need to find solutions focused on problem-solving approaches(Capua, 2021). Engaging in LS elevated participants’ experience of using diverse continuous assessment strategies to enhance student’s learning. Participants were able to assess their students’ current level of mathematical understanding and able to use their knowledge to make key decisions concerning mathematical tasks, and actions that feed into the students’ learning process. Participants used diverse teaching and learning materials that assisted them in providing better opportunities for students to interact, represent, and explore mathematical concepts. They used sequential lesson presentations that motivated students’ engagement in learning activities, promoted their selfmanagement, and reduced the problem of managing students’ misbehavior. Thus, engaging in LS enabled participants’ to conduct a respectful, non-threatening classroom atmosphere in which all students feel comfortable in making contributions - important features of EMLI. LS promoted teachers’ pedagogical skills and practices in lesson implementation, classroom management, and assessment through post-lesson reflections and peer observations (Rahim et al., 2015). Further, colleagues’ teaching observations, reflective discussions, and feedback on teaching helped the participants to transform their theoretical knowledge into practice and continue to reflect on and adapt what was learned as they taught- new paths to improve teachers’ EMLI.

In response to the second research question the findings revealed both enabling and impeding factors. Regarding the enabling factors, the findings show that the school leaders found to be supportive for teachers of EMLI. This finding concurred with (Chiira et al., 2023) who found school leaders promoting collaborative practices in the implementation of LS for EMLI. However, these findings contradict (Özdemir, 2019) where school leaders did not provide support and did not encourage teachers to engage in LS. The findings of this study also indicated that participants’ collaboration, commitment, and active participation during the study periods were one of the enabling factors that facilitated the practice of LS crucial for EMLI. This finding confirms with other studies (Ogegbo et al., 2019; Shingphachanh, 2018; Wood & Cajkler, 2018) where LS participants’ collaboration played an active role in their EMLI.

Studies revealed that LS requires substantial support from school leaders to better support teachers’ EMLI (Ogegbo et al., 2019). Besides, teachers’ collegiality and willingness to collaborate are crucial for EMLI in LS (Ogegbo et al., 2019; Shingphachanh, 2018). In this study, it is encouraging that the school leaders had positive interest, and initiatives to improve mathematics teachers’ EMLI. The school leaders understood the purpose of LS, were willing to implement the model, and motivated the LS team in their professional learning helpful for EMLI. These provided participants with better opportunities, motivations, time, and conducive work contexts to engage in LS activities which are vital for building teachers’ EMLI. Equally important, participants were intrinsically motivated to engage in LS activities committing their vacation time. LS provided participants an opportunity for collaboration and shared responsibility for student learning – a novel practice in Ethiopian schools. In the country, teachers often work in isolation, managing lessons, and students learning with no input from

other colleagues. Engaging in LS showed them how collaborative endeavor and ongoing commitment in teaching matters to promote their EMLI in the school setting. Further, Participants’ openness to share their experiences, and give and receive feedback from colleagues served as the foundation to establish a professional learning community in their schools crucial to enhance EMLI. Participants accepted joint responsibility for improving students’ mathematics learning outcomes in the school that fostered their EMLI practices during the study periods.

On contrary the findings of this study indicated that the shortage of time and teachers’ high teaching load hampered participants’ professional learning engagement during the study periods. This finding concurred with other studies (Chiira et al., 2023) who found that limited time and heavy workload limited the success of LS practices that hampered teachers’ EMLI. It also coincided (Ogegbo et al., 2019; Wood & Cajkler, 2018) where the shortage of time constrained teachers’ learning. It also confirmed (Akiba, 2016) that heavy teaching load limited teachers’ professional learning engagement through LS. Studies show that teachers need adequate time to make professional development an ongoing part of their daily basis and to see the results of their efforts (Wood & Cajkler, 2018). Despite the benefits attributed to the LS in improving EMLI, time is a constraint to engaging participants in the various activities (Matini & Emily, 2020; McSweeney & Gardner, 2018; Ogegbo et al., 2019; Saito & Sato, 2012). Teachers have different teaching periods and responsibilities. So it is difficult to find a common time for the team to engage in LS activities beyond their regular working hours (Matini & Emily, 2020; Mon et al., 2016). In addition, teachers’ professional learning is influenced by teachers’ workload in which a lighter teaching load allows teachers to get time to engage in professional learning that fosters EMLI (Akiba, 2016). In this study, mathematics teachers’ high workload per week accentuated the lack of common time for the participants to engage in the LS activities. Thus, allowing LS participants’ adequate time to plan, observe, reflect on lessons, and organize reflective portfolios is essential to promote EMLI. In addition, a reduced teaching load is vital to allow participants to better engage and concentrate on the LS activities to achieve the desired results.

Limitations

This study was conducted in a particular locality of the country. Hence, it is difficult to generalize to all secondary school teachers in the country. The study suggests further investigation in more secondary schools using quantitative evidence with a larger sample size to validate the research findings. Future studies should investigate the impact of improved teachers’ EMLI on students’ mathematics learning outcomes on larger scale.

Conclusion and Implications

Effective mathematics lesson implementation is critical to fostering students’ learning outcomes. The findings of the study show that engaging in LS played a decisive role in improving secondary school mathematics teachers’ EMLI. Participants were practically able to move towards student-centered learning which stimulated students’ active participation in the learning processes. Participants used diverse continuous assessment strategies, teaching and learning materials, and properly managed students’ misbehavior – all are crucial features of EMLI. Engaging in LS enabled participants to improve their mathematics teaching skills and provided them with better opportunities to directly apply what they learned to actual classroom teaching. Thus, LS promoted teachers’ pedagogical skills and practices in classroom lesson implementation. Taken together, engaging in LS, fostered teachers’ collaborative problemsolving, reflective practices, and decision-making related to mathematics teaching very essential to enhance students’ mathematics learning outcomes. LS enabled teachers’ construction of new knowledge about their classroom practice and made necessary pedagogical adjustments to respond to diverse learning needs of students. Teachers pulled their expertise together and managed their classroom teaching challenges that improved their EMLI. Teachers were able to question and challenge their traditional classroom teaching practices and strived to look for more students’ active engagement in mathematics learning.

The findings also reveal that the school leaders’ positive attitude, initiative to school-based teachers’ professional learning, and teachers’ commitment with determination to learn in their school contexts through LS were supportive and inspiring signal for improved EMLI. In addition, teachers’ collaboration, commitment with determination to learn in their school contexts, active participation, and openness to give and receive feedback from colleagues during the study periods facilitated EMLI. The findings also indicated that the shortage of time and teachers’ high teaching load per week impeded teachers’ engagement in LS activities. This has also accentuated the lack of common time for the participants to engage in the LS activities. Thus, allowing LS participants’ adequate time to plan, observe, reflect on lessons, and organize reflective portfolios is essential to promote EMLI. In addition, a reduced teaching load is vital to allow participants to better engage and concentrate on the LS activities to achieve the desired results that the schools need to overcome.

In conclusion, LS provided more a practical link between teachers’ professional learning activities and actual classroom practices. Therefore, it would be crucial to integrate LS into the present school-based teachers’ pedagogical capacity-building program in the country. The implication is that it would be beneficial to extend the merits of LS to other school subjects and more schools in the country based on their specific school contexts. The study also contributed to knowledge and a practical basis for further research how LS would be used to improve secondary school teachers’ effective lesson implementation in mathematics in the secondary schools of the country.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by stationary materials from Jimma University. We gratefully acknowledge participant teachers’ commitment and tireless engagement during the study periods. We also appreciate the school leaders’ willingness and initiatives to promote lesson study as a school-based teachers’ professional development model in the study settings.

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Corresponding author: Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba

Email: temesgeny2@gmail.com

Reviewers: Volume 12 – Issue 3

The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to the peer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.

Senior Reviewers

Dr Adebisi Thomas Ajibade

Dr Tyrone Bynoe

Dr Ivy Chia

Dr Luisa Daniele

Dr Heloisa Delgado

Dr Habsah Hussin

Dr Andrew Leichsenring

Dr Thelma Manansala

Dr Leonardo Munalim

Dr Jacinta Ifeoma Obidile

Dr Cornelius Riordan

Dr Ilaria De Santis

Dr Suja Nair

Dr Elena Raevskikh

Dr Ilana Klima Ronen

Dr Akihiro Saito

Dr Meliha Simsek

Dr Randy A. Tudy

Dr Mary George Varghese

Dr Stephanie Wendt

Dr Huiyuan Ye

Reviewers

Dr Supamit Chanseawrassamee

Dr Ana Garcia-Diaz

Dr Blessing Dwumah Manu

Dr Sainbayar Gundsambu

Dr Cuong Huu Nguyen

Dr Queen Ogbomo

Dr Ruben Sanchez

Dr Maria Staton

Dominika Provázková Stolinská

Mirella Ramacciotti

Dr Kyle Whitfield

Dr Mukesh Yadav