Modularity in Architecture - Undergraduate Thesis by Rohit Jain

MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE

Rohit Jain

Fifth Year Semester IX (Part 1)

Guided by Ar. Meghana Patil

L.S. Raheja School of Architecture Affiliated to Mumbai University 2022-23

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ROHIT JAIN has successfully completed his design dissertation (part 1) on the topic ‘MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE’ under the guidance of Ar. Meghana Patil.

The dissertation is undertaken as a part of the academic study based on the curriculum for Bachelors of Architecture program conducted by the University of Mumbai, through L.S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai.

SEAT NUMBER:

Thesis Guide: Ar. Meghana Patil. L. S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai

Principal: Ar. Mandar Parab. L. S. Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai

External Juror 1:

External Juror 2:

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this written submission entitled “MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE” represents my ideas in my own words and has not been taken from the work of others (as from books, articles, essays, dissertations, other media and online); and where others’ ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. Direct quotations from books, journal articles, internet sources, other texts, or any other source whatsoever are acknowledged and the source cited are identified in the dissertation references.

No material other than that cited and listed has been used. I have read and know the meaning of plagiarism* and I understand that plagiarism, collusion, and copying are grave and serious offences in the university and accept the consequences should I engage in plagiarism, collusion or copying.

I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact source in my submission.

This work, or any part of it, has not been previously submitted by me or any other person for assessment on this or any other course of study.

Signature of the Student:

Name of the Student: Rohit Jain Exam Roll No:

Date: Place:

*The following defines plagiarism: “Plagiarism” occurs when a student misrepresents, as his/her own work, the work, written or otherwise, of any other person (including another student) or of any institution. Examples of forms of plagiarism include:

The verbatim (word for word) copying of another’s work without appropriate and correctly presented acknowledgement.

The close paraphrasing of another’s work by simply changing a few words or altering the order of presentation, without appropriate and correctly presented acknowledgement.

Unacknowledged quotation of phrases from another’s work.

The deliberate and detailed presentation of another’s concept as one’s own. “Another’s work” covers all material, including, for example, written work, diagrams, designs, charts, photographs, musical compositions and pictures, from all sources, including, for example, journals, books, dissertations and essays and online resources.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this research was possible due to the joint effort, guidance and support of many people. Firstly, I would thank my parents, Mr. Naresh Jain and Mrs. Geeta Jain for their constant support and belief in me. Also to my brother, Darshan Jain — thank you for sparing me when I used to work late and the football gossip. You never doubted my potential and always kept me going.

To my guide, Ar. Meghana Patil — it was really the best decision to have opted for you as my guide. Your constant support gave me confidence and motivation to do better. I am grateful for everything that I have learnt from you during this process.

A special thank you to Ar. Aarti Mimani, Ar. Mildred Jose, Ar. Rohan Patil, Ar. Prachitee Lad-Shetty, Ar. Sachin Vedak, Ar. Alisha Acharya, Ar. Anmol Warang, Ar. Anuj Gudekar, Ar. Mridulla Pillai Gudekar, Ar. Swanand Mahashabde, Ar. Mandar Parab, Ar. Charvi Kamat, Ar. Mughda Deshpande, Ar. Geevith Raghavan and Ar. Arun Fizardo. There’s a lot that I have learnt from you all in these 5 years.

To Surabhi, no words are enough to thank you for your backing and support. You have pushed me to do better and a lot of this has been possible because of you.

Also, I would like to thank Paras, Bhavin, Dhaval and Kunal for grinding on Valorant and helping reduce our academic stress (Hail XON). To Gautam, Rasika, Deep and Shivani, thank you for making these five years enjoyable. With friends like you all, there was never a dull moment around. To my 5th year council members and friends, a toast to our sense of humour and unity!

A special thanks to my senior and friend, Mallika and Tejas for making me well versed with softwares and enjoy my internship period (The Ctrl +N moment). Lastly my childhood friends, Rohan and Bhumishtha — a throwback to all our wonderful memories.

Finally, to Charles Leclerc and Manchester United for not making my weekends boring (but, really?)

P.S: Thank you Apple for Airdrop, MacBook, Pages and Keynote.

ABSTRACT

Modularity:

At first thought, modularity is defined as the standardisation of an object which can be multiplied and used. Although, modularity as a word has multiple interpretations. Another word for the same is a “prototype”. Modularity as a term ranges across many fields and is interpreted in very different ways. It is directly referred to as logical binding, compartmentalisation and organisation of data. In the field of automobile development, modularity is the assembly of data, organised or disorganised to make a function while in arts it is the standardisation of objects used for reference and execution. While in biology and anatomy, modularity is directly conferred to species, organisms, construction of cells, etc — from micro to macro level.

Modularity can be dependent and interdependent on parts inside it which are open to tweaking and hence can be designed in a way possibly offering more efficiency. As mentioned earlier, modularity in IT is completely flexible although in biology it has to follow certain factors. Analysing these interpretations of modularity as a broad term, some of them can be specific to a certain domain, another can be —

• disassembled

• hardwired

• autonomous

Hypothesis:

Modularity is a natural occurrence in our environment. At the same time, it is also a conscious approach to design. That can create linkages for design to get inspired by natural outcomes. In information and technology, modularity has opened vast areas of research and development with innovations. Let’s take a simple comparison of an architectural layout to a motherboard — a motherboard has smaller prototypes inside of it carrying various functions which in turn result in output for the user.

Parallel to that, an architectural layout is made up of complex sections like nodes, built and unbuilt features, services, etc which contribute to the functioning of the layout and users as a whole. They tend to be relatively conserved during evolution but are often recombined and redeployed in new contexts. (Schlosser & Wagner, 2004)

Although there are issues prevalent in either of the two and the solution to that may be modular or non-modular. Modularity has been a probable design ideology in many careers like biology, information and technology, fashion and many more. It has been influencing our design choices for a very long time. Despite that issues in modular designs like properties, urban planning and development, and designing macro to micro prototypes — vehicles to clothes to stationery exist. All of these are independently modular although designed uniquely for their purpose. Can all these micro aspects of life affect the way how we perceive modularity and architecture?

Hence, can modularity be a pre-design consideration or requisite for the planning, designing and developing of architecture?

Aim:

To study and explore modularity in architecture and other fields.

Need of study: Is modularity creative?

Creativity and modularity — It is not our purpose to go into the semantics of the word “creativity” but to establish a reasonably accurate meaning to be applied to architectural design tasks.

(Combes & Bellomio, 1999)

Creativity and design can be simple and complex. It can be a simple standardised object or it can be a very complicated object with multiple interdependencies. This is a general drawback of modularity that it can limit creativity within a confined space.

Counterarguing, modulation can be dependent and interdependent. Modularity can provide different outcomes and functions of the same space allowing it to be temporal and flexible — allowing it to be creative.

Modular thinking offers the possibility of organising modules — far more than fastidious repetitions.

(Combes & Bellomio, 1999)

For a single design programme, modularity enables a wide range of potential outputs, all of which are distinct. The need for the study would be to challenge the conservative meaning of modularity and explore the possibilities which it can offer. Hence, the research targets the question: How to be modular?

Objectives:

• To study modularity and its implications on architecture.

• To look at micro and macro applications of modularity.

• To understand the possibilities and understanding of design with modularity.

• To question the aspect of flexibility and temporality in modularity.

• To study how modularity can offer creativity.

Methodology:

The process will involve reading research articles, watching documentaries and conduct case studies. It will help infer data on modularity and the application of the same in designing, planning and developing architecture. The research would analyse all the information and infer upon the conclusions raising questions about the scope and possibilities of modularity.

Figure 1

Illustration of composition of modules

RESEARCH

one

INTRODUCTION TO MODULARITY

1.1. What is modularity?

1.1.1. Definition of modularity

1.1.2. Delayering the history

1.2. What is modularity perceived to be?

1.2.1. Standardisation

1.2.2. Redundancy in modularity

MODULARITY — MULTIFACETED IDEA

2.1. Modularity and Architecture

2.1.1. Modularity in architecture

2.1.2. A call for modularity

2.1.3. Advantages and barriers

2.1.4. Case studies

— Habitat 67, Montreal, Canada

— Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan

— Vancouver Affordable Housing Agency 220 Terminal Avenue, U.S.A

— Harvard University Pagliuca Life Lab, U.S.A

2.2. Epilogue: Modularity and beyond

2.2.1. Creativity [defined] in modularity

— Lego and the concept of plug and play

2.2.2. Temporality [defined] in modularity

— KumbhMela and Impermanence

020 022 028 030

034 040 046 050 056 060 061 062 064 068 070

— PARALLEL RESEARCH

PARALLELS OF MODULARITY

3.1. Modularity over the world

3.1.1. Modularity [added]

3.1.2. Modularity in biology

3.1.3. Modularity in art

3.1.4. Modularity in technology

3.1.5. Motherboard and a city

3.1.6. Modularity in automobile

3.1.7. Formula 1 and flexibility

3.2. How to be modular?

MODULARITY: NULL & VOID

4.1. The Future

4.1.1. The future of flexible designs

4.2. Theories — Conclusion

076 078 080 084 085 090 091 096

102 106

SITE OPTIONS & INTENT

five APPENDIX 6.1.

— Fort Precinct, Mumbai

— Manek Chowk, Ahmedabad

— Madhav Wadi, Dadar, Mumbai

— Bhaucha Dhakka, Mazgaon, Mumbai

— Juhu Beach, Mumbai

— CCI Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai

112 116 126 130 134 138 142 143

Figure 2 Different modules juxtaposed to form a whole combination/system

Source: Author

INTRODUCTION TO MODULARITY

This chapter attempts to understand modularity as a concept and its possible interpretations over time.

The chapter would explain how modularity has been used and perceived as a standardisation protocol for certain sets of advantages without exploring its potential.

Figure 3

56 Leonard, Modular Skyscraper based around Jenga in New York, United States

WHAT IS MODULARITY?

1.1.1. DEFINITION OF MODULARITY

Modularity is the quality of separate parts and/ units to form a complete whole on combination.

(Source: Cambridge Dictionary)

In a general context, modularity is a system property which measures the degree to which densely connected compartments within a system can be decoupled into separate communities or clusters which interact more among themselves rather than in other communities.

(Source: Science Direct)

Modularity is defined as the standardisation of an object which can be multiplied and used. Although, modularity as a word has multiple interpretations. Another word for the same is a “prototype”. Modularity as a term ranges across many fields and is interpreted in very different ways. It is referred to as logical binding, compartmentalisation and organisation of data.

The concept of modularity is used primarily to reduce complexity by breaking a system into varying degrees of interdependence and independence across and hiding the complexity of each part behind abstraction and interface.

However, the concept of modularity can be extended to multiple disciplines, each with its nuances. Despite these nuances, consistent themes concerning modular systems can be identified.

The degree to which modularity ranges is vast and the concept provides plenty options for it to be applied.

The units are always connected to create a single, comprehensive "module" that is in charge of ensuring the same functions effectively and efficiently. Each item has the option of being fastened to or removable from an external structure, leading to several design options.

Numerous applications of modular systems have been seen throughout history, and it is yet debatable how else these can be applied.

- John Wooden

“FLEXIBILITY IS THE KEY TO STABILITY.”

Figure 4 Illustration of various of parts inside a motherboard.

Figure 5

Proposals by Sears for modular homes.

DELAYERING THE HISTORY

Origins of architectural modularity, a concept adopted to replicate built masses for mass production can be traced back to the Roman Empire where they used to carry sections of

their forts for easy installation. The primary pre-assembled house in history is accepted to have happened in the 1600s. An unknown colonial American who had moved from Britain had completely relied on the English development strategies to construct his house. Motivated by strategies utilised amid the antiquated Roman empire and the Mesopotamian civilisation, he requested woodpanelled houses to be prefabricated in Britain and transported over the Atlantic sea and introduced in Massachusetts.

This technique would gain popularity later in the 1800s, during the Gold Rush when a lot more than 500 prefabricated houses were made in factories in New York and then transported across the country to California. By the 19th and 20th centuries, architects across the world had experimented widely to test the limits of modular architecture.

The introduction of prefabricated houses to the general public by Sears, Roebuck, and Co. in their Sears Modern Home Catalog in 1908 was the most significant shift in popular opinion at the time. Anyone with the

land and labour to construct it may choose from more than 400 dwelling styles that were available in simple-toassemble prefabricated sections in the catalogue.

Sears allowed customers to submit blueprints for their home designs. The idea of modularity started to shift from a mass housing solution to a user driven design solution. The buyers were given the freedom to select and design their modules to benefit them with a creative control over their spaces. The components for these unique designs would subsequently be ordered, pre-cut, and delivered to the location. With this approach, Sears had great success and over the course of several decades, produced over 75,000 homes.

These initiatives changed modularity and its applicability at the time. It began as a strategy for constructing more quickly while excluding the process's stakeholders. However, architects began to understand that simply duplicating forms won't resolve people's problems. In order to involve individuals and their preferences into the construction process, modularity explored fresh possibilities. A user was given the option to design and have manufactured the homes they wanted.

Soon after, the industrial revolution occurred throughout the world. It gave designers and visionaries the impetus they needed to see their ideas about modular architecture through to completion. One such example was the town of Oak Ridge in Tennessee. It was designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in 1942 using modular technology. The homes were cast in smaller modules which could be assembled in a variety of ways after being plugged in. It is claimed that the entire town was constructed "almost overnight." Future architects would be inspired by the modular housing's plug-and-play functionality, which would continue to be improved and updated globally. The World War was also causing extensive harm to the environment and property during this period.

Around the world, a significant number of individuals were displaced. Modularity was viewed as the better strategy for giving displaced persons immediate shelter. It turns out that modularity was very effective in emergency situations.

Amidst the industrial revolution and World War II, modularity gained importance as an architectural typology. Not only did it relocate the people and gave them choices of homes, but also did it in lesser time. Architects adopted this way of design and gave architecture and modularity a new rationale.

Moshie Safdie's Habitat 67 is one such undertaking. A 12-story residential structure made up of 354 similar modules, it was constructed in 1967. The idea behind Habitat 67 was to maximise light, air and open spaces in an urban context. There were 354 modules stacked on top of one another in an arbitrary pattern. The architect designed a form that allowed each module to have an open space (balcony) that opened out at various angles. This project made an intriguing, original morph for the users by using copies of the same modules.

In New Haven, Connecticut, Architect Paul Rudolph designed the Oriental Masonic Gardens. The whole project was designed using 148 prefabricated modules arranged to create central utility cores, communal living areas on lower levels while spaces like bedrooms were placed on the second floor for privacy.

Whilst in Japan, Ar. Kisha Kurokawa built the Nagakin Capsule Tower. 140 pod-like modules with residential, commercial, and industrial cores made up the tower's structure. Since the tower didn't use a typical structural structure, any module could be detached as needed. This skyscraper questioned the notion of spatial and functional temporality in architecture and broke the mould for having permanent constructions.

Figure 6 Habitat 67, Montreal.

Figure 7 Oriental Masonic Gardens.

Decades later, the technological boom of the 1990s and early 2000s led to another push in the modular architectural industry. As technologies continue to advance, the limits and boundaries of modular construction continue to expand. And as markets begin to search for more sustainable yet economical solutions to buildings, modular architecture has emerged at the forefront.

(Marcos Gasc, GKV Architects)

Figure 8.

Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan.

Figure 9

Stacking of containers as a metaphor for standardisation.

Edited by Author

WHAT IS MODULARITY PERCEIVED TO BE?

For the purpose of large scale mass production, standardisation in architecture results in the same type of building typology. The goal of standardisation is to preserve a certain level of rigour in the global architecture. Each nation has its own set of requirements that must be met before a project can be carried out. This procedure assists in developing responsive,

adaptability. These norms are the primary cause of the buildings' similar appearance and their label as unoriginal. Is it possible to get around these norms, challenge them, and develop

Modularity is perceived as a standardised approach in architecture due to the mass modularity be looked past standardisation and

67.5

Use of the word — standardisation

45

22.5

90 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

0

Post World War II:

Constrained by material and labour shortages at the end of WWII, the British government promoted the building industry during industrialisation. This entailed rationalising the processes required to manufacture buildings in the hope that they would also be less expensive. For many architects, this meant a shift away from traditional materials and methods and toward a building process that used prefabricated technology, standardised, interchangeable components assembled on site. However, the profession as a whole had no relationship with labour and a poor understanding of construction skills outside of the traditional crafts.

Mark Hartland Thomas and a group of eminent British architects investigated the wartime German building industry in 1946. After personally interviewing Ernst Neufert and being impressed with the level of standardisation implemented, he returned to Britain to vigorously advocate for a similar approach. He founded the Modular Society in 1953 to promote the use of standardised modules as the key to industrialised building. Architects with a moral commitment to the social enterprise of re-building a better Britain were on the other end of the political spectrum.

REDUNDANCY IN MODULARITY

Modularity was opted as a solution post World War II to rehabilitate people who lost their homes and properties. It started to give quick and feasible results with low cost as a major goal. These units were not designed specifically to cater for a user but to serve a wider audience. Hence these units were more or less the same and just served their functionality. Due to the sudden rise in modular construction, the other design industries were also introduced to standardisation. It was during and after the Industrial Revolution when the population growth was supremely high and the demands kept on increasing. Hence, standardisation as a concept was used along with modularity.

The idea of personalisation, creativity and flexibility were lost during this time. Movements like Art Deco and Art Nouveau tried to revitalise the cultural importance in and outside a structure. Although, people had seen modularity as this “quick build setup” and that made an imprint of what modularity is. Modularity solved a lot of issues during this era but it was understood in a way not exploring its potential.

Modularity was understood to be a concept of “ONE SIZE FITS ALL” by the people amidst projects like Habitat 67 and The Nakagin Capsule Tower. Over time, it was perceived as a BOX. “One size fits all” was the ideology behind standardisation but even modularity was seen that way. This is how modularity started to lose out on creativity, flexibility, temporality etc.

Over the years, the trend of modularity slowed down in architecture. Starting to realise to step away from standardisation, architects stepped away from modular construction. The rate started to spiral downward and today we have seen a decrease in around 25% use of standardisation since WWII.

Figure 10 Container Stack Pavilion. Edited by Author

HAS THE TRUE SCOPE OF MODULARITY EVER BEEN EXPLORED?

CAN PARALLELS BE DRAWN BETWEEN MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE AND MODULARITY IN OTHER FIELDS TO CREATE A NEW HORIZON FOR MODULARITY?

BUT THE QUESTION STILL REMAINS …

Edited by Author

Figure 11 Botanical Pavilion by Penda Architecture. Explores modularity with materiality and multi-functionality.

MODULARITYMULTIFACETED IDEA

In-depth research on modularity and its use in architecture is presented in this chapter. It lists all of the advantages and drawbacks it currently has.

It aims to research the current and upcoming need for modularity. Having previously examined analogies, this chapter also seeks to make a connection between the parallels and architecture.

As a conclusion, modularity is described as a null and void, giving it a new onset.

Figure 12

Timber Skyscrapers with Modular homes and vertical farming by Precht.

Edited by Author

MODULARITY & ARCHITECTURE

2.1.1. MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE

Although modular construction has become increasingly popular in recent years, it is not a completely novel approach. In the 19th century, as large portions of the population began to move west— as during the 1849 California Gold Rush—prefabricated houses were transported from New York to California.

Prefabricated housing was also popular in the first half of the 20th century, especially during times of high demand, such as the years immediately following World War II. In the late 1950s, modular construction began to be used for a broader range of project types, including schools and healthcare facilities, and in the ’60s and ’70s modular construction began to be used to build largescale hotel projects.

Now, as technology has advanced and the industry has gained experience with it, the modular construction approach has become increasingly versatile and is used for a wide range of project types, including—in addition to housing, education, healthcare, and hospitality—commercial office, government, and retail.

(Wilson, 2019)

Modular construction, which involves prefabricating building components in a controlled environment off-site before shipping them to the project site and putting them together, is being used in an increasing number of construction projects in a variety of sectors. Without compromising on aesthetic intent, this method enables projects to benefit from the advantages realised by combining the processes and technologies of design, manufacture, and construction.

The modular design combines the advantages of standardisation with those of customisation. Although the downside to modularity is that low-quality modular systems are not optimised for performance. Interfaces between components have been functionally decoupled due to modular architecture. In actuality, this frequently results in architecture that is one, where the components of the design are mapped one-to-one to the functional parts of the structure.

Modularity exists in two different typologies: Volumetric and NonVolumetric.

Figure 13 Zostel Panchgani, India. A hotel made out of shipping containers.

Edited by Author

Volumetric vs Non-Volumetric:

Modular projects are either constructed using the volumetric approach or the non-volumetric approach.

Volumetric modular construction entails the prefabrication of all separate, three-dimensional enclosed pieces that are assembled on site to create a single structure. As an instance, multiunit residential projects like hotels, dorms, and apartment complexes frequently use volumetric modular construction. Depending on its size, each unit may consist of one or more modules. Clinics, restrooms, elevators or staircase parts are other instances of volumetric features. This approach delivers one complete module as a unit for placement on the site.

In non-volumetric modular construction, building components— often referred to as sub-assemblies— are prefabricated off-site and then assembled on-site. For example, nonvolumetric elements include frames, beams, columns, partition walls, wall panels, claddings, roof trusses, etc.

Depending on the specific needs of the design, programme, site, modular projects may use a combination of offsite and on-site construction as well as a combination of volumetric and nonvolumetric components. Non-

volumetric components may be transported more compactly than volumetric parts, which could save transport costs, however they also need extra assembly and sealing work done on-site, which could make up for any transport savings. It should be noted that non-volumetric modular building typically still requires less time and effort than conventional onsite construction.

Modular construction is often used in non-permanent structures like temporary offices, cabins, exhibition spaces, classrooms and emergency relief construction. Although most modular projects are four stories or less, in recent years an increasing number have gone over ten stories, and, barring legal restrictions, modular construction can be used to build structures up to any height.

On comparison, volumetric approach being based on larger modules being fabricated as a mass might offer lesser flexibility and creativity than a nonvolumetric approach. Although, provisions can be made for flexible design solutions while fabricating the module to make both the methods efficient.

(Wilson, 2019)

Figure 14

Volumetric and Non-Volumetric technology.

The process of Modular construction:

The production of modules should be taken into account when designing modular projects, hence it's critical that designers have at least a basic understanding of this process. Designers, for instance, should be aware of the crucial role that digital technologies—such as computeraided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and computer numerically controlled (CNC) machinery—play in the production of modular components. Designers should be aware of how these technologies can allow mass customisation, a process used by modular manufacturers to make personalised designs on an industrial scale at a reasonable cost utilising a variety of standardised parts.

Prefabricated volumetric building modules are normally assembled from the inside out, in contrast to traditional on-site construction, which often completes the building from the outside in. In these situations, the module's box frame is finished first, after which the internal finish, MEP components, and insulation are added, and finally the outside sheathing and cladding.

Although this broad process is frequent, building modules can also be produced in other ways. It is crucial for project teams to comprehend the specific approach of the company they choose to engage with. Distinct manufacturers may have different methods. As an illustration, whereas some manufacturers use a linear production process in which the responsibilities of each trade are completed in order, others utilise a static production process in which the various trades all work on modules at the same time. The process is completed in 8 phases:

Phase 1: Floor framing & decking int./ext. wall framing ‘box’ mounted to chassis.

Phase 2: Roof framing/mounting ceiling attached to ‘box’ interior partition installation rough plumbing.

Phase 3: Completion of walls and electrical layout.

Phase 4: Completion of roofing and foam insulation on electrical layout.

Phase 5: Exterior plywood sheathing, rough opening cleanup, general interior cleanup.

Phase 6: Exterior plastic sheathing interior finish work. (painting)

Phase 7: Finish plumbing, electrical and install flooring.

Phase 8: Install windows, install siding and weatherproof.

(Wilson, 2019)

Figure 15

Process of manufacturing and assembly.

Future design is riding the wave of modularity. The construction industry won't be able to meet the needs of the people given the existing patterns of urbanisation and population expansion. The pace of current construction technology cannot keep up with the growing population. Population growth is inevitable given how the world is urbanising and becoming more globally connected. There must be an influx as soon as more individuals begin to relocate to cities in search of employment possibilities, impacting the metro's development. Poverty will typically increase along with these trends in population growth and urban migration. People's spatial needs, whether for housing, commerce, or recreation, will expand exponentially once all these aspects are taken into account. Modular structures may be a way forward since the regular construction method won't be able to keep up with these increasing demands.

The demand:

The world urban population will reach 68% in 2050; to put that in numbers — 5.69 billion people will be residing in urban areas. Assuming 5 people in one household as an average, 500 million new housing units will be needed by 2050. One unit designed every 2 seconds. This number only provides data for the housing sector. The retail, hospitality, industrial sectors would also face spatial issues as all of them are interlinked by one key factor — people.

The supply:

As mentioned, by 2050 the world would need 500 million new housing units. With the current prefabricated market, we will be only able to provide 0.65% of the demanded units. Even implementing the traditional way of technology and construction, a 3 storey building takes around 12 months to build. Even with this approach, we would be heading for a global crisis for space availability in urban areas.

(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs July 10, 2014)

It brings us to the question:

How will the issue of space availability be solved? Is modular technology the future of design?

(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs July 10, 2014)

Modular hospitals during COVID-19:

During the pandemic, modular construction played a significant role, particularly the quick-assembled hospital in Wuhan, China. However, modular businesses were springing up and reacting to the urgent need for increased hospital space all around the world, not only in China. Modular hospitals provide a number of benefits over their conventional counterparts. Modular hospitals' versatility, which enables reconfiguration to meet changing needs, is its primary advantage. Another benefit that distinguishes modular hospitals from traditional hospitals is the rapidity with which they may be built and altered.

It was seen that hospitals were built in quick succession all throughout India and the rest of the world in places like parking lots, open fields, stadiums, etc. In order to manage so many patients in such a short period of time, modularity was crucial. Here is one such example:

Huoshenshan Hospital, Wuhan:

Ten days were all that was required to complete the 25,000 sq.m Huoshenshan Hospital in Wuhan, China, at the end of January 2020. The hospital, which had a 1,000-bed capacity and was built utilising prefabricated materials and modular construction, was created primarily for

infection control in response to the nation's then-rising COVID-19 cases. A second hospital with 1,600 beds, the Leishenshan hospital, opened in a nearby neighbourhood barely six days after the Huoshenshan Hospital was finished. It took only 12 days to build.

Dr. Koh (Deputy Chief Medical Officer at Jiahui Health in China) said, “Modular hospitals were not thought about much before (the pandemic), but now, there is a focus on building the capabilities of such facilities and when you’re battling a pandemic, like that of COVID-19, the speed in which you can construct an additional hospital becomes especially critical.”

The hospitals can be customized to include various specialized spaces — including triage, surgery, pharmacy, diagnostics, x-ray and ultrasound laboratories, hospitalization wards, recovery rooms, and so on. The only way to build quickly enough was through modular construction. Conventional construction would have required site preparation to be finished before the new hospital space could have been built. On the other hand, simultaneous work was done onsite and offsite due to modular construction. Hospitals built using modular construction now have been relocated to other locations for another purpose. But if needed again, the modules can be reassembled and used temporarily.

Figure 16

Edited by Author

Huoshenshan Hospital, Wuhan. An entire hospital was constructed in 10 days using prefabricated technology and material during COVID-19.

“Modular hospitals are much easier to deploy when you need a medical facility set up very quickly somewhere. You can build a hospital within a month, or as the examples of the Huoshenshan and Leishenshan hospitals proved, in a matter of days. And when you’re battling a pandemic, like that of COVID-19, the speed in which you can construct an additional hospital becomes especially critical.”

- Dr. Koh

Figure 17 Rapid urbanisation in Hong Kong. The image depicts the close clustered residential development that is done due to the high population influx and lack of urban planning.

Edited by Author

2.1.3. ADVANTAGES & BARRIERS

A primary reason why more projects are using modular construction is that there is increasing recognition of the benefits the approach offers. It can contribute to:

Improved quality:

Mass production manufacturing techniques can be employed to obtain further economies of scale, depending on the project's programme complexity and building shape. Additionally, using mass production techniques need not result in a reduction in design flexibility.

Time savings:

During execution, modular designs save a significant amount of time. Buildings developed using modular construction typically open 30 to 50 percent faster than those built using sitemade methods.

Improved labour productivity:

Utilizing an off-site strategy also boosts labour productivity. Weather conditions have less of an impact on a plant personnel. Additionally, a team using precise tools and equipment in an environment created to give perfect manufacturing circumstances can produce goods of greater quality more quickly. Off-site building also entails a more dependable workforce and a better managed workflow that will be less susceptible to disruption.

Less waste and sustainable design:

Modular construction technology can also contribute significantly to the environmental sustainability of a project. For example, the off-site production of building components allows for optimal control of material use, resulting in both reduced material input and waste compared to traditional on-site construction. Additionally, a significant amount of surplus material and fall-off can be captured and recycled back into the inventory for use on other projects.

Reduced risk and more control:

In general, worker safety is improved with an off-site construction strategy. Workers are not exposed to the risks of severe weather or other construction site problems including those related to noise and air quality since they operate in a controlled environment. Moving construction to off-site manufacturing facilities could enhance the culture of construction work overall in addition to increasing safety, for instance by giving workers more flexible shifts and job security.

Increased cost control:

Although modular construction can be more cost-effective than on-site building, this does not imply that the whole project cost will go down as a result. However, compared to conventional construction processes, expenses are frequently more predictable. Modular construction can be used to accomplish goals of affordability and controlled costs, but it will require more deliberate design and careful planning.

Although modular construction has its limitations and barriers while designing. Some of them are as follows:

One of the main drawbacks of modular construction is that it is not well known. A very small percentage of individuals are aware of modularity, and as a result, there are even fewer manufacturers using this method of building. Additionally, people think that modular construction restricts their design possibilities or gives them less control, but in reality, by using mass customisation techniques, it can accept a huge variety of forms and designs, giving them a great deal of design freedom.

Some owners might be hesitant to undertake modular building due to the many funding models that are frequently used in it. For instance,

compared to conventional building projects, modular projects may need to pay more up front for technical approval. As contrast to conventional projects, ensuring compliance with building rules may expand the scope of engineering work and increase upfront expenses. Because building time can be drastically shortened, modular construction may also require a distinct cash conversion cycle.

In locations where the local authorities is less accustomed with off-site fabrication techniques, modular construction may require a little more time for approvals and inspections. Due to the fact that each module has its own separate walls, floor, and ceiling, modular architecture might result in a larger structure. This entails larger walls and deeper floors than in conventional building. Although this might improve acoustics, energy efficiency, and thermal comfort, it might also have a negative effect on interior living areas.

The manufacture and storage of building materials inside a building also reduces the components' exposure to the elements, which might result in moisture-related damage during construction reducing the components' longevity.

(Wilson, 2019)

Figure 18

Schedule comparison between modular and traditional methods.

Figure 19 Conditions during design process.

CASE STUDIES

HABITAT 67, MONTREAL, CANADA

Habitat 67, designed by the Israeli-Canadian architect Moshe Safdie as the Canadian Pavilion for the World Exposition of 1967, was originally intended as an experimental solution for high-quality housing in dense urban environments. Safdie explored the possibilities of prefabricated modular units to reduce housing costs and allow for a new housing typology that could integrate the qualities of a suburban home into an urban high-rise.

Reflecting on the project’s significance in “A look back at habitat ’67” Safdie stated that “Habitat ‘67 is two ideas in one. One is about prefabrication, and the other is about rethinking apartment-building design in the new paradigm.”

(Merin, 2013)

Figure 20 Moshe Safdie experimenting with a module of Habitat 67.

Although habitat reimagines its purpose and strives to serve the end-user, the way it is arranged in space creates a densely populated community. Habitat intends to alter its appearance over time, incorporating the geography and underlying roots of the area it occupies. Hence, it lets the structure be experienced both as an own entity and in synchrony with its surroundings.

Habitat 67 was constructed from 354 identical and completely prefabricated modules (referred to as “boxes”) stacked in various combinations and connected by steel cables. Since they are made up of a cluster of one to four of the 600 square foot "boxes" arranged in various ways, the apartments vary in size and shape. A minimum of one private green space, ranging in size from 20 to 90 square metres, is provided for each module.

box had been cured, it was moved to an assembly line for the installation of electrical and mechanical systems, as well as insulation and windows. To complete the production, modular kitchens and bathrooms were installed, and each unit was lifted into place by a crane. The modular units are arranged so that adjacent walls, floors, and ceilings of dwellings maintain their individuality. This division makes it easier to insulate against vibration and dynamic loads.

The on-site prefabrication system should have reduced production costs, which was a key component of Safdie's vision for creating an affordable housing complex. Unfortunately, due to the project's reduced mass scale, costs were much higher than anticipated.

For its staggered modules, Habitat 67 envisions gardens as modern hanging green spaces. The project illustrates the deliberate use of a single fundamental shape to arrange spaces in a privatising manner. Thus, it enhances circulation and fosters an environment suitable for public places.

Construction process:

The prefabrication process of the 90-ton boxes took place on-site. The basic modular shape was moulded in a reinforced steel cage 38 x 17 feet in size. Once the concrete

Although Habitat did not create a new wave of prefabrication, it did create a new housing typology that is both effective and site adaptable. Safdie was able to break the traditional form of orthogonal high rises by stacking concrete "boxes" in various geometrical configurations, locating each box a step back from its immediate neighbour. This ingenious method provided each apartment with a roof garden, a constant flow of fresh air, and an abundance of natural light: qualities unheard of in a twelve-story apartment complex.

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Figure 21 Exploded modules of Habitat 67.

Figure 22 Sectional understanding of Habitat 67.

Section represents the quality of open terraces and a concept of open planning allowing for cross ventilation.

The section represents how modules have been placed to create internal pockets of spaces. Such an arrangement of modules allowed for a wider variation in terms of open spaces, quality of light and wind circulation. Whilst there are community open spaces, even spaces like terraces are formed for each module. Even duplexes are created at certain floors due to the stacking of modules on above another.

Movement in the modular form:

The complex's vertical circulation is controlled by three vertical cores. The thrusts manage interaction like pedestrian streets and break every fourth level. Due to the streets' continuity and movement pattern throughout the building, they make it easier to access the residences. Another intent of Habitat's amenity area brief is to provide renters with covered and semi-covered parking.

Restoration:

In November 2018, Habitat 67 celebrated its 50th anniversary. Safdie architects started a comprehensive restoration cycle on this day to address every problem. On the 10th floor of the building, in the publicly accessible Habitat 67 unit, the restoration work advanced. Energyefficient windows have been added

inside to complement the existing huge openings, which were created by the company's founder to provide views of the river and Montreal.

The polygonal appearance of the residence's water-damaged concrete facade underwent repairs. In order to install new waterproofing and insulation layers that will better resist Canada's icy winters, walls had to be taken apart. Energy-efficient windows have been added inside to complement the existing huge openings, which were created by the company's founder to provide views of the river and Montreal. With this renovation, Habitat was technically modified to meet 21st-century energy conservation standards. Even though the majority of Habitat's issues have been resolved, the architects will continue the restoration process.

Not only revolutionary in its time, Habitat 67 has continued to influence architecture throughout the decades. A very similar spatial scheme can be found in Ricardo Boffil’s Kafka (1968; of course, whether Bofill influenced Safdie or visa versa is a cause for controversial debate); Habitat’s prefabrication technique was applied in Kisho Kurokawa’s Nakagin Capsule Tower in 1972; and, more recently, one might even suggest that BIG's Mountain Dwelling draws direct inspiration from Safdie’s design strategy.

Moshe Safdie had a utopian dream for what he wished the future would hold for everyday living. Although his vision was never fully complete, it opened the door to different sustainable techniques that are used today. Quality of life isn’t about the space we are in, but how it is used. Habitat 67 is at the forefront of modular homes, sustainable living and mid-century modernism. It proves to be an example of modern, environmentally friendly, modular living and serves as an example of possibilities of living more comfortably and sustainably in the future.

(Merin, 2013)

23 & 24

Figure

Habitat 67 elevational view explaining the stacking of modules.

Edited by Author

CASE STUDIES

NAGAKIN CAPSULE TOWER, TOKYO, JAPAN

Figure 25 3D understanding of the Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan.

Hidaka once stated that the Metabolist ideas of the 1960s "were very new, the saw cities as 'moving' and dynamic, that concept is real. Metabolism wanted to collaborate with engineers, they invited scientists, designers, and industrial designers. They wanted transcultural collaborations. It's still relevant because of the 'dynamic city' and transcultural aspects.”

The Nakagin Capsule Tower Building is a prime example of the Japanese architectural movement known as "Metabolism," and it was designed by the late Kisho Kurokawa (1934–2007). The building was designed with the idea that it will perform a kind of metabolism by exchanging capsules. The structure is made up of two connected concrete towers, to which 140 capsule apartments were attached separately using high-tension bolts, putting into effect the Metabolist principle that buildings should be renewable.

four high-tension bolts, allowing the units to be replaced. Each capsule is 4 x 2.5 metres in size, with enough space for one person to live comfortably. By connecting the capsule to other capsules, the interior space of each module can be manipulated. Before being shipped to the construction site, the capsules were outfitted with utilities. Each capsule was attached separately and cantilevered from the shaft, allowing any capsule to be easily removed without affecting the others.

Another theme of the Nakagin Capsule Tower's temporality is grounded in what Kurokawa observed throughout Japanese history: Japanese cities built from natural materials had short and unpredictable lifespans. This has not stood the test of time, as evidenced by the Nakagin Tower "The tower had a four-month design period, which was shorter than usual and rushed. Even after construction had begun, the designing continued."

The module was designed to house travelling businessmen who worked in central Tokyo during the week. It is a prototype for sustainable and recyclable architecture, as each module can be plugged into the central core and replaced or exchanged as needed. A total of 140 capsules are stacked and rotated at varying angles around a central core that stands 14 stories tall in Tokyo's Ginza neighbourhood. Kurokawa's technology allowed each unit to be installed to the concrete core with only

In addition to the quick construction and design period, the tower wasn't maintained well over the years. As of today, it is being demolished due to a number of drainage and construction issues.

Even though the tower was basic in ideation, it did challenge the concept of modularity at that time. The architect tried to adopt to the concept of plug-and-play in a time where modularity was looked upon as a mass housing solution. (Sveiven, 2011)

Figure 26

Capsule Tower plans and sections.

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Figure 27 & 28 Internal view of the modules.

Figure 29 Nagakin Capsule Tower being decommissioned due to infrastructural issues in the building.

Edited by Author

CASE STUDIES

VANCOUVER AFFORDABLE HOUSING AGENCY 220 TERMINAL AVENUE, CANADA

Figure 30

VAHA Terminal Avenue, Vancouver.

The Vancouver Affordable Housing Agency (VAHA) has created a plan to quickly address the pressing need for affordable housing in the city by utilising modular construction. The city allows the agency to build temporary modular housing units on currently unoccupied and unused public land. At 220 Terminal Avenue, the first example of this idea, there are 40 units total, each with a kitchen and bathroom. Additionally, the building has a communal laundry room and shared indoor and outdoor common areas.

The building is designed to be entirely adaptable so that it can be placed in a range of different sites when it comes time for relocation. If need be, modules can be added, removed, or reconfigured with minimal alterations to the exterior. The building’s above grade, multi-point foundation system is also designed to be easily reusable at different sites. This ability to build without digging up the ground allowed for the safe temporary use of the 220 Terminal Avenue site. According to VAHA, the initial project's development approvals procedure was unnecessarily complicated and time-consuming. The agency has suggested that city employees be permitted to collaborate with project teams on deviations for pertinent zoning and development restrictions,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PAGLIUCA LIFE LAB, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Designed to accommodate up to 20 companies, the building includes a ground floor of adaptable office space and a second floor of lab space. TIn order to rapidly and economically address the need for lab space, the institution chose modular construction. The building took only seven months to complete, which is five months less than the predicted time it would have taken using traditional on-site construction techniques.

In addition to this advantage, the modular concept significantly reduced constructionrelated interruption on campus and enables future redesign and siting flexibility. The modular design of the building allows for both relocation and size changes. (According to reports, the university intends to relocate the facility within five to ten years.)

The structure is made up of 34 modules that were built off-site over the course of two months. The manufacturer of the modules finished the modules to a level of roughly 85% using a static production technique. The modules were pre-installed with all of the electrical, mechanical, fire suppression, interior finishes, and the majority of the outside cladding system. They were steelframed with pre-poured concrete in composite steel deck. On-site installation included installing concrete and aluminium panels at the mate lines between modules.

A higher level of attention and detail throughout the process was also needed to ensure that the laboratory’s more sophisticated and complex MEP, fire protection, and utility systems were coordinated.

The complete building was temporarily put together in the factory before being transported to the project site. The systems and finishes were properly coordinated and would align without any problems during onsite assembly due to this pre-assembly mockup that was done off-site.

Figure 31 & 32

(Top to bottom)

Harvard University Pagliuza Life Lab, United States.

EPILOGUEMODULARITY & BEYOND

2.2.1. CREATIVITY [DEFINED] IN MODULARITY

Creativity and modularity — It is not our purpose to go into the semantics of the word “creativity” but to establish a reasonably accurate meaning to be applied to architectural design tasks. Modular thinking offers the possibility of organising modules — far more than fastidious repetitions.

(Combes & Bellomio, 1999)

Creativity and design can be simple and complex. It can be a simple standardised object or it can be a very complicated object with multiple interdependencies. This is a general drawback of modularity that it can possibly limit creativity within any confined space. Counterarguing, modulation can be dependent and interdependent. Modularity can provide different outcomes and functions of the same space allowing it to be temporal and flexible — allowing it to be creative.

It has allowed for instances where the partitions are flexible enough to transform a particular space typology into something different. For eg: COVID-19 Hospitals are used as booths for ancillary purposes after being reassembled. After the 2022 Qatar FIFA World Cup, a stadium will be relocated and reused for a different purpose. This will be possible because shipping containers were used for the assembly. Hence, modularity can account for flexibility.

Apart from being unique in nature, creativity in modularity can also mean the ability to be flexible, temporal in its existence.

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Figure 33

Monte Carlo Grand Prix, Monaco. The small country transforms into a racetrack for a yearly spectacle. The pavilions, stands, pit lanes, paddock are all assembled using modules, weeks before the race.

Figure 34

A stadium built in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World Cup using shipping containers. The entire structure can be assembled and disassembled after use.

Modular systems are the foundation of Lego. It all comes down to identifying the fundamental components of your idea that can be constructed and disassembled to create a wide range of unique services. Consider the LEGO brick and the countless ways that it may be combined to create original structures.

The idea of a modular system, which allows consumers to endlessly combine it with other components while also allowing the business itself to preserve production and research and development efficiencies. Independent inventory development is cost-free with a modular architecture. It also promotes efficiency by avoiding the use of a universal platform and consistency by maintaining a collection of comparable items. LEGO is establishing the circumstances necessary for the realisation of limitless possibilities.

LEGO offers an option to create something unique right from the start. On the same base, LEGO bricks can be stacked in an unlimited number of different ways. With LEGO, you can use the same base model to create buildings, gardens, train stations, and airports. This makes the plugand-play, mobile, and flexible design concepts possible.

LEGO acts as a driving pattern and concept which architecture in the future should adopt. The future's most sustainable design solutions will be adaptable designs, which are becoming more and more necessary. Modularity should evolve with the concept of expansive plug and play from LEGO and explore its potential.

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Figure 35

LEGO prototype with multiple functionality.

Figure 36

LEGO prototype with multiple functionality.

Figure 37

LEGO prototype with multiple functionality.

“ARCHITECTURE SHOULD SPEAK OF ITS TIME AND PLACE. BUT YEARN FOR TIMELESSNESS.”

- Frank Gehry

Figure 38 Space and Time.

Edited by Author

2.2.2. TEMPORALITY [DEFINED] IN MODULARITY

Is there an architecture that is materially liquid, that configures and is attentive not to stability but to change and is thus at one with the fluid and shifting nature of all reality? Is it possible to think an architecture that is more of time than of space? An architecture whose objective would be not the ordering of dimensional extension but movement and duration?

-Ignasi de Sola-Morales, Liquid Architecture

Architecture's conventional focus on permanence, stability, and space is challenged by the consideration of time and its relevance. How might our understanding of architectural space and its larger significance in modern society change if temporality moves us away from the conventional notion of architecture as an object and toward a greater concern with the experiencing moment?

Time has been ever existent around us, present in smaller elements and architecture. Materials, weather, light, wind, water, landscape and functions all explain and carry time along. Time has a stamp on all these aspects and help us understand how different architectural styles even existed.

The world of architecture expresses time as permanence and temporality. Permanence, which is assumed to be a structure's "timelessness," likewise disintegrates with the passage of time. In many ways, it transfers into architecture. One is a structure's ability to withstand both natural and artificial forces. It is also intangible, though. The translation of culture, identity, and memory into permanence defies the passage of time. Therefore, even though a structure's materiality is susceptible to change, these immaterial components lend architecture a sense of permanence. Any moment that has no concrete or intangible connection to the past translates to permanence. In architecture and in the near future, there will be a high level of demand in terms of spatial quality of the people. If architecture can hold impermanence through a passage of culture, identity and memory then why not for our everyday spaces like homes and offices?

Impermanence needs continued modular evolution. The idea of mobility and impermanence is present in many designs, and it can be expanded even more by being adopted as a logical and accepted design philosophy.

(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs July 10, 2014)

Figure 39

House 2 installation, Zurich, Switzerland temporarily serving as a public space under a vehicular bridge.

The city built during the KumbhMela is a 7 million people metropolis, yet it is a transitory and transient megacity. This city is constructed for the Hindu holy event KumbhMela, which takes place at the convergence of the Ganges and the Yamuna rivers in India every twelve years.

This metropolis possesses each and every trait of a true megacity. The city is organised on a grid. Every street in this city crosses the river on a wooden bridge as part of the grid-like urban structure. Extremely resilient, as the urban system continues to function even in the event of an unexpected downpour or river flow change. The city adapts to this potentially unstable terrain. Additionally, it duplicates all types of social and physical infrastructure like electricity, sewage and water supplies. An entire station is equipped with 1400 CCTV cameras for security purposes and there is also social infrastructure like clinics, hospitals, and all kinds of community services to make this operate like any actual megacity would. It has a governance structure that has a festival commissioner making sure that the land is distributed to everyone.

The government puts this up in the neoliberal and capitalist world of today, when the state has resigned full responsibility for creating and

planning cities. It is a planned, intentional city. The city is formal and rests quite lightly on the land. It does not leave many traces as it stands on the banks of these rivers.

There are no foundations. This whole city is constructed out of fabric. The fact that only five materials were used to construct this settlement for 7 million people is another interesting fact. Eight foot tall bamboo, rope or string, and screws or nails. Additionally, a skinning material is used and that could be made of plastic, fabric, or corrugated metal. When all of these components are combined, it resembles a system of smaller modules. And it's used in anything from tiny tents that can only fit a family or five or six people to enormous temples that can hold up to a thousand people. And it can be disassembled due to these components. As a result, the city is completely dismantled within a week following the festival's conclusion.

(Bose, 2018)

“Here, the temporary is becoming the new permanent. Here, urbanism is not about grand vision, it's about grand adjustment. In our imagination about urbanism, we are making permanent solutions for temporary problems. But the question here is, are we locking resources into paradigms that we don't even know will be relevant in a decade?”

RMA Architects

An illustration of the importance of temporality and modularity in design can be seen in the case study of KumbhMela. The relationship between time and architecture is constant. Disassembly allows architecture to be temporary while still performing the functions well.

Rahul Mehrotra,

(Top to bottom)

Figure 40, 41 & 42 The materiality of the ephemeral megacity.

IS FLEXIBILITY, TEMPORALITY AND CREATIVITY THE NEED OF SPATIAL DESIGN TOMORROW ?

EPHEMERAL

Figure 43

Edited by Author

The Ganesh Chathurthi festival in Mumbai. The whole city is filled with a festive spirit amidst modular and flexible ephemerality.

DECEIVE

Figure 44

A visually deceiving form of art called OP art.

Edited by Author

PARALLELS OF MODULARITY

Looking beyond the conservative idea of modularity, this chapter will explore the other fields where modularity has been used a concept albeit as a completely different design strategy.

These various ideations would help create linkages between architecture and applications in other fields.

Towards the end, these iterations would help rethink modularity as differently.

Figure 45 Paper “as a module” folding art by Richard Sweeney.

MODULARITY OVER THE WORLD

3.1.1. MODULARITY [ADDED]

Modularity as a term ranges across many fields and is interpreted in very different ways. It is referred to as logical binding, compartmentalisation and organisation of data in technology.

In the field of automobile development, modularity is the assembly of data, organised or disorganised to make a function while in arts it is the standardisation of objects used for reference and execution.

While in biology and anatomy, modularity is directly conferred to species, organisms, construction of cells, etc — from micro to macro level.

Modularity can be dependent and interdependent of parts inside it which are open to tweaking and hence can be designed in a way possibly offering more efficiency. As mentioned earlier, modularity in IT is completely flexible although in biology it has to follow certain factors. Analysing these interpretations of modularity as a broad term, some of them can be specific to a certain domain and others can be — disassembled, hardwired and autonomous.

Modularity has been a probable design ideology in many careers like biology, information and technology, fashion and many more. All of these are independently modular although designed uniquely for their purpose. Can all these micro aspects of life affect the way how we perceive modularity and architecture?

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Figure 46

Illustration of a prototype motherboard.

Figure 47

Illustration of biological systems.

Figure 48

Automobile assembly of a Formula 1 car

The ability of a system to organise discrete, individual units that can increase the overall efficiency of network activity and, in a biological sense, facilitates selective forces upon the network is referred to as modularity. Modularity can be studied at nearly every scale of biological organisation, from molecular interactions to the entire organism. Modularity is a natural occurrence in our environment. At the same time, it is also a conscious approach to design. That can create linkages for design to get inspired by natural outcomes.

However, when viewed from a wider perspective, flora, fauna, and avifauna are all modular in nature. These modules differ from one another, but each life form has a definite general structural integrity. One group of 6-7 pine trees, for instance, varies in height, colour, and texture. These trees are members of the same species despite their variances, making that species "modular in nature."

A biological module is a subnetwork entity composed of nodes that are more closely related among them than to the rest of the components in a network; in other words, it means that the nodes of such a module have a high clustering coefficient. Inside modules, structural motifs potentially provide information on their dynamics and functional capabilities. Furthermore, intermodular motifs can link different modules and could serve as components to transfer information and coordinate the activity among the modules. Overall, life organisation in a microorganism is integrated by complex networks whose topological structure suggests a modular organisation; this is defined as the aggregation of biological entities that act together to support a specific biological function.

Even human bodies, animals, bushes, and many other things can serve as metaphors. In biology, modularity must adhere to certain rules and need not offer considerable flexibility, but there are some situations in which this is predicted by chemistry. For the same species, chemical integrity is the same, yet it is adaptable enough to alter in different environmental conditions.

Therefore, it's feasible that modularity occurs in biology at a structural level but not physically, allowing a species to have a flexible purpose.

(Ethiraj & Levinthal, 2003) .

Figure 49

Seasonal variations in biological systems producing physical differences in a same “module”.

Edited by Author

Concept of modularity in biological systems:

A module is defined as a discrete structural and functional entity, an ensemble of physically interacting proteins that deal with a specific metabolic process and can be co-isolated. The composition, location and function of a module may vary depending on the cellular requirements. Thus, modules symbolise a dynamic entity of a group of molecules that occur and function together. A striking advantage of considering modularity in metabolic networks lies in its structural and functional flexibility. Modularity offers freedom to assume that the same molecular species of protein/ enzyme may belong to different modules at a different time and in different intracellular locations and may differ in function depending on the environment. The molecules of the same enzyme present in different modules may or may not be structurally identical.

CAN ARCHITECTURE EXAMINE HOW IDENTICAL MODULES CAN BE DYNAMIC TO PRODUCE HIGHLY DIVERSE PHYSICAL MANIFESTATIONS?

3.1.3. MODULARITY IN ART

A work of art with constituent parts that can be moved, separated, and recombined is referred to as being modular. This term is most often used in relation to minimalism. In the 1960s, artists started making simple sculptures out of industrial materials like plywood, sheet metal, and bricks. In order to distance themselves from traditional sculpture, minimalist artists would describe these artworks in very literal ways, calling them ‘modules’. The term "modular" is intimately related to the work of artist Sol LeWitt, who in 1965 started developing a series of open and closed cubes that could be arranged and interlocked in a variety of ways according to a predetermined system.

Typically, a module for a two-dimensional work of modular art is chosen in accordance with specific mathematical principles, such as symmetry, geometry and equivalence. For appropriately putting visual components together so they have balanced proportions of colour and shape, knowledge of pure mathematics is typically necessary. Modular artists start out by giving each interlocking shape a specific number and then they piece the artwork together using the specified number sequence. Some of the parts' ensuing patterns can be altered without upsetting this harmony, but others are less adaptable in terms of structure or appearance.

When spectators view at a motionless image, certain art styles employ modular art structure to give the appearance of movement. This visual effect, for example, can be achieved with the exact positioning of repeated curves in a regular sequence. These kinds of works are frequently produced with the intention of proving that art is dynamic and ever-evolving rather than fixed and unalterable. Many of these works were also produced using serial art concepts, which offer meaning to the entire work rather than just its component parts.

As a collective statement of the visual potential of continuous repetition, some forms of modular art were included into the minimalist art movement of the 1960s. Simple coloured panels that were linked together in some of the older works of art from this era gave the impression that the same pattern could continue to repeat itself indefinitely. These modular art forms frequently reflected postmodernist views on mass manufacturing and uniformity, which are prevalent in many facets of modern life.

CAN ARCHITECTURE ALLOW FOR SUCH CONSTANT CHANGE TO CREATE NEW MORPHS?

Modular art has been used across varied art forms across history. Some of the examples being — OP art, kinetic installations, triptych form of art, cocreativity, constructivism and de-constructivism.

Constructivism and de-constructivism:

Modular paintings by artist Leda Luss Luyken consist of moveable painted panels mounted in steel frames. Compared to a static object, the work of this artist is more directly aligned to the dynamism of physical human experience since changing the configuration of a modular painting constitutes a sort of motion, providing the spectator alternate views and various interpretations. This form is called “ModulArt.” Such art forms with movement, dynamism and creativity can help produce similar outcomes in architecture.

Figure 50

ModulArt by Leda Luss Luyken. Each portrait is arranged in multiple ways for different permutations.

Edited by Author

Figure

51 Lifesize installation of OP art by Marina Apollonio.

Edited by Author

OP art:

Op art, also called optical art, branch of mid-20th-century geometric abstract art that deals with optical illusion. Achieved through the systematic and precise manipulation of shapes and colours, the effects of Op art can be based either on perspective illusion or on chromatic tension. This form of art uses lines and colours as units in a creative way to create an optical illusion.

(Source: Britannica)

MODULARITY IN TECHNOLOGY

Modularity is prevalent in technology, software and hardware. Parts like CPU, Monitors, Graphic cards, memory chips, etc are all examples of modular design and functioning. Computing

revolves around modularity and is one of the main components for it to function. Modules are complex in a computing setup in hardware and software — all interlinked together for efficient functioning. But what does it mean for a system to be complicated?

A complex system, according to Herbert Simon, is "one composed of a large number of parts that interact in a non-simple manner." Thus, complexity is determined by both the number of distinct parts of the system and the nature of the interconnections or interdependencies between those parts.

Simon argues for the criterion of decomposability in modular design, which he offers both as a prescription for human designers and as a description of the systems we find ready-made in nature. The successful operation of any given part in a nondecomposable system is likely to be dependent on the characteristics of many other parts throughout the system. When such a system is missing parts (for example, because it is unfinished or because some of the parts are damaged), the entire system fails to function. In a decomposable system, however, the proper operation of a given part is highly dependent on

the characteristics of other parts within its subassembly—but with a relatively lower probability on the characteristics of parts outside of that subassembly. As a result, even if some subsystems are damaged or incomplete, a decomposable system may be able to function.

Modularity is a design structure that has numerous advantages. It fully realises the many benefits of component division of labour by reducing the degree of interdependence among, and thus the costs of communicating across, the parts of a system. This kind of flexibility allows the systems to be selfsufficient and allows for adaptations and changes.

The real issue is normally not whether to be modular but how to be modular. Which modularisation, which structure of encapsulation boundaries, will yield the best system decomposition? (Langlois, 2002)

3 .1.5. MOTHERBOARD AND A CITY

Cities and the motherboard both have numerous complicated elements that operate on both small and large dimensions. The motherboard is the largest board in a computer chassis and is a printed circuit board and the foundation of a computer. It manages power and communicates with the CPU, RAM, and all other computer hardware components. A motherboard connects the computer's hardware components, such as the processor (CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, and video card. There are various types of motherboards designed to fit various computer types and sizes.

These interconnections ensure continuous dialogue between the software and the hardware making it functional for the user. The motherboard is the “heart” of a computing system without which the system ceases to work. These parts work cohesively and tend to be very interdependent creating a visual experience for the user.

Now think of the motherboard and its numerous associated components as multiple interconnected modules. Similar to this, a city's operation is likely to be governed by a number of parameters in an urban context. The city's governing body oversees every aspect of civic life. Numerous functions won't exist without them. The primary grid that keeps the city running is made up of components including water systems, transportation networks, and electric substations.

The city has many connections in and around it, just like the motherboard. All of the components of a computing system must be operating toward an output in order for it to function. Similar to this, for efficient operation in an urban setting, all involved authorities and units must be present.

Even yet, there are some distinctions in how they both operate. A motherboard comes with alternative inputs in case the software or hardware should fail. This makes sure that the programme won't cease working because of a system error. However, there are not always plans in place for such shock failures in the case of a metropolis (pandemics, disasters, etc). Such flaws in the city's planning have a significant impact on how it operates and are put to the test when calamities strike. Covid-19 stood as a good illustration of how cities struggle to adapt to radical change in all facets of life.

MOTHERBOARD CITY

Figure 52

Illustration depicting the multiple components and connections of a motherboard.

Edited by Author

Some cities are planned and have designated zones and regions similar to a motherboard. Although a motherboard module can be modded by various parts of different sizes, appearances and configurations which carry out functions more efficiently. Similarly, can cities be modded by newer policies, adaptable infrastructure and civic developments to create a resilient outcome? Can cities be independent largely but dependent on a smaller scale?

CAN CITIES AND ARCHITECTURE BE ADAPTABLE ENOUGH TO CHANGE FOR GREATER PERFORMANCE?

CAN MODULAR DESIGN PROVIDE FLEXIBILITY WHILE STILL BEING SELF SUFFICIENT AND SUSTAINABLE?

“ADAPTABILITY IS NOT IMITATION. IT IS THE POWER OF RESISTANCE AND ASSIMILATION.”

- Mahatma Gandhi

Figure 53

Finance center in Shangahi — A building envelope that adapts to the environmental and climatic changes of the region.

3 .1.6. MODULARITY IN AUTOMOBILE

Modularisation has been used mostly for the management of complex systems to be simplified. According to current trends, the next generation of vehicles will shift from integrated "unibody" vehicles with high production volume and low flexibility to modular vehicles with middle to high production volume and flexibility.

A modular vehicle is one in which major vehicle components are interchangeable. This modularity is intended to facilitate repairs and maintenance, as well as to allow the vehicle to be reconfigured to suit various functions. Another use for modular vehicle design is the ability to exchange batteries in an electric vehicle. The power system, wheels, and suspension can all be contained in a single module or chassis in a modular electric vehicle. When the batteries need to be recharged, the vehicle's body is removed and replaced with a new power module. The vehicle's batteries do not need to be removed or reinstalled when using this Modular Vehicle system, and their connections remain intact.

All types of vehicles contain elements and components that work together as a whole to function as a single unit. Because automotive parts can be installed with a high degree of flexibility, they are both interdependent and disconnected at the same time. Therefore, it is not required for all the units to stop working if one of them experiences a problem.

A Formula 1 car is an open-wheel, open-cockpit, single-seat racing car to be used in Formula 1 competitions. A Formula 1 car is designed to resist and adapt to high aerodynamic forces and gravitational forces while driving at an average speed of 250-300 km/h. Every F1 car is composed of two main components the chassis and the engine. Other components are brakes, suspensions, steering wheel, ERS, fuel tank, tires, gearbox, cooling systems, wings, and floor.

Importance of aerodynamics:

The movement of the air within and around the car has a significant impact on performance. The same chassis specifications are used for Formula 1 races all year long on various tracks. Even under such a wide range of weather conditions, the car consistently operates almost at its optimum. The elasticity of the wings makes this possible. The angles of the wing are altered to improve the performance and efficiency of the car depending on the direction and speed of the wind. Additionally, these modifications have an impact on the cooling systems, tyres, and engine performance.

The front wing channels air into the tyres, the floor, and the cooling systems. It is warmer air because it enters the cooling systems from above the chassis. This warm air is in touch with the cooling pad, which cools the engine intake plenum by exchanging heat with it. The downforce and speed of the car are improved by air flowing along the floor. The floor (barge board) is made to be adjustable for downforce at any time by modifying the rake and wing angles. Similar to how air moves over a tyre, slow-speed curves accelerate tyre deterioration.

(Buljac, Kozmar, & Džijan, 2016)

Hybridity of a Formula 1 car:

A Formula 1 car is unquestionably the pinnacle of automotive, electrical, and aerodynamic engineering. This car's components all depend on one another in some way or another. As was previously established, the car's aerodynamic capabilities produce a greater cooling effect on the engines. The ability of the car to brake and accelerate effectively is increased by effective wind flow. Optimal braking and acceleration help the engine produce power (MGU-H and MGU-K).

Push rods and pull rods are used by suspension systems to connect the engine with the braking systems. These rods may deform on various track surfaces thanks to their structural flexibility, which prevents them from being harmed.

In conclusion, a formula 1 car's operation is tremendously effective but also quite sensitive to the environment. This sensitivity offers a control over the performance at any given point and assure maximum efficiency.

Figure 54

Aerodynamic front wing end plate of a formula 1 car that reacts and adapts to the wind flow and speed on race tracks.

Figure 55 & 56

Graphic explaining how the air intake from the plenum allows for cool air to flow over the engine of the formula 1 car increasing the efficiency.

“DESIGN IS NOT WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE AND FEELS LIKE. DESIGN IS HOW IT WORKS.”

- Steve Jobs

AERODYNAMIC

The aerodynamic form of a Formula 1 car (SF-75)

Edited by Author

HOW TO BE MODULAR?

Modularity is contradicting. The concept of which is making repetitions and mass producing a prototype as a generalised item, whilst still trying to be creative in nature. That’s where the true potential of modularity lies — explored or unexplored?

All areas of engineering and design have utilised modularity. It has always been a fundamental design principle, although it has been handled extremely differently in various fields. It was introduced as an idea of standardised mass production. Modularity has been investigated in architecture for its ability to be flexible and timebased. It has shown to be more affordable, more sustainably produced, and of greater quality. However, it has not withstood the test of time and is no longer functional. The user has not been given the option of designs that are built on freedom and choice.

Modularity has explored new possibilities and bounds while spanning many diverse sectors, fostering innovation. It has looked into concepts that make modules kinetic, adaptable, and customisable. Some of the modules have a hybrid design that contributes to the effectiveness of other modules. The parallels drawn previously from other fields certainly raise questions about how modular is perceived differently in every field.

But the questions remain if the learnings of modularity elsewhere could be used in architecture?

DRIVEN BY THE PARALLELS, CAN MODULARITY BE EFFICIENT IN ARCHITECTURE?

CAN MODULES BE MASS PRODUCED YET BE CREATIVE AND FLEXIBLE?

CAN MODULARITY BE BASED AROUND A USER CHOICE?

CAN MODULES CHANGE WITH TIME?

Creating linkages and patterns between what modularity is “perceived to be” and what modularity “could be”. This forms a basis of explaining how the concept of modularity can be developed using science, literature, art, technology and not just architecture.

Source: Author

REPETITIONS

Figure 59 Modular stacking of residential apartments

Edited by Author

MODULARITY NULL & VOID

This chapter aims to theorise a novel modularity premise for potential future applications.

It focuses on the ways and areas in which modularity can be employed to create architecture in the future.

Figure 60

Modular apartments at 432 Park Avenue Condominiums, New York, United States of America

Edited by Author

THE FUTURE

4.1.1. THE FUTURE OF FLEXIBLE DESIGNS

The idea of impermanence is more prevalent in many aspects of our life than it has ever been as we navigate these unprecedented times. The need for architecture and design to accommodate our shifting demands in the midst of a pandemic and finally in a postpandemic society, is more evident than ever.

Philosophy, art, culture, religion, literature, society, and architecture have always been influenced by the theory of impermanence.

Much like Heraclitus wrote in his Fragments, many cultures have strong connotations to change as ‘the only constant.’ In Eastern philosophy, Buddhism identifies three tenets that explain all phenomena: change, dissatisfaction, and impermanence. Architecture reflects the impermanence of our surroundings, with buildings acting as markers of the passing of time.

(Wallance, 2021)

A home, for instance, has recently been required to perform a variety of new duties. It had occasionally served as a gym, office, gathering place, concert hall and much more. This has led many people to assume that in order for these structures to accommodate the changing lifestyles and habits of those living inside of them, they should be built with adaptability in mind.

Figure 61 Sharifi-ha House, Iran — physically responds to climatic change and variation.

A fundamental principle of modular architecture is to create structures with the user in mind as a developing entity with changing demands. Traditional structures have some drawbacks, which can be addressed and resolved by modularity offering users flexibility, changeable interfaces, standardised repair, durability, and personalization while being sustainable and resistant to the effects of time.

Evidently, since the 1950s, prefabrication has evolved dramatically, and new modular construction techniques have made this transition possible. Prefabricated structures are typically made up of several structural components that are put together on site, however modern modular units enable prefabrication to be much more functionally integrated.

Additionally, advantages include the creation of new jobs, the use of locally produced, sustainable materials, energy-efficient design, fewer construction zones, the ability to replace, add, or change parts seamlessly, the increased value of green buildings, the reduced maintenance requirements, and social and community advantages.

Figure 62

Illustration of the Nagakin Capsule Tower in the metaverse.

AI Development:

Building information modeling (BIM), which uses the digital representation of a building, is leading the way for designing and envisioning the reconfiguration possibilities of buildings. Through the use of BIM, architects can not only design in 3D how the buildings are structured and will operate, they can also specify the different parts and materials in the building, making possible both reconfiguration, retrofitting and circular strategies.

[Selma Larsson, UnStudio]

THEORIESCONCLUSION

Modularity has historically been employed as a mass-production building technology. Although it is possible to infer from the lessons learned and a broader understanding of modularity that it has been applied in various ways across all disciplines, not just in mass production, it has been employed in.

Some of the applications led to highly unusual outcomes, such the capacity to adapt in motherboards and Formula 1 automobiles. The ability to have different forms and aesthetics throughout the year based on the local climate. In conclusion, although flexibility, creativity, and temporality permit these qualities, they are all constrained by modularity.

Therefore, if modular architecture is modified with flexibility and temporality, the result will be distinctive even though it is made on a huge scale.

This will benefit both the internal problems that modularity encounters and its external envelope. Temporal solutions would be helpful in resolving multifunctionality-related problems. Flexibility will enable subsequent iterations of the design for the specified function.

In conclusion, each individual has a completely distinct perspective on modularity. It can be found in anything from the smallest scales, such as furniture pieces, to both temporary and permanent constructions, such as marketplaces, skyscrap, stadiums and many more. Additionally, use of modularity in architecture can be as hybrid as that of other disciplines, opening up a vast array of opportunities.

DESIGN INNOVATION CAN EXACERBATE OR MITIGATE SOCIAL INEQUALITY, ECOLOGICAL CRISES, THE EFFECTS OF A PANDEMIC AND PERIODS OF UNREST AND CHANGE.

DESIGN NEEDS TO TACKLE THE REALITIES OF OUR CURRENT AND FUTURE SOCIETIES AND IT IS HERE THAT THE RELIANCE ON MODULAR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION COULD CONTINUE TO GAIN TRACTION MORE THAN EVER BEFORE.

- Selma Larsson , Unstudio

“AS AN ARCHITECT, YOU HAVE TO DESIGN FOR THE PRESENT WITH AN AWARENESS OF THE PAST FOR A FUTURE WHICH IS ESSENTIALLY UNKNOWN.”

- Norman Foster

Figure 63

Elemental Sagrada Familia

Source: Author

Figure 64

Map of Mumbai and neighbouring regions

Edited by Author

SITE OPTIONS & INTENT

In this chapter, suitable areas for an intervention are identified utilising modularity as a larger framework.

It will explain briefly about the site history, context and the need for an intervention at the same place.

Figure 65 Hall of Nations and Nehur Pavilion by Raj Rewal.

Edited by Author

MODULARITY VIA FUNCTIONS

Modularity exists everywhere around us in weekly markets, public toilets, bus stands, buildings and many more. It is present in varied forms — collapsible, fixed, temporal, mass produced and unique.

Public toilets and bus stands are prime examples of modules being repeated over a large scale for the same function. The idea that of serving the same purpose is what allows for mass production. This method enables installation in a short amount of time while also aiding in the identification of the form over a region.

Whereas with housing today, modularity exists in a fixed manner without much scope of temporality and flexibility. Each module on a floorplate works as a module repeated over the number of floors.

In this case due the structural system, there is a restricted scope of development and flexibility.

Lastly there are functions such as festivals which happen seasonally. In this case, ‘mandaps’ (stalls) are set up for celebrations and togetherness. These stalls are later dismantled and the place returns to its original character within hours or days.

The design intention would look at functions or activities that demand modularity together with temporality and flexibility because modularity can be controlled without a site under consideration.

Eg: Ganesh Chathurthi Festival in Mumbai, Diwali.

FUNCTIONS THAT NEED MODULARITY

01. Market Places: Market places licensed and unlicensed hawkers — either of which create a sense of crowding and chaos. Modularity can help design stalls (modules) for them so that the space functions more efficiently in their presence and absence.

02. Public Squares: Public Squares cover a large area from traffic islands, gardens and parks, beaches, piers and many more. These public spaces have a multifunctional user group and modularity as a solution can provide better functionality with mobility, interactive spaces.

03. Defunct Spaces: Spaces that are not utilised or non-existent are called defunct spaces. These spaces were built for a function and failed to serve for it — now lie redundant. Modularity can provide with interventions that can allow for the same space to be used for multiple functions over a period of time.

04. Residential Cores: After COVID-19, it has been sufficiently clear that a residential space should not only mean — a space for living. There are a variety of people who are co-living, work at home and have multiple spatial needs. Residencies today don't suffice for a user-to-user detail configuration. Modularity can offer the spatial needs of a person and design via user based configuration.

05. Disaster Relief: This includes natural, manmade, pandemics, epidemics, etc. Post a disaster there is a high number of people who get displaced. There are no planned spaces in the urban fabric which can suffice to their needs directly. Modularity can help build centres, hospitals, residences for displaced people in a short amount of time. This can be done in spaces which lie redundant for a long period of time.

Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Mumbai, Maharashtra

Map 1: Edited by Author (Base map source: WikiMedia)

POSSIBLE SITES FOR AN INTERVENTION

01. FORT PRECINCT

Figure 66

Building opposite Flora Fountain, Fort, Mumbai

Contextual understanding:

Currently, there are shopping centres, government and private offices, institutional spaces, with a few residential spaces and public squares in the neighbourhood. The diversity in the land use of this area is what makes the location a prime spot for interaction and focus. The spaces around have changed but the character and the architectural style which gives the identity has remained constant.

Kalaghoda, Horniman Circle and Flora Fountain.

Site under study Horniman Circle

Fashion Street

Flora Fountain

Kalaghoda Art Festival

MG Road Kalaghoda Art Gallery

Map 2: Edited by Author (Base map source: Open Street Map)

History of the neighbourhood:

In the centre of South Mumbai sits the wonderfully carved Flora Fountain, popularly known as the Hutatma Chowk since 1960. Originally named after the Governor of Bombay, Sir Bartle Frere, Flora Fountain was given the name “Flora". In 1960, the fountain was renamed Martyr's Square, or Hutatma Chowk, in memory of the 105 members of the Samyuktha Maharashtra Samiti who died in the struggle for a separate Maharashtrian state. The statue, a striking piece of stone, depicts two heroes carrying torches.

Bombay Greens was the name given to the current Horniman Circle in the 18th century. In 1821, work on Bombay Greens, which includes a Garden circle, began. A little park with a neoclassical porch, carefully placed tree rows, and a flawless walkway was created from this garden. Later, it developed into the core of a business district that was surrounded by office buildings and had an Asian library in front of the Garden Circle's main gate. In honour of former governor John Elphinstone, the garden was given the name Elphinstone Circle.

British journalist Benjamin Horniman was born in Ireland in 1873. He began his career in India as an editor and contributed significantly to the country's freedom by exposing the evil deeds and erratic behaviour of the British rulers. The circle was given the name Horniman Circle in honour of his tireless efforts to secure India's freedom.

(Top to bottom)

Figure 67, 68

Old images of Hutatma Chowk

Figure 69, 70

Old images of Horniman Circle

(Top to bottom)

Figure 71, 72

Old images of Kalaghoda, Fort

Figure 73, 74

Installations at Kalaghoda Art Festival

History of the neighbourhood:

A descendant of the Sassoon family, one of the founding families of Bombay, Sir Albert Sassoon gave the Kala Ghoda sculpture to the city as a present. This represented imperial strength and showed that India had transitioned from being a colonial pawn to an independent state. However, in the 1960s, it was believed that having a British monarch in such a prominent position in the nation's financial hub made fun of India's nationalistic spirit. Thus, the artwork was then transferred to the city's zoo, Veermata Jijabai Bhosale Udyan, in 1965.

Although the Kala Ghoda was no longer present physically, it lived on in spirit and gave the Fort precinct its name. Over time, the name "Kala Ghoda," which referred to a neighbourhood that had some of Mumbai's most recognisable landmarks. Finally, the precinct's stakeholders and residents opted to choose a new mascot in 2017.

The sculpture of a black horse without a rider is called "The Spirit of Kala Ghoda." The Kala Ghoda Association (KGA), which organises the yearly Kala Ghoda Festival, gave the new sculpture as a gift. Since it was first established, Kala Ghoda has seen a significant evolution as a precinct. Additionally, the Kala Ghoda Arts Festival explodes into a riot of colour, creativity, and holiday cheer every year for a fortnight in February. Given the ambiance and mood, the precinct becomes a pedestrian area.

Activities at Hutatma Chowk:

There is no designated activity that takes place in Hutatma Chowk. The chowk consists of a plaza with the fountain and an outward circular seating. It also has a memorial for the martyrs with well done landscape but it isn't accessible to the public. On the other side there is a parking lot for privately owned vehicles.

Activities at Horniman Circle:

In Horniman Circle, there are a lot of private offices and commercial shopping outlets. Naturally this garden serves a purpose of a pause point for the employees. The garden has the highest footfall in the afternoon and evening. There are other informal activities like food stalls that are set up around the circumference of the circle.

Activities at Kalaghoda:

In Kalaghoda, there are a lot of historic landmarks like David Sassoon Library and the Jehangir Art Gallery. The Kalaghoda Art Festival happens annually bringing together all forms of art, culture and life to the streets lined up along an amphitheatre-esque seating. There are recent developments of cafeterias, restaurants, retail outlets around Kalaghoda. Along with this, there are informal food stalls, art stalls, etc. The main Kalaghoda square functions as a parking lot.

Activities at MG Road, Fashion Street and Lions Gate:

Across the vicinity, there were a lot of informal scattered shops for books, food, clothes, shoes, etc out of which some are legalised while some are encroachments. These shops are the life of the internal streets of Fort where people gather during lunch breaks and late night snacks. Fashion street has been omnipresent and some part of it has been legalised. Bus stops are in a poor condition near Lions gate where there no walkable space left on the footpath.

(Top to bottom)

Figure 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80

Source: Author

(Top to bottom)

Figure

Source: Author

Design intent would revolve around enhancing, revamping, improving the quality of public spaces in the Fort precinct.

Smaller interventions would be taken at an individual level to give local businesses a better opportunity.

A mix of temporal and permanent interventions would be proposed to create dynamic plazas that changes with festivals, seasons, etc.

Modular, temporal and flexible designs to be incorporated for efficient functioning of the precinct.

02. MANEK CHOWK

Figure 85

Edited by Author

Teen Darwaza, Gandhi Road, Manek Chowk, Ahmedabad

Contextual understanding:

The city of Ahmedabad is vibrant and alive, and there are many places worth visiting, like as forts, temples, and mosques. One such historically significant location in the centre of Ahmedabad is Manek Chowk. This market undergoes a fantastic transition throughout the day, acting as a vegetable market in the morning, a jewellery market in the middle of the day, and a food street at night. Further located are residential streets (locally know as pols) which are a typical architectural style for homes in Gujarat.

Map 3: Edited by Author (Base map source: Google Earth)

(Top to bottom)

Figure 86, 87 Informal and formal markets of Manek Chowk

Figure 88 Premabhai Hall

Source: Author

Manek Chowk functions very efficiently on a daily basis. Although there exists problems like drainage, cleanliness, safety and congestion. An intervention would be using modularity to overcome these problems and further highlight the fabric of Manek Chowk but keeping the scape relevant to its identity.

MADHAV WADI

Figure 89 Madhav Wadi, Dadar East, Mumbai

03.

Contextual understanding:

Madhav Wadi is a chawl almost 70 years old residing right in the centre of the Dadar East. It is located in very close proximity to the Dadar Station. The chawl is home to more than 120 families, all of them having varying occupations, different religious background, etc. There are informal and formal shopfronts inside the chawl, some of which are printing presses, laundry shops, grocery stores, tailors, food stalls, etc. Due to the cosmopolitan nature of the chawl, every festival is celebrated to the fullest.

Map 4: Edited by Author (Base map source: Google Earth)

(Top to bottom)

Figure 90 View of the chawl

Figure 91, 92

Informal shopfronts inside the chawl

Source: Author

A proposal would involve a redevelopment of the chawl with modular, temporal and flexible designs — catering to the wider range of people, occupations, services. The outcome will provide a cohesive sense of community growth.

04. BHAUCHA DHAKKA

Figure 93

Bhaucha Dhakka, Mazgaon, India

Edited by Author

Contextual understanding:

Bhaucha Dhakka is the oldest and one of the largest fishing markets in Mumbai. It’s not a Koli based community market but a larger and diverse fish trading ground. It also has the Prince's Dock it its context. The dock is the first wet dock of Mumbai, which established Mumbai as a trading port city. The Dock is now defunct, with a proposal to establish a Marina in play by the Bombay Port Trust. Currently, it functions as a ferry terminal. There is also a newly established roro terminal on the site.

Map 5: Edited by Author (Base map source: Google Earth)

(Top to bottom)

Figure 94, 95, 96, 97 The fish market and Roro ferry terminal at Bhaucha Dhakka.

The intervention would focus on enhancing the public spaces. It will aim to provide better conditions for the fishing activities retaining the original fabric. Also, an important point would require to amalgamate the fishing activities with the newly built terminals and upcoming proposals.

05. JUHU BEACH

Figure 98

Juhu Beach, Mumbai

Edited by Author

Contextual understanding:

This location is one of the prime landmarks in the city of Mumbai. The beach is visited by groups of people throughout the day. Over the years, there has been commercialisation around the beach due to higher footfall and provisions were also made for food stalls, etc. Although these provisions have created bigger issues and today the beach has become one big garbage dumpsite which consist mostly of plastic wastes, including bags, bottles, bottles among others.

Map 6: Edited by Author (Base map source: Google Earth)

(Top to bottom)

Figure 99, 100, 101, 102 Juhu Beach polluted with garbage and tar primarily caused by the garbage collection of food stalls.

The design intent would involve creating a more community oriented public space with proper space allocation and services for food stalls, etc. To maintain the hygiene on the beach cleaning systems will have to be used in the modular construction. These prototypes could be used elsewhere in a similar setting.

06.

CCI BRABOURNE STADIUM

The design ideation would propose the stadium to be used for multiple functions. In an absence of sporting events, the stadium can be used as a gaming arena, market place, exhibition area, etc. After usage, the stadium will return to its original state for further sporting events.

Figure 103

CCI Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai

In Bandra Kurla Complex, these empty plots are used for sporadic exhibitions, fairs, concertc, etc. Post disaster relief centres could be set up on these plots which would aid a lot of people. The intervention will be a hypothetical scenario of a disaster in which case, the design will need to be modular, tempolar, flexible and quick.

Figure 105 Bandra Kurla Complex, Mumbai

Map 7: Edited by Author (Base map source: Google Earth)

Figure 1: Illustration of composition of modules. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 2: Different modules juxtaposed to form a whole combination/ system. (Source: Author)

Figure 3: 56 Leonard, Modular Skyscraper based around Jenga in New York, United States. Edited by Author. (Source: Unsplash)

Figure 4: Illustration of various of parts inside a motherboard. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 5: Proposals by Sears for modular homes. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 6: Habitat 67, Montreal. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 7: Oriental Masonic Gardens. (Source: Library of Congress)

Figure 8: Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 9: Stacking of containers as a metaphor for standardisation. Edited by Author. (Source: ForeFrontLog)

Figure 10: Container Stack Pavilion. Edited by Author. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 11: Botanical Pavilion by Penda Architecture. Explores modularity with materiality and multi-functionality. Edited by Author. (Source: Architizer)

Figure 12: Timber Skyscrapers with Modular homes and vertical farming by Precht. Edited by Author. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 13: Zostel Panchgani, India. A hotel made out of shipping containers. Edited by Author. (Source: Make My Trip)

033 035 038 041 044 045 046 048 048 050 051 052 054

Figure 14: Volumetric and Non-Volumetric technology. (Source: Design for Modular Construction: An Introduction for Architects)

Figure 15: Process of manufacturing and assembly. (Source: Design for Modular Construction: An Introduction for Architects)

Figure 16: Huoshenshan Hospital, Wuhan. An entire hospital was constructed in 10 days using prefabricated technology and material during COVID-19. Edited by Author. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 17: Rapid urbanisation in Hong Kong. The image depicts the close clustered residential development that is done due to the high population influx and lack of urban planning.Edited by Author. (Source: Unsplash)

Figure 18: Schedule comparison between modular and traditional methods. (Source: Design for Modular Construction: An Introduction for Architects)

Figure 19: Conditions during design process. (Source: Design for Modular Construction: An Introduction for Architects)

Figure 20: Moshe Safdie experimenting with a module of Habitat 67. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 21: Exploded modules of Habitat 67. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 22: Sectional understanding of Habitat 67. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 23: Habitat 67 elevational view explaining the stacking of modules. Edited by Author. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 24: Habitat 67 elevational view explaining the stacking of modules. Edited by Author. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 25: 3D understanding of the Nagakin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan. (Source: World Architecture)

Figure 26: Capsule Tower plans and sections. (Source: NCSU Libraries)

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Figure 27: Internal view of the modules. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 28: Internal view of the modules. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 29: Nagakin Capsule Tower being decommissioned due to infrastructural issues in the building. Edited by Author. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 30: VAHA Terminal Avenue, Vancouver. (Source: WordPress)

Figure 31: Harvard University Pagliuza Life Lab, United States. (Source: AIA)

Figure 32: Harvard University Pagliuza Life Lab, United States. (Source: Harvard University)

Figure 33: Monte Carlo Grand Prix, Monaco. The small country transforms into a racetrack for a yearly spectacle. The pavilions, stands, pit lanes, paddock are all assembled using modules, weeks before the race. (Source: Soy Motor)

Figure 34: A stadium built in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World Cup using shipping containers. The entire structure can be assembled and disassembled after use. (Source: The Week)

Figure 35: LEGO prototype with multiple functionality. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 36: LEGO prototype with multiple functionality. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 37: LEGO prototype with multiple functionality. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 38: Space and Time. Edited by Author. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 39: House 2 installation, Zurich, Switzerland temporarily serving as a public space under a vehicular bridge. (Source: ArchDaily)

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Figure 40: The materiality of the ephemeral megacity. (Source: Works That Work)

Figure 41: The materiality of the ephemeral megacity. (Source: JAE Online)

Figure 42: The materiality of the ephemeral megacity. (Source: JAE Online)

Figure 43: The Ganesh Chathurthi festival in Mumbai. The whole city is filled with a festive spirit amidst modular and flexible ephemerality. Edited by Author (Source: KSHVID News)

Figure 44: A visually deceiving form of art called OP art. Edited by Author. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 45: Paper “as a module” folding art by Richard Sweeney. (Source: Richard Sweeney)

Figure 46: Illustration of a prototype motherboard. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 47: Illustration of biological systems. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 48: Automobile assembly of a Formula 1 car. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 49: Seasonal variations in biological systems producing physical differences in a same “module”. Edited by Author. (Source: Dreamstime)

Figure 50: ModulArt by Leda Luss Luyken. Each portrait is arranged in multiple ways for different permutations. Edited by Author. (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 51: Lifesize installation of OP art by Marina Apollonio. Edited by Author. (Source: Art Map)

Figure 52: Illustration depicting the multiple components and connections of a motherboard. Edited by Author. (Source: Pinterest)

085 089 089 089 091 095 096 097 099 100 105

Figure 53: Finance center in Shangahi — A building envelope that adapts to the environmental and climatic changes of the region. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 54: Aerodynamic front wing end plate of a formula 1 car that reacts and adapts to the wind flow and speed on race tracks. (Source: Animagraffs)

Figure 55: Graphic explaining how the air intake from the plenum allows for cool air to flow over the engine of the formula 1 car increasing the efficiency. (Source: Animagraffs)

Figure 55: Graphic explaining how the air intake from the plenum allows for cool air to flow over the engine of the formula 1 car increasing the efficiency. (Source: Animagraffs)

Figure 57: The aerodynamic form of a Formula 1 car (SF-75). Edited by Author. (Source: Twitter)

Figure 58: Graphic explaining the connecting factors between what modularity is and can be. (Source: Author)

Figure 59: Modular stacking of residential apartments. Edited by Author. (Source: ETEM)

Figure 60: Modular apartments at 432 Park Avenue Condominiums,New York, United States of America. Edited by Author. (Source: Compass)

Figure 61: Sharifi-ha House, Iran — physically responds to climatic change and variation. (Source: ArchDaily)

Figure 62: Illustration of the Nagakin Capsule Tower in the metaverse. (Source: Dezeen)

Figure 63: Elemental Sagrada Familia. (Source: Author)

Figure 64: Map of Mumbai and neighbouring regions. Edited by Author. (Source: FreePik)

Figure 65: Hall of Nations and Nehur Pavilion by Raj Rewal. Edited by Author. (Source: Divisare)

Figure 66: Building opposite Flora Fountain, Fort, Mumbai. (Source: Unsplash)

Figure 67: Old images of Hutatma Chowk. (Source: Past India)

Figure 68: Old images of Hutatma Chowk. (Source: Live History India)

Figure 69: Old images of Horniman Circle. (Source: Collector Bazaar)

Figure 70: Old images of Horniman Circle. (Source: Pinterest)

Figure 71: Old images of Kalagoda, Fort. (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 72: Old images of Kalagoda, Fort. (Source: Columbia Education)

Figure 73: Installations at Kalaghoda Art Festival (Source: Architectural Digest)

Figure 74: Installations at Kalaghoda Art Festival (Source: Author)

Figure 75 (Source: Author)

Figure 76 (Source: Author)

Figure 77 (Source: Author)

Figure 78 (Source: Author)

Figure 79 (Source: Author)

Figure 80 (Source: Author)

Figure 81 (Source: Author)

Figure 82 (Source: Author)

Figure 83 (Source: Author)

Figure 84 (Source: Author)

Figure 85: Teen Darwaza, Gandhi Road, Manek Chowk, Ahmedabad. Edited by Author. (Source: Unsplash)

Figure 86: Informal and formal markets of Manek Chowk. (Source: Trawell)

Figure 87: Informal and formal markets of Manek Chowk. (Source: Expedia)

Figure 88: Premabhai Hall. (Source: Author)

Figure 89: Madhav Wadi, Dadar East, Mumbai. (Source: Author)

Figure 90: View of the chawl (Source: Author)

Figure 91: Informal shopfronts inside the chawl. (Source: Author)

Figure 92: Informal shopfronts inside the chawl. (Source: Author)

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Figure 93: Bhaucha Dhakka, Mazgaon, India. Edited by Author. (Source: IIT Bombay)

Figure 94: The fish market and Roro ferry terminal at Bhaucha Dhakka. (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 95: The fish market and Roro ferry terminal at Bhaucha Dhakka. (Source: WordPress)

Figure 96: The fish market and Roro ferry terminal at Bhaucha Dhakka. (Source: CN Traveller)

Figure 97: The fish market and Roro ferry terminal at Bhaucha Dhakka. (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 98: Juhu Beach, Mumbai. Edited by Author. (Source: Flickr)

Figure 99: Juhu Beach polluted with garbage and tar primarily caused by the garbage collection of food stalls. (Source: Reddit)

Figure 100: Juhu Beach polluted with garbage and tar primarily caused by the garbage collection of food stalls. (Source: Mumbai Live)

Figure 101: Juhu Beach polluted with garbage and tar primarily caused by the garbage collection of food stalls. (Source: Times of India)

Figure 102: Juhu Beach polluted with garbage and tar primarily caused by the garbage collection of food stalls. (Source: DNA India)

Figure 103: CCI Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Source: CN Traveller)

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Buljac, A., Kozmar, H., & Džijan, I. (2016). Aerodynamic Performance of the Underbody and Wings of an Open-Wheel Race Car. Transactions of FAMENA, 40(2), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.21278/tof.40202

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Wen-Tao, & Song-min. (2021). Rapid Construction of Leishenshan Hospital. Modularization, Standardization and Prefabrication, 1–12. Retrieved from https://covid.uia-architectes.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/ArchitecturalSociety_China_LEISHENSHAN-HOSPITAL_CHINA.pdf

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