Acknowledgements

STRAW, HAY & RUSHES IN IRISH FOLK TRADITION

ANNE O’DOWD

CONTENTS

Foreword 10 Acknowledgements 12 Introduction 16

Chapter 1 24 Spreading rushes in folklore and history Twentieth-century traditions and folklore • Spreading rushes: early historic Ireland Spreading rushes: from the thirteenth to the eighteenth century Rushes and straw: summer and winter • Rushes and straw: magic and belief • Conclusion Catalogue 1 – Straw, rush and bent mats

Chapter 2 50 St Brigid’s crosses Introduction • Types of crosses • Swastika: debate on a form of the cross Hanging the crosses in the home: the lozenge and diamond Continuity: from the festival of St Brigid’s Day to the festival of Lúnasa Spreading straw and making straw objects: comparative traditions in northern Europe Catalogue 2 – St Brigid’s Crosses, Single diamond crosses, Three-armed crosses, Wheel crosses Interlaced crosses, Latin/Greek crosses, Miscellaneous crosses, Hallowe’en crosses, Bratóg Bríde

Chapter 3 80 Folk drama, masking and straw Straw as disguise: Brídeog night • Brídeog: the effigy • An Crios Bríde Straw and May Day • Straw as disguise at Hallowe’en Straw as disguise at Christmas and New Year: mummers Straw as disguise at Christmas: wren boys • Straw and wakes • Straw and weddings • Conclusion Catalogue 3 – Folk drama, masking and straw, Dolls, Straw belts – criosanna, Mummers, Wake weapons, Straw hats and costumes

Chapter 4 134 The last sheaf, the first sheaf and harvest knots The last sheaf • The first sheaf • Harvest knots Catalogue 4 – The last sheaf, the first sheaf and harvest knots, New Year wisp, Harvest knots

Chapter 5 156 Sleeping arrangements and conditions Introduction • Straw in winter and rush in summer Straw and rush bedding and early-nineteenth-century inquiries into poverty in Ireland Sleeping on straw and rushes in the nineteenth century: the societal norm • Straw and rush mattresses Straw and rush mats and bedding: a continuation to the twentieth century • Conclusion Catalogue 5 – Sleeping arrangements and conditions, Mattresses and door liners

Chapter 6 192 Seating Straw and rush seating: from the thirteenth to the eighteenth century Straw seating in the nineteenth century: Ireland and Europe • Seats of coiled and plaited straw Other straw seating • Fashion and tradition • Conclusion Catalogue 6 – Seating

Chapter 7 224 Containers Introduction: containers and organic materials The Richmond National Institution for the Instruction of the Industrious Blind Wickerwork basket-makers in the early twentieth century • The Letterfrack basket-making industry Rush workers: the United Irishwomen and the Irish Country Women’s Association Wicker baskets in the National Museum • Coiled straw work • Three-ply plaited technique Coiling and plaiting: containers for making poitín • Built-up plaiting technique Multi-ply plaiting in rush and straw • Conclusion Catalogue 7 – Containers, Baskets

Chapter 8 266 Containers for hens Hens in tradition • Hens’ nests Catalogue 8 – Containers for hens, Hens’ nests

Chapter 9 294 Containers for fishing: rush and straw fish traps Catalogue 9 – Containers for fishing, Fishing nets

Chapter 10 302 Straw for everyday clothing Coats, belts, leggings and footwear • Hats Catalogue 10 – Straw for everyday clothing, Hats, gloves, boot laces, boots supports and knee bands

Chapter 11 320 Animal restrictions Cattle and the restriction of their movements • Spancel. A back tying between the two hind legs and occasionally the two forelegs or around the body • Tether. A tying between the foreleg and the horn(s) Fetter. A side tying from a fore leg to a hind leg • Tying above the knee of a hind leg Restriction of sheep and goats • Sheep spancel for two fore legs • Sheep fetter from fore to hind leg A tying for two and more sheep or goats • Restricting the movement of horses and donkeys • Conclusion Catalogue 11 – Animal restrictions, Cow tyings, Sheep and goat tyings, Horse, donkey and pig tyings

Chapter 12 362 Carrying loads and produce by road and track The burden rope • The head burden cushion • Back baskets and shoulder baskets Carrying the tiachóg of three-ply plaited rush as a back basket • The carrying basket of built-up plaited straw Pack animals: horses, ponies, donkeys and mules • Saddles and panels, and straddles and panniers, from early historic to nineteenth-century Ireland • The súgán saic and the súgán droma • Collars for traction • Conclusion Catalogue 12 – Carrying loads and produce by road and track: burden ropes, head cushions, saddles and collars, Burden ropes, Head rings, Back baskets and shoulder baskets, Saddles and panels, Straddles and mats, Horse and donkey collars

Chapter 13 412 Building work: shelters and homes Roofs • Mud walls Catalogue 13 – Building work: shelters and homes, Items from thatching

Chapter 14 426 Miscellany Introduction • Compendium • Nineteenth-century Ireland • Straining: including references to straining food Food, other than straining • Nineteenth-century Ireland • Ropes Playthings and swimming aids • Lighting: rushlights and straw torches • Cleaning Catalogue 14 – Miscellany, Ropes and tyings, Playthings, Lighting, Besoms, brushes, scourers and holy water sprinklers

Endnotes 472 Bibliography 512 List of illustrations 526 Index 542