50 Years And Still Going Strong!
Volume 50, Number 8 / August 2019
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Post Office Box 518 / Cottonwood, AZ 86326
The Hopi Pueblo Revolt of 1680 See Page 10
Sally Skull
She Could Out-Shoot and Out-Cuss Any Man in Texas See Page 8
Indians & Dogs Companions In Life And Death See Page 12
Indian Trader Newspaper
The Basics
Collector’s Corner See Page 5
A 1980 painting by Hopi Artist Neal David commemorating the 300-year celebration of the Pueblo Revolt against the Spanish.
November 2015
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THE INDIAN TRADER
August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
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Collector’s Corner – The Basics �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� The Richardsons: Five Generations of Navajo Traders ................................................55 Upcoming Events & Shows �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6 Upcoming Events & Shows ......................................................................................6 The Battle For Seattle ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
Walking Rocks on Land – Maybe When Hell Freezes Over! ......................................8
Sally Skull: She Could Out-Shoot and Out-Cuss Any Man in Texas... ������������������������������������������������������ 8
Premiere Events Highlight the Autumn 2015 Auction & Show Season ....................10
The Hopi Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Against The Spanish... ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
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Indians, Dogs Were Companions In Life And Death Centuries Ago... ����������������������������������������������������� 12 Business Directory ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 Indian Agents ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
Drought and Wildfires Helping Looters Search for Native Artifacts ..........................19 Classifieds ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18 Clay South Phone: (928) 273-2933 Order Form for Classified Ads �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
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THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
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SANDBAR TRADING Pawel Kontny 1923-2002 Titled: Cabezon (New Mexico)
414 South Commerce Street Wichita, Kansas 67202 10 am-5 pm Thursday-Saturday or by Appointment
Buying, Selling and Consigning Rick 316-655-7477 rick@sandbartrading.com www.sandbartrading.com Follow us on Facebook
See us at The Great Southwest Antique Show at the Lujan Center Albuquerque August 2nd, 3rd and 4th.
Downsizing: We are looking for Original Art, Navajo Weavings and Native American Jewelry. We are very easy to talk with. Call Anytime.
The Sandbar Trading & Western Trading Post Show in the El Dorado Hotel DeVargus Room August 15-18th.
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August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
Collector’s Corner
The Basics By Jim Olson
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A few basis things to remember when collecting: • Start small and collect what you like. As you progress, your tastes and knowledge will evolve and refine. • Quality is important. • Things made to be collectible—rarely are. This includes pretty much all kinds of commemorative and mass produced items. • If your “collectible” says “Made in China” or “Made in Taiwan” on it — it’s not a collectible. It is a decor item, or even a cheap knock-off. • There is a difference between collectibles and decor. Decor is rarely collectible, but collectibles can sometimes make great decor. • Things that have survived a long period of time and remain in good condition are generally sought after. • Condition is usually a big factor of value. Restoration is generally not desirable in most collectibles. • Rarity (or uniqueness) is also a big factor of value. Things whereby only a few have survived the test of time, or items that stand apart are generally sought after. • Things do not have to be old to be collectible. Contemporary art by well-known artists is an example. Beware of fads however. • Always deal with knowledgeable and reputable sellers who will stand behind what they sell. At least until you become expert enough to know more about what you are doing and are willing to take a chance if it turns out to be a bad deal.
Buy what appeals to you. Buy what you like. Buy what speaks to your heart. If you are collecting with the hope that eventually it is an investment, get educated and buy the best you can! “Collectible” means different things to different people. There are many “collectors” out there, but at the end of the day, most of their collections would not sell for much if they really needed to sell, or passed on. And that is fine—if you are just collecting for the sake of collecting. It’s kind of like the guy who collected leaves, he really thought he was raking it in! They say the difference between a collector and a hoarder is discrimination. There is a lot of truth in that! An advanced collector will only buy the best they can. But we all have to start somewhere. In the early stages of building a collection, we tend to focus on volume. This is not necessarily a bad thing. It can be a good way to get an education. Speaking of education, it is a good suggestion you learn all you can about the items you are collecting. Talk to reputable dealers and other collectors, join clubs if possible, read books. It is probably better to spend $100 on books about what you are collecting (and actually study them) than it is to go out and buy a $100 item. When you are ready to start making purchases, always try to buy the best you can with what ever funds you feel comfortable spending. “I believe that everyone collects. I think collecting is in our blood as humans,” Lynda Resnick, entrepreneur. Remember, there is more to collecting than just buying items. There is the education aspect as mentioned, the thrill of the hunt, the warm feeling of satisfaction, the camaraderie with other collectors and, if you have collected well, the monetary reward at the end of the day—if you ever need, or want to sell.
“The collector attempts always to acquire the best, and his knowledge of what is best is always widening. His is the task of judging between degrees of perfection,” Arthur Davison Ficke (1883–1945), American poet and collector. Remember, it’s not always about the money. I recently dealt with a man who had a large collection of statues he had collected over a period of many years. He was at the point where he needed to sell them, so he sent them to auction. At the end of the day, his check was for less than he had spent on them over all those years. He was down on himself for “Making a bad investment.” I asked him what he would have done with that money over the years if he had not bought all those statues. He admitted he probably would have just spent it and would not have anything to show for it now. I asked if he had enjoyed having his home decorated with his collection all those years. He affirmed he had. I asked him that if he had gone down to the home decor store and bought generic decorations for his home (likely mass produced in some foreign country), if he thought they would have had any value at auction when he got ready to downsize. He said no, they probably would have just been thrown away or sold for a few bucks at a yard sale. He then looked at it differently and felt there was definitely value in the enjoyment he had gotten from the collecting all those years. The fact he had gotten most of his money back out of them was an added bonus he would have not realized had he just bought home decor instead. On the other hand, there are many folks who bought items and enjoyed them throughout the years, and now, the items have increased greatly in value. Inflation is often our friend in such cases. There are many who have enjoyed collecting over a lifetime and been able to cash in nicely towards the end, when they really could use the money. To some, it is appealing that they get to stare at their “savings” every day right there in their home, rather than have it locked away in a bank somewhere. But you should always collect for the enjoyment of collecting. In the end, the best thing you get to collect is the memories, they are priceless.
August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
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Due to possible website and show date changes, we urge you to verify dates before planning your trip. Thank you. July 20 MUSEUM OF NORTHERN ARIZONA NAVAJO RUG AUCTION R.B. Burnham, Auctioneer Flagstaff, Arizona Info @ 928-774-5211
August 9-12 41ST WHITE HAWK INDIAN ART SHOW Santa Fe Community Center Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 505-988-9544
July 20 SMOKI MUSEUM CONSIGNMENT MARKET Prescott, Arizona Info @ 928-445-1230
August 10-11 ALLARD AUCTIONS BEST OF SANTA FE Santa Fe Scottish Rite Temple-Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 888-314-0343
July 20-21 26TH ANNUAL HOWARD COUNTY POW WOW West Friendship Fairgrounds West Friendship, Maryland Info @ 252-532-0821 or powwow@vance.net August 2-4 SANDBAR TRADING@THE GREAT SOUTHWEST ANTIQUE SHOW Lujan Building, Albuquerque Fairgrounds Albuquerque, New Mexico Info @ 316-655-7477 August 2-4 GREAT SOUTHWESTERN ANTIQUE SHOW Lujan Center, Exhibition New Mexico Fairgrounds Albuquerque, New Mexico Info @ 505-255-4054 August 8-11 OBJECTS OF ART IN THE RAILYARD El Museo Cultural de Santa Fe Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ objectsofartshows.com August 9-11 24th ANNUAL MIHSIHKINAAHKNA POW WOW Morsches Park Columbia City, Indiana Inf @ 260-486-8199 Pat
August 13-16 ANTIQUE AMERICAN INDIAN ART SHOW IN THE RAILYARD El Museo Cultural de Santa Fe Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ objectsofartshows.com August 14-18 R.B. BURNHAM NATIVE TREASURES SHOW El Dorado Pavilion Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 928-688-2777 August 15-18 WESTERN TRADING POST and SANDBAR TRADING At the Eldorado (Devargus Room) Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 520-426-7702 August 15-18 WESTERN TRADING POST At the Eldorado (Devargus Room) Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 520-426-7702 (Next auction in Casa Grande will be on September 7, 2019)
August 17-18 SANTA FE INDIAN MARKET Santa Fe, New Mexico Info @ 505-983-5220
Do you have an Event or Show coming up? Please let us know at indiantrader68@gmail.com
The Battle For Seattle In 1855, Seattle was a fledging town, with 30 houses and 50 white residents, most of whom made a living in the thriving lumber business. Their only concern about the future was the fear of Indians. While the local Dwamish Indians were peaceful, other tribes in Washington Territory bitterly resented the white settlers, or “Bostons,” as they called them after their New England origins. All through the summer of 1855, rumors circulated that hostile Indians, including the Yakima’s and Klikitats were planning to reclaim land by massacring settlers. By October, it seemed wise to take precautions. A volunteer force was formed, a blockhouse was built, and the U.S. Navy sent the sloop-of-war Decatur to Elliot Bay. To announce its arrival, recalled Emily Denny, who had been a child at the time, Decatur “fired off the guns making thunderous reverberations far and wide, a sweet sound to the settlers.” On January 26, 1856, friendly Indians warned them that hostile bands were indeed about to attack. Decatur’s captain sent 96 sailors and 18 marines ashore. The party fired a howitzer into the woods, the Indians responded with muskets and the fight for Seattle was underway. The townspeople, who were either asleep or at breakfast when the battle began, hurried to the fort. One man was so rattled, Emily Denny remembered, that he tried to pull on his wife’s petticoat instead of his trousers. Emily’s mother was more cool-headed: she took some biscuits from the oven and put them into her apron on her way out the door. The fight continued all day, with Decatur’s guns booming out reassuring broadsides. By evening, the warriors had suffered a significant number of casualties while the settlers lost just two men; then the Indians retreated. Decatur remained on guard through the next summer; but in the face of such firepower, the Indians never again challenged Seattle’s beginnings.
THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
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Sally Skull
continued from page 11
collection of his body of work ever assembled for public viewing. This show continues to grow every year and is one of the top national antique events of its kind. Due to its Southwest location, the show traditionally has a unique American flavor By Richardheavily W. Kimball leaning on early American arts & crafts, Native American, western fine art and ethnographic art, but with some Sally Skull was probably theoffered most notorious in Texas 200 dealers in attendance, it also items for frontier everyonewoman – historythe andfirst wastime not one to to trifle She buyer had two from buyer thewith. veteran andsix-shooters serious in her gun belt and a well Bowie knife. decorators Her years working as a teamster had collectors. Evenhidden the very famous and interior sharpened her skill with a black leather bullwhip. She also designers attend the show, seeking just the right touch to createconcealed two French pistolssouthwest in the folds of hermotif split skirt. the “perfect” or native for their clients. Although Sally would up at also dances wearing a dress, her usual attire This year, as in the past,show the show drew representatives from many the major international and domestic clothingto ride astride was that of aofworking man. That was because she preferred and jewelry designers and Cowboys & Indians instead of side-saddle liketheir mostbuyers. females. She wore rawhidehad leggings to work something for everybody. in heavy brush, often with a buckskin shirt and jacket. At other times, she show’s general admission thisthe ankles with wore Proceeds chibarrosfrom (longthe bloomer-like garments thatcustomers were tied at year supportedThey the show’s beneficiaries, VSAor Arts of New drawstrings). wereadditional usually made of rawhide coarse canvas material. Mexico, University of New Mexico’s Popejoy Hall SchoolTime Historian Dan Kilgore said a “sun bonnet was her only bow to femininity Series Theroad.” Albuquerque Museum’s Magic Bus Program. while and on the Sally was born in Pennsylvania in 1817, the fifth child of Joseph and Rachel Newman, and was christened Sarah Jane on Newman. continued page 14The entire family moved to Texas as colonists under the leadership of Steven F. Austin. She
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She Could Out-Shoot and Out-Cuss Any Man in Texas
obtained her name— Sally Skull—when she married her second husband, George Scull. She changed the “c” in her new last name to a “k” because it suited her lifestyle better. It was a name she used for the rest of her life. Her mother, Rachel, set an example for the young girl to follow. During an attack by Comanche Indians on their cabin, a warrior tried to pry the door off its hinges. His feet were under the opening at the bottom of the door. Rachel lost no time trying to decide what to do. She grabbed a nearby hatchet and chopped off the toes. When another Indian tried to enter the cabin by coming through the chimney, Rachel set a feather pillow on fire and threw it into the hearth. The choking smoke discouraged any more attempts by the savages. Sally met her first husband, Jesse Robinson, during an attack on the settlement by Tawakoni and Waco Indians. When Robinson’s militia drove off the Indians after a fierce fight, the young man won the girl’s heart. Sally Terri and her son he withwas her twice grandson, was only 16 in 1833, when sheSchurmeier married Robinson; her Mac, age. CEO and Chairman of the Cowboys & Robinson Indians empire. After taking part infuture the last battle of the Texas Revolution, was granted a parcel of land for his military service. The couple later settled on that parcel located near Gonzales, Texas. Their tumultuous marriage lasted for about ten years. Robinson was away from home for most of the time, serving as a volunteer soldier, a ranger and a militiaman and was with Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto. Although they had two children—Nancy and Albert—Jesse sued for divorce in 1843, claiming that Sally was “a scold, a termagant and adulterous.” Sally claimed he was cruel and abusive and had wasted the inheritance she had brought into the marriage. The divorce was granted and the property was divided equally although the children were not mentioned in the settlement. Sally married again two weeks after the divorce was finalized. This time, to a mild-mannered gunsmith named George Scull. The marriage ceremony was held March17, 1843. Sally and George sold off their real property and left the area, taking her children with them. The children were taken to New Orleans where they were put in a convent school. When Jesse Robinson
THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
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tracked them down, he took them away and placed them in another convent school. But Sally found them and put them into another convent school. Sally and George lived together for about ten years, after which he disappeared from records. No one actually knows what happened to him. According to records filed in Wharton County, she had declared herself to be a single woman and that George was deceased. It was then that she decided to keep her married name of Scull, only she changed the spelling to Skull. By 1850, Sally Skull had bought some land near Banquette Creek in Nueces County, 20 miles west of Corpus Christi. Together with some of her own relations, Sally soon established a horse-trading and cattle-ranching enterprise. Sally bought horses from people she knew in Mexico and sold them along the Texas gulf coast to as far away as New Orleans. She paid for the horses with gold she carried in a nose bag hanging from her saddle horn. The chance of anyone trying to take that gold was negligible. By that time, everyone knew she was a woman who had a reputation as an unrepentant killer. Most folks believe she had killed at least 30 men, although that number has never been proven. However, she probably would not have hesitated to add a few more victims to the total. Sally often worked as a mule-skinner and often turned the air blue with her swearing. In fact, she could probably out-curse any man in Texas. There was that time when Sally and her Mexican vaqueros were hauling some freight down to Mexico that they came upon a preacher whose little two-horse buggy was stuck in mud. The poor man kept slapping the reins on the horses’ backs, but they would not bulge. When Sally came upon the scene, she let out a series of oaths that would make a sailor blush and the preacher’s team started up immediately and took the buggy down the road. A few minutes later, the buggy was mired again. The preacher got out of his buggy and ran back to Sally. “Lady,” he said, “would you please come back and speak to my horses again?” Sally Skull married John Doyle in October of 1852. Like George Scull, Doyle seemed to disappear from her life a few short years later. There were several theories regarding his demise. One speculated that Doyle, tired of her volatile temper, had tried to kill her from ambush, but his aim was bad. So she shot him dead in selfdefense. Another theory went this way—after a night of drink and dancing in Corpus Christi saloons, the two decided to stay in a hotel overnight. In the morning, Doyle tried to awaken his wife by pouring cold water over her head. She woke up with a start, pulled out her pistol and shot poor Doyle in the face. “It was an accident,” she explained. In 1855, Sally met and married husband #4 whose name was Isaiah Wadkins. The marriage lasted only a few months. Sally sued for divorce, claiming that Wadkins often beat her bloody. Once, she said, he dragged her by her hair across rocky ground for at least 200 yards. She also told the court that he was secretly seeing another woman named Juanita. The divorce was granted on the grounds of cruelty and adultery. Husband #5 was a young man named Christopher Hordsdoff. He was much younger than Sally—she was 43; he was 21. Hordsdoff was a rather strange man whose friends called him “Horse Trough.” One man characterized Horse Trough as being “not much good, mostly he just stood around.” Others called him “a scoundrel without redemption.” When the Civil War started, Sally found a new way to make money by hauling bundles of Texas cotton to Mexico. European manufacturers, dependent upon cotton from North America for the textile industry, soon found their sources dried up because Union warships were blockading Confederate ports in the East. Sally Skull, eager to help the Confederacy in any way she could, soon started bringing Texas cotton into Matamoros, Mexico, where it was loaded on ships bound for Europe. It was a good money-making scheme because those ships returned with loads of arms and other military supplies back to Mexico, which in turn, was smuggled back into Texas. Since she could speak flawless Spanish, she hired Mexican laborers to help move the cotton south by wagon train. Her Mexican teamsters were always amazed by the tough white woman whose cuss words could “scald the hide off a dog.” Along with her volatile temper and the cracks of her legendary bull-whip, they always held her in great esteem. Sally’s marriage to Hordsdoff eventually ended tragically too. It was reported that Sally and her husband had been seen riding out of town together, but only one came back. It was Horse Trough. When asked what happened to Sally, all he would say was, “She simply disappeared.” Rumors ran rampant. One speculated that Hordsdoff “blew the top of her head off with a shotgun” because he wanted the gold she always carried with her in a nose bag tied to her saddle. A few days later, a drifter rode into town with some unusual news. He said he had been traveling from town to town when he noticed some buzzards circling around in the sky. When he went to investigate, he discovered a boot sticking up out of the ground. Upon closer inspection, he figured that it probably belonged to the body of a woman who was buried there in a shallow grave. But did that body belong to Sally Skull? No one knows what really happened to her. The last time anyone heard anything about her was during a court trial for perjury in Goliath, Texas. The court’s records indicated that she was indicted on May 4, 1866 and acquitted on May 11. After the trial was over, she seemed to just disappear.
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August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
The Hopi Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Against The Spanish As told by Hopi artist Michael Kabotie years ago (now deceased)
the Bluebird Clan took under the care a young lady from the Sacred Bear Clan who was heavy with child. Removing her from the main village corrupted with the influence of the Spanish and the violence of the Pueblo Rebellion, the Bluebird Clan cared for her until the child was born. At birth the child was baptized in the true Hopi way at the break of day and at an early age became the symbolic leader of the rebirth and revitalization of the Hopi Way. The Bear Clan again became the undisputed Spiritual Leaders followed by the Kachina Clans. Hopi religious societies were restored and Society Priesthoods appointed as ceremonies and dances once again performed without threat and punishment. Elders could again sit in meditation and prayer-sessions to bless life and the Hopi Way and once again the Hopi values began to administer to the daily lives of the Hopis.
A runner talking to some village Elders about the upcoming revolt. Pen and ink by Neal David.
It was the Spiritual leader Po’pay, A Tewa Indian, from the Pueblo of Oke’Oweenge who directed the revolution against the Spanish in 1680. During his leadership the Spanish authorities found him to be a strong believer and practicerner of his Native way. He was often publicly punished along with other religious Elders in the Plaza. After much abuse and violence he had to leave his beloved Pueblo of Oke’Oweenge, now named San Juan Pueblo about 30 miles north of Santa Fe, New Mexico. He journeyed to Taos Pueblo about 40 miles north of Oke’Oweenge and there established his headquarters in planning his action against the Spanish. His initial call for independence was not answered by all the Pueblos, among them the Hopi living on the western boundaries of the Pueblo Empire. Only after living many more years under the abuse and violence of the Spanish were most of the Pueblos convinced that Po’Pays call for revolution was inevitable. Runners were sent out again and again until the majority of the Pueblo leaders agreed to support the revolution. On August 8, 1680, Po’pays messengers began the long marathon from Taos carrying the message of the revolution to the various Pueblos along the Rio Grande River and as far west as the Hopi Empire. The messengers carried the knotted strings to synchronize the date of the rebellion. Every morning one knot was untied until the last was untied and on that date all of the Pueblos from Oraibi to Taos would raise in arms against the Spanish. But on August 9th two Tewa Tesuque youth messengers, Catua and Omtua, were captured by the Spanish and were the first to die for the cause. All the other Pueblos were advised immediately to up the date by one and thus the rebellion took place August 10th. The message and the adjusted date was quickly spread and the Hopi made their armed rebellion on the same date as their Rio Grande cousins to the east.
RECONQUEST Twelve years later in 1692, DeVargas with his army of heavily armed men entered the Rio Grande Pueblo Empire, and with full vengeance fell upon our brothers and sisters to the east. The Tewa, Tano and other Tribes began to migrate among the Hopi telling of the horrors of the vengeance of the Spanish. During this time many of the villages which were located in strategically weak areas of the mesas began to make their relocations to the mesa tops. Mishongnovi, Shungopavy and Walpi moved from the lower areas of the mesas and made new locations on the tops of the mesas. Shipaulavi was established as a colony of Shungopavy, and represented by all the important Clans from Shungopavy. It was referred to as “The Seed Village”, in case the Spanish were to eliminate the Hopi. It would be the “Seed People” of Shipaulavi who would rekindle the Hopi Way. General DeVargas visited the Hopi Villages in November 1692 and reopened the Mission Saint Bernard de Awatovi, the hated symbol of suppression and dominance. THE HOPI REVOLT Remembering the cruelties and abuse suffered at the hands of the Spanish, the Hopi once again united and with their new allies from the Rio Grande Pueblos attacked Awatovi on a November night in 1700. This second Hopi Rebellion put Awatovi and its San Bernardo Mission into oblivion forever. The women folks and children were distributed among the other Hopi villages to be taught the teachings of the Hopi Way. Once again, the threat of Spain was neutralized and the Hopi continued. In 1776, 96 years after the Pueblo Revolt, Father Francisco Garces visited the Hopi Mesas and found himself at Old Oraibi on July 4th. On that very day that the representatives of a new American Nation were proclaiming their independence in Philadelphia, the Hopi were re-affirming the Hopi Way with a Kachina Dance, who still prevail today. Many thanks to Neil David and Ron Pecina who collaborated on the book “Neil David’s Hopi World,” and for letting us use their paintings.
THE PUEBLO REBELLION On the Hopi mesas four lone Franciscan Padres awoke that historic date to be surrounded by the warrior sectors of the Hopi. In Awatovi, the lone Padre Fray Jose de Figueroa of Father Concepcion was killed and the mission Dan Bernardo de Awatovi burned and torn down. In Shungopavy at the Mission of San Bartolome, warriors from the village of the Mishongnovi of the Squash Clan hung and burned Dray Jose de Trujillo, and tore down the mission. Shungopavy under the Priesthood leadership of the Sacred Bear Clan did not believe in violence and thus asked Mishongnovi Squash Clan to carry out the mission of eliminating the Padre. In Oraibi, at the Mission of San Francisco, Fray Jose Espeleta and Fray Augustine de Santa Maria were awakened and killed by the Kachina Yuwee, who during certain ceremonies still holds the scalp of the Frayers on his lance. Again, the mission was destroyed, ending the Spanish and Catholic rule among the Hopi. REBIRTH OF THE HOPI WAY Immediately following the rebellion, steps were taken to insure the rebirth of the Hopi way. In the village of Shungopavy, the Mother village of the Hopi,
Hopi warriors and Kachina killing a Catholic priest during the revolt. Pen and ink by Neal David.
THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
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August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
Indians, Dogs Were Companions In Life And Death Centuries Ago The close, personal bonds between humans and their dogs date back centuries in California, according to new archaeological research that illuminates the relationship between Central Valley Indian tribes and their dogs. The evidence: Central Valley Indians buried their dogs carefully and with ceremony. People and their dogs were often buried together, curled up side-by-side. Indian dogs were working animals. They defended the village by warning of intruders and helped procure food by chasing game during hunts. They were also family pets, as shown by the respect with which they were buried, said Paul Langenwalter, a professor of archaeology and anthropology at Biola University in La Mirada. He has examined dog skeletons dating back to the 1700s. “There are no pet cemetery areas, and we don’t find the dog burials on campsites or any place where there aren’t human burials,” said Langenwalter, who specializes in human and dog relationships among California tribes. “They were buried with the people.” Langenwalter presented his research in Sacramento in March of 2011 at the annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology. More than 3,000 experts from around the world attended the conference, which was open to the public. His research contradicts older findings on the dog-Indian relationship. Renowned UC Berkeley anthropologist Alfred Kroeber, for example, concluded in 1941, that Indian dogs were “variously got rid of without formality.” Langenwalter’s presentation focused on most recent research at burial sites in Calaveras and Merced counties that were home to the Miwok and Yakut, respectively. The burial sites he studied, as well as others in California, show that Indians had a standard practice for burying their dogs: They were always buried in a “curled up” position as though sleeping, and the location was often marked by a rock cairn.
Langenwalter’s research into historical accounts of Europeans’ contact with California tribes also shed light on these relationships. Dogs, he said, were buried in the sleeping position as a way of transporting them to the spirit world. “Some people had very warm relationships with their animals,” Langenwalter said. Debra Grimes, a Miwok Indian and cultural preservation specialist for the California Valley Miwok Tribe, agreed that Indians historically buried a dog with respect. “It is a family member to the tribal people,” Grimes said.She also agreed with Langenwalter about another common practice: When Indians died, their dogs would be sacrificed and buried with them. The practice is consistent with a larger pattern of property destruction when people died. Often their house and other belongings would be burned. The belief was that a person’s property should join him in the spirit world. But Grimes and Langenwalter disagree about how dogs were sacrificed. Langenwalter said it was often done by crushing the dog’s skull with a heavy object. He has unearthed many skulls with that kind of damage. Grimes said Indians fed the dog a poisonous plant. Village chiefs or medicinal leaders often had their own dog, she said. These dogs didn’t mix with other dogs in the tribe but spent all their time with their owner, and often were trained to find medicinal plants by smell. Langenwalter said burial evidence indicates tribes kept both small and large dogs. Terrier-sized dogs were used to chase small game, such as squirrels and rabbits. A larger type, generally about 4 inches taller at the shoulder, was used to chase and corner larger game, including deer. Many of these dogs showed a “significant number” of healed bone breaks, he said, possibly from being kicked by deer.
THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
Mandan Indians using two dogs to drag a toboggan on the frozen Missouri River. Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress.
There was one circumstance in which dogs were eaten, Langenwalter said; to offer visitors food during ceremonies. When visitors arrived, he said, the host tribe’s pet or working dogs would be tied up in a hut or other shelter, and a second group of dogs would be let out into the village. Visitors would be allowed to kill and eat these dogs, and the dogs’ owners would be compensated. He speculates this was done so visitors would not use up the host tribe’s food supply. Grimes agreed that this occurred but said it was for different reasons. Dogs were offered primarily to women as a special “power” food, such as during marriage or birth ceremonies, she said. “We don’t have to use the canines like we did before,” she said. “We’re very thankful we can have them just as our pets and family now, and not have to utilize them as working dogs and not sacrifice them in a spiritual way.”
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August 2019 THE INDIAN TRADER
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THE INDIAN TRADER August 2019
Page 17
Indian Agents The only important civilian official most Native Americans in the West ever saw was the Indian Agent, whose post was created in President Washington’s day. Twelve agencies were set up in 1834 and put under the Department of the Interior in 1849. The agent provided the federal government with what little it asked to know about Indians and represented the Great White Father out in the wilds. Often, with only his wife, a sub agent, and an interpreter to help him, a representative had to handle Indian relations over hundreds of square miles and also aid any whites passing through. A good agent would recruit a farmer and teacher, and his outpost would become a dot of civilization in the wilderness: log homes and an office; warehouses, a smithy, and farm buildings; a school and council houses; corn and potato fields; orchards and farm animals. He had to journey far among the tribes for powwows and entertain any Indians who came to the agency for talks. He won tribal friendships by giving the chiefs medals, flags and supplies, feeding their people in times of need, and sending presents to their families when they died. He tried—usually in vain—to keep white poachers from encroaching on Indian lands and white traders from selling liquor to Indians. Equally unsuccessful was his attempt to vaccinate Indians and teach them farming (they resisted both). He fined any foreigner found trading furs without a permit and tried to punish Indians who harmed whites. He also took a census, enforced the stipulations of U.S.—Indian treaties, and distributed annuities to the tribes. Page Unfortunately, 20 most agents were dishonest, arranging for kickbacks from traders and pocketing annuity money, but a few were incorruptible. Lawrence Taliaferro, the agent at Fort
Group of Coyetero Apaches and their agent, at Camp Apache, Arizona. Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress. Snelling, Minnesota, spent more than $1,000 of his own money to buy supplies for the tribes. After he retired, Sioux chiefs visited him, and Little Crow said: “My old Father, we love you; we respect you…Since you left us, a dark cloud has hung over our nation…We know your heart.” With a largely indifferent government thousands of miles away in Washington, D.C., the qualified and dedicated agents could really achieve little with the resources given them. 2015 were THEoften INDIAN TRADER Reservation lands were typically poor, and suppliesAugust and equipment inappropriate, outdated or in disrepair.
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