Based on :
Tanta Handbook of Behavioral Sciences for Medical Students By Staff Members of Neuropsychiatry Department Tanta Faculty of Medicine
Only on : Wa7eed Medical Libraries
Please Study : Neurobiological basis of behavior Human development across life span Socio-cultural impact on behavior Clinical neuropsychological testing psychological reactions to illness Admission to hospital Chronic sickness & disability Human sexuality
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MEMORY • Definition : Ability to revive past experiences ( Power of retaining , producing mental & sensory impressions ) . • Storage of memory is done in 3 ways : 1- Immediate memory ( sensory store ) : Retention lasts less than a second . It is more related to attention . 2- Short-term memory ( primary memory ) : Retention is limited to 15 - 30 seconds . It is for current use ( working memory ) with limited capacity of 7 “ bits ” at one time , which must be repeated to be retained for several minutes or it will be lost or replaced by another one . The center of the verbal working memory is in the left hemisphere , while the nonverbal in the right hemisphere . 3- Long-term memory (secondary memory ) : Retention may lasts for few minutes or extends to long decades ago . It means remembering information after a delay or shutting information out of one's target . Information retained without repeating ( extraordinary capacity ) , e.g. ; names . • Types of Memory : I- Declarative ( explicit ) memory : for conscious awareness . It is fast and flexible but not reliable and subjected to forgetting . can be divided into : a- Episodic memory : related to a particular place and time , e.g. ; Ask for breakfast or hearing a bad news . To remember , you must regard the time and place of the original events . b- Semantic memory : related to knowledge , not linked to a particular time or place , e.g. ; Ask for definitions or alphabets . No need for time or place of original events . II- Non-declarative ( implicit ) memory : not for conscious awareness . It is slow and inflexible , but rapidly expressed by the system involved in learning . It is quite reliable , true & performancerelated memory , e.g. ; skill-related memory and classic conditioning . can be divided into : a- Procedural memory : automatic & performed without conscious attention , e.g. ; behaviors as tying a shoe , riding a bicycle or driving a car . b- Conditioning : classic condition g ( What you was in a past event ) . c- Priming : A phenomenon in which previous experience with a stimulus unconsciously facilitates the subject’s ability to later identify those stimuli . • Anterograde Versus Retrograde Memory Anterograde memory means ability to recall or recognize new information, e.g. ; the way to bathroom or day past events . while Retrograde memory means ability to recall or recognize past information .
• Recent Versus Remote memory Retrograde memory is either recent or remote . Recent memory is information acquired recently . It is more disrupted than remote memory . Remote memory is information acquired years before . • Requirements for memory ; 5 1- Registration : adding new materials to memory stores . 2- Retention : storing knowledge that can be returned . 3- Retrieval : The capacity to obtain stored materials from memory ( Recall or Recognition ) . 4- Recall : Remembering information into consciousness ( no object present ) . 5- Recognition : Feeling of familiarity of object that is present . • Centers of Memory : 1- The medial temporal lobe : the hippocampus and the amygdale . 2- The diencephalon : dorsal medial nuclei of the thalamus and the mammillary body . 3- The basal forebrain . • Strategies to enhance retention and recall : 1- Improve encoding ( Intelligent memorizing ) : ensure information understood ( Scheme ) , make information meaningful , make information interesting ( rhythm ) , go into the subject more deeply . 2- Improve storage : rehearse information , repeated learning of a subject . 3- Improve retrieval : encourage frequent recall ( Revision ) .
Forgetting • Definition : -ve aspect of Retention , opposite of Memory . • Rate : Gradual loss of retention , but it is more rapid in the 1st. hour . • Theories of forgetting : 1-Trace decay theory : gradual decay of the memory traces ( by time ) . 2- Interference theory : previous learning interferes with recent learning & vice versa .
3- Cue-dependent forgetting : Absence of a suitable cue blinds Retrieval . 4- Repression : conscious effort to forget unpleasant information ( Unconscious defense mechanism ). 5- Mood-state-dependent forgetting : Mood status must be optimum for retention . 6- Disuse . • Memory span : Number of items of specified character that can be correctly reproduced immediately after their first presentation ( visual or auditory) . Normal children 4 - 6 years have a span of about 4 items , increase to 6 - 8 items at 18 years . It differs according to intelligence . Memory span of average persons, 6-8 items is respected and not exceeded in common use , e.g. ; telephone numbers and automobile numbers . If there is a need to increase it , items of different natures are used , e.g. ; letters . • Disorders of Memory : I- Decreased or lost ( amnesia ) : Anterograde amnesia : inability to learn new information , due to normal aging ( cerebral atherosclerosis ) which called : Alzheimer , and also due to early dementia . Retrograde: amnesia : for past events ; due to late dementia . Circumscribed amnesia : a gap in memory ; caused by head trauma ( concussion ) and dissociative disorders ( somnambulism , schizophrenia or hysteria ) . II- Increased ( hypermnesia ) : life events registered with more than usual intensity , may be normal ( Genius ) or occurs in hypomania and paranoia III- Distortion of memory ( Paramnesia ) : a. Confabulation : filling a gap in memory by false details ( fabrication of memories ) . b. Falsification : adding false details to normal memory . c. Déjà vu : feeling of familiarity of new situations . d. Jamais vu : feeling of strangeness of familiar situations . e. Misnaming of objects : momentary loss of memory for words , due to faulty retrieval from memory stores .
• Psychological terms : - Memorizing : A sort of controlled learning of certain topics with intension of retaining them . - Retention : Persisting after-effect of any learnt material . May be ; Recall or Recognition . - Recall : remembering something not presented to senses at time of remembering . - Recognition : remembering something presented to senses at time of remembering . - Relearning : remembering the optimal level of performance something learned before .
• Psychological glossary :
Revive
ﻳﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻲ
Retention
ﺣﻔﻆ
Declarative
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺟﺎﻋﻬﺎ
Anterograde
ﺣﺪﻳﺜﺔ
Conditioning
ﺷﺮﻁ
Priming
ﺑﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ
Retrograde
ﻗﺪﻳﻤﺔ
Retrieval
ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺟﺎﻉ
Recall
ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﻋﺎﺀ
Recognition
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮُّﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ
Encoding
ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ
Mania
ﻫﻮﺱ
Hypomania
ﻫﻮﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺡ
Paranoia
ﺟﻨﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﺔ
Confabulation
ﻓﺒﺮﻛﺔ
Déjà vu Phenomenon
ﻇﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﻟﻔﺔ
.. ﻭﺍﺳﻤﻚ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﺃﻧﺎ ﻋﺮﻓﺘُﻪ، ﺑِـ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ.. ﺑِـ ﻧﺘﺮﺟﱠﺎﻙ، ﻳﺎ ﺷﺎﻳﻞ ﻣـ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺣِﺘﱠﺔ.. ﻛﻤﺎﻟﺘُﻪ ﻣﻌﺎﻙ، ﻳﺎ ﺧﺎﻟﻖ ﻛُﻞ ﺷﺊ ﻧﺎﻗﺺ .. ﻭﺗﺮﺿﻴﻨﺎ ﺑِـ ﻣﺎ ﺟﺒﺘُﻪ، ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﻮﺟﻨﺎﺵ ﻟﹻ ﺟﺂﻱ ﻣﺎ ﺟﺂﺵ.. ﻭﺗﻜﻔﻴﻨﺎ ﺑِـ ﻣﺎ ﺳﺒﺘُﻪ، ﺗﺴﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﻳﻜﻔﱢﻴﻨﺎ ١٠٠ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺗﻔﺮﺍﻧﻴﻞ
Thinking & Problem Solving • Definition : - Mental activity for problem solving & certain behavior in problematic situation . - Mental activity of manipulation of mental representations of information . * Representations : words , visual images , sound , data or any sensory model . * These representations transformed ( by thinking ) into new forms of information for ; goal reaching , problem solving or question answering . • Mental image : Representations in the mind of an object or event. It is a way to improve various skills , e.g. ; many athletes use mental imaginary in their training ; they visualize themselves playing , hearing the noise , seeing the basket . • Concepts ( categorizing the world ) : Categorization of objects , events or people shared commonly . They organize complex phenomena into ., e.g. ; Someone tapping a handheld screen is described as using some kind of computers even if we have never encountered that screen before . • Prototypes : Typical highly representative examples concepts corresponding to mental images , e.g. ; a pigeon is a prototype of the concept bird , Cars and trucks are prototypes of vehicles while elevators are not .
So This is a bird ( Concept ) , this bird is a pigeon ( Prototype ) . • Problem Solving : There are 3 steps for problem solving : I- Preparation : Understand the problem , Pay attention to any restrictions . Problems may be well-defined ( mathematical or jigsaw puzzle ) , or ill-defined ( how to bring peace to the middle east region ) . II- Production : Generating solutions , & common heuristics . a- The solution may be easy , stored in long-term memory . b- Trial and Error : A problem-solving strategy in which several solutions are attempted until one is found that works . c- Means-ends analysis : Find actions ( means ) reducing the gap between the current starting point and goal ( ends ) . d- Working backward : Start at goal state , move toward starting point . e- Searching for analogies : A similarity between the problem & another solved before . f- Breaking a big problem into smaller problems . g- Insight : A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another . III- Judgment : evaluating the solution , To decide whether alternative solutions is best .
•Obstacles to Thinking : 1- Overconfidence : Tendency to be more confident than correct . 2- Framing : Affect significantly decisions and judgments , e.g. ; What is the best way to market ground beef, as 25% fat or 75% lean ? 3- Belief Bias : One’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning . 4- Belief Perseverance : Clinging to one’s belief in spite of being discredited . • Creativity : Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways . * Factors important for creativity : 1- Divergent thinking : Ability to generate unusual responses to a question ( Outside the box ) . While Convergent thinking : Ability to produce responses based on knowledge and logic . 2- Cognitive complexity : Preference for complex stimuli and thinking pattern . • Subjective versus Objective thinking : Subjective thinking ( egocentric ) is related to the self. Objective thinking is logical not biased , not self- centered and deals with realistic external reasonable data . • Autistic versus realistic thinking : Autistic thinking is imaginative , fantastic , unrealistic , wish fulfilling and not directed towards any goal . Realistic thinking is controlled , rational , purposeful , directed and confirming with real facts . • Abstract versus concrete thinking : Abstraction means giving the meaning that stands behind the words or sentences ( as in poets ) . Concrete thinking means giving the literal meaning of the words or sentences and not going beyond that level . The ability of abstraction is lost in schizophrenics and it is detected by asking the patient to explain any famous proverb ( proverb test ) . • Conscious versus unconscious thinking : Sometimes we think without we know that we do . Sometimes the solution of a problem suddenly comes to mind without we are thinking of or comes after awaking from sleep . • Disorders of thinking : I- Disorders of stream : - Hurried stream : as circumstantialities with excessive unnecessary details and flights of ideas in which thinking changes from one extreme to another ( in : Genius persons or Mania ) . - Slow stream : - Retarded : Poverty of thoughts ; dull persons . - Blocked : Schizophrenia . II- Disorders of form : loosening of association , incoherence , word salad and neologism ( new language formed by the patient ) .
III- Disorders of content : - Delusions : false fixed belief of persecution , reference , influence or grandeur . - Obsessions : Compulsory repeated thought or action . - Preoccupation . - Passivity . - Pseudo philosophical thoughts . IV- Disorders of possession : - Thought withdrawal from mind . - Thought insertion into mind . - Thought broadcasting to others . • Psychological terms : - Reasoning : A process by which information is used to draw conclusions & make decisions . - An algorithm : A rule that if applied appropriately guarantees the success of a solution to a certain problem ( Mathematical rules ) . - A Heuristics : A rule that can guide you to a solution of a problem , enhance the likelihood of success but can't guarantee success ( You can follow a tactic while playing a game , it can increase the chance of success , but it doesn't guarantee winning ) . • Psychological glossary :
Concepts
ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ
Categorization
ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ
Prototypes
ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ
An algorithm
ﻟﻮﻏﺎﺭﻳﺘﻢ
Heuristics ( £ he-uri-stiks )
ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ
Insight
ﺑﺼﻴﺮﺓ
Divergent
ﻣُﺸﺘﱠﺖ
Abstraction
ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁ
.. ﺃﻭﻝ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ، ﺃﻧﺎ ﻓﺎﻛﺮ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻫﺘﺎﻑ.. ﻓﻲ ﻋﺰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺩ، ﺃﻧﺎ ﻓﺎﻛﺮ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻧﻮﻣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺳﻔﻠﺖ.. " ﺃﻧﺎ ﻓﺎﻛﺮ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻳﺎﻓﻄﺔ ﺑِـ ﺧﻂ ﺍﻻﻳﺪ " ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﻳُﺮﻳﺪ .. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻋُﻤﺮﻫُﻢ.. ً ﻳﺎ ﻗُﺒﻮﺭ ﻟﻤﱢﺖ ﺷﺒﺎﺑﺎ.. ًﻛﻮﻧﻲ ﺑﺮﺩﺍً ﻭﺳﻼﻣﺎ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺍﻧﻲ – ﺿﺤﻜﺔ ﻃﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺂﺷﻴﺮﺓ
Intelligence • Definition : - The capacity to understand the world , think rationally and use resources effectively when faced with challenges . - The Ability to learn , profit experiences & behave with foresight . • Theories of intelligence : I- Two factor theory ( Spearman 1927 ) : Intelligence can be decomposed into 2 components : one is common to all cognitive tasks ( general knowledge e.g. ; art ) called ; g factor , & the other is specific to each task ( Specified skill e.g. ; music ) called s factor . II- Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone 1938 ) : He opposed the notion of a singular general intelligence formed of 7 independent factors : 1- Spatial abilities .
2- Perceptual speed .
4- Verbal comprehension .
5- Word fluency .
3- Numerical capacities . 6- Memory .
7- Reasoning abilities .
III- The Gf-Gc theory ( Cattell 1971 , Horn 1982 ) : * General fluid ( Gf ) abilities : basic problem solving , reasoning , learning & selective attention , e.g. ; if you asked what's 15 % of 270.30 LE ? * General crystallized ( Gc ) abilities : Acquired knowledge & utilization , e.g. ; if you asked about the solution to poverty ( a task that allows you to draw your past experience & knowledge of the world ) . IV- Multiple Intelligence theory ( Gardner 1983 ) : It proposes that intelligence is formed of multiple types of intelligences , 8 types : 1- Linguistic : verbal abilities . 3- Spatial : ability to visualize objects .
2- Logical-mathematical : mathematical abilities . 4- Musical : ability to appreciate total qualities of sound .
5- Bodily-kinetic : ability to control movement .
6- Naturalist : recognizing & classifying phenomena .
7- Interpersonal : ability to understand other people's feelings & attitudes ( social intelligence ) . 8- Intrapersonal : ability to understand & control own thoughts & emotions ( emotional intelligence ) . • Assessing Intelligence : Benefits of intelligence tests : Helping people to make optimal educational & vocational choices . Examples : Stanford-Binet intelligence test & Wechsler adult intelligence Scale ( WAIS ) . • Intelligence Quotient ( IQ ) : IQ = Mental age / Chronological age X 100 Distributed in : Bell shaped curve of intelligence Average range = 85 : 115
Mentally Gifted range = 130 + Mentally retarded range = < 70
• Group differences in intelligence : * Rural & urban : according to educational opportunities & Industrialization . * Occupational differences . * Race differences . * Sex differences : Males do better on arithmetic intelligence tests & females on Vocabulary class . - Traditional IQ tests : criticized for being biased in favor of white middle socioeconomic class . - Culture-fair tests : developed to avoid questions depending on particular cultural background . • Factors affecting intelligence : Variations in IQ were determined to be about 68 % by heredity & 32 % by environment . * Nature 's influence on IQ ( hereditary factors ) is evidenced by : - Identical twins reared together are more similar than fraternal twins reared together . - Siblings grew up together are more similar than unrelated individuals grew up in the same house . - Children are more similar to their biological parents than to adoptive parents . * Nurture's influence on IQ ( acquired factors ) includes : Prenatal care , exposure to alcohol & other toxins , birth complications , malnutrition in the first few months of life all adversely affect mental abilities . On the other hand , more intellectual stimulation at home , high-quality education & more time spent in school all improve IQ . Environment of children ages 2 to 4 years appears to be critical since the child normally learns language at this time . * Race & Sex : There is no prominent evidence to show that race is a factor for determining intellectual level . Research studies have shown that there are no significant differences between the sexes . Boys tend to do better on arithmetic reasoning intelligence tests while girls tend to do better on vocabulary Tests .
Mental Retardation ( MR ) • Incidence : MR occurs in 1 – 3 % of population . • Definition : A disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual , social and practical adaptive skills . Intelligence tests can measure intellectual functioning but not limitations in adaptive skills . • Classification : 1- Mild MR : IQ = 55 : 69 . They constitute 90 % of MR . They van be educated with some support , can function independently & can hold jobs & have families . 2- Moderate MR : IQ = 40 : 54 . They have deficits in language & motor skills . They can be trained & hold simple manual jobs , but need supervision & support .
3- Severe MR : IQ = 25 : 39 . They are unable to live . 4- Profound MR : IQ < 25 . They are unable to live . • Causes of mental retardation : 1- Hereditary causes . 2- Genetic defects : as Down syndrome . 3- Environmental : e.g. ; Inadequate mental stimulation , poor diet , little or no medical care . 4- Traumatic brain damage . 5- Toxic : e.g. ; fetal alcohol syndrome . 6- Hypoxia . • Psychological terms : - Mental age : The average age of the individual who achieves a particular level of performance on a test . - Intelligence Quotient ( IQ ) : A score that takes into account an individual's mental & chronological age . - Mental Giftedness : IQ > 130 . They constitute 2 – 4 % & tend to be healthier & more successful than non-gifted .
٢٠١١ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ٩ : ﻓﺾ ﺍﻋﺘﺼﺎﻡ
٢٠١١ ﻓﺒﺮﺍﻳﺮ٢ : ﻣﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻞ
٢٠١١ ﻳﻮﻧﻴﻮ٢٨ : ﻣﺴﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻮﻥ
٢٠١١ ﺃﺑﺮﻳﻞ٩ : ﻛﺸﻒ ﺍﻟﻌُﺬﺭﻳﺔ
٢٠١١ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ٢٨ : ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﺮﺍﺋﻴﻠﻴﺔ
٢٠١١ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ٢٣ : ﻣﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﱠﺎﺳﻴﱠﺔ
٢٠١١ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ١٢ : ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﻮﺩ
٢٠١١ ﺃﻛﺘﻮﺑﺮ٩ : ﻣﺬﺑﺤﺔ ﻣﺎﺳﺒﻴﺮﻭ
٢٠١٢ ﻓﺒﺮﺍﻳﺮ١ : ﻣﺬﺑﺤﺔ ﺑﻮﺭﺳﻌﻴﺪ
٢٠١١ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ١٩ : ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍﺀ ٢٠١٢ ﻓﺒﺮﺍﻳﺮ٢ : ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﱠﺔ ﺷﻬﻴﺪ١٣٠٠ + ﻣُﻌﺘﻘﻞ١٢٠٠٠ +
ﺑﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺣﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ .. ﻟِﺴﱠﻪ ﻓﺎﻛﺮ، ﻟِﺴﱠﻪ ﻓﺎﻛﺮ.. " ﻋﺮُّﻭﺍ ﺿﻬﺮُﻩ ﻓﻲ " ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ.. " ﺻﻔُّﻮﺍ ﻋﻴﻨُﻪ ﻓﻲ " ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ.. " ﻛُﻠُّﻜُﻢ ﻋﺎﺭﻓﻴﻦ " ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ.. ﺍﻟﻌﺴﺎﻛﺮ، ﺍﻟﻌﺴﺎﻛﺮ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻮﺍﻧﻲ – ﺿﺤﻜﺔ ﻃﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺂﺷﻴﺮﺓ
Attention • Definition : cognitive process of focusing ( concentrating ) upon certain part ( 1 aspect ) of situation while ignoring other things ( as : listening carefully to what someone is saying while ignoring other conversations ) . • Focused Attention : Ability to respond discretely to specific visual , auditory or tactile stimuli . • Sustained Attention ( Vigilance ) : Ability to maintain a consistent behavioral response during continuous & repetitive activity for indefinite time . • Selective Attention : Ability to maintain a behavioral set in the face of distracting stimuli ( freedom of distractibility ) . • Alternating Attention : Ability to shift attention between tasks having different requirements . • Divided Attention : Ability to divide attention into multiple tasks or demands . It is the highest level of attention . • Neural correlates of attention : Most experiments show that one neural correlate of attention is enhanced firing . If a neuron has a certain response to a stimulus when the animal is not attending to the stimulus , then when the animal does attend to the stimulus , the neuron's response will be enhanced even if the physical characteristics of the stimulus remain the same . In a recent review , Knudsen describes a more general model which identifies 4 core processes of attention, with working memory at the center: • Working memory temporarily stores information for detailed analysis . • Competitive selection is the process that determines which information gains access to working memory . • Through top-down sensitivity control , higher cognitive processes can regulate signal intensity in information channels that compete for access to working memory , and thus give them an advantage in the process of competitive selection . Through top-down sensitivity control , the momentary content of working memory can influence the selection of new information , and thus mediate voluntary control of attention in a recurrent loop ( endogenous attention ) . • Bottom-up saliency filters automatically enhance the response to infrequent stimuli , or stimuli of instinctive or learned biological relevance ( exogenous attention ) . • Factors affecting attention : I- Factors in the stimulus : 1- Intensity of the stimulus : High intensity raises attention , as ; Bright colors , loud sounds , sweet perfume will attract more attention .
2- Contrast between the stimulus and background : a black spot in a white field will attract attention more easily . 3- Changeability of the stimulus : A changing stimulus is more easily to be noticed , as ; A flickering light attract our attention more than a steady one . 4- Type of stimulus : Pictures attracts more attention than words . 5- Repetition of stimulus : A repeated stimulus is more likely to be noticed than a single one . 6- Combination of stimuli : Stimuli reaching more than one sense organ at the same time attract attention more than a single one stimulating only one sense organ , as ; The television is more attractive than the radio . 7- Strange and unfamiliar objects : attract the attention more than common objects . 8- Clarity of the stimulus. 9- Position of stimulus : as ;The ordinary reader will observe the upper half of the newspaper more than the lower half. II- Factors in the individual : 1- Physical health : intact sensory system , so sensory handicap ( e.g. ; defective vision or hearing ) interferes with efficient attention . 2- Intelligence: people with superior intelligence can attend more readily than others . 3- Emotional state : When someone is depressed he is less attentive than he is happy . Emotions must be optimum for high attention . 4- The interest or set at the moment can affect attention : You always attend to what is going with your interest at the moment . If you wish to buy a certain article and you are prepared to do so it catches your attention in the shop windows you pass by . â&#x20AC;˘ Distraction : -ve aspect of attention . â&#x20AC;˘ Causes of distraction : I- External environmental factors : Noises , unsuitable weather or lack of ventilation . II- Internal personal factors : A) Physical : biological needs ( hunger , thirst ) , fatigue , lack of sleep & physical illness . B) Psychological : i- Emotional state : depression , fear or anger . ii- Lack of interest . iii- Indulgence in day dreams . iv- Preoccupation with certain thoughts . v- Mental illness : e.g. ; Mania . III- Social factors : Family troubles , Marital disharmony , Financial difficulties or occupational maladjustment .
• Disturbances of attention : - Hyperprosexia : attention is heightened & paid for every detail ( in hypomania ) . - Inattention : loss of attention up to stupor & coma ( in functional or organic disorders ) . - Fluctuation : Change of attentive power . - Distractibility : Moving attention from the object we tend to attend to another one we don't ( usually in : Manic diseases , organic conditions or sub delirious states in which mind is excited with unknown cause ) . • Psychological terms : - Distractive stimulus : An object moves attention from a goal we tend to attend to itself . - Negative adaptation : A phenomenon in which attention is sustained is spite of presence of distracting stimuli , due to mind & sensory neglect ( minimal threshold ) .
Imagination • Definition : Process of mental play & manipulation . • Types of imagination : 1- Imaginative play : as ; a child believes he is the hero of story , he can fly OR a girl plays with dolls , acting as her own mother . 2- Day dreams : Considered as self motive . 3- Dreams : during sleep , less directed . 4- Autistic thinking : unrealistic thinking which goes beyond logical understanding . • Controlled Purposeful imagination : 1- Preparation phase : collecting & studying all information of a problem . 2- Incubation phase : Unconscious mental working on problem , while conscious working stopped . 3- Inspiration phase : Solution suddenly arises in individual's head . 4- Verification phase : Individual verifies solutions by experimental work .
ﺧُﺪ ﺁﺱ.. ﺃﺣﺴﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻳِﻠﻤﱠﻚ ﺟﻴﺐ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ.. ﺗﺘﺒﻌﺘﺮ، ﺃﺣﺴﻨﻠَّﻚ، ﻗﺎﻝ ﻟَﻚ.. ﺑﻴﻊ ﻧﻔﺴﻚ ﻓﺮﻁ ﻟِـ ﻣﻴﺖ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ.. ﺇﻥ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻭﻻﺑُﺪ ﺗﺒﻴﻊ ﻧﻔﺴﻚ .. ﻧﺎﻗﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ، ً ﻋﻠﺸﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻳﻤﺎ.. ﻋُﻤﺮ ﻣﺎ ﺣﺪ ﻫَـ ﻳﻜﺴﺐ ﺑﻴﻬﺎ.. ﺳﻴﺒﻬﺎ ﺗﺨﺴﱠﺮ ﻣﻴﻦ ﻳﻼﻗﻴﻬﺎ.. ﻛﻮﺗﺸﻴﻨﺘﻚ ﻭﺍﺭﻣﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﻳﺴﺘﻴﺮﻥ ﻳﻮﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺷﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻡ، ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﻓﺮﻁ
Sensation & Perception • Sensation : The act of using our sensory systems to detect stimuli present in the environment around us . • Perception : The process of getting to know environment by the use of the senses then giving meaning to this sensation ( Interpretation of received stimuli with past experiences ) . So , we smell an odour ( This is sensation ) , it means there is a restaurant ( This is perception ) . • The Chemical Senses : Smell and Taste Smell , our olfactory sense , converts chemical odorants into neural signals that the brain can use . Taste , our gustatory sense , is closely intertwined with smell . Most flavors are a combination of scents with the five basic tastes we can discern : sweet , salty , sour , bitter , and umami . Our tactile sense combines with taste and smell , to help us appreciate , or dislike the textures of foods and to experience temperature and “ hot ” sensations from capsaicin in spicy foods . Taste buds in papillae on the tongue convert chemicals in our food to neural signals the brain can use . Taste receptors and smell receptors are routinely replaced , since they are more vulnerable to damage than other sensory receptors . Information about smell goes directly from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex . Areas of the brain that process smells and tastes are plastic , or changeable . Processing of smells also sometimes overlaps with emotions and memories . Our preferred tastes change as we mature from childhood to adulthood , probably from a combination of learning and physical changes in the mouth . True disorders of taste are rare ; people more frequently lose part or all of their Sense of smell . Anosmia can present safety risks and diminish pleasure in life . • The Tactile or Cutaneous Senses : Touch , Pressure , Pain , Vibration A variety of sensory receptors throughout our bodies convert touch , pressure , or temperature stimuli into neural impulses that our brains can perceive . The sensory cortex of the brain maps touch sensations . Especially sensitive or important body parts receive disproportionately large representation in the cortex . Pain travels to the brain via both a fast pathway and a slow pathway . People differ greatly in the perception of pain . Some of the differences are related to culture and gender . Others are individual . The gate control theory of pain suggests that certain patterns of neural activity can close a “ gate ” so that pain information does not reach parts of the brain where it is perceived . The inability to feel pain can put people at high risk for injuries . People who have lost body parts surgically or through accidents often feel phantom sensations in the missing body part . These may be related to reorganization of the somatosensory cortex after an amputation .
• The Auditory sense : Hearing The frequency and amplitude of sound waves produce our perceptions of pitch and loudness of sounds . When sounds enter the ear , they move the ear drum , which sets in motion the ossicles . The last of these , the stirrup , vibrates the oval window, setting into motion fluid in the cochlea . Hair cells on the basilar membrane in the cochlea transduce movements along the basilar membrane into neural signals the brain can interpret . Frequency theory suggests that patterns in the firing rates of the neurons are perceived as different sounds . Place theory suggests that information from different locations along the basilar membrane is related to different qualities of sound . Top-down processing lets us use the general loudness of sounds , as well as differences in the signals received from each ear , to determine location of a sound . Different pitches are represented in a tonotopic map in the auditory cortex of the brain . Association areas of the cortex help us recognize familiar sounds , including speech . The brain integrates information from multiple sensory systems to enable the appropriate recognition and response to stimuli . Some people experience an overlap of sensory systems known as synesthesia . As young children , we experience a sensitive period during which it is especially easy for us to learn auditory information , including language and music . Some people , particularly those exposed to pure tones during this sensitive period , develop absolute pitch . Common hearing problems include hearing loss and deafness , as well as hearing unwanted sounds , such as tinnitus . • The Visual Sense : Sight Vision is very important to humans , and a great deal of our brain is involved in processing visual information . Rods and cones in the retina at the back of the eye change light into neural impulses . Cones provide detailed vision and help us perceive color , while rods provide information about intensity of light . The fovea at the center of the retina contains only cones and provides our sharpest vision . We have a blind spot where the optic nerve leaves the retina to carry information to the brain . In the brain , visual information is processed through the “ what ” and “ where ” pathways . Damage to the brain can produce deficits in sensation , as well as abnormal sensory experiences . Without adequate visual stimulation through both eyes during a critical period of life , we may not develop binocular vision , a condition known as amblyopia . Blind individuals can use other sensory modalities to compensation for the loss of visual information . Learning Braille with touch involves the use of brain areas normally used for vision . • Factors affecting perception : I- Personal factors ( factors in the individual ) : a- Habit, past experiences and familiarity .
b- Set & expectation : may alter perception of true stimuli . c- Emotional state : must to be optimum for high perception . d- Healthy intact special senses : for accurate perception . e- Aesthetic value : The person to perceive symmetrical pleasant figures rather than irregular, ugly and unpleasant ones . II- External factors ( Factors in the stimulus ) : a- Figure and background : the more contrast between figure and its background , the more clear and vivid perception . b- Similarity : Tendency to perceive similar things or stimuli as one group . c- Proximity : Tendency to perceive nearby things or stimuli together . d- Formation of figure ( Pragnaz Law ) : tendency to perceive a defective unclosed , interrupted , incomplete , asymmetrical and poor figure as if is closed , continuous , complete , symmetrical and goof figure . â&#x20AC;˘ Disturbances of perception : I- Illusions : False perception of real external sensory stimuli . * Causes : 1- Normal : due to i- set and expectation : if some body is waiting an important telephone call he may perceive ringing of the bell of the door as a telephone ring .
ii- intense emotions .
iii- lack of perceptual clarity. 2- Neurotic : anxiety.
3- Psychotic : accompanying delusions .
4- Delerium .
II- Hallucinations : False perception without the presence of external stimulus . ( visual , auditory , olfactory , gustatory and tactile ) . * Causes : 1- Physiological : Normally in the state between sleeping and waking . These are called hypnagogic hallucinations .
2- Pathological hallucinations : i- Psychiatric diseases : psychoses particularly schizophrenia ( Auditory ) . ii- Organic conditions : toxic states like alcoholism ( Visual ) , metabolic states as renal and hepatic failure , brain lesions like tumors and epilepsy ( Gustatory & Olfactory ) .
• Psychological terms : - Sensory receptor cells : Cells convert a certain form of environment into neural impulses . - Sensory transduction : Process of converting a certain form of stimuli into neural impulses . -Absolute Threshold : Minimal stimulus necessary for detection by an individual . - Sensory adaptation : Process whereby repeated stimulation of a sensory cell leads to a reduced response . - Bottom-up processing : Perception proceeds by transduction & moves into complex brain regions . -Top-down processing : Perception processes led by cognitive processes , such as memory or expectation . • Psychological glossary :
Perception
ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻙ
Aesthetic
ﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ
Proximity
ﺗﻘﺎﺭُﺏ
Illusion
ﻏﻤﻮﺽ ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻛﻲ
Delusion
ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩ ﺧﺎﻃﺊ
Delirium
ﻫﺬﻳﺎﻥ
Hallucination
ﻫﻠﻮﺳﺔ
ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﺻﻌﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺤﺐ ﺇﺧﻮﺍﻧﻚ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻧﻘﺎﺋﺼﻬﻢ ﻭﻋﻴﻮﺑﻬﻢ، ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﺔ، ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻬﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗُﺤﺐ ﺇﻟﻬﺎً ﻳﺘﺼﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻤﺎﻝ ﻓﻠﻦ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ، ﻭﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﻧﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻧﺤﺐ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺍﷲ.. ﻓﻼ ﺣﻜﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺣﺐ.. ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺀ ﻻ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺇﻟﱠﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺐ، ﺗﺬﻛّﺮ.. .. ًﺃﻥ ﻧﺤﺐ ﺣﻘﺎً ﻭﻟﻦ ﻧﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﷲ ﺣﻘﺎ ﺇﻟﻴﻒ ﺷﺎﻓﺎﻕ – ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﻮﻥ
Emotions • Definition : - Internal state characterized by : specific cognition > sensation > physiological reaction & expressive behavior . - A Complex state easily recognized , difficult to define , because our emotional experiences are so varied & complex . - A pattern of response subjectively experienced as strong feeling , usually directed to a specific object . * Response may be : physiological arousal , impulse to action , thoughts , expressions . * Specific object may be : food , shelter , shelter ( simple ) or searching for love , ambition to win prize ( compound ) . - Emotions are transitory , relatively well-defined with definite begin & end , in contrast of mood , with less specific causes & last for longer periods . • The Functions of Emotions : 1- Making life interesting : life would be considerably less satisfying and even dull , if we lacked the capacity to feel and express emotion . 2- Preparing us for action : Emotions act as a link between events in our environment and our responses . e.g. ; if you saw an angry dog charging toward you , your emotional reaction ( fear ) would be associated with physiological arousal of the sympathetic nervous system , the activation of the “ fight-or-flight ” response . 3- Shaping our future behavior : e.g. ; your emotional response to unpleasant events teaches you to avoid similar circumstances in the future . 4- Helping us interact more effectively with others : We often communicate the emotions we experience through our verbal and nonverbal behaviors . These behaviors can act as a signal to observers , allowing them to understand us better what we are experiencing and to help them predict our future behavior . • Emotional Process ( Components of emotions ) : 1- Arousal : it means physiological changes . When you are in a dangerous situation , ANS acts as : ACTH hormone from ( pituitary gland ) > increases cortisol secretion from Adrenal glands . This is called " fight or flight " response in which Glucose secreted from liver , fuels generated from fat , HR ↑ , Res. ↑ , Saliva ↓ , ms. Activity ↑ , GIT activity ↓ , pupils dilated & hair erected . * Alertness is maladjusted , as Emotions must be optimum for good alertness & attention . 2- Appraisal ( cognitive control of emotions ) : - cognitive interpretation of events with respect to goals . - -ve or +ve appraisal are the most common types of appraisal made .
3- Expressive behavior : - Smile , cry , run , shout , change of face , body language , vocal quality . All of these are examples of emotional behaviors . 2- There are similarities between expressions & interpretations around world . 4- Affective aspect : Subjective experience of feeling ( being afraid , angry , depressed , happy ) . • Neuroanatomy of emotions : - Specific brain regions have specific roles in emotional expression and experience . Areas of the brain that play an important role in the production of emotions include the reticular formation , the limbic system , and the cerebral cortex . The reticular formation , within the brain stem , receives and filters sensory information before passing it on the limbic system and cortex . The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, which produces most of the peripheral responses to emotion through its control of the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems ; the amygdala, which is associated with fear and aggressive behavior ; the hippocampus; and parts of the thalamus . The amygdala appears to be very involved in the perception ( as opposed to the expression ) of fear ; lesioning the amygdala leaves a person unable to perceive fearful emotions from others , although these patients have no problems matching the appropriate emotion with a sentence or in expressing various emotions using facial expression upon request . The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex receive nerve impulses from the thalamus and play an active role in the experience and expression of emotions . fMRI has revealed that the lateral aspect of the frontal lobes as most associated with positive emotions , whereas the medial aspects of the frontal lobes are most associated with negative emotion . The right hemisphere is more involved in perception of emotion, specifically facial expression and prosody ( melody of speech that conveys sincerity , sarcasm , etc. ) . • Classification of emotions : - Emotions are described in terms of feelings , e.g. ; fear , angry , joy , grief or sadness . - Emotions didn't classified into basic categories , this is due to cultural differences . - It can be divided according to : * Pleasant – unpleasant dimension : Some emotions are unpleasant ( as ; fear ) & also called -ve , & others are pleasant ( as ; joy ) & also called +ve . * Degree of arousal dimension : Some emotions are associated with high level of arousal ( as ; joy & anger ) , & the others with low level of arousal ( as ; depression ) . • Measuring emotions : - The judgment on emotions is a subjective matter ( both expression & experiences ) , to identify one's feelings you can : 1- Observe his behaviors : facial expressions , body posture , body movement , vocal changes & etc. .
2- Record physiological changes : Arousal changes whether increased or gecreased . 3- Self Reports of emotional experiences : through scales as ; Hamilton depression rating scale . 4- Projective technidue : Rorschach test . • Disorders of emotions : * Qualitative changes : - Incongruity : Emotional expressions don't conform to thought process . - Lability : Emotions change form one extreme to another without obvious reason . - Ambivalence : Contradictory feelings towards the same object . * Quantitative changes : - Apathy : Emotional experience & expression are abolished . - Indifference : Emotional expression only abolished . - Depression : Amount of sorrow exceeds normal responses to provoke stimuli . - Elation : Undue happiness of unknown cause . - Anxiety : Vague feeling of apprehension . - Aggression : Attacking action associated with hostility with intension to harm . • Psychological glossary :
Physiological arousal
ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﺴﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ
Appraisal
ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ
Transitory
ﻣﺆﻗﱠﺖ
Aspect
ﻣﻈﻬﺮ – ﻫﻴﺌﺔ
Incongruity
ﺗﻌﺎﺭُﺽ
Lability
ﺳﻴﻮﻟﺔ
Ambivalence Apathy Indifference Elation Aggression
ﺍﺯﺩﻭﺍﺟﻴﱠﺔ ﺧﻤﻮﻝ ﻻ ﻣُﺒﺎﻻﺓ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﻋُﻨﻒ
ﻫَـ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺳﺎﻳﺐ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﻣﻘﻔﻮﻝ.. ﻭﻣﺎ ﻟﻘﻴﺘﺶ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﺃﻧﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ ﺃﻟﻘﺎﻩ.. ﻭﻗﻠﱢﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﺩﻳﻖ ﻋﺮﺽ ﻭﻃﻮﻝ، ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻧﺎ ﻟﻮ ﻣﻨﱠﻚ ﺑِـ ﺻﺮﺍﺣﺔ .. ﻭﻫَـ ﺃﻗﻮﻝ ﺑِـ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺟُﻮﱠﺍﻩ، ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﻔﻴﺴﺘﻮ
Learning â&#x20AC;˘ Definition : is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge , behaviors , skills , values , or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information . The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines . â&#x20AC;˘ Types of learning : I- Non-associative learning : behavior change as a result of presentation of one stimulus repeatedly . It also describes learning which has no association with reward or punishment. Common examples include :
A- Habituation .
B- Sensitization .
C- Observational learning ( Modeling ) . II- Associative learning : Learning that occurs when a connection or pairing is made between a particular stimulus and a particular response .
I- Non-associative learning A- Habituation A person first responds to a stimulus , but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the person reduces subsequent responses , i.e. ; there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition stimulus . B- Sensitization Sensitization is the progressive amplification of a response following repeated administrations of a stimulus . An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously . After a while , this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful . C- Observational learning ( Modeling ) : Observational learning is learning through observing the behavior of another person ( called a model ) . Observational learning plays an important role in countless types of everyday behavior , including aggression . The skills and rituals acquired by each generation are passed on this way , not through deliberate training . This type of learning is more efficient and faster than operant learning . Observational learning is important in many aspects of life , including work ; for example , it can be used in training programs designed to help workers interact more effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds . Modeling can be used to learn a medical procedure and to then teach it to others . Like the well-known description of learning in medicine , see one , do one , teach one .
Studies have shown that modeling can be used to ease fear in people undergoing medical procedures . For example , before having an endoscopy , a patient is instructed to view a videotape of another patient comfortably undergoing the same procedure while successfully using relaxation and other coping strategies . When the patient himself then undergoes the procedure , he is relaxed and comfortable . II- Associative Learning ( conditioning ) is the process by which an element is taught through association with a separate , pre-occurring element. Two major types are described : A. Classical conditioning ( respondent learning ) : Classical conditioning is a form of learning first described by Ian Pavlov , in which an association is formed between one stimulus and another . * Neutral Stimulus : is a stimulus that currently doesn't produce the response of interest when it is presented . * Unconditioned stimulus is any stimulus that automatically (without being learned ) produces a response ( e.g. ; the odor of food ) . * Unconditioned response is the response made to the unconditioned stimulus ( e.g. ; salivation in response to the odor of food . * Conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that has now been conditioned to produce a response ( e.g. ; the sound of the lunch bell ) . * Conditioned response is the response made to the conditioned stimulus . e.g. ; salivation in response to the lunch bell . Further Concepts that Apply to Classical Conditioning Generalization : conditioned response is given to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus ; ( e.g. ; a fire bell ) that resembles a conditioned stimulus ( e.g., the lunch bell ) causes a conditioned response ( e.g. ;salivation ) . Discrimination : conditioned response not given to stimuli that are dissimilar to the conditioned stimulus . Extinction : If the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being followed by the unconditioned stimulus , the conditioned response will diminish or cease . Spontaneous Recovery : Following extinction , the conditioned response will spontaneously re-appear after a delay . B. Operant conditioning In operant conditioning or trial and error learning, learning occurs because of the consequences to the individual of a previous behavior . Although a behavior may have occurred randomly at first , the consequence , occurring immediately after the behavior, determines whether the behavior continues , i.e. ; operant conditioning is a type of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened , depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences . The likelihood that a behavior will occur is increased by reinforcement and decreased by punishment .
Operant conditioning is distinguished from classic conditioning in that operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment to alter an action-outcome association . In contrast classic conditioning involves strengthening of the stimulus- outcome association . So when teaching an individual a response , you need to find the most potent reinforce for that person . This may be a larger reinforce at a later time or a smaller immediate reinforce . â&#x20AC;˘ Factors affecting operant conditioning : A- Reinforcement : is the stimulus that increases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again . Positive reinforcement is the introduction of a rewarding or positive stimulus that results in an increase in a preceding response . Negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus that lead to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future . B- Punishment : is the stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again . Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus . Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant . Continuous reinforcement : Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs . Partial reinforcement : Behavior that is reinforced some but not all of the time . Fixed-ratio schedule : Reinforcement is given only after a certain number of responses . Variable-ratio schedule : Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number . Variable-interval schedule : Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed . Fixed-interval schedule : Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed , overall rates of response are relatively low . â&#x20AC;˘Factors affecting learning : I. Personal Factors Age : it can influence the capability of learning; a child cannot learn the things what elders can learn and an aged person will have difficulty to learn modern ways of knowledge . Intelligence : learning is generally easier among those with higher degrees of intelligence Attention : Attention is very important factor which influence learning , if a person does not pay attention towards how to learn a specific knowledge , skill or experience , he cannot learn easily .
Motivations : strong motives help learning . Psychologists and educators also recognize that learning is best when the learner is motivated to learn . External rewards are often used to increase motivation to learn . Motivation aroused by external rewards is called extrinsic motivation . In other cases . people are motivated simply by the satisfaction of learning . Motivation that results from such satisfaction is called intrinsic motivation . This type of motivation can be even more powerful than extrinsic motivation . Emotional state and mental health : anxiety and depression impair the process of learning . Physical health : sensory deprivations ( i.e. ; blindness , deafness ) and physical health could .affect learning . II.
External Factors
Methods of learning : every individual has its own learning preference that he responds more to it, thus the method used in learning affect the process of learning . Previous learning help in acquisition of new materials . Psychologists and educators recognize that new learning can benefit from old learning because learning one thing helps in learning something else .This process is called transfer of training . Nature
of
knowledge :
If
knowledge
is
interesting
in
nature , any individual can
learn it more efficiently . Environmental factors : weather , noise , light etc ... may impair or facilitate learning process .
ﻭﻣﺎ ﺗﻔﻬﻮﻣﺶ.. ﻣﺎ ﻳﺒﻜﱢﻴﻨﺎﺵ ﻓﻲ ﻏﻴﺎﺑﻜُﻢ ﺇﻟﱠﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﻕ.. ﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﺳﺒﺘﻮﻧﺎ ﻭﻃﻠﻌﺘﻢ ﻓﻮﻕ، ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡُ ﻋﻠﻴﻜُﻢ ﺳﺎﻋﺔ، ﺃﻣﱠﺎ ﺃﻧﺎ.. ﺳﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻔُﺮﺍﻕ، ﻳﺒﺌﺎ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﺑِـ ﻳﻐﻤﱠﺾ، ﻟﻮ ﺣﺪ ﻓﻴﻨﺎ ﺍﺭﺗﺎﺡ.. ﻣﻦ ﺿﺤﻜﺘﻲ ﺇﻧِﻲ ﺍﺭﺗﺤﺖ .. ﻓﺘﱠﺤﺖ، ﺍﻟﻔُﺮﺍﻕ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﻔﻴﺴﺘﻮ
Motives â&#x20AC;˘ Definition : - A motive is an internal state, ( physiological or psychological arousal ) that arouses direct from a need , and maintains behavior towards a goal . â&#x20AC;˘ Explaining Motivation : A lot of psychological theories were put to explain why a person is motivated to do certain behavior, these include : I- Instinct Approaches : According to instinct approaches to motivation , people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival . Those instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions . Hence , sexual behavior may be a response to an instinct to reproduce , and exploratory behavior may be motivated by an instinct to examine oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s territory . II- Drive-Reduction Approaches : Drive-reduction approaches suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement ( in this case , the thirst drive ) . According to this approach, a drive is the motivational tension , or arousal , that energizes behavior to fulfill a need . Many basic drives , such as hunger , thirst , sleep , and sex , are related to biological needs of the body or of the species as a whole . These are called primary drives . Primary drives contrast with secondary drives , in which behavior fulfills no obvious biological need . In secondary drives , prior experience and learning produce needs . For instance , some people have strong needs to achieve academically and professionally . We can say that their achievement need is reflected in a secondary drive that motivates their behavior . We usually try to satisfy a drive by reducing the need underlying it . For example , we eat when we feel hungry . If the weather turns cold , we put on extra clothing or raise the setting on the thermostat to keep warm . If our bodies need fluids to function properly , we experience thirst and seek out water . III- Arousal Approaches : Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement . According to arousal approaches to motivation , each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity . This model suggests that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high , we try to reduce them . But , if levels of stimulation and activity are too low , we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation . People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out , with some people looking for especially high levels of arousal . For example , people who participate in risky sports , high-stakes gamblers , and criminals who pull off high-risk robberies may be exhibiting a particularly high need for arousal .
IV- Incentive Approaches : Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals , or incentives . In this view , the desirable properties of external stimuli “ whether grades , money , affection , food , or sex ” , account for a person’s motivation . For example , when a delicious dessert appears on the table after a filling meal , its appeal has little or nothing to do with internal drives or the maintenance of arousal . Rather , if we choose to eat the dessert , such behavior is motivated by the external stimulus of the desert itself which acts as an anticipated reward . V- Cognitive approaches : Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts , expectations , and goals ; ( their cognitions ) . For instance , the degree to which people are motivated to study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will result in a good grade . Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation . Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment rather than for any concrete reward that it will bring us . In contrast , extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for money , a grade , or some other concrete reward . For example , when a physician works long hours because he loves medicine , intrinsic motivation is prompting him ; if he works hard to make a lot of money , extrinsic motivation underlies her efforts .
• Maslow’s Hierarchy : Ordering motivational needs - Classification of motives according to complexity . - Ascending from basic biological needs to complex psychological motives . The need in one level must be at least satisfied before attention moves to another in next level .
• Classification of motives: I- Physiologically based motives : Basic physiological motives are concerned with the following needs : A- Survival needs : Directed towards the survival of individual , e.g. ; hunger , thirst . B- Biological needs : Directed towards the survival of species , e.g. ; sex and motherhood motives . C- Emergency needs : Related to the welfare of the organism and to deal with the environment, e.g. * Escape and fear ) on facing danger , e.g. ; withdrawal reflex . * ( Combat and anger ) civilized man modifies these motive to be socially accepted . * Objective motive ; exploration , manipulation , curiosity to deal with the environment * Others : mastery , chase . Characteristics : 1- Innate , since birth except : sex motive . 2- Universal .
3- Permanent .
4- Homeostatic : must be satisfied .
5- Learning plays a vital role in its formation . II- Psychologically-based motives : These motives are not rooted in biology , but are learned and acquired : a- Achievement motives .
b- Power motives
c- Affiliation motives
d- Competency motives .
e- The need for recognition .
f- The need for dominance .
g- The need for affection and love . h- Social motives : General social motives : motives shared by a group of people . Cultural social motives : depends on the individual culture and education . Individual social motive : may according to each person’s environment , family and occupation etc. Characteristics : 1- Not Innate , Acquired . 2- Not universal .
3- Not permanent .
4- Not homeostatic .
5- Learning plays a vital role in its formation .
ﻭﻣﺎ ﺑِـ ﻳﺮﻛﺒﻮﺵ ﺍﺗﻨﺎﺷﺮ، ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﺑِـ ﻳﺮﻛﺒﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﻭ.. ﻭﺑِـ ﻳﻌﻤﻠﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻭﻻ ﻏﻠﻄﺔ، ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﺑـ ﻳﻤﺸﻮﺍ ﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﻟﻮﺝ .. ﻭﺑِـ ﻳﺨﺴﺮﻭﺍ ﺍﻟﺴِﻜﱠﺔ، ﻭﺑِـ ﻳﻜﺴﺒﻮﺍ ﻭﻗﺘُﻬﻢ، ﻟِـ ﺍﺗﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﺎ ﺑِـ ﻳﺤﺒُﻮﺵ ﺍﻟﻘَﻌﺪﺓ ﻉ ﺍﻟﺪِﻛﱠﺔ.. ﻭﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺑِـ ﺷَﺮﻃﺔ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ
Aggression & Violence Aggression is any form of attacking behavior with intention to harm others & associated with hostility . Aggressive behavior may be either verbal ( insults ) or physical ( violence ) . It may be directed towards human , animals or even towards properties ( e.g. ; destroying cars , shops , furniture â&#x20AC;Ś. Etc ) . Aggression also can be expressed in other ways . Jokes and rumors are alternative ways to express aggression in some instances . Rape is a form of aggression but expressed sexually . Some consider issues like emotional neglect ( e.g. husband/wife , parent/offspring ) , coercion , retaliation and intimidation are all forms of aggression . Instrumental versus hostile aggression : when aggression is meant for certain purpose ( to gain something or to escape from certain punishment ) , it is called instrumental ( i.e. ; aggression is used as an instrument to achieve certain goal ) . On the other hand , if aggression is just an expression of anger and has no goal except causing injury to the victim , is called hostile aggression . â&#x20AC;˘ Determinants of aggression : I- Biological determinants : - Brain areas which are responsible for modulating aggressive behavior are cerebral cortex , limbic system , amygdale and hypothalamus s. Brain lesions in such areas may lead to aggressive behavior . - Chromosomal factors : people with XYY chromosomes are liable to be tall , below average intelligence , more likely to be engaged in criminal behavior . - Endocrinal factors : testosterone is believed to be the cause of differences in aggression in males than females . Thyroid hormone is associated with increase tendency for aggression while estrogen is believed to decrease aggression level . - Neurotransmitters : serotonin , dopamine , nor epinephrine ( NE ) , Dopamine ( DA ) and GamaAmino-Butyric Acid ( GABA ) are all neurotransmitters believed to be involved in the modulation of aggressive acts . II- Psychosocial determinants : Aggression can be explained by many psychosocial mechanisms , - Aggression can be an innate instinctive drive as that demonstrated as a part of Thanatos drive ( drive for death and destruction ) , Eros drive ( drive for life and survival ) , combat drive . - As a part of certain defense mechanisms ( displacement, projection , repression ) . - As an end product of a faulty parent-child relationship ( as in cases of punitive parent ) or morbid family atmosphere ( broken homes , financial troubles , bad interpersonal communication style ) . Social learning ( banduraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s view ) : aggression could be a learned behavior through modeling with positive re-enforcements .
When a person learns how to behave in an aggressive manner and sees that this behavior is always rewarded by the society , he will adopt aggression as an optimal mode of behavior in such society . Presenting aggressive models through media has great impact in reducing the sensitivity towards aggressive models which finally remove the individual’s inhibitions towards such behavior and he himself will imitate such behavior without any feeling of remorse . III- Situational determinants : Aggression could be a response to a certain situational incident , - Frustration : frustration is one of the strong psychological determinants of aggression specially when perceived as unreasonable . - Direct provocation : as a response to pain , humiliation , loss of faith , deprivation from basic needs , etc.. . - Environmental factors : e.g. ; crowd, noise, heat, air pollution . - Heightened physiological response : as in states of arousal ( vigorous exercise , anxiety , sexual arousal ) . • Terrorism : It is a form of aggressive violent behavior against civilians causing actual or threatened death or serious injury , or eliciting intense fear and horror . This is usually due to political aim . • Types of terrorism: - State terrorism :Terroristic actions undertaken by the authority towards civilians of the same country ( Genocide ) . - International terrorism : Violence in another countries by action e.g. Nuclear bombs Hiroshima & Nagasaki . -Non-state terrorism : a) Anti-state terrorism : Terroristic actions undertaken by a group against civilians of a state , usually for political reasons . Most anti- state terrorists see themselves as revolutionaries or freedom fighters . b) Intra-state terrorism : Terroristic actions undertaken by a group against another group of civilians . - Patterns of Terrorism : Bombing ( suicide & non-suicide ) , bio-terrorism , assassinations , hostage taking and sky jacking .
ﺷﻮﻑ.. ﺑِـ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻞ ﻳﺒﻘﻮﺍ ﻛُﺘﺎﺭ ؟، ﺍﺯﺍﻱ ﺑﺌﺎ ﺍﻟﺜُﻮﱠﺍﺭ.. ﻭﻗﻮﻝ ﻗﺪُّﻫﻢ ﺳﺘﱠﺎﺕ، ﻭﺍﻟﺪُﻧﻴﺎ ﺗِﻠﺖ ﻋﻴﺎﻝ.. ﻣﺶ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣـ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺍﺕ، ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﻓﻴﻬُﻢ ﺭﻭﺡ .. ! ﻛﺎﻡ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ ﻟﻴﻪ ﺟﻨﺎﺣﺎﺕ ؟، ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻥ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﻔﻴﺴﺘﻮ
Personality • Definition : - The dominant impression that an individual makes on us ( e.g. ; a person may be regarded as aggressive or outgoing or suspicious ) . - Total quality of an individuals' characteristic habits , thoughts , interests & philosophy in life . - It is described in terms of traits which are described as a pair of opposites ; cheerful/ depressed , worm/ cold , intelligent/foolish . • Type and trait approaches to personality : - Type theory : regards people as discrete categories that are qualitatively different from other types . - Trait theory : differences between people are quantitative rather than qualitative . According to the specified trait ( e.g. ; extroversion-introversion dimension ) . • Structure of the personality : Freud suggested that 3 elements form the personality : The Id ( Pleasure ) : It is present from the moment of birth . The role is the pleasure . It is the seat of all instincts . The id demands that the instincts be satisfied but if not satisfied , energy builds up and the baby cries . It includes hunger , thirst ,sex and aggression . If strong it may lead to irresponsible , selfish, pleasure seeking individual ( antisocial personality = psychopathic personality ) . The Ego ( Reality ) : It develop at the age of one year . It establishes the relationship with the external world ( reality principle ) . The infant no longer demands unreasonably on the caretaker ( the aim of the ego is to ensure that instincts are satisfied but at the real time and place ) . The ego is capable to divert his energy into other behavior . Without the ego , toilet training will not be possible . The individuals with strong ego have flexibility in handling various life stresses . If the ego is week it will be unable to tolerate the stresses . The Super ego ( Morality ) : It develops between the age of 3-5 years . It sustains the moral and social values of parents and culture . It is the supervisor of the ego and of the inner unconscious tendencies , so it is the repressing part of the personality . It criticizes the ego and causes pain to it when it accept impulses from the id . If the superego is severe and inflexible it sill result into fear which will lead to rigid , unhappy , anxious and neurotic personality : obsessional personality . •Mind is divided into 3 parts : * Conscious mind contains things occupying one’s current attention . * Preconscious mind contains things aren’t currently in consciousness , but can be accessed . * Unconscious mind contains memories , urges , and conflicts that are beyond awareness .
Role of the Unconscious Mind It contains memories , urges that are forbidden or dangerous ( more on this later ) . These are kept from consciousness , but can still cause problems . Example : Prior traumatic experience can cause irrational anxiety . Dreams express contents of unconscious mind . • Personality development : First year : Oral stage Pleasure comes from sucking , putting things in mouth . Fixation at this stage can cause overeating , smoking , nail-biting , sarcastic , argumentative , dependent and gullible ( Oral personality ) . Second year : Anal stage Pleasure comes from retaining or passing feces . The parents teach the child how to control his sphincters . Fixation at this stage can cause excessive neatness ( Obsessional personality ) or excessive messiness , mean , cruel , untidy , destructive , hot-tempered ( Anal personality ) . Ages 3 to 5 : Phallic stage Pleasure comes from self-stimulation of genitals . The child becomes curious about the sex difference between males and females . Erotic feelings directed toward opposite-sex parent . Fixation here can cause relationship , sexual problems ; also Oedipus or Electra complex , hysteric symptoms . Ages 5 to puberty : Latency period Sexual feelings suppressed ; energy directed towards school , social relationships . He becomes to be interested in heroes of cinema , TV and history . He identifies and takes the morals of his parents , Shouldn’t be left to the servant . Adolescence : Genital stage He becomes interested in the same sex and chooses his friends from the same sex . The adolescent is concerned with other people’s opinion about him . Mature sexual relationships with opposite sex . Must be met with permissive , understanding and instructive attitude from parents . Adulthood The mature person can establish intimate and loving relation with the opposite sex . Can care for a family . • Kletchmer classified personality into : - Pykinic : Short , Fatty , thick necked , rounded person ( manic-depression ) . - Athenic : thin , tall , long extremities ( schizophrenia ) . - Athletic : muscular strong person ( paranoia ) . - Dysplastic . • Embryological classification ( Sheldon ) : - Endomorphic Personality : ( highly developed internal organs and weak external structure ) which is allied to Kretchmer’s pyknic type and has Viscertonic characteristics ( sociable , relaxed enjoys eating ) .
- Mesomorphic personality : ( well developed bones , muscles and connective tissue ) , which is allied to kretchmer’s asthletic type and has Somatotonic characteristics ( energetic , competitive action oriented ) . - Ectomorphic Personality : ( delicacy all over the body ) which is allied to Kretchmer’s
asthenic
type and has cerbrotonic characteristics ( antisocial , hypersensitive , secretive ) . - Dysplastic Personality : which is allied to Kretchmer’s Dysplastic type . • Trait classification ( extrovension-introvension dimension ) : - The Introvert :Those individuals are shut in, with-drawn, asocial, shy, sensitive, suspicious, anxious about the future , day dreamers , interested in details , fond of mental activities and reserved . - The Extravert :Those individuals who are outgoing , sociable , don’t care about criticism , kind hearted , optimistic , practical and expressive emotionally . - The Ambivert : These are individuals mid-way between the first two . • Assessment of personality : 1- Interview method . 2- Case study method . 3- Free Association & dream interpretation . 4- Objective method : Rating scales , questionnaires . 5- Projective methods : Rorschach test , Thematic Apperception test . • Psychological glossary :
Introvert
ﻣﻨﻄﻮﻱ
Extrovert
ﻣﻨﻔﺘﺢ
ﺑِـ ﺍﺗﻨﻴﻦ، ﻓَـ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺗﺤﺲ ﺇﻧﱠﻚ ﻋﺎﻳﺶ.. ﻫِﻨﺎ ﻫُﻮﱠ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ، ﻭﻹﻥ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻳﺮﺓ.. ﺟُﻮﱠﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻳﺮﺓ ﻫﻲﱠ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﻚ.. ﺃﺑﻌﺪ ﻧُﻘﻄﺔ ﺑـ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻚ .. ﺟﻮﱠﺍﻙ ١ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻊ
Frustration • Definition : An emotional state that occurs when a person is faced with an obstacle that interferes with satisfaction of a desire , need , or a goal . - Certain situations may be frustrating to some people but not to others, this is because of differences in people's desires and goals . - Frustration can occur in not only in human being but also in other animals , e.g. ; a rat in a maze subjected to electric shock when he tries to eat a piece of cheese will finally be frustrated and sop trials to eat it . • Causes of frustration : 1- Physical environment : bad weathers, floods, rough unpaved roads . 2- Social factors : every society has its norms and standards which ought to be followed by persons living in that society . The limits imposed by these norms and standards led to interference with the needs and desires of some people resulting in frustration in those people . 3- Personal factors : psychical handicapping ( e.g. ; blindness or deafness , limb paralysis , or speech difficulties ) may represent a barrier to goal satisfaction . 4- The person's choices : making decisions may reveal bad choices which led to choosing bad options or leaving good one. This situation could lead to frustration . •Factors determining behavior following frustration : 1- Motive strength : interference of highly motivated person results in stronger reaction than a mildly motivated one . 2- Previous learning : previous experience helps the person to learn alternative ways of responding to frustration , resulting in low frustration . On the contrary , a particular situation may be considered not acceptable and result in high level of frustration . 3- Frustration tolerance : people vary in their reaction to frustrating situation . Some people cope easily with frustrating situations while others got disorganized in frustrating situation . 4- Specific situations : when there is a chance to escape or avoid a problem and when there is other alternative is available , frustration will be less that that will develop in reverse situations . • Reaction to frustration : 1- Psychomotor hyperactivity : An increase in inner tension associated with restlessness, trembling , clenching fists . 2- Aggression : Any response made with the intention of harming a person , animal , or object . Aggression may be direct or displaced : a) Direct aggression : Directed to the individual or object which is the source of frustration .
b) Displaced aggression : Redirecting aggression to a target other than the source of one’s frustration ; i.e. ; rather than aggression is directed to the individual or object which is the source of directed to another individual or object, which acts as a scapegoat . frustration , aggression is This usually occurs because of inability to react directly against the source of frustration. Breaking a cup of glasses whenever frustrated is an example . 3- Social withdrawal : sometimes the people withdraw from his social surroundings as a reaction to frustrating situations. This passive reaction may result from failure of aggressive reaction to satisfy their needs or inability to express aggressively due to any reason . 4- Fantasy : when people find it difficult to solve their problems in real world , they resort to .imagination and day dreaming . 5- Stereotyped behavior : instead of flexibility and striking out in new directions to solve problems , people tend to exhibit repetitive fixed pattern of behavior , the way to their goal is blocked . 6- Regression : it means return to more primitive mode of behavior that characterizes younger age . 7- Physiological responses : stress especially chronic one , had been accused to result or share in the occurrence of many physical symptoms , e.g. ; peptic ulcer , bronchial asthma , hypertension , and skin eruptions.
• Psychological glossary :
Frustration
ﺇﺣﺒﺎﻁ
Aggression
ﻋُﻨﻒ
Regression
ﺍﺭﺗﺪﺍﺩ
Fantasy
ﺧﻴﺎﻝ
ﻋﺸﺎﻥ، ﻋﺸﺎﻥ ﻃﻌﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﺮﻭﺡ.. ﻭﺑِـ ﻳﺨﻔﱢﻒ ﻛﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺱ ﺑِـ ﻣﻴﱠﺔ ﺑﺪﺍﻝ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﻼﻫﺎ.. ﻳﺎ ﺳُﺒﺤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﺑﹻ ﻳﻌﻮﱢﺩﻧﺎ ﻉ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻓَـ ﻧﻨﺴﺎﻫﺎ .. ﻃﻌﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻳﺨﻒ ١٠٠ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺗﻔﺮﺍﻧﻴﻞ
Conflicts & defense mechanism • Conflict : Internal annoying state arises when 2 or more incompatible needs or goals compete together in different directions , selecting one means deprivation of the other . • Types : I- Approach versus approach conflicts - 2 desirable but incompatible goals . Ex. : 2 job offers of equal description , salary , or promotion . A girl who has two extremely attractive suitors whom she must choose one . - It is easy to resolve . - Both are pleasant options and the result will be pleasant . - Rarely encountered . II- Avoidance versus avoidance conflicts - 2 aversive situations , moving away from one , approaches the other . Ex, : A young lady may be in conflict with respect to marrying unloved person or becoming a spinster . The student who doesn’t like to study but doesn’t want to fail . - It’s very difficult to resolve . - Both are aversive and the result is aversive . - Depression will result . III - Approach versus avoidance conflicts - Bitter sweet situation . Ex. : An appealing career may require a lot of education. A luxurious car is costy . In order to marry a man she loves, she has to accept an intolerable mother in law . IV- Double or multiple approach-avoidance conflicts 2 goals each have good and bad points . Ex. : A girl who has two extremely attractive suitors whom she must choose one . A young woman who has to choose between working as house keeper which is dull but with good income , or attending college with expensive education but meaningful career . V- Other types Conflict between two incompatible biological needs , e.g. ; sex motive and fear of venereal diseases . Conflict between biological motives and conscience : sex motive and religious restrictions . Conflict between two self-constructive needs : to get wealth or continue a scientific career . Conflict between two duties : a husband conflicting between his duty as a bread winner and as a companion to his wife and children .
Adjustment and defense mechanism - Direct coping “ conscious defense mechanism ” : to deal directly with anxiety- producing situation : doing something to overcome , change or avoid it . - Defensive coping “ Unconscious defense mechanism ” : defending against anxious feelings without trying to deal directly with anxiety provoking situation . It distorts one’s perception of the situation to make it less threatening . • Goals of defense mechanism : 1- overcoming obstacle 2- reduction of inner tension 3- Avoiding psychic pain 4- Self-defense 5- Achievement of certain goals 6- Adjustment to the environment • Conscious defense mechanism : * Removal of obstacle . * Changing the way to the same goal . * Changing the goal itself and putting a substitute . * Put a compromise . * Compensation . • Unconscious defense mechanism : Repression ( Mother of defense mechanism ) It is the automatic transformation of thoughts from the conscious awareness to the unconscious where it is unavailable for conscious recall . It is the automatic forgetting of unpleasant thoughts . Suppression : it is conscious control of wishes and unacceptable acts that is prevented from being revealed . Rationalization As in Failing to get a job is rationalized that a job has many bad features . People deceive themselves " sweet lemon strategy ” or the good one is really " by pretending that a bad situation is really good bad “ the sour grapes strategy . Sublimation The consciously unacceptable instinctual drives find expression in socially acceptable forms .The sex drives could be expressed in writing poems or letters .
Compensation One attempts to cover or balance real or fancied defects by extra effort to excel in a different activity . Examples : a back warded students may put an extra effort to excel in sports or social activities to be famous in school . Reaction formation Is to show the opposite attitudes and feelings of those possessed unconsciously . Example : a mother may be overprotective of a child whom she unconsciously rejects . Displacement An emotional feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute . A teacher may deal hardly with the students , not because of their bad behavior but because manager of school treated him badly . Identification It plays a healthy role in child development and in enjoyment of life . It is the mechanism by which an individual enhances self- esteem through feeling , in fantasy or in actual life as if he was another person with whom he identifies himself . Examples : on reading stories we identify ourselves with the hero Projection To find in others the feelings and ideas he actually possess . Introjection Loved or admired objects are symbolically taken into oneself . It plays a role in personality development . Denial When people deny reality , they ignore or refuse to acknowledge the existence of unpleasant experience ( of which they are fully aware ) to protect themselves . When emotions are so powerful that they become frightening , one may deny these emotions ( Bereaved persons are often unable to cry or say they have no emotions at all ) . Undoing To cancel out or nullify an event or actions previously done by certain counteraction When a child deliberately hits his brother he runs hugging and kissing him . He tries to convince himself that nothing hurts him . Regression If a child developed trauma at any stage of development, he will be fixated there .
He develops normally but if he faces any future trauma , he may regress to the developmental stage where he fixated . It is a return to a more primitive mode of behavior the person may be trying to return to a period of past security . A big child may cry or seek parental care to get love and affection . This is called retrogressive regression . A person may lose his control and start fist fighting primitivation of behavior . Fantasy It is imaginary sequence of events or mental images which act to resolve emotional conflict through unreal solution . This occurs in day dreams . Dissociation Portion of the personality which is the source of stress may be eliminated . As in : somnambulism . • Drawbacks of unconscious defense mechanisms : 1- Using defense mechanisms excessively results in unreal problem-solving . 2- The person is deceiving himself rather than deceiving others . 3- Distortion of reality . 4- The person will not be aware of his personality defects and he will not correct them . 5- Maladjustment .
ﻋُﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺂﻳﱠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ.. ﻭﻳُﺬﺑَﺤﻮﻥ، ﻛُﻞٌ ﻓﻲ ﻓُﻠﻚِ ﻳﺴﺒﺤﻮﻥ.. ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﺭﻓﻮﻥ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻠُﻘﺎ ﺑِـ ﻳﺪﻭﻡ ﺳﺎﻋﺎﺕ.. ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺎﺋﻔﺎﺕ، ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺋﻔﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﻕ .. ﺣِﺲ ﺍﻟﻠﱢﻲ ﻓﺎﺕ ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ – ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﻔﻴﺴﺘﻮ
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ﻣُﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ -ﻫَـ ﺗﻔﺮﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺩﺍﻉ